DISCRETE SYSTEMS

STATICS
The finite element involves the transformation of a continuous system (infinite degrees of freedom) into a discrete system (finite degrees of freedom). It is instructive therefore to examine the behaviour of simple discrete systems and associated variational methods as this provides real insight and understanding into the more complicated systems arising from the finite element method.

Large deformation theory for spring elements

Thus far small deflection theory has been applied where the strains are measured using the Cauchy strain 11 = conjugate stress can be obtained by differentiating with respect volume) =

11 the expression for strain energy density (energy per unit

u . A x

1 2 E11 , i.e. 11 = = E11 , where E is a material constant and 11 is the Cauchy stress (sometimes 2 11

referred to as the Euler stress). In the case of large deformation theory we will restrict our attention to hyperelastic materials which are materials that possess an expression for strain energy density (say) that is analytical in strain. The strain used in large deformation theory is Greens strain (see Appendix II in notes) which for a uniformly loaded uniaxial

u 1 u 1 2 and the derived bar is E11 = + . An expression for strain energy density (energy per unit volume) = EE11 x 2 x 2 stress is S11 = = EE11 , where E is Youngs Modulus and S11 is known as the 2nd Piola-Kirchoff stress. E11
2

Bar subject to longitudinal deformation

Consider a bar of length L and cross sectional area A represented by a spring element and subject to nodal forces The strain energy is
x2

u1 1

u2 2

F1 and F2 .
2

x2 x2 u 1 u 2 1 1 2 Wse = dV = A dx = EA E11 dx = EA + dx 2 2 V x1 x1 x1 x 2 x u u 2 u1 x Lx Consider further a linear displacement field of the form u (x ) = . = u1 + u 2 and note that x L L L x2 2 u 2 u1 1 u 2 u1 2 1 1 EA 1 2 (u 2 u1 ) + (u 2 u1 ) Wse = EA + dx = 2 2 L 2 L 2L L x1 2

F1

F2

Wse =

1 1 1 2 3 4 k (u 2 u1 ) + (u 2 u1 ) + 2 (u 2 u1 ) 2 L 4L

3 (u 2 u1 )2 + 1 2 (u 2 u1 )3 (u 2 u1 ) and Wa = F1u1 + F2u 2 . Wse = k (u 2 u1 ) + 2L 2L

The principle of virtual work gives

3 (u 2 u1 )2 + 1 2 (u 2 u1 )3 and F1 = k (u 2 u1 ) + 2L 2L 3 (u 2 u1 )2 + 1 2 (u 2 u1 )3 , represented in matrix form as F2 = k (u 2 u1 ) + 2L 2L

(u 2 u1 ) 1 (u 2 u1 ) u1 F1 k k 3k (u 2 u1 ) 1 + 3L 3L F = k k + ( ( u 2 u1 ) u 2 u1 ) u 2 2L 2 1+ 1 3 L 3 L which is of the form F = [K L + K G ]u where K G is called the geometrical stiffness matrix and K L is the usual linear
stiffness matrix. A common approximation used, depending on the magnitude of

u 2 u1 / L , is

 F1 k k 3P 1 1 u1 + where P = k (u 2 u1 ) . = F 2 k k 2L 1 1 u 2 The fact that K G is non-linear (even in its approximate form) means that iterative solution procedures are required to be
employed to determine the unknown displacements. Note that the approximate form is arrived at using the following strain energy expression Wse =

1 1 2 3 k (u 2 u1 ) + (u 2 u1 ) . 2 L
u v1 1 x
1

Bar subject to longitudinal and lateral deflection

Consider a bar of length L and cross sectional area A represented by a spring element and subject to longitudinal and lateral displacements u and v, respectively.

u 2

u 1 u 1 v The normal strain is E11 = + + and the associated x 2 x 2 x

2 2

strain energy
x2 x2 u 1 u 2 1 v 1 1 2 Wse = dV = A dx = EA E11dx = EA + + dx 2 2 V x1 x1 x1 x 2 x 2 x x2 u 2 u 3 u v 2 1 Wse EA + + dx 2 x1 x x x x x x Lx Lx Consider further a linear displacement field of the form u (x ) = u1 + u 2 and v(x ) = v1 + v 2 , L L L L (u 2 u1 )3 + (u 2 u1 )(v 2 v1 )2 1 EA u u 2 u1 v v 2 v1 2 and . Wse = ( ) and note that u u + = = 2 1 x x L L 2 L L L x2
2 2 3(u 2 u1 ) (v 2 v1 ) (u 2 u1 )(v 2 v1 ) (v 2 v1 ) Wse = k (u 2 u1 ) + + (u 2 u1 ) + k 2L 2L L Wa = F1h u1 + F1v v1 + F2h u 2 + F2v v 2 and the principle of virtual work gives
2 2 3(u 2 u1 ) (v 2 v1 ) (u 2 u1 )(v 2 v1 ) v F = k (u 2 u1 ) + + and F1 = k 2L 2L L h 1

2 2 3(u 2 u1 ) (v 2 v1 ) (u 2 u1 )(v 2 v1 ) v F2h = k (u 2 u1 ) + + and F2 = k L 2L 2L F1h 1 0 1 0 0 1.5 0 u1 1.5 0 0 0 0 v 1 1 0 F1 0 0 0 0 k (v 2 v1 ) 0 1 0 1 k (u 2 u1 ) 0 v1 + h = k 1 0 1 0 + 1.5 0 1.5 0 0 0 0 0 u 2 L 2L F2 v F v 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 2 2

Pin-jointed structures
The example above is a pin-jointed structure. A reasonable good approximation reported in the literature for strain energy density, commonly used with pin-jointed structures, is

1 u u v E + 2 x x x
2
2 2

2 u 1 v . This arises from strain-energy approximation E = + . Can be used 11 x 2 x

u v when << . x x