MODERN PHYSICS

1. SPECIAL RELATIVITY Einstein's special theory of relativity has two important postulates, the first of which is: The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames. This postulate applies, not only to the laws of mechanics, but to those of electricity and magnetism as well. The second postulate states: Light propagates through a vacuum with a speed c, which is independent of the speed of the source or the observer. This second postulate explains the Michelson-Morley experiment, which showed that the speed of light is constant and independent of any ether wind. An important concept of special relativity is that of simultaneity. If two events are observed to occur simultaneously in one reference frame, they are not necessarily observed as occurring simultaneously in a second frame that is moving relative to the first. The special theory of relativity predicts that time is perceived and measured differently by observers in different inertial reference frames. A clock moving relative to an observer appears to run slower than a clock in the same reference frame as the observer. This time dilation is given mathematically as: 1 t = t 0 2 v 1 c2

t < t0 because 1 v

c2

<1

where v is the relative speed of the moving clock, t is the elapsed time on the clock that moves with respect to the observer, and t0 is the elapsed time on the clock at rest in the observers reference frame. Note that the speed of the moving clock must always be slower than the speed of light. It follows from time dilation that lengths also differ in different reference frames. The measured length, L, of an object is shorter when the object is moving relative to the observer than its length, L0, when it is at rest relative to the observer. This length contraction is given mathematically as:

L = L0 1 v

c2
2

L < L0 because 1 v
2. GENERAL RELATIVITY

c2

<1

KEY CONCEPT MODERN PHYSICS

An important concept of the general theory of relativity is the principle of equivalence: An inertial reference frame in a uniform gravitational field is equivalent to a reference frame in the absence of a gravitational that has a constant acceleration with respect to the inertial frame. This means that the effects of a gravitational field and the effects of an equivalent acceleration are indistinguishable. The principle of equivalence applies to all natural phenomena, including electromagnetic phenomena. According to the general theory of relativity, the path of light is "bent" by a gravitational field. Though the bending of light in the Earths gravitational field is too small to discern, the bending of starlight by the Sun can be observed. A very massive body such as a galaxy can act as a gravitational lens, causing the light of a more distant star to bend and form multiple apparent images to an observer on Earth.

apparent image Earth

lensing body

star

apparent image
According to the general theory of relativity, gravity can also cause a clock to run slower. The slowing of a clock by gravity can be observed by using a light clock. Light emitted in the large gravitational field of a massive body such as the Sun has a frequency slightly lower than that emitted in the weaker gravitational field of the Earth. This phenomenon is known as the gravitational red shift because the low-frequency end of the visible light spectrum is red. 3. ORIGIN & EVOLUTION OF THE UNIVERSE The universe probably began approximately 13 billion years ago when a tremendous release of energy, called the Big Bang, initiated the formation of matter. Three important observations support the Big Bang theory:

the expansion of the universe the cosmic microwave background the abundance of light elements In 1929 Edwin Hubble determined that the universe is expanding. He concluded, from the fact that their light is Doppler red-shifted, that very distant galaxies are moving away from our galaxy. The expansion of the universe can be projected backwards in time to a preexpansion initial state more than 13 billion years ago - the Big Bang. In 1964, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson detected a cosmic microwave background in the universe corresponding to a blackbody radiation temperature of 2.7 K.

KEY CONCEPT MODERN PHYSICS

This is the remnant background radiation that would remain from the intense radiation produced by the early moments of the Big Bang. The Big Bang theory also predicts the fusion of protons and neutrons to light elements (e.g., H, He, Li) in the first few minutes after the Big Bang. The observed abundance of these elements present in primordial material is that which the Big Bang would have produced. Stars are thought to form when clouds composed primarily of hydrogen gas contract in response to self-gravitation. As the gas contracts its kinetic energy, and therefore its temperature, increases. When temperature in the star's core is sufficiently high, hydrogen undergoes fusion to form helium in a process known as hydrogen burning. The total power radiated by a star, known as its luminosity, is related to the mass of the star, with the more massive a star, the greater its luminosity. A Hertzsprung-Russell diagram is a plot of a star's luminosity versus its surface temperature and is used for classifying stars. Most stars, like our Sun, fall along the main sequence of the plot. H-R Diagram
106

Super Giant
104

102

100

Main Sequence

Red Giant

10-2

White Dwarf

10-4 40000 20000 10000 5000 2500

Temperature (K)

As the stars hydrogen burning progresses, a core of helium forms, accompanied by a decrease in the intensity of the hydrogen burning. The outer region of the star then begins to collapse on the core. Hydrogen burning occurs in the shell around the helium core, causing a significant expansion of the outer region of the star. In this way a star comparable in mass to the Sun becomes a red giant. The helium core of the star contracts, and the higher temperature initiates helium burning. When the star runs out of fuel, it collapses to become a white dwarf, about the size of the Earth. The white dwarf radiates its remnant energy and eventually becomes a cold, dark hulk, known as a black dwarf. A main sequence star that is many times the mass of the Sun evolves into a super giant. Because of its massive size, fusion reactions involving heavy nuclei occur, and the star develops an onion-shell structure, with successive layers toward the core being made up of progressively heavier elements. When the massive star runs out of fuel, it rapidly collapses, releasing a huge amount of energy. The star's outer region then blows off in a massive explosion known as a supernova. The stars remaining core becomes an extremely dense neutron star. If the neutron star has a mass several times that of the

KEY CONCEPT MODERN PHYSICS

Sun, it contracts further and becomes a black hole. A black hole is so dense that even light is unable to escape its gravitational field.