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BAHRAIN
At A Glance Population9 0uly :773 est. -1P Per #apita <PPP@9 :773 est. *uman 1eBelopment Index 'anC9 $)1P9 :773 8reedom *ouse 'ating9 :773 Political 'ights #iBil ,iberties 8reedom of the Press 'anC9 8reedom *ouse9 :773 #orruption Index 'anC9 %ransparency International9 :777 -ender !mpowerment 'anC9 $)1P9 :77+ 3; 9/ / <includes :=/967 non> citi?ens@ A:/9=77 =; <out of 677 countries@ Partly 8ree / / 6/ <out of 6;+ countries@ +7 <out of 6 7 countries@ 33 <out of 7 countries@

UPDATES AND FORTHCOMING EVENTS ......................................................................................3 UPDATES AND FORTHCOMING EVENTS ......................................................................................3 STATE INSTITUTIONS/SEPARATION OF POWERS......................................................................4 STATE INSTITUTIONS/SEPARATION OF POWERS......................................................................4 !"!#$%I&! B'()#*................................................................................................................................+ ,!-I.,(%I&! B'()#*............................................................................................................................./ 0$1I#I('2...............................................................................................................................................3 ,4#(, -4&!')5!)%............................................................................................................................. RIGHTS ...................................................................................................................................................10 RIGHTS ...................................................................................................................................................10 P!'.4)(, ,IB!'%I!..............................................................................................................................67 ,!-I.,(%I4) '!-$,(%I)- %*! !"!'#I.! 48 'I-*%..........................................................................66 '!#!)% -4&!')5!)% I)I%I(%I&!. (88!#%I)- 'I-*%......................................................................6/ POLITICAL FORCES............................................................................................................................16 POLITICAL FORCES............................................................................................................................16 P4,I%I#(, P('%I!. ...............................................................................................................................63 #I&I, .4#I!%2.......................................................................................................................................67 ELECTION RESULTS...........................................................................................................................19 ELECTION RESULTS...........................................................................................................................19
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Arab Political Systems: Baseline Information and Reforms Bahrain

CONSTITUTIONAL REVISION..........................................................................................................20 CONSTITUTIONAL REVISION..........................................................................................................20 CORRUPTION........................................................................................................................................21 CORRUPTION........................................................................................................................................21 RATIFICATION OF INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS.............................................................22 RATIFICATION OF INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS.............................................................22

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Arab Political Systems: Baseline Information and Reforms Bahrain

Updates and Forthcoming Events

4n 8ebruary :/9 :77 9 fifty>fiBe local9 regional9 and international human rights organi?ations issued a call to Bahraini Ding *amad to release demonstrators and human rights actiBists and to refrain from torturing detainees. *uman 'ights Eatch issued a statement on 8ebruary 63 calling on the Bahraini goBernment to inBestigate allegations of torture and abuse of political detainees. ( Bahraini court charged political actiBist *ussain 5ansoor on 0anuary :=9 :77 the assault and attempted murder of a security officer during a protest. %he trial was postponed to 8ebruary 67. ( 8ebruary = trial for fifteen other protestors was also postponed to 8ebruary :+ after lawyers boycotted the hearing9 in protest of its late>afternoon timing. Bahrain is currently detaining at least fifty actiBists9 arrested between 1ecember :6 and : following 1ecember 67 demonstrations in which one protestor was Cilled. In a 0anuary :6 statement9 *uman 'ights Eatch expressed serious concerns oBer allegations of torture and mistreatment of detainees. %he Bahrain #enter for *uman 'ights reBealed on 0anuary :=9 :77 that the 5inistry of Islamic (ffairs refused to approBe the distribution of the noBel Omar, A Martyr by Bahraini noBelist (bdullah Dhalifa9 alleging that it defames a religious figure. #licC here for more information. Bahrain issued a law to combat human trafficCing on 0anuary ;9 :77 . %he law stipulates a prison penalty and fines ranging from :9777 to 679777 Bahraini dinars <$... A/9=6; to :397=6@. %he law also calls for the formation of a committee to combat human trafficCing9 members of which haBe not been announced.

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Arab Political Systems: Baseline Information and Reforms Bahrain

State Institutions/Separation of o!ers

%he Dingdom of Bahrain defines itself as a hereditary constitutional monarchy9 but the powers of the Cing are too extensiBe for Bahrain to be considered a constitutional monarchy by the Eestern definition of a monarchy where the Cing rules but does not goBern. Bahrain officially gained independence from -reat Britain on (ugust 6/9 6;76 after 667 years as a protectorate. #onstitution promulgated in 8ebruary :77: <!nglish %ext9 (rabic %ext@.

E"ecutive #ranch

%he ki ! is the head of state. *eF > (ppoints and dismisses the Prime 5inister and the cabinet. > *as wide>ranging executiBe and legislatiBe powers. > (ppoints the president and members of the #onsultatiBe #ouncil. > Is the commander in chief of the armed forces. > Is chairman of the *igher 0udicial #ouncil and appoints Gudges. > *as the right to call for a referendum on any issue he deems important. > #an rule by decree and dissolBe parliament. > *as the right to Beto laws passed by the )ational (ssembly. > *as the power to amend the constitution and propose9 ratify9 and promulgate laws. S"#ik" H$%$& 'i I($ A) *"$)i+$ succeeded his )$,# +$,"#- as !mir in 5arch 6;;; and became Cing in 8ebruary :77:.

%he (l Dhalifa family9 BahrainHs rulers since 67 :9 belongs to its minority .unni 5uslim <=7I@ population.

%he .-i%# %i i(,#-F > > >

Is appointed by the Cing. Is the head of goBernment. Proposes <but does not appoint@ cabinet ministers.

Prime 5inister *"$)i+$ 'i S$)%$ A) *"$)i+$9 the uncle of the present Cing9 has held this position since 6;76.

%he #ouncil of 5inistersF > > Is appointed by the Cing. Is headed by the prime minister.

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Arab Political Systems: Baseline Information and Reforms Bahrain

> > >

Is largely composed of members of the (l Dhalifa family9 who hold ten of the :6 cabinet positions9 including Cey ministries such as oil9 defense9 interior and foreign affairs. Includes two female ministers (pproximately one>third of the cabinet members are .hiHi 5uslims

( new cabinet was sworn in by the Cing on 1ecember 669 :773. #licC "#-# for a list of members. $egislative #ranch

( unicameral )ational (ssembly was established in 0une 6;7: and was dissolBed in (ugust 6;7/. 8rom 6;7/ to :77: there was no )ational (ssembly and legislatiBe powers were assumed by the cabinet. (ccording to the 8ebruary :77: constitution9 legislatiBe authority is Bested in the Cing and the )ational (ssembly. %he )ational (ssembly is now bicameral and consists of an appointed #onsultatiBe #ouncil and an elected #hamber of 1eputies. %he )ational (ssemblyF > > > > *olds annual sessions and can be called to an extraordinary session by royal decree if the Ding deems it necessary. )eeds a Juorum of more than half of its members to hold a Balid meeting. Passes resolutions by an absolute maGority of the members present. .ets up a special committee to deal with complaints submitted by citi?ens. %his committee seeCs explanation from the authorities and then informs the person concerned of the result.

#onsultatiBe #ouncil <5aGlis al .hura@F > > > > > > Eas originally established in 1ecember 6;;: as an adBisory body with the right to propose legislation. Eas endowed with law>maCing powers9 such as proposing and amending laws9 as the upper house of the legislature by the :77: constitution. *as forty members appointed for four>year renewable terms. %he Cing appoints the president and the members of the #ouncil9 the president then chooses two Bice>presidents. Ehen the two houses are conBened together9 the president of the #ouncil serBes as chairmen of the session. In the eBent of a deadlocC9 the president of the #ouncil casts the tie>breaCing Bote. %he Cing appointed a new council on 1ecember /9 :773. 4bserBers belieBe the Cing appointed mainly liberal candidates to offset the Bictory of Islamists in elections to the lower house. %he new members include 67 women. #licC "#-# for a full list of members.

#hamber of 1eputies <5aGlis al )uwab@F

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Arab Political Systems: Baseline Information and Reforms Bahrain

> > > > >

*as forty members elected by uniBersal adult suffrage for four>year terms in forty electoral districts. *as role in considering legislation9 such as proposing and amending laws9 but legislatiBe authority still resides with the Cing. #an not draft or initiate legislation. #an be dissolBed by the Cing9 who can also recall a dissolBed #hamber. If the #hamber is dissolBed9 elections are to be held within four months of the dissolution. %he #onsultatiBe #ouncil has effectiBe Beto power oBer decisions made in the #hamber of 1eputies.

!ach house may propose9 amend or reGect legislation9 but the #abinetKs 4ffice of ,egal (ffairs must draft the text of laws. %he Cing or the prime minister presents bills to the #hamber of 1eputies9 which in turn refers them to the #onsultatiBe #ouncil. ( law is considered ratified if six months haBe passed from the date of its submission by the )ational (ssembly to the Cing without the Cing returning it for reconsideration. %he Cing may Beto laws passed by the )ational (ssembly9 which in turn may oBerride a Beto by a two>thirds maGority Bote. If the legislature oBerrides a Beto9 the Cing must promulgate the law within one month. $ltimate decision>maCing power remains in the palace. %he legislature has so far not passed any law proposed by a member of the )ational (ssembly9 all enacted laws being goBernment>proposed initiatiBes. %he goBernment draws up an annual budget and submits it to the )ational (ssembly for discussion and approBal. %he )ational (ssembly does not monitor state financial affairs as9 by Birtue of 1ecree )o. 63 in 0uly :77:9 the 8inancial #ontrol Bureau reports directly to the Cing. It does not reBiew income or expenditures of the palace9 royal family9 5inistry of 1efense or Interior.

%udiciar&

BahrainHs legal system is based on a mix of British #ommon ,aw9 Islamic law9 tribal law9 and other ciBil codes9 regulations9 and traditions. %he constitution proBides for a nominally independent Gudiciary that has the right of Gudicial reBiewL howeBer9 courts are subGect to goBernment pressure regarding Berdicts9 sentencing9 and appeals. 5embers of the ruling family are well represented in the Gudiciary. In the past9 the Cing and other senior goBernment officials haBe lost ciBil cases brought against them by priBate citi?ensL howeBer9 the Gudgments were not always implemented expeditiously9 if at all.

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Arab Political Systems: Baseline Information and Reforms Bahrain

%he constitution specifies that the Cing appoints all Gudges by royal decree. %he constitution does not proBide a legislatiBe branch confirmation process for Gudicial appointees nor does it establish an impeachment process. C/0-,( Ci1i) $ & C-i%i $) C/0-,( > %he #iBil ,aw #ourts settle all ciBil and commercial cases9 including cases regarding the personal status of non>5uslims. %hese courts are structured in a three leBel hierarchyF > (t the first leBel are the #ourts of 5inor #auses <the ,ower #ourts and the #ourt of !xecution@ that haBe one Gudge with Gurisdiction oBer minor ciBil and commercial disputes. > (t the second leBel is the *igh #iBil #ourt of (ppeal that has Gurisdiction oBer larger ciBil and commercial disputes and personal status cases inBolBing non>5uslims. It is presided oBer by three Gudges. > %he final court of appeal for all ciBil matters is the .upreme #ourt of (ppeal <or the #ourt of #assation@ that was established in 6; ;. It is composed of a chairman and three other Gudges who are appointed by decree. > %he criminal law courts settle all criminal cases. %hese courts are also structured in a three leBel hierarchyF > %he ,ower #riminal #ourt has one Gudge and rules on misdemeanor crimes. > %he *igh #riminal #ourt has three Gudges and rules on felonies. (ppeals are made at the #riminal *igh #ourt of (ppeal9 which also has three Gudges. > %he .upreme #ourt of (ppeal <or the #ourt of #assation@ serBes as the final appellate court for criminal matters. S"$-i$ C/0-,( > %he .haria ,aw #ourts haBe Gurisdiction oBer all issues related to the personal status of 5uslims9 both Bahraini and non>Bahraini9 including matters relating to inheritance and wills. > %here are the two leBels of .haria courts in BahrainF %he .enior .haria #ourt and the *igh .haria #ourt of (ppeal. > (t each of the two leBels there is a .unni court with Gurisdiction oBer all personal status cases brought by .unni 5uslims9 and a .hiHi court with Gurisdiction oBer cases brought by .hiHi 5uslims. > %he *igh .haria #ourt of (ppeal must be composed of a minimum of two Gudges. In the eBent of a disagreement9 the 5inistry of 0ustice proBides a third Gudge and the decision will be based on a maGority Bote.

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Arab Political Systems: Baseline Information and Reforms Bahrain

S.#2i$) C/0-,( > %he .tate .ecurity #ourt established in 6;;/ was abolished in 8ebruary :776 following decrees issued by the Cing. %he defense forces maintain a separate court system for military personnel accused of offenses under the 5ilitary #ode of 0ustice. %he 5inistry of Interior has a similar court system for trying police officials. %he *igher 0udicial #ouncil9 established in .eptember :7779 is chaired by the Cing. It is responsible for superBising the courts and the Public Prosecution 4ffice. Its members are appointed by the Cing and include Gudges from the .upreme #ourt of (ppeal9 the .haria ,aw #ourts9 and the #iBil *igh #ourts of (ppeal. %he #onstitutional #ourt9 created in :77:9 has Gurisdiction oBer the constitutionality of laws. It consists of a president and six members who are all appointed by the *igher 0udicial #ouncil. %hese seBen Gudges serBe nine>year terms and cannot be remoBed before their terms expire. (ny member of the goBernment9 including the Cing9 can challenge the constitutionality of laws in this court9 where the decisions are final and Mbinding on all state authorities.N

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In :77+9 the goBernment tooC initial steps to improBe the Gudicial process with the transparent recruitment of new Gudges9 training of Gudges and prosecutors9 establishment of an office of mediation9 and steps to speed up court procedure.

$ocal Government

%he local goBernment consists ofF > > / goBernoratesF C$.i,$) G/1#- /-$,#9 M0"$--$3 G/1#- /-$,#9 N/-,"#G/1#- /-$,#9 C# ,-$) G/1#- /-$,#9 S/0,"#- G/1#- /-$,# 6: municipalities <manatiq@F (l *idd9 (l 5anamah9 (l 5intaJah al -harbiyah9 (l 5intaJah al Eusta9 (l 5intaJah ash .hamaliyah9 (l 5uharraJ9 (r 'ifaK wa al 5intaJah al 0anubiyah9 0idd *afs9 5adinat *amad9 5adinat KIsa9 0u?ur *awar9 .itrah.

%he reforms of :77: created the fiBe goBernorates. !ach goBernorate has an elected ten>member council. ( ministry for municipal affairs has oBersight and control9 rendering the goBernorates largely powerless. ( nominal municipal system has been in place for seBeral decades9 but until :776 these twelBe administratiBe bodies enGoyed little autonomy. In :7769 the Cing promised to giBe more autonomy to the twelBe traditional municipalities in Bahrain. %he result was the creation of elected councils in :77: to represent the Biews and interests of each municipality. %he role of the elected municipal councils is still being defined.
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Arab Political Systems: Baseline Information and Reforms Bahrain

%here is no substantial relationship between the municipalities and the goBernorates. Both the twelBe municipalities and the fiBe goBernorates are administered from the capital and are subserBient to the national goBernment.

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Arab Political Systems: Baseline Information and Reforms Bahrain

Rights
ersonal li#erties

%he :77: constitution states that citi?ens are eJual before the law in public rights and duties. It also states that there should be no discrimination among citi?ens on the basis of sex9 origin9 language9 religion or creed. In practice9 political9 economic9 and social discrimination against non>citi?ens9 .hiHi 5uslims9 and women widely persists. In 5ay :77+9 the #hamber of 1eputies reGected a law maCing discrimination a crime punishable under the countryHs 6;73 Penal #ode. %he constitution prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention. %he constitution prohibits torture and other cruel9 inhuman9 or degrading treatment or punishment. 8ollowing the reforms of :7769 systematic torture no longer taCes placeL howeBer9 there has been no attempt to inBestigate allegations of torture committed by goBernment officials in the past. 4n (ugust 6+9 :773 the Cing ratified the MProtecting .ociety from %errorist (ctsN bill that allows for extended detention without charge or Gudicial reBiew. ( press statement by $) .pecial 'apporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights 5artin .cheinin expressed concern that the lawHs definition of terrorism is too broad. (ccording to an (mnesty International report9 the law restricts freedom of association and assembly and heightens the risC of torture and arbitrary detention. Ding *amad Bin Isa al>Dhalifa ratified on 0uly :79 :773 amendments to the association law that prohibit demonstrations in public places9 set prison terms of up to six months for organi?ers of unauthori?ed protests9 and allow the police to attend and breaC up any public meeting. %he law also forbids non>Bahrainis from participating in political protests. *uman rights actiBists haBe critici?ed goBernment>proposed amendments to the association law <,aw 6 /6;7=@ that forbid Many speech or discussion infringing on public order or morals9N allow the police to attend any public meeting9 and giBe security officials the power to breaC up meetings if any crime listed in the Penal #ode is committed. BahrainHs lower house of parliament approBed on 5ay 6 9 :773 amendments to the Public -atherings ,aw of 6;7= that bans rallies near airports9 hospitals9 shopping malls9 and locations deemed security>sensitiBe by the interior minister. (ccording to the law9 rally organi?ers must inform the authorities three days before the scheduled date and assume full ciBil and criminal responsibility for damage to priBate or public property during a demonstration. %he law also bans carrying firearms or CniBes during demonstrations9 stipulates that rallies may not be held before 7am or after 66pm9 and notes that funeral processions may not be turned into political rallies. %he constitution proBides for freedom of religion. In practice the goBernment places limitations on this right. %he constitution declares Islam as the official
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Arab Political Systems: Baseline Information and Reforms Bahrain

religion. %he goBernment also funds9 monitors9 and subGects all official religious institutions to some controls9 including .hiHi and .unni mosJues. %he International 'eligious 8reedom 'eport proBides an oBerBiew of eBents related to this issue in Bahrain in :77+.

%he )ew 2orC>based organi?ation *uman 'ights Eatch proBides a comprehensiBe oBerBiew of human rights deBelopments in Bahrain.

$egislation Regulating the E"ercise of Rights

P/)i,i2$) P$-,4 L$5( > Political parties are illegal in Bahrain. Political societies9 which de facto operate as parties9 haBe been sanctioned and licensed by the goBernment since :776. Political societies are allowed to select election candidates9 act as parliamentary blocs9 hold internal elections9 campaign for public support9 and host political gatherings. %he Political 'ights ,aw of 0uly :77: is intended to regulate election campaigns. It prohibits Melection meetingsN at worship centers9 uniBersities9 and public institutions. (fter this law went in to effect9 the freJuency of public meetings declined and so did press coBerage. In 0une :77+9 the )ational (ssembly reGected a draft of a law that would haBe allowed the formation of political parties.

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E)#2,/-$) L$5 > %he !lection ,aw of :77: grants the right to Bote to Bahraini citi?ens9 women as well as men :6 years of age and older. #iti?ens of -## countries who are Bahraini residents as well as non>residents who own property in Bahrain are also allowed to Bote. #iti?ens of non>-## countries are not allowed to Bote. %he !lection ,aw of :77: regulates the political actiBities of candidates9 prohibiting speeches at most public locations and limiting the areas where campaign materials can be placed. *oweBer9 these regulations are only sporadically enforced. %he !lections #ommittee oBersees elections in Bahrain. %his committee is led by the 5inister of 0ustice and Islamic (ffairs who appoints a subcommittee to oBersee elections in each district. %he chairman of each subcommittee must be a member of the Gudiciary. !ach electoral candidate may appoint a member to serBe on the !lections #ommittee.

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Arab Political Systems: Baseline Information and Reforms Bahrain

>

5embers of the #hamber of 1eputies are elected in +7 separate electoral districts. In some cases9 the districts were gerrymandered to benefit the minority .unni population. !lection dates must be set +/ days in adBance9 while election reruns must be announced =7 days in adBance. ( schedule of eligible Boters is published for each district before elections.

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L$5 /+ A((/2i$,i/ ( > %he ,aw of (ssociations9 1ecree )o. :69 issued in 6; ; and 1ecree )o. 6 issued in 6;;7 regulates the internal operations of associations9 their fund>raising actiBities9 and their relationship with the goBernment. %he law9 under which all types of associations are reJuired to register9 explicitly prohibits inBolBement in politics. It proBides extensiBe scope for goBernment interference in the running of an association9 including control oBer financial affairs. %he 5inister of ,abor and .ocial (ffairs has the power to dissolBe any society9 dismiss its board of directors9 and to install a director of the goBernmentKs choice. > Ding *amad ratified a controBersial Political (ssociations ,aw in (ugust :77/ despite Behement opposition from BahrainKs political societies. %he new law stipulates that associations can be formed as long as they are not based on class9 profession9 or religion and raises the minimum age of society members from eighteen to twenty>one. It also imposes restrictions on foreign funding and reJuires all existing political societies to re>register with the 5inistry of 0ustice by )oBember :9 :77/. Political associations haBe been protesting the law since it was passed by parliament in 0uly and established a coalition to push for amendments. %he Bahrain #enter for *uman 'ights urged societies to defy the law and continue their actiBities without re>applying for a license. > %he new constitution giBes Bahrainis the right to set up priBate scientific or cultural associations9 proBided that they are established peacefully and for legal obGectiBes. %he #onstitution proBides for the right of free assemblyL howeBer9 the 6;7= Public -atherings ,aw <amended in :773@ reJuires organi?ers to notify the 5inistry of Interior 7: hours before a public gathering or demonstration taCes place and stipulates that public gatherings may not taCe place within /77 meters of a school or a health center. %he law prohibits unauthori?ed public gatherings of more than fiBe persons.

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R#+/-%( U &#- Di(20((i/ > %he opposition al>EefaJ parliamentary bloc submitted on .eptember 6;9 :777 draft amendments to the controBersial Public -atherings ,aw. %he current law stipulates that permission of the 5inistry of Interior is to be
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Arab Political Systems: Baseline Information and Reforms Bahrain

obtained three days before a public gathering and that rallies may not taCe place within /77 meters of a school or a health center. %he ,aw proBides for a Gail sentence of up to six months for Biolations. al>EefaJHs amendments seeC to reduce the notice period to :+ hours9 remoBe geographical restrictions9 and reduce the Gail sentence to one month

M#&i$ L$5( > > > %he constitution proBides for the freedom of speech and press9 but the goBernment limits these rights in practice9 especially in the media. %he 6;3/ Press ,aw regulates content of the media and reJuires all newspapers to be licensed by the goBernment. In :77:9 a new press law was issued by royal decree. %he goBernment began implementing the law but stopped due to public protest that it would create harsh restrictions on press freedom. (lthough suspended9 the law continues to be enforced at the goBernmentKs discretion. %he suspended press law proBides for many rights not stated in the 6;3/ Press ,aw. (ccording to the law9 Gournalists will be treated as public serBants who haBe the full protection of the law from being harassed or assaulted. %hey also cannot be dismissed from their organi?ation without the goBernment presenting a Gustifiable reason to the GournalistsH association. *oweBer9 the :77: law also establishes a host of restrictions and giBes the information minister the power to seeC court>ordered closures of newspapers and to refer Gournalists to courts for criminal prosecution. %he law proBides for prison sentences in three general categories of offenseF critici?ing IslamL critici?ing the CingL and inciting actions that undermine state security. %he law abolished controBersial Gail punishments for Gournalists conBicted of transgressions except for those three categories mentioned. In 4ctober :77=9 the Bahrain 0ournalists (ssociation <B0(@ became a full member of the International 8ederation of 0ournalists <I80@. %he Information 5inistry actiBely monitors and blocCs stories on sensitiBe matters9 especially those related to sectarianism9 national security9 or criticism of the Bahraini royal family9 the .audi ruling family9 and Gudges. %he 5inistry also banned the publication of any news or information regarding six local men detained in 0uly :77+ on suspicion of planning terrorist attacCs. 0ournalists regularly practice self>censorship and many procedures to maintain goBernment control of the media are still in place. %here haBe been serious setbacCs in press freedom including the arrest of many Gournalists and online bloggers for attacCing what they see as goBernment repression and discrimination. ( comprehensiBe report of internet filtering in Bahrain can be found "#-#.

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%he Information 5inistry controls local broadcast media and exercises considerable control oBer priBately owned local print media. (ccording to the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace &undaci'n (ara las )elaciones Internacionales * el 6=
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Arab Political Systems: Baseline Information and Reforms Bahrain

Bahrain 0ournalists .ociety9 thirty>two libel cases were brought against Gournalists in :777. #licC "#-# for more information.

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(ccording to the annual Eorldwide Press 8reedom Index by 'eporters without Borders9 BahrainHs leBel of press freedom ranCs 66 of 63; countries. %he index runs from 6 <most press freedom@ to 63; <least press freedom@.

R#+/-%( U &#- Di(20((i/

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%he #onsultatiBe #ouncil9 passed amendments to the :77: press and publications law on 5ay : 9 :777 abolishing Gail sentences for Gournalists and stipulating that editors may not be sued for articles they did not write. %he current press law allows prison sentences of six months to fiBe years for Gournalists conBicted of press offences. (ccording to local media sources9 more than sixty>fiBe lawsuits haBe been brought against Gournalists since :776. %he new draft law is awaiting discussion in the lower house of parliament. In :77=9 parliament reGected a similar bill.

P#-(/ $) S,$,0( L$5 > %here are no codified personal status laws. Bahraini womenHs personal status is goBerned by Islamic law. Eomen enGoy the same legal rights as men except on those issues of personal status regulated by the .haria including diBorce and inheritance. .ubstantial differences exist in the personal status laws relating to .unni and .hiHi women. .hiHi and .unni women both haBe the right to initiate a diBorceL howeBer9 religious courts may refuse the reJuest. (lthough local religious courts may grant a diBorce to .hiHi women in routine cases9 occasionally .hiHi women seeCing diBorce under unusual circumstances must traBel abroad to seeC a higher ranCing opinion than that aBailable in Bahrain. Eomen of either denomination may own and inherit property and may represent themselBes in all public and legal matters. In the absence of a direct male heir9 .hiHi women may inherit all property. In contrast9 in the absence of a direct male heir9 .unni women inherit only a portion.

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R#+/-%( U &#- Di(20((i/ > %he .upreme #ouncil for Eomen9 chaired by the CingHs wife .haiCha .abeeCa bin Ibrahim al>Dhalifa9 has led a campaign for legislation on personal status matter. 1efenders of the initiatiBe argue that the lacC of a codified personal status law in Bahrain giBes Gudges excessiBe discretion in their interpretation of .haria law and allows them to rule against women in cases of diBorce9 inheritance9 and child custody. BahrainHs al>EefaJ )ational Islamic .ociety is leading the opposition to the legislation on the grounds that it is un> Islamic and that only religious scholars should haBe a say in determining personal status issues.

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In 0une :77/9 a change to the passport law was bacCed in principle by the #onsultatiBe #ouncil. If enacted9 the amendment would allow Bahraini wiBes to obtain a passport without their husbandsH permission.

Recent Government Initiatives Affecting Rights > In the three years following the death of BahrainKs emir in 6;;;9 the country witnessed a sustained process of political9 legal9 and social reform. %he new Cing pledged to transform Bahrain into a MpeopleHs CingdomN and officially changed the countryHs name to the Dingdom of Bahrain. %he first step in the reform process was the issuing of !miri 1ecree )o. 9 which called on citi?ens to participate in a referendum on a )ational #harter of (ction on 8ebruary 6+9 :776. %he )ational #harter was approBed9 with a Boter turnout of ;7I. %he changes introduced by the )ational #harter were solidified in the :77: #onstitution9 which created a bicameral legislature with one elected chamber9 a semi>independent Gudicial system9 and fiBe goBernorates and twelBe municipal councils. (dditional reforms included an amnesty for political prisonersL lifting of traBel bans on political actiBistsL reinstating dissidentsL and repealing state security laws. Bahrain also became the first -## country to allow the participation of women in national elections. In (ugust :7769 the Cing announced the creation of a new .upreme #ouncil for Eomen in Bahrain to adBise the goBernment on womenKs issues. %he #ouncil consists of fourteen experts chaired by the wife of the !mir9 .heiCha .abeeCa bint Ibrahim al>Dhalifa. %he 5inistries of !ducation9 *ealth9 ,abor and .ocial (ffairs also designed plans for the adBancement of women. %he Bahrain Institute for Political 1eBelopment9 a new organi?ation dedicated to promoting democracy9 was established by the goBernment following a decree issued by the Cing in 0une :77/. Its obGectiBes are to adBise goBernment officials9 proBide research and training to political candidates9 and spread awareness about democracy among the public. %he Bahraini goBernment announced a plan for educational reform on .eptember =9 :773 that will focus on improBing curricula9 training teachers9 and combating illiteracy.

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olitical Forces
olitical parties

Political parties are illegal9 but there are more than 6/ large and well>organi?ed political societies. %he political societies include a number of .unni Islamic groups9 including the )ational Islamic 8orum <)I8@. %he )I8 was established in 5arch :777 with a program based on strengthening the (rab>Islamic basis of Bahraini society. It seeCs to promote Islamic attitudes in all areas of life within the frameworC of the constitution. %here are two main leftist/secularist political societiesF > )ational 1emocratic (ction .ociety <EaHad@ > Is broadly secular and represents an (rab nationalist political agenda > It was the first political group to be licensed in any -## country > It is chaired by a former 5arxist9 (bdul>'ahman (l )uaimi9 who returned to Bahrain from exile under the preBious CingHs amnesty. 1emocratic ProgressiBe 8orum <1P8@ > #ampaigns on a platform of strengthening democracy and pluralism > *as its antecedents within the #ommunist Party9 seBeral of its founders being former members > Is chaired by (hmad al>%hawadi9 a former exile who returned to Bahrain after being pardoned by the !mir. > (ims to promote the principles of the constitution and supports the democratic reform proGect

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%here are two dominant official .hiHi political opposition organi?ationsF al>EefaJ and the Islamic (ction .ociety <I(.@. > (l>EefaJ > Is the largest political organi?ation with membership of at least 3/9777. > Predominantly .hiHi9 although not specifically religious. > 'eplaced the .hiHi Bahrain 8reedom 5oBement that was widely popular9 though illegal in the 6;;7s. > Its elected leader is .heiCh (li .alman9 an exile who returned to Bahrain in 8ebruary :776. Islamic (ction .ociety <I(.@ > Is the second largest political association with a narrower and more militant base. > 0oined al>EefaJ in calling for reforms but maintains a clear religious orientation with linCs to Iranian clerics and adBocates a .haria legal system.

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Political roots in the Biolent reBolutionary group Islamic 8ront for the ,iberation of Bahrain and Biewed with suspicion by .unnis and .hiHis aliCe.

(lthough the .hiHi political groups are moderate and for the most part do not seeC to replace the ruling regime9 they are still Biewed sCeptically by .unni 5uslims and by the goBernment. %here is also a broadly centrist political society9 the (rab>Islamic Easat .ociety <(IE.@9 that campaigns on an anti>sectarian platform. It has also promised to curtail the influence of tribal affiliations. It is moderate in terms of policy9 faBoring the promotion of democracy9 human rights and respect for the role of Islam in society.

'ivil societ&

%he 6; ; ,aw of (ssociations regulates ciBil society organi?ations. It prohibits any actiBity by an unlicensed society and prohibits associations from participating in electoral campaigns. Political associations are licensed under this law9 but de facto participate in the political process. %he 5inistry of .ocial 1eBelopment has the right to reGect the registration of any society whose serBices it deems unnecessary or contrary to state security. Bahrain has seen an increase in the number of nongoBernmental organi?ations worCing on human rights and womenKs rights in recent years. %here are = 3 )-4s registered in Bahrain. )-4s must report the 5inistry of .ocial 1eBelopment when their members participate in international )-4 eBents. Bahrain has a number of independent non>goBernmental human rights groups9 including the Bahrain *uman 'ights .ociety <B*'.@9 the Bahrain 2outh .ociety for *uman 'ights9 and the Bahrain #enter for *uman 'ights <officially dissolBed by the goBernment in .eptember :77+ but remains actiBe@. ( )ational *uman 'ights (uthority was created by the goBernment on )oBember 669 :77 . %his goBernment authority will be responsible for setting releBant policies9 addressing human rights Biolations9 and communicating with international organi?ations and non>goBernment organi?ations. In :77:9 the Ding promulgated a new law on labor unions that9 for the first time9 granted worCers the right to form and Goin unions. %he law also grants non>citi?ens the right to Goin unions. ( :773 amendment set the rules for collectiBe bargaining and striCe. %here are approximately +7 trade unions in the country. %he ,abor $nion ,aw established a union federation9 the -eneral 8ederation of Bahrain %rade $nions <-8B%$@. %he main business association is the Bahrain #hamber of #ommerce and Industry.
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Arab Political Systems: Baseline Information and Reforms Bahrain

( large number of womenHs organi?ations exist including the Bahrain Businesswoman .ociety <BB.@9 Bahrain EomenHs .ociety <BE.@9 the (wal EomenHs .ociety9 and the 5ustaJbal .ociety. BahrainHs EomenHs $nion was established on .eptember 639 :7739 after a long legal struggle with the ,abor and .ocial (ffairs 5inistry <later 5inistry of .ocial 1eBelopment@. %he 5inistry had refused to issue a license and reJuested changes to the unionHs internal charter. In .eptember :77+9 the unionHs women actiBists filed a ciBil suit against the goBernment. %he union brings together 6: societies to adBocate womenKs rights9 press for legislatiBe changes9 and prepare women for political roles. 4n 0une :39 :7779 eleBen human rights organi?ations and opposition groups9 including Islamist and leftist political societies9 Goined forces to form a truth and reconciliation committee in order to address human rights abuses by the goBernment in the 6;77s>6;;7s. ( conference was held .eptember :+>:79 :777 to discuss the detailed functions of the committee. #ommittee members haBe not yet been announced.

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Arab Political Systems: Baseline Information and Reforms Bahrain

Election Results

'esults of national elections for the #hamber of 1eputies on )oBember :/ and 1ecember :9 :773F > BahrainHs largest political society and the main opposition group9 the .hiHi al>EefaJ )ational Islamic .ociety9 won 67 of the lower houseHs +7 seats. > .unni Islamist parties (l 5enbar )ational Islamic .ociety and (l (sala Islamic .ociety won 7 and / seats respectiBely. > 4ther pro>goBernment candidates won 67 seats. ( liberal candidate allied with al>EefaJ won one seat. > %he secular )ational 1emocratic (ction .ociety failed to win any seats. > (lthough the :73 candidates included 63 women9 only ,atifa (l -aoud9 a pro>goBernment female candidate who ran unopposed9 was able to win a seat. > #licC "#-# for detailed results. > &oter %urnoutF 7:I <compared to /=I in :77:@

!lection monitors from the Bahrain *uman 'ights .ociety pointed to circumstantial eBidence that pro>goBernment .unni 5uslims used fraud to win a maGority of seats. %hree liberal opposition candidates filed lawsuits seeCing to oBerturn the results but BahrainHs highest court reGected their cases 8our main .hiHi and leftist groups boycotted the elections9 protesting against the :77: electoral law that gerrymandered districts to dilute the .hiHi Bote. %here were other measures to limit the power of .hiHa including granting residents from predominantly .unni -## states the right to Bote and obtain Bahraini citi?enship.

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'onstitutional Revision

%he first constitution entered into force on 1ecember 39 6;7= and was suspended in 6;7/. %he Cing officially announced a new constitution on 8ebruary 6+9 :77: that was to be Mcarried out in accordance with the proBisions of the )ational (ction #harter.N %he :77: constitution established the #onstitutional #ourt. (ny member of the goBernment can challenge the constitutionality of laws in the #onstitutional #ourt. %he decisions of the court are final and binding. #onstitutional amendments reJuire a maGority Bote of two>thirds of the membership of the both houses of the )ational (ssembly fully assembled. If a proposed amendment is reGected9 it cannot be put forward again for a full year. %he principles of constitutional monarchy9 inherited rule in Bahrain9 liberty and eJuality9 the state religion and the bicameral system adopted in the present constitution are not subGect to amendment.

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Arab Political Systems: Baseline Information and Reforms Bahrain

'orruption

%ransparency InternationalHs #orruption Perception Index :777 ranCs Bahrain +7th out of 6 7 countries. In 0anuary :77:9 the Public .ector (dministratiBe and 8inances 5onitoring #ommittee was created to regulate the operation of public institutions. Its first tasC was to inBestigate the usefulness of existing policies in countering corruption and to propose legislation to amend any inadeJuacies discoBered. In 5arch :77+9 the press reported on corruption in the Gudiciary and fiBe .haria court Gudges were dismissed by the 0ustice 5inister on charges of corruption. %he Parliament also inBestigated an instance of goBernment corruption inBolBing the goBernment pension funds. BahrainHs #rown Prince9 .heiCh .alman bin *amad al>Dhalifa9 announced on .eptember ::9 :777 a campaign to combat corruption and bring corrupt high officials to Gustice. ( wide>ranging inBestigation into the countryHs maGor goBernment>owned companies resulted in the criminal prosecution of a number of high executiBes in BahrainHs (luminum #ompany <(,B(@9 (rab .hipbuilding and 'epair 2ard #o. <(.'2@9 and -ulf (ir.

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Arab Political Systems: Baseline Information and Reforms Bahrain

Ratification of International 'onventions

%he International #onBention on the !limination of (ll 8orms of 'acial 1iscrimination <#!'1@ on 5arch :79 6;;7 %he #onBention on the 'ights of the #hild <#'#@ on 8ebruary 6=9 6;;:. International #entre for .ettlement of InBestment 1isputes <I#.I1@ on 5arch 6/9 6;;3 %he #onBention on the !limination of (ll 8orms of %orture and 4ther #ruel9 Inhuman or 1egrading %reatment or Punishment <#(%@ on 5arch 39 6;; 'ome .tatute of the International #riminal #ourt <I##@ on 1ecember 669 :7779 signed but not ratified %he #onBention of on the !limination of (ll 8orms of 1iscrimination against Eomen <#!1(E@ on 0une 6 9 :77:.

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