Structure of water related to transportation

Shared electrons pulled closer to the oxygen atom than the hydrogen atoms; (this makes it) dipolar; makes it a good solvent for other polar molecules; susbtances can be transported more easier when dissolved into water; Water is also cohesive (due to polar nature) ; this helps water to flow

Semi-conservative replication

making new DNA / copying DNA ; makes identical copies ; new molecule has one old and one new strand ; DNA strands separate / eq ; each strand acts as a template ; individual nucleotides line up against (old) strand ; complementary base pairing ; nucleotides joined (by DNA polymerase)

Importance of valves in preventing wrong directional flow of blood Valves only open one way; Dependant on the relative pressure of the heart chambers; if pressure > behind valve, its forced open; once bloods flown through the valve, pressure is greater in the front of the valve; (which) forces it shut, preventing blood from flowing back into the chamber/backflow

Structure of arteries relating to function Muscular walls; Contain elastic tissue; Endothelium/inner lining is folded and can expand; These features enable effective control and regulation of high blood pressure

Movement of molecules in and out of cells DIFFUSION: molecules/ions move down/with a concentration gradient; rate increased by a greater concentration difference/ higher temperatures/ smaller molecules or ions/ larger surface area of membrane/ smaller diffusion distance; Credit example of diffusion e.g. oxygen, carbon dioxide, water; FACILITATED DIFFUSION: molecules/ions move down/with a concentration gradient; requires protein channel/ carrier membrane; credit example of facilitated diffusion, such as glucose/amino acids/named ion; OSMOSIS: movement of water; from high/less negative water potential/area of high concentration to lower concentration across partially permeable/ membrane; ACTIVE TRANSPORT: molecules/ions move down/w ith a concentration gradient; requires protein channel/carrier membrane; credit example e.g. sodium/potassium/proton pump; ENDOCYTOSIS (exocytosis/pinocytosis/phagocytosis): Description of process; Active transport/endocytosis etc., require ATP /energy OR diffusion/facilitated/osmosis do not req energy Structural levels of protein Primary structure: Sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain; Secondary structure: Hydrogen bonds form between the amino acids; Chain thus coils into an alpha helix/beta-pleated sheet; Tertiary structure: Further coiling occurs; More bonds form between different parts; Regarding proteins from a single polypeptide chain, this is their final 3D structure; Bonding determined by R groups; Held by disulphide bridges > ionic bonds > hydrophobic & hydrophilic interactions > denotes the greater strength of the bond Quaternary Structure: Made from many polypeptide chains - this structure is their final 3D structure Reactions in blood clotting Thromboplastin is released (from the damaged blood vessel) ; Triggers conversion of prothrombin thrombin (an enzyme) ; Thrombin catalyses reaction of fibrinogen to fibrin; Fibrin fibres form a mesh which traps blood platelets and RBCs

Structure of the membrane Phospholipids and proteins Phospholipid bilayer Arrangement of phospholipid molecules tails to tails Floating protein molecules/molecules can move in membrane Intrinsic proteins extend through bilayer Extrinsic proteins in outer layer only Detail of channel proteins/glycoproteins (glycoproteins tell white blood cells that the cells is your own ; channel proteins allow passage of large / charged water-soluble substances to pass through) Presence of cholesterol (to provide rigidity)

Active transport Movement against concentration gradient Use of carrier/intrinsic/pump proteins Protein specific (to ion) Energy/ATP required Energy used to change shape of proteins/attach ion to protein Ions moved through membrane as proteins change shape/position

Mechanism of enzyme action Activation energy reduced; Substrate attached to active site/formation of enzyme-substrate complex; Less energy required to bring (substrate) molecules together/to break bonds; Reaction occurs in small(er) steps; Change in shape of enzyme molecule (induced fit) brings molecules together/allows bonds to break/causes overlapping of electron orbits of substrates.

Active transport May move substances against concentration gradient; Requires ATP/energy; Requires membrane proteins/carriers

Diffusion Substances moved down concentration gradient; Does not require ATP/energy; Does not (necessarily) require membrane proteins/carriers

Structure of an enzyme ref to an enzyme as a protein ; ref to {3D / tertiary / globular} structure ; ref. to named bonds (holding structure in place) ; between the R groups ; ref to active site ; idea of specificity of active site ;

Insects not needing blood vessels Larger surface area to volume ratio; Diffusion efficient; (because) cells are very close to blood/heart; idea of low metabolism ; idea that movement of blood back into the heart is fast enough (to return blood back into the heart) ; Structure of function of starch Contains amylose and amylopectin; Amylose (not a mark) : Long and unbranched chains; 1-4 glycosidic bonds; coiled structure; (so) compact; (so) can fit more in a small space; Amylopectin (not a mark) : (long), branched chains; (has) 1-4 and 1-6 glycosidic bonds; side branches which can be broken down quickly; Insoluble; so water doesnt cause it swell via osmosis

Structure and function of Glycogen Amylopectin; 1-4 and 1-6 glycosidic bonds; many/lots of side branches; (so) glucose can be released quickly; Insoluble; (so) doesnt swell by osmosis; Large molecule so can store lots of energy

Saturated lipids Found in animal fats Single bonds in hydrocarbon tails

Unsaturated lipids Found in plants Some double bonds (which causes a kink in the chain)

Melt at higher temperatures

Melt at lower temperatures

Formation & Breaking of triglycerides Made from single glycerol molecule; 3 molecules of fatty acids; Ester bonds form between the fatty acid & glycerol; Water molecule produced for each fatty acid; Broken up by hydrolysis ; Water molecule added; To break up each ester bond;

Atherosclerosis/Atheroma Cholesterol / plaque / lipoprotein / LDL / fatty material / cells / connective tissues; In artery wall / under lining / endothelium of artery / blood vessel; Atheroma linked to blood clot / thrombosis; (Blocks) coronary artery / artery supplying heart muscle / tissue / cells; Reduces blood supply Reduces oxygen / glucose supply (to heart muscle / tissues / cells); (Heart muscle / tissue / cells) unable to respire / dies;

Thrombosis (Trapped in) coronary artery/artery supplying heart muscle/ tissue/cells; Reduces blood supply; Prevents oxygen; Reaching (heart muscle/tissue); (Heart muscle) dies/stops respiring;

Smoking on increasing risk of CVD Carbon monoxide; Joins with haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin; Reduces amount of oxygen transported; Reduces oxygen available to tissues; {Heart muscle / tissues / cells} unable to respire; Nicotine; Increases stickiness of platelets; (so) increases chance of blood clots Decreases amount of antioxidants; Antioxidants protect cells from damage; (so) the artery walls are more likely to become damaged; (leading to) atheroma formation
Allow description of atheromas for two for marks MAX.

Other lifestyle factors affecting CVD HDLS Mainly protein; Activate more cholesterol receptors on the liver, so more is brought in (where cholesterol is recycled); Reduces total blood cholesterol when level is too high
Opposite for LDLs - with LDLs being mostly lipid

Diet qualified: Saturated fat increases risk; Increases total blood cholesterol; Increases atheroma formation Atheromas form blood clots; High blood pressure; Increases risk of damage to artery walls; Named example (e.g alcohol) affecting HBP Inactivity / lack of exercise; Increases HBP; (because) risk of obesity increases

Drugs in treating CVD ANTIHYPERSENITIVES: Reduces blood pressure; Decreases risk of {atheromas / blood clots} forming; Diuretics; Increases urine production so decreases amount of blood Beta-blockers; Reduces strength of heart beat; Vasodilators; Widens blood vessels; BENEFITS: Work in different ways so can be given in combination; Blood pressure can be monitored, so efficiency can be checked; RISKS: Palpitations / Fainting / Headaches / Drowsiness / Allergic reaction

PLANT STATINS: Stanols / Sterols; Reduce blood cholesterol; Reduces amount absorbed by the gut; BENEFITS: Reduces risk of CVD; RISKS: Reduces risk of absorption of vitamins;

ANTICOAGULANTS: Reduces blood clotting; Artery walls less likely to get damaged; BENEFITS: Treat people with CVD / blood clots; No new ones can form; RISKS: Excessive blooding occurs when injured; Fainting / allergic reactions / osteoporosis;

PLATELET INHIBITORY DRUGS: Prevents platelets from clumping; Reduces chances of blood clotting; Reduces chance of blood vessels being blocked; BENEFITS: Treat those with blood clots / CVD; RISKS: Rashes / nausea / liver function problems / constant bleeding

Features of the human gas exchange system Large surface area (for diffusion); Thin alveolar wall/one cell thick/only 2 cells (from air to blood); Detail eg flattened cells in alveolar/capillary wall; Ventilation (of alveoli) keeps oxygen concentration low; Flow/circulation of blood keeps oxygen concentration low; Maintains diffusion gradient/short diffusion pathway

How humans achieve efficient gas exchange One cell thick/thin (not thin membrane)/flattened cells for faster diffusion/shorter diffusion pathway; Large surface area for faster diffusion; Ventilation to maintain a diffusion/concentration gradient;

Adaptation of alveolus Many alveoli / alveoli walls folded provide a large surface area; Many capillaries provide a large surface area; (So) fast diffusion; Alveoli or capillary walls / epithelium / lining are thin / short distance between alveoli and blood; Flattened / squamous epithelium; (So) short diffusion distance / pathway; (So) fast diffusion; Ventilation / circulation; Maintains a diffusion / concentration gradient; (So) fast diffusion;

Protein synthesis Transcription; Occurs inside nucleus; Translation; Occurs in cytoplasm Hydrogen bonds between 2 DNA strands of a gene break; DNA molecule uncoils; Antisense strand used a template; to make mRNA; using complementary base pairing; mRNA moves out of the nuclear pores; attaches to a {ribosome / RER}; tRNA carrys amino acids to ribosome; tRNA molecules with complementary bases to the triples on the mRNA attach to molecule using complementary base pairing; Amino acids attached to tRNA are joined by peptide bonds; Forming a polypeptide chain; tRNA molecules move away; Process continues until theres a stop signal on the mRNA

Tertiary structure of an enzyme (primary structure) {position / sequence / order /eq} of the {amino acids / R groups} / eq ; idea that this determines the {positioning / type} of the {bonds / folding / eq} ; determining the {shape / properties} of the active site / eq ; idea of interaction of active sites and substrates ; idea of {polar / hydrophilic} on the outside of enzymes / {non polar / hydrophobic} on the inside / eq ; reference to solubility ;

How gene therapy can remove genetic disorders reference to faulty {alleles / genes / DNA / eq} ; idea that gene therapy uses {normal / functioning / healthy} {alleles / genes / eq} ; so the normal {protein / gene product / RNA / eq } is produced (by the cells) / eq ;

Types of prenatal genetic screening

amniocentesis / chorionic villus sampling / CVS

Ethical + Social issues surrounding these methods

idea of right to life ; abortion is murder / ref to risk of miscarriage / eq ; Or: false positive / negative / eq ; consequences of false result e.g. abortion of (healthy) fetus ; Or: who has right to decide if tests should be performed / eq ; {implications of medical costs / discrepancies over next step} / parents {have a right to know / can prepare / eq} ; Or: issues relating to confidentiality of {parents / child} / eq ; idea that {some other abnormality may be found / paternal DNA does NOT match / other family members have right to know results} ; Or: if abnormality found / eq ; consequence of abnormality found e.g. abortion, comment on possible problems with {future employment / insurance / what constitutes a serious condition} / eq ; Or: damage to fetus / risk of miscarriage ; loss of fetus / risk to mother / eq ; Or: ref. to stress to parents /eq ; consequences of stress e.g. increased risk of miscarriage ;

Somatic gene therapy (Body) cells alleles are {altered / changed} ; idea that cells which are most affected by the disorder are altered/changed ; credit specific example (e.g. epithelial cells in lungs for CF) ; idea that sex cells are not affected / eq ; (so) offspring can still inherit disease ;

Germ line therapy Alleles of sex cells {altered / changed} ; idea that every cell from offspring will be affected ; (so) no offspring will be affected by the {disorder / condition / eq} ;

How CF can be treated with gene therapy reference to using {alleles / genes / eq} coding for the CFTR {protein / channel} ; reference to introducing the {alleles / genes / eq} into the cells ; of the {lungs / pancreas / reproductive tracts / eq} ; that produce mucus / eq ; using a {vector / named vector} ; credit suitable delivery mechanism e.g. nebuliser, injection ; idea that treatment needs to be repeated (due to cell replacement) ;

CF affecting the digestive system reference to CFTR {protein / channel} eq ; reference to a different {amino acid /sequence of amino acids / eq} (on defective CFTR protein) ; reference to change in protein ; reference to role of protein in transporting chloride ions ; reference to (chloride) ions not {moving out of cells / going into mucus} ; reference to sodium ions moving in ; water does not move out (of cells) / water moves in (to cells) /eq ; by osmosis / eq ; mucus (on cell surface) {is not diluted /becomes thicker / becomes stickier} / eq ; (thickened mucus) cannot be moved by {cilia / coughing} ;

Advantages of human circulatory system over single blood flows {faster /at higher pressure / eq} (to the body) ; blood flows {slower /at lower pressure / eq}to the lung ; idea that this reduces risk of damage to lungs; correct ref to more efficient {exchange /transport} of gases / eq ; Statement

Method of screening

Screening performed during pregnancy

X

Cells removed from the embryo

Preimplantation genetic diagnosis Prenatal genetic screening

How to test Vitamin C content in food Use a large variety of vitamin C solutions, with around 6 different ones; Measure out a set volume of DCPIP (into a test tube) ; Add one of the vitamin C solutions to the DCPIP, drop by drop, using a pipette; Gently shake test tube for a set length of time; When solution is colourless, record volume of vitamin C solution that was added; Repeat experiment 2-3 times; Keep variables (temperature, volume of DCPIP, concentration of DCPIP, etc.) constant ; Repeat procedure with each solution

Energy budget equation Energy input* energy output = Energy Budget * (recommended daily intake of calories / calorie maintenance)

Saccharides Monosaccharaides one sugar molecule Disaccharides two sugar molecules joined by condensation Polysaccharides many sugar molecules joined by condensation Components (monosaccharaides) Glucose + Glucose Glucose + Fructose Glucose + Galactose

Disaccharide Maltose Sucrose Lactose

Nucleobases DNA = Adenine & Thymine; Cytosine & Guanine RNA = Adenine & Uracil; Cytosine & Guanine

Loss of enzyme activity at high temps Enzyme (molecules) denatured at 60C/high temperature, or description of denaturing (eg vibration disrupts enzymes); Change (in shape) of active site; Change in tertiary/3D structure/hydrogen bonds broken; Substrates no longer fit.

Temperature on membrane permeability Less than 0 degrees Celsius: Rigid and very closely packed together Channel/carrier proteins deform; Permeability increases; Ice crystals can form and pierce the membrane; Membrane becomes highly permeable when it thaws; Between 0-45 degrees Celsius: Move around and arent closely packed together Membrane is partially permeable; Phospholipids can move more due to higher energy; Permeability increases; Above 45 degrees Celsius: Bilayer {breaks down / melts / eq} ; Membrane becomes more permeable ; Water in cell expands ; Channel / carrier proteins deform ; Unable to control what enters or leaves the cell ; Permeability increases Alcohol concentration on membrane permeability As concentration increases permeability increases / eq ; Alcohol dissolves lipids Membrane loses structure; Membrane proteins role in facilitated diffusion Channel proteins; (they) transport charged molecules across the membrane; down their concentration gradients; Carrier proteins; Transport large molecules across the membranes; down their concentration gradients; Exocytosis Secrets substances from the cell; via vesicles from golgi apparatus; Endocytosis Takes substances from outside the cell; via vesicles from the plasma membrane;

TERM Gene

DESCRIPTION Sequence of bases on a DNA molecule that codes for a protein, results in a characteristic Different version of a gene (different base sequences) Alleles a person has (BB, Bb, bb)

Allele

Genotype

Phenotype

Characteristics an allele produces (brown eyes)

Dominant

An allele whose characteristic appears in the phenotype even if there is only one copy An allele whose characteristic appears in the phenotype if both copies are present An organism that carries two copies of the same allele (BB or bb) An organism that carries different alleles (Bb)

Recessive

Homozygote

Heterozygote

Carrier

If a recessive allele can cause disease, a carrier is someone who has on dominant copy and one recessive allele (heterozygouse). They wont have the disease but will still carry a copy of the allele in the gene pool

Daphnia Use different range of caffeine solutions and a control (no caffeine) Transfer a daphnia on a cavity slide; Place slide onto light microscope and focus it on the beating heart; Place a drop of caffeine; Count number of heartbeats in 10 seconds and multiple by 6; Repeat 10 times using the same concentration of caffeine but different daphnia each time; Keep temperature / volume of caffeine solution / size of daphnia constant; Repeat the experiment using other concentration

Importance of repeats (Allows) anomalies to be identified / ignored / effect of anomalies to be reduced / effect of variation in data to be minimised; Able to check that results are similar / concordant; Able to reduce / identify effect of anomalies / extreme values; Gives reliable mean; Allows statistics test to be carried out;

Cardiac cycle 1. Ventricular diastole / Atrial systole: Ventricles relaxed; Atria contract; Volume of chamber decreases and pressure increases; Blood is pushed into ventricles; Ventricular pressure / chamber volume increases; as the ventricles receive the ejected blood from the contracting atria; 2. Ventricular systole / Atrial diastole: Atria relax; Ventricles contract Volume decreases and pressure increases; Pressure becomes higher in ventricles than atria; Atroventricular valves forced shut to prevent backflow; Pressure in ventricles higher than in aorta / pulmonary artery; Semi-lunar valves forced open; Blood forced out into these arteries; 3. Ventricular diastole / Atrial diastole: Ventricles and atria relax; Higher pressure in pulmonary artery and aorta force SL valves shut to prevent backflow into ventricles; Blood returns to the heart and atria fill again; due to higher pressure in the vena cava and pulmonary vein; atrial pressure increases; ventricles continue to relax, so pressure falls below the pressure of the atria; (so) AV valves open; Blood flows passively (not pushed by atrial contraction) into ventricles from the atria; Atrial contraction occurs and process is repeated

Feature Structural Features

Artery Thick wall and small lumen

Arteriole Thinner wall than artery with relatively more muscle

Capillary Microscopic vessels, wall only once cell thick Around cells of an organ

Vein Thin wall; little muscle; larger lumen; valves

Blood flow

Away from the heart

Within an organ, to capillaries in different parts of the organ

Away from an organ towards the heart

Type of Blood

Oxygenated*

Oxygenated*

Oxygenated* then becomes deoxygenated

Deoxygenated*

Blood pressure

High and in pulses (pulsatile)

Lower than arteries and less pulsatile

Pressure falls through capillary network Formation of tissue fluid to allow exchange between blood and cells Small size allows close contact with all cells In the body; thin, permeable walls allow formation of tissue fluid for exchange

Low and nonpulsatile

Main functions of vessels

Transport of blood to organs

Transport of blood within an organ; redistribution of blood flow

Transport of blood back to the heart

Adaptations to main features

Large amount of elastic tissue allows stretching due to surges in pressure and recoil afterwards; endothelium provides smooth inner surface to reduce resistance

Large amount of smooth muscle under nervous control allows redistribution of blood; constriction limits blood flow; dilation increases blood flow |

Large lumen of and thin wall offer least resistance to blood flow as blood is under low pressure; valves prevent backflow of blood

Summary of different blood vessels

* reversed in pulmonary arteries and veins