The Lymphatic System Lymphatic System consists of fluid called lymph flowing inside the lymphatic vessels, some

structure and tissues that contain lymphatic tissue and bone marrow. Bone marrow houses Stem cells that develop into lymphocytes and provide immunity. When interstitial fluid passes in to lymphatic vessels, it is called Lymph i.e. Clear water. Interstitial fluid and lymph are basically same except for location. iltration forces water and dissolved substances from the capillaries into the interstitial fluid. !ot all of this water is returned to the blood by osmosis, and excess fluid is pic"ed up by lymph capillaries to become lymph. Functions of the lymphatic system: #$ %raining Interstitial fluid& 'o maintain the pressure and volume of the extracellular fluid by returning excess water and dissolved substances from the interstitial fluid to the circulation. ($ )rotecting against invasion& Lymph nodes and other lymphoid tissues are the site for production of immuno* competent lymphocytes and macrophages in the specific immune response. ' lymphocytes rupture foreign cells or produce toxins while B lymphocytes differentiate in to plasma cells that secrete antibodies. +$ 'ransporting %ietary lipids& Lymphatic vessels carry lipids and lipid soluble vitamins ,-%./$ absorbed by gastro* intestinal tract.

Lymph capillaries: Close ended vessels lies in the space between cells. It carries many pores which allow interstitial fluid including large lipids to get inside the lymphatic circulation but do not allow coming out. Lacteals: ,Lacteal 0 1il"y$ .ach 2illi in the small intestine has centrally placed lymphatic vessels called Lacteal. It transport lipids absorbed in the intestine. rom lymph capillaries fluid flows into lymph veins ,lymphatic vessels$ which virtually parallel the circulatory veins and are structurally very similar to them, including the presence of semilunar valves. Lymphatic Vessels: Lymph capillaries unite to form Lymphatic vessels. 3esemble vein in structure except it is thin and have more valves. Lymph capillaries containing lymph are found through out the body except in #. -vascular tissue (. Central !ervous System +. Spleenic pulp 4. Bone marrow Lymphatic Ducts: 'he lymphatic veins flow into one of two lymph ducts. #. 'he right lymph duct drains the right arm, shoulder area, and the right side of the head and nec". It is half inch in length. (. 'he left lymph duct ,thoracic duct$, drains everything else, including the legs, 5I tract and other abdominal

organs, thoracic organs, and the left side of the head and nec" and left arm and shoulder. It is #6*#7 inches in length and is a ma8or vessel of the system. 'hese ducts then drain into the subclavian veins on each side where they 8oin the internal 8ugular veins to form the brachiocephalic veins. Formation and flow of lymph: 'he excess fluids in the interstitial space i.e. about + lit9 day drains in to the lymphatic vessels and become lymph. -rteries ,blood plasma$ Blood capillaries Interstitial space Lymph capillaries ,Lymph$ Lymphatic 2essels Lymphatic %ucts Subclavian vein :eart Lymph nodes lie along the lymph veins successively filtering lymph. -fferent lymph veins enter each node, efferent veins lead to the next node becoming afferent veins upon reaching it. Lymphokinetic motion (flow of the lymph) due to: #$ Lymph flows down the pressure gradient. ($ 1uscular and respiratory pumps push lymph forward due to function of the semilunar valves. Other lymphoid tissue: #. Lymph nodes: Lymph nodes are small encapsulated organs located along the pathway of lymphatic vessels. 'hey vary from about # mm to # to ( cm in diameter and are widely distributed throughout the body,

with large concentrations occurring in the areas of convergence of lymph vessels. 'hey serve as filters through which lymph percolates on its way to the blood. -ntigen* activated lymphocytes differentiate and proliferate by cloning in the lymph nodes. (. Diffuse Lymphatic Tissue and Lymphatic nodules: 'he alimentary canal, respiratory passages, and genitourinary tract are guarded by accumulations of lymphatic tissue that are not enclosed by a capsule ,i.e. they are diffuse$ and are found in connective tissue beneath the epithelial mucosa. 'hese cells intercept foreign antigens and then travel to lymph nodes to undergo differentiation and proliferation. Local concentrations of lymphocytes in these systems and other areas are called lymphatic nodules. In general these are single and random but are more concentrated in the 5I tract in the ileum, appendix, cecum, and tonsils. +. The Thymus gland: 'he thymus is bilobed organ which is located in between the lungs, posterior to the sternum. 'he thymus is where immature lymphocytes differentiate into '*lymphocytes. 'he thymus is fully formed and functional at birth. Characteristic features of thymic structure persist until about puberty. 'he transformation of primitive or immature lymphocytes into '*lymphocytes and their proliferation in the lymph nodes is promoted by a thymic hormone called thymosin. ;cassionally the thymus persists and may become cancerous after puberty and and the continued secretion of thymosin and the production of abnormal '* cells may contribute to some autoimmune disorders.

6.

The spleen: 'he spleen oval and largest lymphatic mass which filters the blood and reacts immunologically to blood*borne antigens. In addition to large numbers of lymphocytes the spleen contains speciali<ed vascular spaces, a meshwor" of reticular cells and fibers, and a rich supply of macrophages which monitor the blood. 'he human spleen holds relatively little blood compared to other mammals, but it has the capacity for contraction to release this blood into the circulation during anoxic stress. White pulp in the spleen contains lymphocytes and is e=uivalent to other lymph tissue, while red pulp contains large numbers of red blood cells that it filters and degrades.

The spleen functions in oth immune and hematopoietic systems! "mmune functions include: proliferation of lymphocytes# production of anti odies# remo$al of antigens from the lood! %ematopoietic functions include: formation of lood cells during fetal life# remo$al and destruction of aged# damaged and a normal red cells and platelets# retrie$al of iron from hemoglo in degradation# storage of red lood cells!

"mmune System

"! &on'specific responses ' 5eneral mechanisms for discouraging pathogens which do not re=uire the identity of the pathogen>s antigenic nature. 'hese are the first line of defense against invasion by pathogens. -. Surface (em rane )arriers #. S"in a. acidic p:

b. /eratini<ation protects unbro"en s"in against acids and bases of bacterial en<ymes and toxins. (. 1ucous membranes a. :Cl in the stomach "ills many pathogens, denatures proteins b. Saliva contains lyso<yme, a bactericide c. Lacrimal fluid contains lyso<yme d. 1ucus traps organisms B. *ellular +nd *hemical Defenses #. ,hagocytes * engulf particulates, including microorganisms, which pass through the external barriers. .xamples& histiocytes in the lungs, Langerhans cells in the s"in, /upffer cells in the liver, microglia in the nervous system, macrophages in other tissues. (. &atural killer cells * these large lymphocytes lyse and "ill tumor and virus*infected cells before activation of a specific immune response. -! "nflammation a. reduces spread of damaging agents to nearby tissues b. increases disposal of cell debris and pathogens c. facilitates repair processes d. caused by histamine and prostaglandins released by basophils and other cells.

.! +nti'micro ial proteins a. !on*Specific complement activation b. "nterferons * bloc" tumor and viral reproduction c. "nterleukin " * stimulates the immune response /! Fe$er a. %ue to pyrogens secreted by leucocytes b. %isrupts metabolism of pathogens ""! Specific 0esponses 1 'hese second line of defense responses are activated by, and directed against, a specific antigen. -ntigen * a protein or other substance which elicits immune system activation in a ?foreign? host. -. %umoral "mmunity * the )'cell response #. +ntigen challenge * ?non*self? antigen binds to antigen*specific surface receptors on generic B*cell. (. *lonal selection * multiplication of B*cells produces cells which all contain the same antigen*specific surface receptor. a. ,rimary response * plasma cells secrete free anti odies of the same structure as the antigen*specific surface receptor. 'he primary response ta"es @ to #A days to reach maximum antibody levels. b. Secondary response * memory cells which retain the ability to =uic"ly clone to produce more plasma

cells should the antigen be encountered again. 'he secondary response ta"es from # to ( days to reach maximum antibody levels. +. -ntibodies form antigen*antibody complexes which have the following affects&
a.

Opsoni2ation * labeling of antigens or foreign

cells b. &eutrali2ation * inactivation of bacterial toxins c. +gglutination * clumping of cell*bound antigens d. ,recipitation * removes soluble antigen from solution e. *omplement fi3ation * which causes cell lysis. Complement protein binds to a site on the constant , c$ portion of the antibody. 4. Classes of antibodies& Ig% * ,monomer$ antigen receptor on B*cell Ig1 * ,pentamer$ first antibody released by plasma cells during primary response Ig5 * ,monomer$ comprises most circulating antibodies, both #o and (o responses Ig- * ,dimer$ antibody found in secretions Ig. * ,monomer$ secreted in mucosae, mediates inflammation in allergic reaction.

B. *ell (ediated "mmunity * the T'cell response * re=uires an intermediary cell to be stimulated. 'hese intermediary cells can be infected body cells or macrophages as below. Identification of these cells and their antigens is by means of 1:C proteins. (%* ((a4or %istocompati ility *omple3) antigens are recognition proteins which identify a cell as being ?self?. 'hey are displayed together with part of the antigen from invading viruses to be recogni<ed by '*cell lymphocytes. 'here are two classes of 1:C antigens& *lass " is present on all body cellsB *lass "" is present only on cells of the immune system. 'here are several types of ' cells. #. generic cytoto3ic T'cells a. respond to antigens complexed by (%* " proteins from infected body cells. b. attac" and "ill virus or bacteria*infected cells and tumor cells c. maintain immunologic sur$eillance d. clone to produce mature cytotoxic cells and cytotoxic memory cells (. %elper T'cells a. respond to antigens complexed with 1:C II proteins on antigen presenting cells b. act as costimulator cells for B*cells and other '* cells and . -ctivated :elper cells release interleukin "" and act as a costimulator for an effective B*cell response.

c. release interleukin " which acts as a costimulator for '*cell production. +. Suppressor T'cells * regulatory cells which tend to shut down B and '*cell responses. 4. *ytokines * chemical mediators involved in cellular immunity. a. interleukin " * costimulator for activated '*cells b. interleukin "" * stimulates both B and '*cell proliferation c. (+F * macrophage activating factor d. ("F * macrophage migration inhibiting factor e. perforin * causes cell lysis f. lymphoto3in * "ills cells by fragmenting their %!g. tumor necrosis factor * speciali<ed destruction of tumors. C. "mmunocompetence& ,often called immune tolerance because it is the tolerance of your own cells$ is the ability of your immune system to recogni<e self vs. non*self ,anti*self, foreign$ antigens. 'his ability is conferred during childhood. or ' cells the site for this is the thymus gland which ceases this activity after puberty. 'he site for the B cells is un"nown. 'he name B cell comes from the Bursa of abricus, a gut*associated site which is the site of immunocompetence in chic"ens. :umans don>t

have a Bursa, so a ?Bursa .=uivalent? confers immunocompetence, possibly the marrow, but recent evidence suggests an area analogous to the bursa in the distal 5I tract. %uring childhood, immature or pre* lymphocytes originate in the marrow, travel to the thymus ,or other area$ for immuno*competence, then travel to the lymph nodes where they proliferate in response to antigenic stimulation. %. %ypersensiti$ity #. Type " %ypersensiti$ity * this is the basis for allergic reactions. Csually this occurs when you have been exposed to non*pathogenic foreign antigen and built up memory cells. Subse=uent exposure causes these cells to become plasma cells which release large amounts of Ig. antibodies. Ig. antibodies bind to basophils and mast cells causing them to release granules containing histamine and other inflammatory chemicals. 'his is the basis for the vascular changes seen in allergy and anaphylaxis. (. Type "" %ypersensiti$ity * this is a type of autoimmunity. -utoimmune disorders can result when host antigens are similar to invading antigens and cross reactions occur, or from mutations of antigens, or by antigens which are mas"ed or not present during the period of immunocompetence, or which are altered by environmental or disease factors and cease to be recogni<ed as ?self?, or by lac" of immune tolerance ,another term for immunocompetence$. -mong diseases which have been classified as autoimmune are& multiple sclerosis, myasthenia gravis, 5raves disease, andsome forms of 'ype # diabetes mellitus.

+. Type """ %ypersensiti$ity occurs when the antigen*antibody complexes produced by normal immune system reactions are not removed and lodge in the basement membrane of endothelial cells and in other connective tissues. 'heir presence induces massive inflammation by triggering the complement pathway with resulting cell lysis, hemorrhage, and tissue destruction. .xamples include& systemic lupus erythematosus ,SL.$, rheumatoid arthritis and acute glomerulonephritis.