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International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Administration

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A Framework for Human Resources Development Strategy at the Macro-Level

Lionel Bcherel
a a

International Tourism Consultancy, 14 Latchmere Road, London, SW11 2DX Version of record first published: 12 Oct 2008.

To cite this article: Lionel Bcherel (2001): A Framework for Human Resources Development Strategy at the Macro-Level, International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Administration, 1:3-4, 73-97 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J149v01n03_05

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A Framework for Human Resources Development Strategy at the Macro-Level: A Situational Analysis of Tourism Human Resources in Bahia, Brazil
Lionel Bcherel

SUMMARY. This article focuses on human resources development (HRD) strategy for the tourism sector. It describes a framework based on the strategic planning process comprising a series of steps to examine the conditions of tourism employment and the labour market at a destination and to identify barriers to HRD. Experience shows that the success of a strategic plan relies on the involvement of all players in the tourism industry in its elaboration and implementation, and it is argued that an advisory body must be created to develop HRD strategy. A case study is presented illustrating one of the stages of the process- a situational analysis of tourism human resources and education provision in the northeastern Brazilian State of Bahia. [Article copies

availableforafeefromTheHaworthDocument Delivery Service: 1 -800-342-9678. E-mail address: <getinfo@haworthpressinc.com> Website: <http://www. HaworthPress.com>]E 2001 byThe Haworth Press, Inc.All rightsreserved.

KEYWORDS. Macro-level human resources strategy, strategic planning process, manpower planning, training needs analysis, labour market signals, competitive strategy
Lionel Bcherel is Director, International Tourism Consultancy, 14 Latchmere Road, London SW11 2DX (E-mail: lionel@ndirect.co.uk).
[Haworth co-indexing entry note]: A Framework for Human Resources Development Strategy at the Macro-Level: A Situational Analysis of Tourism Human Resources in Bahia, Brazil. Bcherel, Lionel. Co-published simultaneously in International Journal of Hospitality& TourismAdministration (TheHaworth Hospitality Press, an imprint ofTheHaworth Press, Inc.)Vol. 1, Nos. 3/4, 2001, pp. 73-97; and: TourisminSouth America (ed: Gui Santana)TheHaworth Hospitality Press, an imprint ofTheHaworthPress, Inc.,2001, pp.73-97. Single or multiple copies of this article are available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service [1-800-342-9678, 9:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m. (EST). E-mail address: getinfo@haworthpressinc.com].

E 2001 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.

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INTRODUCTION
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Baum (1995, 227) notes that human resources planning for tourism and hospitality at the macro level whether involving a community, region or at a transnational level is one of the most neglected in the literature. A search of the literature reveals that most tourism and hospitality research into human resources at the macro level focuses on employment trends and labour market policy implications, the perceptions of industry as an employer, and industrial relations- with the greater concentration on the hospitality sector (Lashley and Watson 1999). Tourism human resources planners working at the macro level must contend with a number of difficulties. The industry is fragmented and multi-sectorial; there are many organisations, both private sector and public sector, which have an interest in planning tourism manpower; and there is often no coordinating authority to plan for the industry as a whole (Baum, 1995). Furthermore, the tourism industry is mostly made up of Small and Medium Sized Enterprises (SMEs) employing less than ten workers. One objective of this paper is to present a method to help public sector strategists devise human resources strategies which take into account the roles and needs of stakeholders- tourism industry employers, education and training providers, and the public sector- and which identifies barriers to the successful implementation of these strategies. Attempts to develop appropriate tourism manpower in a destination cannot merely rely on quantitative forecasting exercises to match supply with demand in order to avoid shortages. Decision-makers need a greater wealth of information to understand market signals and to be able to formulate realistic and achievable strategies and policies. THEORETICAL DISCUSSION Approaches to Manpower Planning Historically, manpower planning was based on linear extrapolation of past trends. Several authors argue that this simplistic methodology fails to provide accurate enough information for decision-making (Ahamad and Blaug, 1973; Psacharopoulos, 1984; Youdi and Hinchcliffe, 1985; World Bank, 1991; Psacharopoulos, 1994). Psacharopoulos (1994) explains that technological advances, economic progress, and shifts in societal conditions bring about unanticipated changes and inject too much uncertainty to make linear forecasts meaningful in planning manpower. He concludes that planning is based on long-term visions but, given the high level of uncertainty, the focus of manpower planning should be on a continuous analysis of the labour market and on formulating short- and mid-term policies to react to unexpected changes.

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The meagre literature on manpower planning for the tourism industry typifies the historical approach. Inskeeps method is mostly quantitative. He advocates a four step methodology: (1) Evaluating the present utilisation of human resources in tourism and identifying any existing problems and needs; (2) Projecting the future human resources needed by estimating the number of personnel required in each category of employment and determining the qualification for each category of job; (3) Evaluating the human resources available in the future; (4) Formulating the education and training programmes required to provide the requisite qualified resources (1991, 404). However, it is clear from the research that has been carried out that greater emphasis must be placed on understanding and constantly monitoring the tourism labour market. Analysts are now concerned with identifying issues that affect the labour market and consider such areas as: labour supply and demand; employment structure; wage rates and working conditions; labour mobility; labour turnover; employment policies and the agencies that formulate and control them; education and training policies and the agencies that formulate and control them; S awareness of tourism employment and tourism employment opportunities by the local population; S recruitment practices; and S career paths. S S S S S S S Richter (1986, 13) defines market signals as the most recent indicators of the situation and trends in the labour market(s). Manpower planners require long-term market signals that look at aspects such as global trends, population growth versus employment growth, structural unemployment and labour mobility, and migration. Education and training planners find the greatestvalue in mid- to short-term market signals, whichinclude vacancydata, movementsin rates ofunemployment, labourturnover, incentives, and soon. Thisinformation can be fed into programming the appropriate training courses to deal with immediate and medium-term needs. Manpower Planning and Vocational Training Planning Tourism can be described as a hands on industry requiring employees with well-honed vocational skills. Therefore, the tourism industry relies heavily on vocational training programmes to develop its human resources.

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However, in many destinations there is little coordination between the tourism industry and the educational and training institutions to match needs with provision. According to Richter (1986, ibid), there has traditionally been an uneasy relationship between manpower planning and vocational training planning. Manpower planning research at the macro level is often undertaken as part of, or in conjunction with, national planning activities. Generally, the manpower requirements approach produces predictions of the number of people needed for each job or occupation. Vocational training planners complain that the forecasts are too often inaccurate and do not provide enough information to allow assessment of training needs to devise the appropriate training programmes. In other words, manpower planners usually take a top down approach, focusing on the overall needs on industry whereas vocational planners follow a bottom-up approach, focusing on the occupational content of training programmes, appropriate methods of delivering the contents, and the capacity of students to learn. Richter views training needs assessment as a process that requires close partnership between manpower and vocational training planners. The process starts with gathering all the relevant information about the current labour market and future manpower situation from government departments and agencies, industry and education and training institutions by primary and secondary techniques and by analysing it. He advocates publishing the analysis and making it available to all stakeholders concerned with training. This feeds training planners with the information to design appropriate programmes. Finally, the process should include a monitoring system to ensure that the programmes are relevant to the needs of industry, to introduce improvements if necessary, and to monitor the career paths of graduates. The process described by Richter is based on the strategic planning process. He explains the need for close collaboration between manpower planners and vocational training: Training needs assessment and monitoring that is to make full use of labour market signalling requires the building up of a real partnership between manpower planners and vocational training planners. Each must understand what to expect from the other, including their relevant contribution to the partnership and the mutual benefits they could derive. In this context, vocational training planners will learn how to define clearly the nature and scope of information they need to have for each specific purpose. Manpower planners will have to learn to put forward a convincingcase for the usefulness of labour market signals for training needs assessment . . . (1986, 17). Therefore, it is clear that developing tourism human resources requires a framework that integrates manpower planning and training planning.

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The Strategic Planning Process

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Baum (1995) suggests that planning at the macro level should be based on a process similar to the corporate planning process for companies. This offers a basic planning framework, although it needs to be adapted to the macro-level conditions of the tourism sector. The strategic planning process advances a methodology that reduces uncertainties in strategy formulation. The process is systematic, and a number of questions are considered at each stage. The first stage is defining the mission. This provides an overall vision of what is to be achieved. It asks the question: What is it we want? The second stage is situational analysis. This is where many of the research techniques are applied. The situational analysis falls into two categories, the external analysis and the internal analysis. The external analysis examines the macro-environment, which generally comprises uncontrollable factors. The internal analysis examines the factors that directly affect the object of the research. These are often factors that can be controlled. The situational analysis asks the question: Where are we now? Once the information has been collected and analysed, forecasts can be made for the life span of the strategic plan. Assumptions taking into account issues that will affect the future are factored into the forecasts to draw up the most likely scenarios of what the future will hold. This stage asks the question: Where do we want to go? Given the possibilities and threats uncovered by the analysis, the best strategic method is chosen to achieve the mission. Plans of activities must be elaborated to produce the desired results, taking into account the resources available to implement them. Sequences of events are set out in precise timetables, budgets are allocated and responsibilities are assigned to carry them out. This stage asks the question: How do we get there? (the implementation stage). There are several approaches to the implementation stage. Strategy can be implemented by developing a long-term planning basis, developing several short-term plans, reacting to changes in conditions and emerging trends or by developing a combination of all of these. The favoured approach to implementation will affect the type of strategy pursued. The final stage of the process is, in fact, ongoing and continuous throughout the whole process. The plan must be monitored on a constant basis to ensure that the actions are achieving the desired results within the desired time scale and that the resources are used efficiently. Many changes will occur during the life of the plan, and a system must be in place to react and adapt to them. This stage asks the question: Did we get there? At the micro-level, HRD strategy focuses on the needs of the company and does not consider many of the human resources development issues at the

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macro level. Tourism businesses are concerned with three levels of strategy: corporate strategy, business unit strategy, and operational strategy or functional strategy (Bcherel and Vellas, 1999; Bratton and Gold, 1999; Asch and Bowman, 1989). The focus of strategy is to ensure the survival and success of the business. At the macro level, tourism human resources strategy is inextricably linked with the destinations competitive strategy. Tourism Human Resources in the Destinations Competitive Strategy The success of a destination depends on its competitiveness, and one of the key elements of competitiveness is the quality and efficiency of its human resources. Part of the travel experience is the quality of the services that the visitor receives and the skills of the local population in providing these services. The way people are treated is a competitive factor that will encourage the flow of tourists to the destination. On the other hand, if other elements that make up the destination are deficient, such as its products, its infrastructure, its facilities, and its political and economic situation, then the flow of tourists will weaken, resulting in fewer jobs available in the industry and, quite often, a lack of investment in the development of human resources. The tourism industry is a fast changing industry. To succeed in a competitive market, the destination must keep up with the pace of change and adapt to new conditions brought by change. Therefore, human resources development must be dynamic and directed strategically inorder toadjust tothe perceivedopportunities and threats in the environment. Most importantly, barriers to developing the most appropriate human resources for the destination must be identified. Several stakeholders are involved in the planning of tourism human resources and include: tourism industry employers; education and training establishments (both public and private sector run); public sector departments and agencies; and non-governmental organisations and pressure groups. Often, the primary purpose for developing tourism human resources will differ according to the stakeholder, and they rarely co-ordinate their actions. Industry wants skilled employees that can perform the required tasks and services efficiently at the right level of quality. However, margins are tight in tourism, and employers may be reluctant to pay the rates that qualified job seekers expect, so they employ staff without qualifications and train them on-the-job. Many employers in SMEs consider staff training to be a burden rather than an investment, both in financial terms and in terms of time taken away from the job. Educational institutions are concerned with equipping students for thefuture and see their role as encouraging personal development. These objectives may be in conflict with those of employers who are primary interested in staff trained to perform specific tasks. Furthermore, in many countries, tourism and hospitality courses are popular and are seen as a passport to glamorous careers. Providers,

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particularly those in the private sector, may capitalise on financial gains brought by developing popular courses with little real regard to industry needs. The public sector is concerned with reducing unemployment and stimulating business to maintain political stability and to increase government revenue. In reality, the public sector in many countries has a poor understanding of the structure of the tourism industry and the interrelationship between the sectors. It does not collect the information needed to devise the right HRD strategies and formulate policy. Responsibilities may not be shared nor may activities be coordinated between different government departments and levels. Non-governmental organisations (i.e., trade unions, pressure groups) pursuing specific agendas may influence government action. If the competitiveness of a destination is in part dependent on the skills and commitment of employees in the tourism industry, then a framework must be devised to identify and surmount obstacles that may hamper the development of the right type of tourism human resources. The next section has two objectives: first, it reviews primary research undertaken in the state of Bahia in Northeast Brazil, provides information on the current tourism human resources situation in the state, and relates the recommendations made from the study; second, it describes a methodology to collect the information and puts forward a framework for developing human resources strategy at the macro-level. A SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS OF TOURISM HUMAN RESOURCES NEEDS IN BAHIA The study was commissioned by SEBRAE, the Brazilian organisation that provides support for SMEs, and was backed by the public sector body- the Secretariat do Turismo e Cultura. The report serves to show how part of the research stage of strategy is conducted and should be seen as indicative rather than precise. A more in-depth study is needed to support the results and to examine certain areas that have been uncovered. Aims and Objectives of the Study and Methodology The main objective of the study was to identify the deficiencies in tourism and hospitality education and training provision in Bahia by quantitative as well as by qualitative research and to focus on the needs of the tourism industry. The research presents valuable labour market information on the sectors. Before being in a position to forecast future manpower needs, planners must have a greater understanding of factors influencing the tourism labour

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market. A complete picture of employment and education and training at the destination needs to be built up. On the demand side, this is usually achieved through surveys and interviews with industry representatives and opinion leaders (or key informants) in each of the tourism sub-sectors. On the supply side, the performance and influence of education and training providers is assessed. Teaching facilities, skills of educators, and course contents are audited to evaluate quality and efficiency. The research in this study corresponds to the second stage of the strategic process- the situational analysis- and concentrates on the demand for tourism human resources. However, it should be noted that the investigation was focused on industry and the bulk of the research was carried out with the industry sub-sectors. Some of the training institutions were visited to introduce the study and to explore the general feelings about tourism human resources in the state, but a thorough audit was not undertaken. A second investigation needs to be carried out to look in much greater detail at education and training provision in Bahia in order to assess its correspondence to tourism industry requirements and to its future development. This would constitute an analysis of the supply of tourism human resources. Analysing Tourism and the Tourism Industry at the DestinationBackground to the Development of Tourism in Bahia A Growing Sector The state of Bahia is located in the north-east of Brazil. It is blessed with a variety of tourism products, which include 600 miles (1,103km) of beaches, a rich cultural heritage with indigenous, European, and African influences, popular and lively culture, and protected ecological areas. Tourism is considered to be a great sector for growth. CODETUR, the Division for Tourism Development at the State Department for Culture and Tourism, is an agency actively encouraging investment in the sector, and it provides a range of support services, such as statistical information, technical support for the implementation of projects, advice on financing, and fiscal incentives for tourism projects and promoting development partnerships. In recent years, tourism in Bahia has grown at a steady rate. In 1996, 2.8 million tourists visited the state- a year-on-year increase in arrivals from 1990 when they stood at 1.7 million. Over 90 per cent of visitors are domestic tourists. It should be noted, however, that international tourist arrivals fell back from 322,000 in 1995 to 272,000 in 1996. However, prognostics for the future are very positive. Bahiatursa, the states tourism department, predicts that by 2005 the total number of tourists visiting the state will have increased to 4 million and receipts to US$3 billion from US$1.75 billion in 1996.

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Tourism Development
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The public authorities have identified seven tourism zones for priority development. According to CODETUR: . . . the Tourist Zones are priority areas for the expansion and development of tourism, and were selected on the basis of the quality of their tourist attractions, their proximity to already-established tourist centres, the availability of real estate for the environmentally sensitive creation of leisure, entertainment and lodging facilities (Government da Bahia pamphlet [1997]: Bahia, a great place for tourism; an even greater place for doing business) (see Figure 1).

FIGURE 1. Priority Tourism Development Zones in Bahia

Salvador de Bahia

Porto Seguro

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The tourist zones offer several products and investment opportunities

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S The Coconut Palm Coast (Costa dos Coquieros): The Coconut Palm Coast and the All Saints Bay Tourist Zone are situated in the northern section of Bahia. They boast over 400km of coastline, many islands, rivers, mangrove swamps, lagoons, and sand dunes. The state capitalSalvador- is located in All Saints Bay (Baia de todos os Santos). Its historic district, the Pelourinho, has received substantial public sector investment to develop its tourism potential and is on the UNESCO World Heritage list. The main high category leisure and business hotels are located in Salvador. The zone is well served in terms of infrastructure, particularly around the capital. This includes basic facilities (water, electricity, sanitation, and telecommunication), international and regional airports, paved highways and roads, an international seaport, and public transport services. Planned developments include resort hotels (for instance, the Odebrecht resort development project at Saupe), theme parks, sporting facilities, spas and marinas, and ecological parks. S The Dende Coast (Costa do Dende): The Dende Coast is named after the palm oil produced in the area, which is a staple ingredient of Bahian cuisine. Located south of the Coconut Palm Coast, it has good potential for tourism development. The main attractions include unspoiled beaches, many small inhabited islands in a large bay, a tidal archipelago, and lush vegetation on the mainland. There are several landing strips in the zone and a regional airport is under construction. Most areas on the Dende Coast have basic infrastructure and services such as paved roads, electrical power, telecommunications, and water supply. There are development projects underway for the improvement and expansion of drinking water supply, sewerage, and solid waste disposal facilities for some communities. Planned tourism projects include resort hotels and small bed and breakfast lodgings, spas, theme parks, marinas, fishing centres, and equestrian clubs. S The Cacao Coast (Costa do Cacao): Cacao has been cultivated on this coast since the 19th century, and this has brought the added benefit of preserving the natural forests. The zones many ecological assets, such as rich flora and fauna, freshwater lakes, white river rapids, and mangrove swamps, are under environmental protection. The area is internationally known through the writings of the famous Brazilian author Jorge Amado, who set, his novels on the coast, and for its excellent water sports facilities such as surfing and deep-sea fishing. There is a national airport in Ilhus and a regional airport in Canavieras, a good network of paved roads to the beaches, and air and bus transport services. Most communities have drinking water supplies, electric power, and telecommunication and projects are underway to expand these services

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and provide sanitation and solid waste disposal for the communities that need them. S The Discovery Coast (Costa do Descubrimento): This is the coast where Portuguese explorers first arrived in Brazil in 1500. The resort of Puerto Seguro is the second most visited town in Bahia- in fact, both Salvador and Bahia are amongst the five most visited towns in Brazil. The tourism industry in the resort comprises small tourism enterprises (family hotels, local firms, etc.) which have put in place a collaborative strategy to ensure their sustainable development, competitiveness, and quality. Recently, the Discovery Coast Tourism Council has been established to stimulate participation and partnership between the private sector and public agencies. The region has the largest remaining area of Atlantic Forest on the Brazilian coast, a number of environmental protection areas, such as the Monte Pascoal National Park, indigenous peoples reservations, and excellent beaches. An international airport at Puerto Seguro serves the zone, and a transport infrastructure and network provides access to areas of interest. Most communities in the area enjoy good infrastructure and, where needed, expansion of water, sewer, and solid waste disposal facilities programmes are underway. Many tourism development projects are being planned, including resort hotels, eco-lodgings, ecological parks, spas, theme resorts, museums, fishing centres and marinas, and country and equestrian clubs. S The Whale Coast (Costa das Baleiras): The main attraction of this area is the yearly arrival of hundreds of whales migrating from Antarctica to the undersea coral formations in the Albolhos National Marine Park. The park comprises a group of islands and is a protected habitat for seabirds and marine life. The coast has beautiful beaches, small fishing villages, lush vegetation, and coconut groves. There is a regional airport on the mainland, and local communities benefit from all basic infrastructure. The development of resorts, floating hotels, small hotels, marine theme parks and museums, and diving centres as well as country clubs and equestrian clubs are planned. S Chapada Diamantina: The mountainous and ecological Chapada Diamanta National Park is an ideal region for adventure tourism and ecotourism. The natural attractions include exotic flora and fauna, rivers, springs and waterfalls, underground lakes and mountain peaks over 2000 metres (Pico de Barbado). This was also the site of the 19th century gold and diamond rush, thus providing the area with historical interest. The zone is under environmental protection, and infrastructure has been introduced with this in mind. The emphasis is on low-density tourism, and areas have been set aside for tourist-related enterprises. Chapada Diamanta benefits from a regional airport at Lenis, paved highways

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to the principal towns and natural areas, and regular bus services, as well as basic infrastructure. The water system is being expanded and sanitary sewers introduced for the communities that still do not have them. Although not specifically singled out as main areas for tourism development, other zones in the state present good potential for tourism in the future. The So Fransisco River Valley in the north of the state cuts across a variety of different landscapes from semi-arid regions to irrigated fruit plantations. The river has several dams to generate electricity and large man-made lakes have been created where water sports can be practiced. The western side of Bahia offers exotic landscapes in a hot, dry climate with rivers, waterfalls, white-water rapids, caves, uplands, ponds, and archaeological sites. Investment for Tourism Development Since 1992, Bahia has benefited from an investment programme to stimulate the development of tourism. PRODETUR, financed by the Inter-American Bank (60%) and the government, has received US$392 million for development projects that include the creation of basic infrastructure, the expansion of airports, the renovation of historic sites, and the establishment of protected ecological and environmental zones (APAS). In total, the government has pledged US$2 billion in investment for the tourism sector between 1991 and 2002. The public sector is also keen to attract private sector investment and, according to CODETUR, by 2012, US$4.4 billion will have been invested in private sector projects state-wide. Although the picture is very positive, there are immediate issues affecting the development of tourism and tourism human resources in Bahia. This is illustrated by the following situation in the hotel sector. There are few major hotel chains in Salvador, so virtually no central administration and hotels tend to be small units run by the owner. Occupation rates are falling in Salvador. This, according to the president of the hotel association, is because there are too many hotels in the city and the marketing tactics used are inappropriate or inadequate. As a result, 5 star hotels are discounting the cost of rooms to keep occupancy up. Guests who would usually stay at 3 and 4 star hotels are upgrading to 5 star hotels. Indeed, statistics compiled by Bahiatursa would seem to support this contention. In 1995, 5 star hotels accommodated over 50% of tourists staying in classified hotels, this is nearly an 11% variation on 1994. For all other categories, occupancy fell in 1995 compared with 1994. (see Table 1) Thus, profits are low in the sector, and this has a direct effect on the recruitment of the workforce. To stay within their limited budget, hoteliers tend to hire people that are not qualified. Furthermore, labour legislation is

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strict and complex and the social costs are very high. Although salaries are low, the social costs represent 104% of the salary. Tourism and Hospitality Education and Training Provision in Bahia Tourism education and training is available at all levels in Bahia. SENAC is a nationwide professional training institution. It provides courses from basic to postgraduate level. The Sao Paulo SENAC offers degrees; the Bahia SENAC plans to offer them in the future. Programmes are available to the open market and can also be tailored on an individual basis to the specific needs of companies. There are 6 units in Bahia. In total, 5,000 people a year are trained by SENAC in hospitality, catering, and tourism functions ranging from short tailor-made courses to longer formal courses. The CTET-BA (Centro Federal de Educacao Tecnologica da Bahia) has been in existence for 80 years and is under the control of the Ministry of Education. It provides high level education and training for the 2nd and 3rd grade. It covers all areas of the economy, and the National Council of Education approves the curricula for the courses. In the tourism and hospitality fields, it offers 9 technical courses at 2nd grade level and 5 at 3rd grade level. There are 4 other units of the college in the state. Since 1978, the college has offered a two and a half-year course in Hotel Administration with an output of 60 students a year. A period of practice in industry is included at the end of the course. There is a practical facility for catering at the college but no restaurant. High level education is provided by universities, such as the Faculdade de Turismo da Bahia, which offers bachelor degrees in tourism and hospitality (output about 100 graduates a year), FACS- Faculdade de Salvador (output approximately 80 graduates a year), and the Universidade Federal de Bahia (output 50 graduates a year). There is great demand for these courses; for instance, in 1996, FACS had 820 applications for 80 available places. Since
TABLE 1
1994 % of tourists staying in classified hotels 45.91 25.44 20.31 6.76 1.58 1995 % of tourists staying in classified hotels 50.05 24.27 19.06 5.52 1.11 Variation 95/94 10.81 3.04 4.60 17.06 28.59

Category 5 Star 4 Star 3 Star 2 Star 1 Star Source: BAHIATURSA - BOHs

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April 1997, the Faculdade de Turismo has offered a continuing education programme in Hotel Management. Other training organisations include SEBRAE, which provides re-skilling programmes for industry and Odebrecht, which is developing a resort north of Salvador and has established a vocational institute, primarily for its staff in the complex but also for the general public. Tourism Human Resources in Bahia Methodology for Collecting Information The research methodology in this study centred on canvassing employers. Two techniques were applied: questionnaires with representative sub-sectors of the Bahian tourism industry and in-depth interviews with opinion leaders and stakeholders. It was decided to study 4 sub-sectors of the tourism and hospitality industries: hotels, travel agencies and tour operators, restaurants, and the public sector (the Secretaria do Turismo e Cultura and Bahiatursa). For the quantitative research, questionnaires were devised for each of these sub-sectors and a universal population was chosen. The questionnaires were discussed with SEBRAE and fine-tuned by a team of experts. Finally, they were presented to authorities in private sector associations and to senior public sector officials for their approval. The hotel sector is by far the largest tourism sector, and it is represented throughout the state; therefore, six different locations in Bahia were surveyed, and 104 questionnaires were collected (Salvador, 50 questionnaires; Puerto Seguro, 30; Costa Norte, 10; Chapada Diamantina, 10; Paulo Alfonso, 5; and Ileus, 5). Research in the other sub-sectors was carried out in Salvador where the greater concentration of firms exists: 49 questionnaires were collected from the restaurant sector; 49 from travel agencies and tour operators; and 40 from the public sector. They were administered face-to-face by a team of trained interviewers provided by SEBRAE. A pilot questionnaire was run to ensure that the wording used was not ambiguous. The questionnaires were designed to provide information on: S S S S S S S the size and structure of employment in each sub-sector sources of recruitment turnover positions that are hard to fill and the reasons for this human resources issues skills and education training needs.

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The questionnaires comprised both structured and open-ended questions and the results were analysed using statistical software. The qualitative research consisted of in-depth interviews with experts and opinion leaders in the sub-sectors as well as with senior staff of institutions that provide tourism and hospitality training and education in Salvador. Opinion leaders interviewed included: representatives from the hotel sector- ABIH; the travel agency and tour operator sector- ABAV; the restaurant sector- ABRASEL; a development agency, SUDANE; a major investor in tourism, ODEBRECHT; the public sector, BAHIATURSA and CODETUR; senior SEBRAE staff; and representatives from educational and training institutions. The primary research collected by the survey and the interviews was supported by secondary data in the form of published information and statistics. FINDINGS Quantitative Measurement of the Industry and Structure of the Industry To be in a position to plan future manpower, it is vital to measure the number of employees in each occupation of the tourism sub-sectors and at each professional level. Research by Riley (1991) shows that nearly twothirds (64%) of employees in the hotel and restaurant sectors work at the operative level, that is, semi-skilled and unskilled workers. The craft (or skilled) level accounts for 22%, the supervisory level 8% and the managerial level just 6%. Methods used to measure tourism employment and to gather information about the labour market are more or less effective. These include economic models (e.g., multiplier studies and input-output models, econometric models, the manpower requirement approach, and the proportional method); cost benefit analysis (i.e., return-on-investment analysis); statistical extrapolations (i.e., time series projections, normative methods); and the international comparison method, which consists of studying other countries with higher levels of development but with similar conditions to estimate future employment needs (Baum, 1995; Richter, 1986). The survey method with stakeholders and opinion leaders is recognised as being a fairly accurate technique of collecting quantitative information on tourism human resources as well as limited qualitative information. The flexibility of the method allows exploration of tourism labour market issues. However, its weaknesses lie in the danger of market researcher bias and error and defective questionnaire design. Quantitative measurement of the size of the tourism labour market and the definition of employment structure in terms of professional levels are important stages of the analytical process as they provide a basis for forecasts.

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It is possible to extrapolate average number of employees per room in each category hotels from the information collected by the survey. Table 2 shows that 5 star hotels employ on average fewer employees per room than 4 star hotels. This is a result of a price war instigated by the 5 star hotels to increase occupancy (see previous section). The employee-to-room ratio is an important human resources as well as quality indicator in the hotel sector. The labour to room ratio in Bahia is low: in the higher category hotels it is 0.64 for 5 star hotels and 0.66 for 4 star hotels. This is a consequence of the high cost of labour in Brazil and the price war. This would also explain why 5 star hotels have lower labour to room ratio than 4 star hotels. To compensate for the large discounts that they are offering, productivity gains have had to be made by streamlining the workforce. International comparisons of room to labour ratios in developing countries where labour is cheap (e.g., Indonesia) for 4 to 5 star hotels is as high as 1.8. In semi-developed and rapidly developing countries where there is a labour shortage and escalating cost of hiring, it is 1.2 to 1.4. Developed countries with high labour costs (e.g. Northern Europe) typically have ratios of 0.6 to 0.8 with labour saving in-built minimum service provision. Bahia should be considered as a rapidly developing region with low labour to room ratio. Tourism Manpower in Bahia Bahiatursa estimates that in 1996 there were 102,000 jobs directly related to tourism and 466,000 indirectly related to tourism. However, this is not
TABLE 2. Number of Employees per Room/Bed in Different Category Hotels
Size of the Hotels Represented 5 Star Hotels 4 Star Hotels 3 Star Hotels 2 Star Hotels No Category TOTAL No. of Hotels 5 16 32 10 41 104 No. of Permanent Employees 769 1,189 945 123 418 3,444 No. of Rooms No. of Employees per Room 0.64 0.66 0.51 0.41 0.31 0.53 No. of Beds No. of Employees per Bed 0.31 0.35 0.23 0.16 0.14 0.25

1,205 1,747 1,865 303 1,327 6,447

2,452 3,423 4,146 775 3,093 13,889

Source: Bahia Manpower Survey, 1996

Lionel Bcherel TABLE 3. Employment Structure in the Tourism Private Sector

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By Department - (Percentage) Hotel Sector Food and Beverage Administration Front Office Housekeeping Others 28 19 17 4 32 By Professional Level - (Percentage) Hotel Sector Managers Supervisors Skilled Operators Semi/nonskilled Operators 7 7 44 41 Restaurant Sector Managers Supervisors Skilled Operators Semi/nonskilled Operators 7 5 44 44 Travel Firms Sector Managers Supervisors Skilled Operators Semi/nonskilled Operators 26 7 52 16 Restaurant Sector Service Kitchen Administration 53 38 10 Travel Firms Sector Ticketing Operations Product Development Marketing Others 50 19 14 5 12

Source: Bahia Manpower Survey, 1996

broken down into sub-sectors and the method used to obtain these figures is not explained. Discussions with representatives appear to contradict these findings. Therefore, the main objective at this stage of the research was to determine the structure of employment. However, to forecast future employment needs, further research was needed, mainly: A. To obtain accurate figures for the current size of the tourism industry workforce and the rate at which it has grown in the last few years. B. To understand some of the specific conditions that influence the labour market; an area the research has just touched upon. Employment Structure Employment by sector will vary according to the type of tourism offered and the balance between incoming and outgoing activity. The survey indicated that the Bahian tourism industry has the structure shown in Table 3. The employment structure of the hotel and restaurants sectors in Bahia broadly corresponds to the proportions found in Rileys UK survey. Industry experts interviewed estimated that there are approximately 30,000 employees in the Bahian hotel industry. Food and Beverage is the largest department accounting for 28% of all hotel employees. If the estimations by the experts are correct, then there are 8,400 food and beverage employees and over 4,000 managers and supervisors.

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Representatives of the restaurant sector could not estimate the size of the workforce. Customer contact staff account for over half the staff in the restaurant sector. As expected, nearly 9 employees out of 10 are skilled, semi-skilled, or unskilled operatives. The travel firms sector includes travel agencies, outbound tour operators, and incoming tour operators. According to industry experts, the workforce in this sector accounts for approximately 3,500 employees- just over a tenth of the size of the hotel workforce. Ticketing staff represent half the staff in travel firms. These are skilled operatives who need specialised qualifications. Travel firms tend to be small with several departments, each with management structures. Therefore, management accounts for a higher proportion of employees than in other sectors of the tourism industry. This methodology is appropriate for a broad estimation of the current size of the workforce. However, to forecast future human resources needs other factors must be taken into account. The size of the workforce does not generally increase (or decrease) at the same rate as the number of arrivals at a destination. Rises in employment (direct as well as indirect) may be calculated using economic models, such as multiplier models and input-output models, but even these figures are considered indicative rather than precise. The survey provides a clearer idea of the labour market in Bahia and identifies the most used methods to recruit employees, the jobs that are difficult to fill, and the most serious human resources problems in the industry. Methods of Employee Recruitment The main recruitment method in Bahia is through the recommendation of the firms employees (see list in order of importance below). Two-thirds of travel firms and hotels recruit employees in this way. Other methods include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Recommendation of employees, From other firms, Personal relations, Advertising, From academic institutions.

Poaching from other firms is high and represents the second most used method of recruitment. Nearly half of travel firms recruit from other firms in their sector. This would suggest that there is high staff turnover and little loyalty to the firm, and it is a view supported by the interviews carried out with representatives of the sectors. The restaurant sector shows a much more even spread in recruitment methods. Nearly half recruit on the recommendation of their staff, but poaching from other firms is lower than in other sectors and advertising is higher.

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In general, there is low recruitment directly from academic institutions. More research is necessary to uncover the reasons why. Restaurants are more likely to recruit from academic institutions, reflecting the fact that training for the catering industry has been established longer by organisations such as SENAC. Respondents were asked whether they were satisfied with training and education provision in Bahia. Unanimously, they were satisfied at all levels; however, there was a general feeling that more communication between industry and training institutes is needed. Certain areas are not covered and industry would like to have a greater input in the curricula. Therefore, it is clear a problem of communication exists and that there is little collaboration between industry and educational institutions. Why Positions Are Hard to Fill Respondentswereasked toidentify themain barriersto recruitingemployees. The following reason were most mentioned (in order of importance): 1. Lack of skills 2. Low salary 3. Lack of candidates Lack of skills in all departments is the greatest impediment to employee recruitment. However, salary offered is also an important consideration. Salaries are low but social costs are high. In effect, they double the cost of employment, which means that employers tend to recruit staff that have not been trained whenever possible because they cannot afford qualified staff. This lowers standards in the industry. In the restaurant sector, salary offered is a greater impediment to recruitment than in the hotel sector. Employees in the travel firms generally have a higher level of education so their earnings expectations tend to be higher. Furthermore, there are fewer specialised courses for this sector, which explains why the lack of suitable candidates has been highlighted as an obstacle. Finding trained and skilled staff is the greatest recruitment problem. On the other hand, few firms recruit from training institutions where skilled people are being prepared. Again, this suggests that greater contact between training institutions and industry and collaboration in designing appropriate courses is essential. Human Resources Issues Respondents were asked what they considered to be the most important human resources issues for their sector; in other words, the difficulties that

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the industry is experiencing. Table 4 shows how the different sub-sectors ranked human resources issues. An important issue for the hotel and the restaurant sectors is the recruitment of competent managers. This is corroborated by interviews with opinion leaders. Higher category hotels recruit people who have completed management courses and train them internally. Managers tend to be highly educated but the rest of the workforce has little training. The middle level is particularly lacking. According to the experts, training for this level is not appropriate. New employees arrive with preconceptions and expect to be assuming a management role straight away. There are few courses for middle level functions, such as Front Office, Guest Relations and Housekeeping. Furthermore, just 10% of hotels in the survey offered a management-training programme to their employees. Not surprisingly, higher category hotels are most committed to developing their managers. Keeping competent staff is important in all sectors. Opinion leaders commented that employee turnover is high because there is little commitment between employers and employees. A majority of hotels and travelfirms saidthat theiremployees studiedforeign languages, mainly English and Spanish. Although recognised as a future problem, it is not an immediate priority in the restaurant sector. Just one restaurant in ten said that their employees were currently studying foreign languages. In restaurants, operational job skills and keeping competent managers are serious human resource issues. This is supported by the fact that managers need much training when they first reach their position. The survey also identified concerns about the future of the labour market and about the future of the industry. Respondents from all the tourism subsectors mentioned that their staff needed a greater knowledge of languages

TABLE 4. Most Serious Human Resources Issues

Rank in order of importance Hotels Recruiting Competent Managers Keeping Competent Staff Customer Service Skills of Operational Staff Initiative and Motivation of Managers Knowledge of Foreign Languages 1 = most serious 6 = least serious 1 3 4 6 5 2 Restaurants 2 3 4 1 5 6 Travel Firms 4 2 1 5 3 6

Source: Bahia Manpower Survey, 1996

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and better customer service skills. Restaurants were concerned about the necessity of improving the skills of its workforce and keeping current with changes in the industry. Travel firms were worried that they would not be able to compete with the large operations from outside the State. They were concerned that their staff do not have enough technical expertise. Indeed, they would like more specialised courses to be available in Bahia in subjects such as itinerary building, costing and tariff setting, as well as international marketing. Skills and Education The third area considered in human resources strategy is the skills and qualification of the workforce. In other words, whether tourism employees are well educated and well trained and whether they have followed training programmes organised by their firms since starting work- the concept of reskilling of the workforce. The survey showed that nearly two-thirds of hotel employees followed non-specialised middle level education; the rest studied at technical training centres and professional training schools and a few at university or at a tourism facility. There was a relatively greater proportion of employees who studied at technical training centres and professional training schools in the restaurant sector. There are well-established courses available in Bahia for this industry. Travel firms have educated employees and nearly 30% of staff have followed university or tourism education. Public sector employees are very highly educated with 80% having been to university. Training Training should be seen as a continuous process and reskilling programmes are necessary to upgrade the skills and knowledge of employees and to keep them up-to-date with changes in the industry. The survey investigated whether employees had the opportunity of continuing training once they embarked on their careers. Training is seen by many employers to be an expense rather than an investment. Hotels, particularly the higher category ones, are most likely to organise training for their staff- both internally and outside the establishment- but lower category hotels are less committed to training. Few restaurants and travel firms organise training programmes. In conclusion, staff development is currently a low priority in the Bahian tourism industry.

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Respondents were asked to identify the jobs where employees tend to be the least equipped to do the job when they are first hired. The objective of this was to detect the type of initial training courses that are needed by industry. Most respondents in the hotel sector agree that receptionists need the most initial training. It seems that there is a lack of front office courses in Bahia. Most respondents in restaurants selected kitchen staff and managers and supervisors as needing the most initial training, supporting the information presented in the previous table on human resources needs. Not surprisingly, ticketing staff in the travel sector, which account for half the staff of travel firms, need the most training. Courses That Will Improve the Sector Industry representatives, who are the ultimate customers of the training institutions, were asked which courses they thought were needed to improve the industry. Table 5 shows that all the sectors considered Quality and Customer Service and Foreign Languages as being very important. Travels Firms and the Public Sector particularly highlighted international marketing to bring foreign visitors to Bahia. Hotels require training for receptionists and courses for middle management. A number of respondents identified the need for a specialised training centre such as a hotel school. It was felt that in addition to industrial placements during their course, students must be able to perfect their skills in a simulated environment. Too often, they are used as cheap labour during the placement and are not exposed to the type of practical training that they would ideally need. Jobs in the tourism industry are mostly craft jobs, and training should be competency-based rather than theoretical. This is training by demonstration. Restaurants are particularly keen on upgrading and reskilling courses for their chefs and cooks. The Travel Firms sector highlights the need for techniTABLE 5. Courses That Will Improve the Industry
All sectors: Quality/customer service Foreign languages Marketing Restaurant sector Courses for Chefs/cooks Waiters Travel firms sector Tourism courses Course for: Guides Public sector HR management Environmental Ecotourism

Hotel sector Courses for: Receptionists Need for hotel school

Source: Bahia Manpower Survey, 1996

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cal and specialist courses. Public Sector respondents feel that human resources management and environmental and ecotourism courses would improve their future. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS The research that has been carried out so far is limited in scope and serves as the first stage of a larger process to understand all the complexities of the labour market in Bahia. Analysts should use these results as a guide for deeper investigation. However, it is already clear at this stage that there is a need for greater communication, collaboration, and coordination between the training institutions, the tourism industry, and the public sector. Based on these preliminary results, a set of recommendations was put forward. The Formulation and Implementation of a Strategic Plan for Human Resources Development If Bahia is to benefit from a well-trained and well-qualified workforce adapted to a fast changing industry, it needs the direction of a strategic human resources plan that will encompass the needs of all stakeholders. It is important to spell out a clear mission. It must be explicit and understood by all involved. The human resources strategic mission must reflect the tourism development and management mission of Bahia. Forecasts must be prepared, taking into consideration issues that may affect tourism and tourism human resources in the future. Alternative scenarios should be evaluated and the best plans of action selected. It is critical to involve the different stakeholders. Experience shows that for a strategic plan to be developed successfully, all players in the tourism industry must be involved in its elaboration and implementation. There must be a sense of shared ownership of the plan and of shared objectives. The strategies to pursue should be agreed upon, and the implementation phase of the plan should be directed and coordinated by the interested parties. This plan must be formulated and agreed upon by a body representing all the parties concerned. The body must meet on a regular basis to guide and control the implementation of the plan. The Development of a Communication System Between Stakeholders To achieve this, a committee or a board must be formed comprising representatives from each of the trade associations, education and training organisations, concerned NGOs, and the public sector.

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This committee would be responsible for selecting the best strategies and for developing action plans for implementation. Responsibilities would be allocated and budgets agreed upon. Accountability for delivering the strategies would need to be precisely defined. A clear role should be defined for such a board. Duties would include: S formulating strategy and policy direction; S creating a forum for discussion to develop strong communication channels between education and training authorities, the private sector and the government. This would enable continuous exchange of information and feedback necessary: 1. to eliminate barriers to appropriate human resources development; 2. to consider the concerns of each stakeholder and build consensus; and 3. to develop and maintain effective tourism education; S advising on the nature and general contents of education and training programmes in relation to industry needs; S providing a standard training system that allows successful graduates to be employed and promoted within the tourism sector- transferable vocational qualifications; S establishing a process which allows employees currently working in the industry to follow training programmes to upgrade their knowledge and to learn new skills- reskilling programmes; S ensuring cooperative management between the public and private sectors of the destinations labour, education, and training requirements for the tourism sector, whilst ensuring that the content of programmes is pertinent and applicable to current trends S identifying employment linked indirectly to the tourism industry (e.g. taxi drivers, customs officers . . .) and devising seminars and training programmes to ensure that the employees understand the importance of their role in the tourism industry; S developing awareness programmes directed at both the public and the potential and existing labour force which would provide accurate information on employment and training issues and opportunities; S constantly monitoring and reevaluating strategy to ensure that it is implemented properly and that it is flexible enough to adapt to changes in the environment and that appropriate policy changes follow suit. The Establishment of a Reporting and Monitoring System The board should be informed on a regular basis about developments and difficulties encountered so that actions can be taken to keep the plan on track

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and, if necessary, amend it. A system must be established to collect the information needed so that the board can perform its role effectively. This would involve continuous research and regular meetings and evaluation sessions. Manpower planning and analysis theory at the macro-level for the tourism sector is still at an early stage. Although it is a growing area of research, actual development cases need to be compiled, analysed, and compared in order to progress the body of knowledge. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ahamad, B. and Blaug, M. (1973). The Practice of Manpower Forecasting: A Collection of Case Studies. Amsterdam: Elsevier. Asch,D.and Bowman,C.(eds.)(1989). ReadingsinStrategicManagement.Basingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd. Becherel,L.(1997). Pesquisa SobreRecursos Humanose a Necessidade deTreinamento para a Indstria do Turismo Baiano . Salvador: SEBRAE, BA. Becherel,L.and Vellas,F.(1999)TheMarketing Conceptand InternationalTourism Marketing. In Vellas, F. and Becherel, L. The International Marketing of Travel and Tourism. Basingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd. Bratton,J.and Gold,J.(1999). Human ResourceManagement:TheoryandPractice. 2nd ed. Basingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd. Baum, T. (1995). Managing Human Resources in the European Tourism and Hospitality Industry: A Strategic Approach. London: Chapman & Hall. Baum, T. (1994). National Tourism Policies: Implementing the Human Resource Dimension. Tourism Management 15 (4) 259-266. Hinchliffe, K. and Youdi, R. (eds.) (1985). The Practice of Manpower Forecasting Revisited . Paris: UNESCO, International Institute of Educational Planning. Inskeep,E.(1991). TourismPlanning:An Integrated and SustainableDevelopment Approach . New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Lashley, C. and Watson, S. (1999). Researching Human Resources Management in the Hospitality Industry: The Need for aNew Agenda? International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research 1 (1): 19-40. Psacharopoulos,G.(1994),FromManpowerPlanningto LabourMarket Analysis.In Richards, P. and Amjad, R. (eds.) New Approaches to Manpower Planning and Analysis. Geneva: International Labour Organisation. Psacharopoulos,G.(1983).Assessing Training Prioritiesin Developing Countries: CurrentPracticesandPossibleAlternatives.InternationalLabourMarketReview 123(5): 569-583. Richter,L.(1986).TrainingNeedsAssessment andMonitoring .Geneva:International Labour Organisation. Riley,M.(1991). Human ResourcesManagement:AGuideto Personnel Practicein the Hotel and Catering Industries. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemman. World Bank (1991). Vocational and Technical Education and Training: A Policy Paper. Washington, DC.