.

1 2011

1.1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4

R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.5

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.6

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.7

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

13

2.1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.2

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.3

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2.4

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2.5

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.6

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

2.7

Cauchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

29

3.1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

3.2

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3.3

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3.4

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

3.5

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3.6

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.6.1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

3.6.2

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

3.6.3

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3.6.4

n- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

3.6.5

Cauchy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

3.7

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

3.8

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
i


4
4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7 - . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.9.1 . . . . . . . .
4.9.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.9.3 . . . . . . . . . .
4.9.4 . . . . . . .
4.9.5
4.9.6 . . . . . . . . . . .
4.9.7 . . . . . . . . .
4.9.8 . . . . . . . . .
5
5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 . . . . .
5.4 . . . . . . . . . .
5.5 . . . . . .
5.6
5.7 . . . . .

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49
49
51
52
54
54
55
55
57
57
57
58
59
59
60
60
61
62

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65
65
71
72
73
75
77
80

6
6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.2
6.2.3 . . . . . . .
6.2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.5 . . . . . . . .
6.2.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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83
83
84
84
88
90
93
94
95
96

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101
101
103
103
105
107
108

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7
7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.1 Rolle . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.2 Lagrange
7.2.3 Cauchy .
7.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ii

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7.4
7.5
7.6
7.

. . . . . . .
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L Hospital . . . . . . . . . . . .

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8
8.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.1 . . . . . . . .
8.2.2 . . . . . . . .
8.3 . . . . . . . . .
1
8.3.1
2
Ax + Bx + C
ax + b
8.3.2
2
Ax + Bx + C
8.3.3
. . . . .

8.3.4

8.3.5

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110
111
114
118

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123
123
125
125
126
127

dx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
dx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

R (e ) dx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
R (sin x, cos x) dx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

sinm x cosn x dx . . .
(
)
8.3.7 R x, x2 a2 dx .

(
)
8.3.8 R x, x2 + a2 dx .

(
)
8.3.9 R x, a2 x2 dx .

(
)
8.3.10 R x, ax2 + bx + c
8.3.6

. . . . . . . . . . . . 134
. . . . . . . . . . . . 135
. . . . . . . . . . . . 136
. . . . . . . . . . . . 137
dx . . . . . . . . . . 138

8.3.11

)
(

n2 ax+b ,..., n ax+b

,
dx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
R x, n1 ax+b
cx+d
cx+d
cx+d
9
9.1 Riemann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2 . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.1 .
9.2.2
9.2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4 . . . . . .
9.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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143
143
149
149
152
154
155
159
159
161
163

10
167
10.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
10.2 Taylor Maclaurin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

iii

iv

1.1

,
. .
(.. A, B, ) (..
a, b, ). a A, a A,
a A, a
/ A.
1.1
( {}).

,
:
A = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn }
.
A = {x1 , x2 , x3 , ...}, ,
. :
A = {x X : p (x)} A = {x X|p (x)}
p (x) .
1.1:

{
}
x N : x2 < 6 {1, 2}.

:
N = {1, 2, 3, ...}: .
Z = {0, 1, 1, 2, 2, ...}: .
Q = {p/q : p Z, q N}: .
R: .
C: .

1.

1.2
A, B (A = B), , x A x B.

A, B ,
A = B.
1.3
B A (B A), B
A:
(B A) ( x B x A)

. :
A = B A B B A
1.4
B A ( B A),
B A A = B.

, N Z Q R C.
1.5
P(A) A
A.

A = {a, b, c},

1.2:

P(A) = {, {a} , {b} , {c} , {a, b} , {a, c} , {b, c} , {a, b, c}}

A n ,
P(A) 2n .
.
1.6
A B A, B A B ( 1.1()):
A B = {x : x A x B}

. A1 , A2 , . . . , An
S,
n

Ai = {x S : i N, x Ai }

i=1

1.7
AB A, B
A B ( 1.1()):
A B = {x : x A x B}
, A1 , A2 , . . . , An S
n

Ai = {x S : i = 1, . . . , n x Ai }

i=1

A B = , A, B .
A, B, C, :
2

1.1

A
A

B
B

B
()

()

1.1: ) ) .

A
A

CA B

A-B
()

()

1.2: ) ) .

(A B) C = (A C) (B C),
(A B) C = (A C) (B C)
1.8
A B A, B
A B ( 1.2()):
A B = {x : x A x
/ B}

1.9
1.2()),

A B B A (
CA B = A B

B A.
1.10

A + B A, B -

( 1.3):
A + B = (A B) (B A)

A + B = (A B) (A B)

1.

A+B
&

1.3: .

1.11
A B A, B
(x, y), x A y B:
A B = {(x, y) : x A, y B}

1.3:

A = {a, b} B = {c, d, e},

A B = {(a, c), (a, d), (a, e), (b, c), (b, d), (b, e)}

1.4. A, B , A B = . A B = B A,
A = B. , A n B m , A B nm.
. X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ,
:
X1 X2 . . . Xn = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) : x1 X1 , x2 X2 , . . . , xn Xn }
(X1 = X2 = . . . = Xn ),
n
X1 X2 . . . Xn = X
| X
{z . . . X} = X
n

, R2 R2 = R R = {(x, y) : x R, y R},
.

1.2

1.12
A B
A B.

(x, y) , xy. A = B,
A.
(a, b) {a, b}, a = b, (a, b) (b, a).
, (a1 , b1 ) = (a2 , b2 ) a1 = a2 b1 = b2 .

1.2

y
A B

1.4: A = {x R : a x b} B = {y R : c
y d}.

1.13
A A, x, y, z
A :
() xx,
() xy yx, x = y,

() xy yz, xz.

, .
, P(A) A,
P(A). A ,
x, y A xy yx, . ,
.
,
.
1.14
O a A, x A x a
( A ).

1.15
a A, x A x a
( A ).

1.4:
N ,
R .
( , ,
{
}
x R : x2 < 2 ).
1.16
A
(sup A).

A :
x A x sup A,
5

1.

y < sup A x A, x > y.

1.17
(inf A) A
.

1.5:
N inf A = 1,
, .
, sup A inf A A ( )
A. , A = {x R : x 0 x < 2}, sup A =
2
/ A inf A = 0 A.
() . , (sup A) A,
sup A A ( sup A = max A). , (inf A) A,
inf A A ( inf A = min A).
1.18
A A,
x, y, z A :
() xx,
() xy, yx,

() xy yz, xz.

1.3

1.19
( ) f A B
A B:
f : A B,

x 7 f (x)

A x . f :
f

A B
y B x A f y = f (x)
x (, , y f x). f (A)
A f f (x) x A:
f (A) = {f (x) : x A}
f (A) B.
1.20

f : A B

--, x1 , x2 A x1 = x2 , f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) (, ,

f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) x1 = x2 ),
6

1.4 R

, f (A) = B ( , f
A B).

, B A, f : A
B . (, )
.
1.21
X, Y (X Y ), - X Y .

, :
() X X,
() X Y , Y X,
() X Y Y Z, X Z.
1.22

X :

, Nk = {1, 2, ..., k}, k N,

, ,
, N ,
, .

1.6:

Z ,
01
12
1 3
24
2 5
...

, ,
{
2x,
f (x) =
1 2x,

1.4

x > 0
x 0

R , R ,
7

1.

. (..
R N ), .
( ) R :
() +: R R R, +(x, y) = x + y
() : R R R, (x, y) = x y
, x, y, z R:
: x + y = y + x
: x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z
: 0 R : x + 0 = x
: x R x R : x + (x) = 0
: x y = y x
: x (y z) = (x y) z
: 1 R 1 = 0: x 1 = x
(
)
: x R x = 0 x1 R: x x1 = 1
: x (y + z) = x y + x z
( ) R ,
x, y, z R:
: x x
: x y y x, x = y
: x y y z, x z
x, y R x y y x
x y, x + z y + z
x y 0 z, x z y z
, : x < y x y x = y.
( ) A R
, A a, a = sup A.
Q ,
. , ,
{
}
A = x Q : x2 < 2
, Q.
8

1.4 R

1.23

A ,

1 A,
(x + 1) A x A.
1.7:
.

R , R+ -

N R.
N ,
:
S N :
1 S,
k S (k + 1) S.
S = N.
,
.
P (n), n. :
P (1) ,
P (n) n N, P (n + 1) .
P (n) n N.

1.8:
Bernoulli,
(1 + )n 1 + n
n N > 1. n = 1, (1 + )1 1 + ,
. n = k N,

(1 + )k 1 + k
n = k + 1,
(1 + )k+1 = (1 + )k (1 + )
(1 + k)(1 + )
= 1 + k + + k
1 + k +
= 1 + (k + 1)
Bernoulli n N.

( 1 + > 1)
2

1.

1.5:

1.9:

n N
1 + 2 + ... + n =

n(n + 1)
2

(1.1)

n = 1 (1.1) ,
1(1 + 1)
2
= =1
2
2
(1.1) n = k N,
1 + 2 + ... + k =

k(k + 1)
2

(1.2)

(1.1) n = k + 1,
(1.2) :
1 + 2 + . . . + k + (k + 1) =

k(k + 1)
k 2 + 3k + 2
(k + 1)(k + 2)
+k+1=
=
2
2
2

(1.1) n = k + 1. , (1.1) n N.

1.5

R
, R
(, ). , ( ), O 0 R,
P ( ), 1 R. OP .
, O, . A
x, |OA| = x|OP|.
( ),
x. , .
, 0 < a < b, b 0, a. ,
AB, A
a R B b R, |a b|.
a, b R a b, :
[a, b] = {x R : a x b} ( ),
10

1.6

(a, b)

[a,b ]

(a,b ]

[a,b)

[a, +)

(a, +)

a
(-, b ]

(-, b)
b

1.6: .

(a, b) = {x R : a < x < b} ( ),

[a, b) = {x R : a x < b},
(a, b] = {x R : a < x b}.
, : [a, a] = {a} (a, a) = [a, a) = (a, a] = . 1.6
.
, , .

1.6

1.24
R R {, +}, , + < x <
+ x R.

, sup A + inf A A R. , R .
R R (
). x R :
x + () = ,
x () = , x > 0,
x () = , x < 0 ,

(+) + (+) = +,
11

1.

() + () = .
,
R, (a R):
[a, +) = {x R : x a},
(a, +) = {x R : x > a},
(, a] = {x R : x a},
(, a) = {x R : x < a}.

1.7

1.25

n N {0}, n! :

0! = 1
1! = 1
n! = 1 2 ... n = (n 1)!n n > 1

, 2! = 2, 3! = 6, 4! = 24, 5! = 120, ...

n, m N {0} n m,
(

)
n
m

(
n
m

n!
m!(n m)!

:
)
) (
) (
) (
(
n
n
n
n
,
=
=1
=
n
m
nm
0
, , :
)
(
)
(
)
(
)
(
n
n
n
n
bn
abn1 +
an1 b + ...
an +
(a + b)n =
n
n1
1
0
(
)
n

n
=
ank bk
k
k=0

n N .

12

,
,
. , ,
,
.

2.1

2.1
N
R :
a : N R, n 7 a(n) = an

, , (an )nN , (an )

n=1 , (an ),
a(n). , ,
, . an a
, an n- (an ). n- .
, ( ). ,
, . ,
c R .
1
n

: a1 = 1, a2 = 12 ,

2.1:
a3 = 31 , a4 = 14 .

4 (an ) an =

2.2:

(bn )
(
)
1
2
b1 = 2, bn+1 =
bn +
2
bn
13

2.
n
sin
2
1.0

0.5

n
10

-0.5

-1.0

)
(
2.1: sin n2 .

3 : b2 =
(
) 577
1 17
24
2 12 + 17 = 408 ( 1.4142).

2.3:
c3 = 6, c4 = 24.

1
2

(2 + 1) =

3
2

= 1.5, b3 =

1
2

(3
2

4
3

17
12

( 1.42), b4 =

4 (cn ) cn = n! : c1 = 1, c2 = 2,

2.4:
(dn ) dn = (1)n 1, n
, 1, n .
: d (N) = {1, 1}.
(an )
{an : n N}. , 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .
3, 2, 1, 4, 5, . . .. , {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .}
{3, 2, 1, 4, 5, . . .} .
, n 0,
n = n0 > 1. ,
.
.
, . ,
,
n.
N
. 2.1,
(
)
sin n2 .
(an ) (bn ), .
, :
(an + bn ) (an ), (bn ), (cn ) cn = an + bn ,
14

2.2

(an bn ) (bn ) (an ), (cn ) cn = an bn ,

(an bn ) (an ), (bn ), (cn ) cn = an bn ,
(k an ) k R (an ), (cn ) cn = k an ,
( )
abnn (an ), (bn ), bn = 0 n N, (cn )
cn = abnn ,
(|an |) (an ), (cn ) cn = |an |,
m
m- (am
n ) (an ), (cn ) cn = an ,

m- ( m an ) (an ), (cn ) cn = m an , an 0,
m an R, m .

2.2

2.2
(an ) , M
R, an M n N.

2.3
(an ) , m
R, an m n N.

2.4

, (an ) , a (N) =
{an : n N} .
2.5:

: an = c, c R.

2.6:
an =

1
n

(an ) an =

1
n

, n N :

> 0,

n1

1
n

1 an 1,

0 < an 1.

2.7:
(bn ) bn = (1)n1 ,
{1, 0, 1}.

15

2.

2.1 (an ) , M R,
|an | M n N.

(an ) , k, K R, k an K n N.
M = max {|k| , |K|}, M an M , |an | M . ,
M R, |an | M n N, M an M ,
(an ) .

2.8:
(cn ) cn = (1)n n . ,
n N M R, |(1)n n| < M n < M .
, N .
(an ) (bn ) , (an + bn ) (an bn ) .
2.5
sup(an ) (an )
.

2.6
inf(an ) (an )
.

, . ,

.

2.3

2.7
(an ) ( ), an
an+1 (an < an+1 ) n N.

2.8
(an ) ( ),
an an+1 (an > an+1 ) n N.

() , () ,
() .
2.9:

(an ) an = 3n + 2 . ,
an+1 an = 3 (n + 1) + 2 (3n + 2) = 3 > 0

an+1 > an n N.

16

2.4

2.10:

(bn ) bn =

1
n

> 0 :

bn+1
n
n+11
1
=
=
=1
<1
bn
n+1
n+1
n+1
bn+1 < bn n N. , (bn ) .

2.11:

(cn ) cn =

(1)n
n

(1)n+1 (1)n

n+1 (
n
)
1
2n + 1
1
n+1
= (1)
= (1)n+1
+
n+1 n
n (n + 1)

cn+1 cn =

:
2n + 1

> 0, n

n (n + 1)
cn+1 cn =
2n + 1

< 0, n
n (n + 1)
(cn ) .

2.4

,
.
( )
n1 . n,
0. , |an 0| = |an |
n. ,
0.
an = n 2, ( n) . M an > M ,
n > M + 2. ( ).
. , ((1)n ) . ,
1 ( , , {1, 1}),
n, 1.
.
2.9
(an ) L L
L, > 0 N () N, |an L| <
n > N .
lim an = L, an L n

17

2.

lim an = L.
L R, . , 0 . , .
, ,
> 0, N N,
|an L| < n N .
N . .
n
2.12: (an ) an = n+1
,
lim an = 1. ,
 


 
 n
  n n 1   1 
=
= 1 < 1
|an 1| = 
1 = 
n+1
n + 1  n + 1 n + 1
n

, N > 1/, n > N 1/n < , , |an 1| < .

2.13: (bn ) bn =
(1)n . , L R,
|bn L| < n > N , > 0. :
|L| = 1,
|bn L| = |(1)n L| > ||(1)n | |L|| = |1 |L||
|bn L| > , < |1 |L||.
L = 1,
|bn L| = |(1)n 1| = 2
n = 2k + 1, k N.
L = 1,
|bn L| = |(1)n + 1| = 2
n = 2k, k N.
, (bn ) R.

2.2 1, , n. , L, L
n > N ( N , ,
). 2.3.
18

2.4

2.2: .

2.3: (an ) L.

2.2
, . , (an ) lim an = L1 lim an = L2 , L1 = L2 .

(an ) L1 , L2 R L1 = L2 .
|an L1 | < /2 n > N1 , |an L2 | < /2 n > N2 . ,
n > max{N1 , N2 } :
|L1 L2 | = |L1 an + an L2 | |L1 an | + |an L2 | <

+ =
2 2

> 0 , L1 = L2 .

(an ). ,
(an ). , , (an )
(an ), k an1 , an2 , . . . , ank
an1 , an2 , . . . , ank , lim an = lim an .
:

2.3

(an ) L R, > 0 N N,

19

2.

|an L| < n > N . = 1, |an L| < 1 n > N ,

|an | = |an + L L| |an L| + |L| < 1 + |L|.
M = max {|a1 | , |a2 | , . . . , |aN | , 1 + |L|}
|an | < M n N. (an ) .

, ( (1)n ).
(an ) (bn ) lim an = A, lim bn = B.
:
lim (an bn ) = A B

, |an A| < n > N1 ( > 0), |bn B| <

n > N2 . , n > N = max{N1 , N2 }.
|(an + bn ) (a + b)| = |(an a) + (bn b)| |an a| + |bn b| < +
= 2 = , > 0 n > N .

lim (an bn ) = A B
( )
an
A
lim
= , bn = 0 n N B = 0
bn
B
lim (c an ) = c A, c R
lim (apn ) = Ap , p > 0, an > 0
lim (|an |) = |A|
, ,
. , lim (|an |) = |A|, lim (an ) = A,
A = 0. (an ) an = (1)n ,
lim|an | = 1, lim an . , an = (1)n /n,


n
 (1)n 
 = lim 1 = 0 lim (1) = 0
lim 
n 
n
n
, ,
:
an bn n > n0 N, A B,
M an N n > n0 N (M, N R), M lim an N .
,
n N, .
, :
lim

1
=0
n

20

2.4

n >

{
liman =


  
1
  
 0 =  1  = 1
n
 n n


> 0  n1 0 < .

0, |a| < 1
1, a = 1

a = 1, lim 1n = lim 1 = 1. |a| < 1 a = 0,

1
|a|
= 1 + x. Bernoulli,

1
|a|

> 1, x R,

1
n
n = (1 + x) > 1 + nx
|a|
n

1
|a| < 1+nx
. , n >
n
lim 0 = lim 0 = 0.

n
a = 1, a > 0,

lim n n = 1,
(
)
1 n
lim 1 +
=e
n

1
x

> 0 |an | = |a|

< . , a = 0,

lim

(= 2.71828 . . .).

(an )
an =

k nk + k1 nk1 + . . . + 1 n + 0
n + 1 n1 + . . . + 1 n + 0

k = 0, = 0,

{
lim an =

k
,

0,

k =
k <

k > , .
2.14:

(
)
n + 2 n :

(
) (
)
n+2 n
n+2+ n

n+2+ n
2
n+2n
=
=

n+2+ n
n+2+ n
2
1
=
n 1+ 2 +1

n+2 n=

2
1
1
lim an = lim lim
=0 =0
2
n
1 + n2 + 1

21

2.

(
2.15:

7 + 5 8n
4 + 3 8n

)
:

( )n
7 18 + 5
7 + 5 8n
8n 87n + 5
= n 4
= ( 1 )n
4 + 3 8n
8 8n + 3
4 8 +3
( 1 )n
lim 8 = 0,
lim

70+5
7 + 5 8n
5
=
=
n
4+38
40+3
3

2.4 (an ), (cn ), lim an = lim cn = L.

(bn ) an bn cn n > n0 N, (bn )
lim bn = L.

lim an = L, > 0 |an L| < n > N1 , an L >

n > N1 . , |cn L| < n > N2 , cn L <
n > N2 . , n > max{N1 , N2 } < an L < bn L < cn L < ,
|bn L| < , (bn ) lim bn = L.

2.16: (an ) an = sinn n lim an = 0. , 1 sin n

1,
sin n
1
1

n
n
n
( )
lim n1 = lim n1 = 0, lim sinn n = 0.

:
2.5 . ,
) , ) ,
.

2.17:

(an )
an =

n2

22

n
+1

2.5

. :
]
[
( 2
)
2
(n
+
1)
n
+
1

n
(n
+
1)
+
1
n+1
n
[
]
=
an+1 an =
2
2
(n + 1) + 1 n + 1
(n + 1)2 + 1 (n2 + 1)
n2 + n 1
]
= [
<0
2
(n + 1) + 1 (n2 + 1)
. , , n N
an > 0. , (an ) R.

2.18:

(an )
an =

1
1
1
+ + ... +
1! 2!
n!

(an ) ,
an+1 = an +

1
> an
(n + 1)!

, n > 2 n! = 1 2 3 . . . n > 1 2 2 . . . 2 = 2n1 ,

:
1
1
1
1
+ + + ... +
1! 2! 3!
n!
1
1
1
< 1 + + 2 + . . . + n1
2( ) 2
2
[
( )n ]
n
1 12
1
=2 1
<2
=
2
1 21

an =

, .
m (an ), lim an
m. , M (an ),
lim an M . , (
) () .

2.5

2.10
(an ) + () + () (), M > 0 N N,
an > M (an < M ) n > N . :
liman = + an + (liman = an )

2.4 +,

.
23

2.

2.4: (an ) + ( an > M n > N ).

2.19: (n 3) , n 3 > M n > M + 3

M > 0. , N > M + 3, N N, n 3 > M
n > N .

:
liman = a R limbn = +, lim (an + bn ) = +
liman = a R limbn = , lim (an + bn ) =
liman = limbn = +, lim (an + bn ) = +
liman = limbn = , lim (an + bn ) =
liman > 0 limbn = +, lim (an bn ) = +
liman > 0 limbn = , lim (an bn ) =
liman < 0 limbn = +, lim (an bn ) =
liman < 0 limbn = , lim (an bn ) = +
( )
liman = a R limbn = , lim abnn = 0
, ,
+, ,
, .
2.20:

(an )
an = 1 +

1 1
1
+ + ... +
2 3
n

1
> an . ,
, an+1 = an + n+1
k
, n = 2 , k N, :
(
)
(
)
1
1 1
1
1
a2k = 1 + +
+
+ ... +
+ ... + k
2
3 4
2k1 + 1
2
(
)
(
)
1
1 1
1
1
>1+ +
+
+ ... +
+ ... + k
k
2
4 4
2
2
1 1
1
= 1 + + + ... +
2 2
2
k
=1+
2
lim an = +.

24

2.6
: a100 5.19, a1000
7.49, a10000 9.79, a100000 12.09.

:
lim an = +, a > 1
k = 0,
(
)
lim k nk + k1 nk1 + . . . + 1 n + 0 =
k > k = 0, = 0,
k nk + k1 nk1 + . . . + 1 n + 0
=
lim
n + 1 n1 + . . . + 1 n + 0

2.6

+, k > 0
, k < 0

+,
,

>0
<0

(an ), . ,
a4 , a5 , a6 , . . ., (an )
, a2 , a3 , a5 , a7 , a11 , a13 , . . ..
2.11
(akn ) (an ), (kn )
.

(an ):
(a2n ), a2 , a4 , a6 , a8 , . . .,
(a2n1 ), a1 , a3 , a5 , a7 , . . .,
(an2 ), a1 , a4 , a9 , a16 , . . .,
(an! ), a1 , a2 , a6 , a24 , . . .,
, an1 , an2 , an3 , . . . a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . ai , i = nk , k N. ,
(an ) (an ).
(an ) L R,
L. , (an ) + (),
+ (). (an )
, (an ) .
2.21: ((1)n ) , (
)
(
)
: (1)2n 1 (1)2n1 1.

25

2.

2.6

, BolzanoWeierstrass:

2.7

, .
2.22: (an ) an = cos n
3 (1 an 1),
. (an ) . (a6n+1 ),
(
)
a6n+1 = cos (6n+1)
= cos 2n + 3 = 12 .
3

2.7

Cauchy

2.12
(an ) Cauchy ,
> 0 N N, |an am | < n, m N n, m > N .

2.23:

1
n

(an ) an = n1 Cauchy,
    

    
1
 1  < 1 +  1  = 1 + 1
n m n m n m
<

n>

m > 2 , |an am | < .

2.24: (bn ) bn = n Cauchy,

|bn bm | n, m > N .

.. m = 4n, |bn bm | = |bn b4n | = 4n n = n > 1.

,
Cauchy. , Cauchy,
R, . , Cauchy
.
Cauchy, a.
.
:

26

2.7 Cauchy

2.8 (an ) an > 0 n lim an+1

an = L,

n
lim an = L.

(
2.25:
nn
n! ,

n
n!

)
, . an =

(
)
(n + 1)n+1 n!
(n + 1)n
1 n
an+1
= lim
= lim
= lim 1 +
lim
=e
an
(n + 1)!nn
nn
n

n
, lim n an = e, lim
= e.
n
n!

27

2.

28

,
a1 , a2 , . . . , an , a1 + a2 + . . . +

an , n=1 a (
3.).
a1 + a2 + . . . + an + . . .,
.

3.1

(an ).
a1 + a2 + . . . + an + . . .

an

n=1

an , . an
(an ) n- .
(an ) (sn ),
:
s1 = a1
s2 = a1 + a2
s3 = a1 + a2 + a3
.......................
sn = a1 + a2 + . . . + an
.......................

(sn )
n=1 an ,
sn n- .

sn+1 = sn + an+1
29

3.

3.1:

1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + ...

n=1

(sn ) n- sn = 1 + 1 + . . . + 1 = n.

3.2:

(1)n+1 = 1 1 + 1 1 + . . .

n=1

(sn ) n-
{
}
1 + (1)n+1
1, n
sn =
=
2
0, n

3.3:

n = 1 + 2 + 3 + ...

n=1

(sn ) n- sn = 1 + 2 + . . . + n =
1
2 n (n + 1).

3.2

3.1

n=1 an s, (sn ) s.

s R,

an = s

n=1

an = s lim sn = s

n=1

s .

3.2

n=1 an + () (),
(sn ) + ().

30

3.2

an = + ()

n=1

3.3
lim sn .

3.4:

n=1 an

2
n-
3n

n=1

2
2
2
+ 2 + ... + n
3 3( )
3
1 n
1

2
3
=
3 1 13
( )n
1
=1
3

sn =

lim sn = 1, 1.

3.5:

n n-

n=1

1
sn = 1 + 2 + . . . + n = n (n + 1)
2
lim sn = + .

3.6:

(1)n+1

n=1

sn =

1 + (1)n+1
2

lim sn . , .
n- .
, . ,
:

3.1

an R, lim an = 0.

n=1

31

3.

n+1 an s R. (sn )
, lim sn = s, lim sn1 = s. an = sn sn1 ,
:
lim an = lim(sn sn1 ) = lim sn lim sn1 = s s = 0

R,

, lim an = 0
n=1 an
lim an .
n=1 an ,
lim an = 0 ().
3.7:

n=1

1 2 3
n
= + + + ...
2n + 1
3 5 7

R,
lim

3.8:

n=1

n2
1
4
9
= +
+
+ ...
2
3n + 2
5 14 29

R,
lim

3.9:

n
1
= = 0
2n + 1
2

n2
1
= = 0
3n2 + 2
3

(1)n = 1 + 1 1 + . . .

n=1

R, lim (1)n .

a , lim an = 0,
n=11 n
, R. , n=1 n lim n1 = 0,
.
:
R, .
32

3.3

n=1 an
n=1 bn R,
n=1 (an bn )
(, R) R

(an bn ) =

n=1

an

n=1

bn

n=1

n=1 an R,
n=1 (an ) R,
R {0}.

n=1 an R,
n=1 bn R,
n=1 (an bn )
R.

n=1 an
n=1 bn .

n=1 an

n=1 an ,

n=1 bn

an bn n,

n=k

an R.

n=1 an ,
n=1 bn R,
n=1 (an + bn )
, R.

n+1 .
(1)n

n=1 (1)
n=1
]

, n=1 [(1)n + (1)n+1 = n=1 0 = 0.

3.3

1
1 1 1
= + + + ...
n
2
2 4 8

n=1

, ,
12 . :
1
1
=1
2
2
1 1
3
1
s2 = + = = 1 2
2 4
4
2
1 1 1
7
1
s3 = + + = = 1 3
2 4 8
8
2
.............
1 1
1
2n 1
1
sn = + + . . . + n =
=1 n
n
2 4
2
2
2
.............
s1 =

(
)

1
1
1

n=1 2n ,
n=1 2n = lim 1 2n = 1.
, 3.1,
.
, . , , .

33

3.

1
1
4

1
2

1
16

1
8

3.1:

3.4

1
.
2n
n=1

an1 =

n=1

an = a + a + a2 + . . .

n=0

.
n-
sn =

ai1 = a + a + . . . + an1 = a

i=1

1 n
1

= 1, sn = a + a + . . . + a = na, = 1. , = 1 (,
, a = 0), lim sn = a (+) . || < 1, lim n = 0,
a
lim sn = 1
. > 1, lim n = +, lim sn = a (+). ,
1, (n ) = ((1)n ||n ) (),
. , :

a
,
|| < 1
1
n
a =
a (+) , 1 (a = 0)

n=0
, 1 (a = 0)

3.10:

2n
2
22 23
=
+
+
+ ...
3n+1
32 33 34

n=1

( 2 )n

2
13
n=1 3 , 3 . ,

1
3

n=1

3.11:

( )n
2
12 1
=
3
331

2
3

2
3

3n+2 + 5n
n=1

4n+1

33 + 5 34 + 52
+
+ ...
42
43
34

3.4

3n+2 + 5n
n=1

4n+1

=3

( )n+1

n=1

1
+
4

n=1

( )n
5
4

R,
, 54 > 1. , ,

3n+2 + 5n
= +
4n+1
3
4,

n=1

3.12: 0.17171717 . . . , . , :
0.171717 . . . = 0.17 + 0.0017 + 0.000017 + . . .
17
17
17
=
+
+
+ ...
100 ( 10000 1000000 )
1
17
1
1 + 2 + 4 + ...
=
100
10
10
(
)

n1
1
1
17
17
=
=
1
100
100
100 1 100
n=1
=

3.4

17
99

n=1

an =

(bn+1 bn )

n=1

n- , :
sn = b2 b1 + b3 b2 + . . . + bn+1 bn = bn+1 b1
(bn ) R,

n+1 an

an = lim (bn+1 ) b1

n=1

3.13:

n=1

1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+ ...
n(n + 1)
12 23 34
35

3.

n=1

1
=
n(n + 1)

n=1

(1)

n R (lim
:
sn =

m=1

1
1

n n+1

1
n

)
=

n=1

1
1

n+1 n

= 0), .

)
n (

1
1
1
=

m(m + 1)
m m+1
m=1

1
1
1
1 1 1
=1
= 1 + + ... +
2 2 3
n n+1
n+1

n=1

3.5

(
)
1
1
= lim 1
=1
n(n + 1)
n+1

3.5

1
np

n=1

p R, p.

1
,
n=1 n . :

3.2

1
R p > 1, p 1.
np

n=1

p = 1. 2n - n=1
:

1
n

1 1 1
1
+ + + ... + n
1 2 (
3
2
)
(
)
1 1
1
1
1 1
+
+... +
+ ... + n
= + +
1 2
3 4
2n1 + 1
2
| {z }
|
{z
}

s2n =

1
1 1
1+ +
+
+ ... +
2
4 4
2n1
1 2
= 1 + + + ... + n
2 4
2

2n1

1
1
+ ... + n
n
2
2

36

3.6

=1+

1 1
1
+ + ... +
2}
|2 2 {z
n

n
=1+
2

(
)
lim 1 + n2 = +, lim s2n = +. (sn )
1
> 0. , , ,
, sn+1 sn = n+1
(s2n ) , R ().
, (sn ) , lim sn = +

n=1 n1 = + .

p < 1, np < n n1p > n1 . n- n=1 n1p

sn , :
1
1
1
+ p + ... + p
1p
2
n
1
1 1
> + + ... +
1 2
n
= sn

sn =

n=1 n1p = lim sn = + , lim sn = +, .

p > 1. :
n
2
1

1
1
1
1
1
=

= 1 + p + p + ... + n
p
p
p
m
m
2
3
(2

1)
m=1
m=1
(
)
(
)
1
1
1
1
=1+
+ p + ... +
+ ... + n
p
p
(n1)p
2
3
(2 1)
2
(
)
)
(
1
1
1
1
1+
+ . . . + (n1)p
+ p + ... +
p
(n1)p
2
2
2
2
1
1
= 1 + p1 + . . . + (n1)(p1)
2
2
= tn
n

sn

(tn ) ,
1
0 < p1 < 1
2
(tn ) , (sn ) .

, R, n=1 n1p p > 1 .

3.6

. , . , ,
. ,
.

37

3.

3.6
n N.

n=1 an

, an 0

,
sn+1 = sn + an+1 sn
n N. ,
.
, ,
.

3.6.1

( ) . .

n=1 an .

n > N
i)
n=1 bn

N an bn , n=1 an R.

ii)
b n > N N
n=1 n
an bn , n=1 an .

3.3

i) (sn ) n=1 bn , (sn ) , . (sn )

n=1 an , n N
sn = a1 + a2 + . . . + an
{
a1 + a2 + . . . + aN ,
nN
< a1 + a2 + . . . + aN + bN +1 + . . . + bn , n > N
n

a1 + a2 + . . . + aN +
bm
m=N +1

(sn ) ,

n=1

an R.

ii) (sn ) n=1 bn , . , (

), n=1 bn (). , (sn ) , n N

sn = b1 + b2 + . . . + bn
{
b1 + b2 + . . . + bN ,
nN
< b1 + b2 + . . . + bN + aN +1 + . . . + an , n > N

38

3.6

b1 + b2 + . . . + bN +

am

m=N +1

, (sn ) , (sn ),
. (sn ) , ,

. , n=1 an .

3.14:

2 + 3cos2 (n!)
n=1

5 + 6n

2 + 3cos2 (n!)
2+3
5

< n
5 + 6n
5 + 6n
6

5
1

n=1 6n R ( 6 ),
.

3.15:

1
R, n N
n
n=1

1
1
n<n >
n
n

1
n=1 n

, ,
.

3.6.2

3.4

n=1 an .

an
i)
< +,
n=1 bn bn > 0, lim
bn

n=1 an R.

ii)
n=1 bn bn > 0 ,

an
lim
> 0,
n=1 an .
bn

39

3.





i) lim abnn < +,  abnn L < n > N N, L < abnn < L + ,
an < (L + ) bn . ,

n=1 (L + )bn = (L + )
n=1 bn R,
n=1 an .
ii) lim abnn > 0, . lim abnn = L R, ,
, n > N N an > L2 bn ( = L2 ).

n+1 bn ,
n+1 an = +.
lim abnn = +, n > N N abnn > M ,
.

3.16:
n=1 an an =
, bn = 41n , :
an
=
bn

5
4n +3
1
4n

=5

5
4n +3 .

4n
1
( )n 5 < +
=5
n
4 +3
1 + 3 14

bn R ( 41 ),
n=1
n=1 4n5+3 .

3.17:

an
=
bn
=

3n+4
2n6 +3n2 2
1
n2
3 + n4

2+

an =

n=1 an

3
n4

3n+4
,
2n6 +3n2 2

bn =

3n3 + 4n2
=
2n6 + 3n2 2
2
n6

3
< +
2

R,

1
n=1 n2

1
,
n2

n=1 an .

3.18:

3n+2

. , an = 5n23n+2
bn = n1 ,
5n2 2n+4
2n+4
n=1

:
an
=
bn
,

3n+2
5n2 2n+4
1
n

3n+2
n=1 5n2 2n+4

3n2 + 2n
3
>0
2
5n 2n + 4
5

= +,
n=1
=

1
n

n=1 an , an n, , n.
40

3.6

3.6.3

3.5

:

n=1 an

lim an+1
= r.
an

i) r < 1, R.
ii) r > 1, .
iii) r = 1, .





. r < 1, n > N  aan+1
r <
n
, aan+1
< + r. R r < < 1, aan+1
< ,
n
n
an+1 < an . (bn ) : b1 = a1 , b2 = a2 , , bN = aN ,

bN +1 = aN (> aN +1 ), bN +2 = 2 aN (> aN +2 ), . . . n=1 bn ,

:

bn =
an +
nN aN =
an + aN
n
n=1

n=1

n=1

n=N +1

n=1

H n=1 , < 1, n=1 bn

R. n an bn , n=1 an ,
.

3.19:

n
n

. an = n , :
3n
3
n=1

an+1
=
an

n+1
3n+1
n
3n

n+1
1
<1
3n
3

, R.

3.20:

1
,

n!
n=1

R,
an+1
=
an

3.21:

1
(n+1)!
1
n!

n!
1
=
0<1
(n + 1)!
n+1

(3n)!
n=1

an+1
=
an

(3n+3)!
((n+1)!)3
(3n)!
(n!)3

(n!)

3 , an

(3n + 1)(3n + 2)(3n + 3)

27 > 1
(n + 1)3
41

(3n)!

(n!)3

3.

.
,

n=1 an , n-
n, n. ,
an n.

3.6.4

n-

3.6

:

n=1 an

lim

n a
n = r.

i) r < 1, R.
ii) r > 1, .
iii) r = 1, .



. r < 1, n > N N  n an r <

n an < + r, R r < < 1, n an < an < n .

, n=1 bn , b1 = a1 , ..., bN = aN , bN +1 = N +1 > aN +1 ,

bN +2 = N +2 > aN +2 , ..., an bn n. H n=1 bn

,

bn =

n=1

an +

n=1

n=N +1

n=N +1 < 1. ,
R, an bn .

3.22:

n2
n=1

n
an =

, an =
n

n=1

an

n2
,
2n

2
n
n2
n2
1
( n n)
=
<1
=
n n
n
2
2
2
2

R.

3.23:

)2n
(
)2n
(

3n
3n
, an =
,

2n 1
2n 1
n=1

(
an =

3n
2n 1

)2n

(
=

3n
2n 1
42

)2
=

4n2

9n2
9
>1
4n + 1
4

3.6

1
1

, n-
n
n2
n+1
n+1
:

1
n 1
lim
= lim
=1
n
n
n

1
n 1
lim
= lim 2 = 1
2
n
( n n)

3.24:

, R.
n- ,
, n- . , n-
, .

3.6.5

Cauchy

, .

3.7
n=1 an , (an )

. n=1 an R, a1 + 2a2 + 4a4 + 8a8 +

2k a2k R. ,
... =
k=1
n=1 an ,
k
k=1 2 a2k .

(sn ), (tn ) n=1 an k=1 2k a2k , . n < 2k :

sn = a1 + a2 + . . . + an
a1 + (a2 + a3 ) + . . . + (a2k + . . . + a2k+1 1 )
a1 + (a2 + a2 ) + . . . + (a2k + . . . + a2k )
= a1 + 2a2 + . . . + 2k a2k
= tk

k=1 2k a2k R, (tk ) , (sn )

. , n=1 an , .

k
n=1 an , lim sn = +, lim tk = +
k=1 2 a2k = +.
n > 2k , :
sn = a1 + a2 + . . . + an

43

3.

a1 + a2 + (a3 + a4 ) + . . . + (a2k1 +1 + . . . + a2k )

1
a1 + a2 + (a4 + a4 ) + . . . + (a2k + . . . + a2k )
2
1
= a1 + a2 + 2a4 + . . . + 2k1 a2k
2
) 1
1(
=
a1 + 2a2 + 4a4 + . . . + 2k a2k = tk
2
2

n=1 an , (sn ) ,

(tk ) . (tk ) , , k=1 2k a2k , k

R. k=1 2 a2k , lim tk = +, lim sn =

+ n=1 an = +.
, ( ) (
) .

3.25:

1
1
. an = ,

n
n
n=1

2 a2n =

n=1

n=1

1
2 n =
1 = +
2
n

n=1

an = +.

n=1

3.7

3.7
,
,
:

(1)n an = a1 + a2 a3 + a4 ...
n=1

(1)n+1 an = a1 a2 + a3 a4 + ...

n=1

an 0.

, ( Leibniz) :

n+1 a a 0 R, (a )
3.8
n
n
n
n=1 (1)
, :
i) n N an+1 an ,

44

3.7

a1
a2
a3
a4
a5

s2

s4

3.2:
Leibniz.

s5

s3

(1)

n+1

n=1

s1
an s,

ii) lim an = 0.

(s2n ) . (s2n )
,
s2n = (a1 a2 ) + (a3 a4 ) + ... + (a2n1 a2n ) 0
a2k1 a2k , k N. ,
s2n = a1 (a2 a3 ) ... (a2n2 a2n1 ) a2n a1
(s2n ) . lim s2n = L.
s2n1 ,
:
s2n1 = s2n a2n

s2n1 = lim (s2n a2n ) = lim s2n lim a2n = L 0 = L
, lim s2n1 = lim s2n , (sn ) R.

3.2 ,
.
,
, n.
3.26:

(1)n+1
1 1 1
1 + + ... =
2 3 4
n
n=1

1
an = n1 . (an ) (an+1 = n+1
<
1
lim an = lim n = 0, R, Leibniz.

45

1
n

= an ),

3.

n n+1
3.27:
n=1 (1) 2n2 R.
an = n+1
, lim an = lim n+1
= 0, (an ) .
2n2
2n2

3.8

3.8

R.

n=1 an

n=1 |an |

(1)n

n=1 n2 ,
(1)n
1

2 R. ,
n=1
n=1
n
n
1
, n=1 n R.

(1)n
(
n=1
n
, Leibniz).
R, , . ,
.
R :
3.9

, R.

n=1 an . , n=1 bn , bn =

an + |an |. an |an |, bn 2 |an |. n=1 2 |an | = 2 n=1 |an |

, n=1 bn .

n=1 an R,

n=1

an =

(bn |an |) =

n=1

n=1

bn

|an |

n=1

, ,
.

n=1 an ,







|an |
an 



n=1

n=1

3.28:

(1)n+1

n=1

n2

2
:
+1





2
2
2
n+1
(1)
=
< 2

2
n + 1  n2 + 1
n
46

3.

2

n=1
n=1 n2 , 2.
.

3.29:

(1)n
n2

cos(n!)

:
3
n
n=1



 cos(n!) 

 1

 n3/2
3
n

1

R, , ,
n=1
n3,/2


 cos(n!) 
cos(n!)

n=1  n3  .
n=1
n3
, , R.

3.
a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 .

, , :
a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 =

an

n=1

, n .
. ,
5

an =

n=1

ai =

i=1

ak

k=1

an = ak + ak+1 + . . . + a1 + a

n=k

k < , k = , n=k an = ak = a . n
m = n k,

an =
am+k
n=k

m=0

, :

an + am+1 =

n=1

n=1

m+1

an

n=1

an +

n=m+1

an =

an

n=1

47

3.

n=k

n=k

an

bn =

n=k

an =

(an bn )

n=k

an , R

n=k

48

. ,
.

4.1

( )
:
4.1
f X R
Y R , X Y:
f : X Y, x 7 y = f (x)

X D(f )
Df . f (X) f f
R(f ) Rf . f (X) = Y, f X
Y.
,
.
4.1:
f (x) = x2 R
[0, +), .

, F
(x, y), : (x, y1 ) F (x, y2 ) F , y1 = y2 .
,
, .

49

4.
y
1.0

f1(x ) = 1 - x 2

0.5

1.0

0.5

0.5

1.0

0.5

1.0

f2 (x ) = - 1 - x 2

4.1: x2 + y 2 = 1.

4.2:
f (x) = x [0, +),
.

, [0, +), x = y x
[0, +) y [0, +).

4.3:

f (x) =

x
x+2

R{2}, .
x
, (1 y)x = 2y. y = 1,
f , y = x+2
R, y = 1 . y = 1
2y
2y
x = 1y
. x = 2, 1y
= 2, . ,
f R {1}.

4.4:
x2 + y 2 = 1 ( 4.1) , x (, ,
[1, 1]) y. ,

: y1 = f1 (x) = 1 x2 , Df1 = [1, 1], Rf1 = [0, 1] y2 = f2 (x) = 1 x2 ,

Df2 = [1, 1], Rf2 = [1, 0].

50

4.2

4.2

f : A R g : B R.
4.2
f , g , A = B x
f (x) = g(x).

4.3
A B x A f (x) = g(x), f
g A, g f B.

f , g, :
f , g, (f + g) : A B R,
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)
f , g, (f g) : A B R,
(f g)(x) = f (x) g(x)
R f , (f ) :
A R,
(f )(x) = f (x)
f , g (f g) : A B R,
(f g)(x) = f (x)g(x)
( )
f , g,

f
g

: A B {x R : g(x) = 0} R,
( )
f
f (x)
(x) =
g
g(x)

. , f , g h :
(f + g + h)(x) = (f + g)(x) + h(x) = f (x) + (g + h)(x)
(f g h)(x) = (f g)(x) h(x) = f (x) (g h)(x)
4.4
g : A R f : g(A) R. f ,
g (f g) : A R,
(f g)(x) = f (g(x))

f g g f , , .
. ,
(f g h)(x) = ((f g) h)(x) = (f (g h))(x)

51

4.

1
4.5:
f (x) = x 1 g(x) = x2
.
Df = [1, +) Dg = R {2}. f + g, f g, f g, fg , f g
:

1
f + g : [1, 2) (2, +) R, (f + g)(x) = x 1 + x2

1
f g : [1, 2) (2, +) R, (f g)(x) = x 1 x2

x1
f g : [1, 2) (2, +) R, (f g)(x) = x2
( )

fg : [1, 2) (2, +) R, fg (x) = x 1(x 2)

Rg = R {0}, f g
g (R {0}) [1, +) = [1, +).
g (2, 3] (,
, ,
, ). , f g :
(2, 3] R,

1
3x
(f g)(x) = f (g(x)) =
1=
x2
x2

4.3

f : A R.
4.5
f RR = R2 ,
(x, f (x)), x A:
Graph(f ) = {(x, f (x)) : x A}

, , .
y
. ,
, . ,
, x
y, ( 4.2).
y =
f (x) a > 0, , . y = f (x) + a y
y = f (x) a, y. ,
y = f (x) a y = f (x) a ,
y. , y = f (x + a),
x a,
52

4.3

Rf

x
Df

4.2: , .

4.3: f (x) = x2 , x [1, 1].

x. y = f (x a), f a x. 4.3
f (x) = x2 Df = [1, 1] a = 1.
y = af (x), y = f (x), y a. y = f (ax), a x. ,
y = f (x) y = f (x) x,
y = f (x) y = f (x) y.
4.4
f (x) = (x 2)2 + 1, [1, 3].
53

4.

2 f (x )

f (x )
f ( x)

f (2x )

f (x )

4.4: f : [1, 3] R, f (x) = (x

2)2 + 1.

4.4

4.6
f : A R A, M R,
f (x) M x A ( M ).
4.7
m R, f (x) m x A, f
m .

.
:
4.1
f , g A, c1 f + c2 g, c1 , c2 R, A.

4.5

4.8

f : A B C A f :

C ( ), x1 , x2 C x1 < x2 f (x1 )
f (x2 ),


C ( ), x1 , x2 C x1 < x2
f (x1 ) < f (x2 ),
C ( ), x1 , x2 C x1 < x2 f (x1 )
f (x2 ),
54

4.6

C ( ), x1 , x2 C x1 < x2
f (x1 ) > f (x2 ).

() () ()
. (f (x) = c, c R).

4.6

4.9
f : A R -- ( ),
f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) x1 = x2 , x1 , x2 A.

, --
. --

x-. , , .
f , f 1 f . f 1 : f (A) A
:
(
)
1. f f 1 (x) = x x f (A),
2. f 1 (f (x)) = x x A.
, y = f (x) x A, x = f 1 (y).
,
.
4.6:
f : [0, +) R f (x) = x2 --,
. f 1 : [0, +) R (

f ), f 1 (x) = x.

y = x. , (x0 , y0 ) f ( y0 = f (x0 )),
(y0 , x0 ) f 1 ( x0 = f 1 (y0 )).
(x0 , y0 ) (y0 , x0 ) y = x. ,

4.5. , , .

4.7

4.10
f : A R, x A (x) A.
f
, f (x) = f (x) x A,
55

4.

4.5: x2
).

x, y = x (

, f (x) = f (x) x A.

y, . ,
x = 0, f (0) = f (0) f (0) = 0.
4.7:

f : R R f (x) = x2 ( 4.6()) ,
f (x) = (x)2 = x2 = f (x)

4.8:

f : R R f (x) = x3 ( 4.6()) ,
f (x) = (x)3 = x3 = f (x)

4.9:
f ( 0) .
E O, f
f (x) + f (x)
2
f (x) f (x)
O(x) =
2
f (x) = E(x)+O(x), E O
:
f (x) + f (x)
= E(x)
E(x) =
2
f (x) f (x)
f (x) f (x)
O(x) =
=
= O(x)
2
2
E(x) =

56

4.8

(x,y)

(x,y)

( x,y)

( x, y)

()

()

4.6: () (f (x) = x2 ) () (f (x) =

x3 ).

4.8

4.11

f : A R T = 0,

i) x A x + T A,
ii) f (x) = f (x + T ) x A.

f : R R T , kT ,
k Z {0} f .
T , x T .
.

4.9
4.9.1

4.12

f : R R
f (x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 =

a x

=0

n N, a R, = 1, . . . , n .

an = 0, n. , f (x) = ax + b.
, ,
b = 0. , a > 0,
a < 0 , a = 0.
57

4.

4.7: x, x2 x3 .

, f (x) = xn , n N (
4.7). n ,
n .

4.9.2

4.13
p(x), q(x) A = {x R : q(x) = 0},
f : A R
f (x) =

p(x)
q(x)

,
n
i
an xn + an1 xn1 + . . . + a1 x + a0
i=0 ai x

=
f (x) =
m
j
bm xm + bm1 xm1 + . . . + b1 x + b0
j=0 bj x
{x R : bm xm +bm1 xm1 +. . .+b1 x+b0 = 0}. ,
.
.

58

4.9

4.9.3

4.14
f , y = f (x)
r(x, y) = 0, r(x, y) x y,
r(x, y) = n (y)xn + n1 (y)xn1 + . . . + 1 (y)x + 0 (y)

(y), = 0, . . . , n y.

(.. ).

4.9.4

:
(sin), R [1, 1],
2, [2k 2 , 2k + 2 ]
[2k + 2 , 2k + 3
2 ], k Z.
(cos), R [1, 1],
2, [2k, (2k + 1)] [(2k 1), 2k], k Z.
(tan), R {x : x = k + 2 , k Z} R,
(k 2 , k + 2 ).
(cot), R {x : x = k, k Z}
R, (k, (k + 1)).
4.8.
:
i. sin2 x + cos2 x = 1

viii. sin(x y) = sin x cos y sin y cos x

ii. sin(x) = sin x

ix. cos(x y) = cos x cos y sin x sin y

iii. cos(x) = cos x

x. tan(x y) =

iv. tan(x) = tan x

xi. sin x + sin y = 2 sin

v. sin 2x = 2 sin x cos y

vi. cos 2x = 2 cos2 x 1
vii. tan 2x =

2 tan x
1tan2 x

tan xtan y
1tan x tan y

xii. sin x sin y = 2 sin

( x+y )
2

( xy )

cos

( xy )
2

( x+y )

cos 2
(
)
(
)
xiii. cos x + cos y = 2 cos x+y
cos xy
2
2
(
)
(
)
xiv. cos x cos y = 2 sin x+y
sin yx
2
2

59

4.

()

()

()

()

4.8: () sin x, () cos x, () tan x, () cot x.

4.9.5

]
[
f (x) = sin x, 2 , 2 . H f , -- . arcsin
[
]
( ), [1, 1] 2 , 2 .
, f (x) = cos x, [0, ]. f
, , arccos
( ), [1, 1] [0, ].
(
)
, f (x) = tan x, 2 , 2 . f
, . arctan (
)
(
), R 2 , 2 .
, f (x) = cot x, (0, ). f , . arccot ( ),
R (0, ).

4.9.

4.9.6

4.15

f : R R f (x) = ax , a > 0, .

. n N, :
1. a0 = 1, a1 = a, an = a
| a {z. . . a}.
n (>1)
n

2. a

1
.
an
1

3. a n , a > 0 n , n ,
a.
( 1 )m
m
.
4. m, n N , a n = a n

60

4.9

()

()

()

()

4.9: () arcsin x, () arccos x, () arctan x,

() arccot x.

, (0, +)
a > 1, 0 < a < 1 ( a = 1).
:
i. ax1 ax2 = ax1 +x2
ax1
ii. x2 = ax1 x2
a

iv. (a b)x = ax bx

iii. (ax1 )x2 = ax1 x2

vi. x < 0, a > b ax < bx

v. x > 0, a > b ax > bx

4.10 .

4.9.7

4.16
f (x) = ax a > 0, a = 1,
a, (0, +) R:
loga : (0, +) R

5. ,
.

61

4.

4.10: 2x

( 1 )x
2

a > 1
0 < a < 1. , :
x1
= loga x1 loga x2
x2

i. loga a = 1, loga 1 = 0

iv. loga

ii. x = aloga x

v. loga x =

logb x
logb a

vi. loga xx1 2 = x2 loga x1

iii. loga (x1 x2 ) = loga x1 + loga x2

4.11 .

4.9.8

:
4.17

sinh x =

ex ex
2

R R.

sinh .
4.18

cosh x =

ex + ex
2

R [1, +).

cosh (, 0], [0, +) .

4.19

tanh x =

ex ex
ex + ex

R (1, 1).
62

4.9

log 2 x

log 0.5 x

4.11: log2 x log0.5 x.

tanh .
4.20

coth x =

ex + ex
ex ex

R {0} (, 1) (1, +).

coth (, 0), (0, +)

. 4.12.
:
vii. cosh x sinh x = ex

i. cosh2 x sinh2 x = 1
ii. cosh2 x + sinh2 x = cosh 2x

viii. sinh x < cosh x

iii. sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x

iv. sinh(x y) = sinh x cosh y sinh y cosh x
v. cosh(x y) = cosh x cosh y sinh x sinh y

ix. sinh(x) = sinh x

x. cosh(x) = cosh x
xi. tanh(x) = tanh x

vi. cosh x + sinh x = ex

63

4.

()

()

()

()

4.12: () sinh x, () cosh x, () tanh x, ()

coth x.

64

,
. , ,
. , ,
.

5.1

R,
.
5.1
- > 0
x0 R (x0 , x0 + ):
(x0 ) = {x R : x0 < x < x0 + }

,
. x x0
, < x x0 < , |x x0 | < . - x0
, x0 .
5.2
x0 R A,
- x0 x A, x = x0 :
A ( (x0 ) {x0 }) =

. .
5.1:
A = (0, 1) [0, 1]

65

5.

5.2:
B = {x = n1 : n N} ,
0
/ B. , R
, .
:
5.3
x0 R A, x0 A
x0 A.

,
A. (.. {1, 2, 3}), .
, +, .
5.4
+ A, > 0
x A x > ,
(, +) A =

5.5
A, > 0
x A x < :
(, ) A =

, ,
.
5.6
f : A R R x0 A. f L R ( L R) x x0 , > 0
() > 0, |f (x) L| < x A 0 < |x x0 | < .

lim f (x) = L
xx0

f (x) L x x0 .

.
x x0 0, x = x0 . ,
x A, x f .
: f L R x x0 , > 0
() > 0, f (x) (L), x A x = x0 x (x0 ).
5.1. , f x0 L R,
y - L, ,
x - x0 ( x0 ). .
66

5.1

5.1: L x0 .

:
lim f (x) = L lim (f (x) L) = 0 lim |f (x) L| = 0

xx0

xx0

xx0

. , limxx0 f (x) >
0, - x0 f x
, x = x0 .
limxx0 f (x) < 0. , f x0 f ()
x0 , limxx0 f (x) 0 (limxx0 f (x) 0).
5.3:

lim (2x + 1) = 3

x1

> 0 > 0, |(2x + 1) 3| <

|x 1| < x = 1. :
|(2x + 1) 3| < |2x 2| < |x 1| <

2
2+
<x1<
<x<
2
2
2
2

, 0 < |x 1| < 1 < x < 1 + ,

1

2
2+
1 +
2
2

2 . , > 0,

|x 1| < 2 |x 1| < |(2x + 1) 3| <

2
x = 1.

67

> 0,

5.

5.2: f (x) = sin x1 , x = 0.

. , f L R ( L R) x
x0 , (an ) lim an = x0 an A,
lim f (an ) = L.
, , . , (an ) (bn ) an , bn A, lim an =
lim bn = x0 , lim f (an ) = lim f (bn ),
f : A R R x0 .
5.4:

f (x) = sin

1
x

x = 0, . (an ), (bn ),
1
2
an = 2n
, bn = 4n+
, lim an = lim bn = 0. ,

lim f (an ) = lim [sin (2n)] = lim 0 = 0

[ (
)]
lim f (bn ) = lim sin 2n +
= lim 1 = 1
2
lim f (an ) = lim f (bn ). , limx0 sin x1 . 5.2 f (x) = sin x1 x = 0.
:
5.1
.

, -

f , g x0 .
:
68

5.1

lim [f (x) + g(x)] = lim f (x) + lim g(x)

xx0

xx0

xx0

limxx0 f (x) = L1 , limxx0 g(x) = L2 (L1 , L2 R).

> 0 1 , 2 > 0, |f (x) L1 | < 2 x
0 < |x x0 | < 1 , |g(x) L2 | < 2 x 0 < |x x0 | < 2 . , x
0 < |x x0 | < min{1 , 2 }
|(f (x) + g(x)) (L1 + L2 )| = |(f (x) L1 ) + (g(x) L2 )|
|f (x) L1 | + |g(x) L2 |

< +
2 2
=
limxx0 [f (x) + g(x)] = L1 + L2 .

lim [f (x) g(x)] = lim f (x) lim g(x)

xx0

xx0

xx0

lim [ f (x)] = lim f (x), R

xx0

lim

xx0

xx0

lim f (x)
f (x)
xx0
=
, lim g(x) = 0
xx0
g(x)
lim g(x)
xx0

]n

lim [f (x)] =
xx0

lim

xx0

f (x) =

lim f (x)

xx0

,nN

lim f (x), n N, f x0 ,

xx0

n





lim |f (x)| =  lim f (x)
xx0

xx0

:
5.2
f : A R, g : f (A) R, x0 A, y0
f (A), limxx0 f (x) = y0 , limyy0 g(y) = L f (x) = y0
x0 x = x0 ,
lim (g f ) (x) = lim g(f (x)) = lim g(y) = L

xx0

xx0

yy0

, .
5.5:

{
f (x) = g(x) =

69

0, x = 0
1, x = 0

5.

limx0 f (x) = limx0 g(x) = 0, ()

, limx0 g(f (x)) = limy0 g(y) = 0. ,
{
1, x = 0
(g f ) (x) = g(f (x)) =
0, x = 0
limx0 g(f (x)) = 1. f (x) = 0
x = 0 x = 0.
:
lim c = c, c R
xx0

f (x) = c, c R, x R 0 < |x x0 | < |f (x) c| < > 0,

|f (x) c| = |c c| = 0.

lim x = x0
xx0

f (x) = x, |f (x) x0 | < |x x0 | < . , = , 0 < |x x0 | <

|f (x) x0 | < .

lim xn = xn0 , n N
xx0

lim

xx0

p(x0 )
p(x)
=
, p(x), q(x) , q(x0 ) =
q(x)
q(x0 )

0
lim

xx0

lim

x0

x=

n
x0 , x0 0 n

sin x
=1
x

5.6:

[
]
limx2 2 3x2 + 4 , :
]
[

lim 2 3x2 + 4 = 2 lim 3x2 + 4

x2
x2

= 2 lim (3x2 + 4)
x2

= 2 lim (3x2 ) + lim 4

x2
x2

= 2 12 + 4
=8

( 5.3)
,
. , f , g h,
A x0 A.
70

5.2

y
h(x )

L
f (x )
g(x )

x0

5.3: .

5.3
:

f h x0 -

i) f (x) g(x) h(x) - x0 ,

ii) limxx0 f (x) = limxx0 h(x) = L,

lim g(x) = L

xx0

( )
5.7:
f f (x) = x2 sin x1 x R x = 0,
x = 0 . ,
x = 0
( )
1
x2 x2 sin
x2
x

( )
(
)
lim x2 = lim x2 = 0

x0

x0

, limx0 f (x) = 0. x = 0 5.4.

5.2

,
.
5.7
f L R x x0 ,
> 0 () > 0, |f (x) L| < x A x0 < x < x0 + .
71

5.

5.4: f (x) = x2 sin

(1)
x .

lim f (x) = L

xx+
0

5.8
f L R x x0 ,
> 0 () > 0, |f (x) L| < x A
x0 < x < x0 .
lim f (x) = L

xx
0

,
. ,
. ,
f x (a, x0 ) (x0 , b),
lim f (x) = L lim f (x) = lim f (x) = L

xx0

xx
0

xx+
0

, f (x0 , b), (a, x0 ),

lim f (x) = lim f (x)

xx0

xx+
0

(a, x0 ), (x0 , b),

lim f (x) = lim f (x)
xx
0

xx0

5.3

f : A R x0 A.
5.9
f + ( + ) x
x0 , > 0 () > 0, f (x) > x A
0 < |x x0 | < .
lim f (x) = +

xx0

72

5.4

x0 - d x0 x0 + d

5.5: + x0 .

5.5.
5.10
f ( ) x
x0 , > 0 () > 0, f (x) <
x A 0 < |x x0 | < .
lim f (x) =

xx0

:
lim f (x) = + lim [f (x)] =
xx0

xx0

lim f (x) = lim [f (x)] = +

xx0

xx0

1
xx0 f (x)

= +

1
xx0 f (x)

lim f (x) = 0 f (x) > 0 - x0 , lim

xx0

lim f (x) = 0 f (x) < 0 - x0 , lim

xx0

f (x) g(x) - x0 ,
lim f (x) = + lim g(x) = +
xx0

xx0

lim g(x) = lim f (x) =

xx0

5.4

xx0

f : A R, +,
A.
5.11
f L R ( L R) x
+, > 0 () > 0, |f (x) L| < x A
x > .
lim f (x) = L

x+

73

5.

5.6: L R +.

5.6.
5.12
f L R ( L R) x
, > 0 () > 0, |f (x) L| < x A
x < .
lim f (x) = L

lim xn = +, n N

x+

lim

xn

+, n
,nN
, n

1
= 0, n N
x xn
lim

)
(
1 x
=e
lim
1+
x+
x
a > 1, lim ax = +, lim ax = 0
x+

0 < a < 1, lim ax = 0, lim ax = +

x+

a > 1, lim loga x = +

x+

0 < a < 1, lim loga x =

x+

lim arctan x =

x+

, lim arctan x =
2 x
2
74

5.5

5.5

,
.
f x0
, x x0 , f (x)
f (x0 ). , f (x0 ) ( ),
x x0 . ,
.
5.13
f : A R x0 A, > 0
() > 0, |f (x) f (x0 )| < |x x0 | < x A.

, : f : A R
x0 A, (f (x0 )) f (x0 ) (x0 )
x0 , f (x) (f (x0 )) x A x (x0 ).

( L f (x0 )), ,
x0 ,
.
x0 A, f
x0
lim f (x) = f (x0 )
xx0

: f : A R x0 A, (an ), an A, lim an = x0 ,
lim f (an ) = f (x0 ).

. , x0 A
f : A R. - x0 , A (x0 ) =
{x0 }. |x x0 | < x A x = x0 ,
|f (x) f (x0 )| < > 0 ( f (x) = f (x0 )).
5.14
f .

f x0 , x0 x0
. , ,
, .
5.4
f, g : A R A,
f + g, f g, f g, f ( R) A, fg
A {x R : g(x) = 0}.

:
75

5.

5.5 f : A R x0 A g : f (A) R
f (x0 ) f (A), (g f ) : A R x0 .

f x0 , > 0 > 0,
|x x0 | < |f (x) f (x0 )| <
g f (x0 ), > 0 > 0,
|f (x) f (x0 )| < |g(f (x)) g(f (x0 ))| <
= ,
|x x0 | < |g(f (x)) g(f (x0 ))| <
.

, , .
,
, . :
5.15

f x0 ,
lim f (x) = f (x0 )

xx+
0

5.16

f x0 ,
lim f (x) = f (x0 )

xx
0

5.6 (a, b) x0 (a, b), x0 ,

lim f (x) = lim f (x) = f (x0 )
xx+
0

xx
0

5.17
[a, b],
x (a, b), x = a x = b.

5.8:

( )

x2 sin 1 , x = 0
f (x) =
x

0,
x = 0
76

5.6

y
M

m
O

5.7: , , .

x = 0. x = 0 x2 x2 sin
[
( )]
, limx0 x2 sin x1 = 0

(1)
x

x2 .

(
)
( )
lim x2 = lim x2 = 0

x0

x0

f (0) = 0, x = 0.

5.9:

x |x|
, x < 0
f (x) =
x

2,
x = 0

x < 0 |x| = x, f (x) = x+x

= 2
x
x ( ). ,
lim f (x) = 2 = f (0)

x0

x = 0.
(, 0].

5.6

f : [a, b] R , ,
m, M R, m f (x) M ( 5.7).
, .
- (
5.8):

77

5.

y
f (x 2 )

f (x 1 )
O

x2

x1

5.8: - .

5.7
f : [a, b] R , x1 , x2
[a, b], x [a, b] f (x1 ) f (x) f (x2 ).
:
5.8 f : [a, b] R , y0
f (a) f (b) c [a, b], f (c) = y0 .
, f (x) = y0 [a, b], f .
5.9. [a, b]
c, f (c) = y0 .
5.10: xn = a x > 0, a > 0, n N, .
b R b > 1, 0 < a < b. f (x) = xn ,
f (0) = 0 f (b) = bn > b, f (0) < a < f (b). f
[0, b], , , x0 (0, b),
f (x0 ) = a. xn = a . , f x > 0.
.
Bolzano:
5.9 f : [a, b] R f (a) f (b) < 0,
x0 (a, b), f (x0 ) = 0 ( 5.10).
f (x) = 0 ,
f .
78

5.6

y
f (b)
y0
f (a )

5.9: .

y
f (a )

x0
O

f (b)

5.10: Bolzano.

5.11:
R.
f (x) = a2n1 x2n1 + a2n2 x2n2 + . . . + a1 x + a0
a2n1 = 0, n N, R. a2n1 > 0, limx+ f (x) = +
limx f (x) = . f (x) > 0 x > 1 ,
1 > 0, f (x) < 0 x < 2 , 2 > 0.
a, b R, f (a) > 0, f (b) < 0 a > b. ,
Bolzano, x0 (b, a), f (x0 ) = 0.
( )
5.12: f (x) = tan x, f 4 = 1
( )
(
)
f 3
= 1, x0 4 , 3
4
4 , f (x0 ) = 0.
Bolzano , f
[
]
4 , 3
4 .
f : [a, b] R ,
79

5.

[min f (x), max f (x)]. , f a,

b, (a < b), ,
limxa+ f (x), limxb f (x).

5.7

5.18
f : A R A,
> 0 () > 0, x, y A |x y| <
|f (x) f (y)| < .

5.13: f (x) = x .
x, y R |f (x) f (y)| = |x y|, = ,
|x y| < |f (x) f (y)| <

5.14: f (x) = x1
(0, 1). > 0 x, y (0, 1),
|f (x) f (y)| |x y| < . < 1.


1
1 
1
x = n1 , y = 2n
, n N, x, y (0, 1). |x y| =  n1 2n
= 2n
< ,
|f (x) f (y)| = |n 2n| = n 1 > .
(0, 1).

5.11,
, ,
x, y . ,
. ,
x y, x-, . f
, f (x) f (y) y- . ,
x, y ( ,
x0 ).
, .
, ,
( ). ,
[a, b], .

80

5.7

d1

d2

5.11: .

81

5.

82

6.1

( 6.1), f : A R x0 A. x
h x0 ( (x0 + h) A)
P(x0 , f (x0 )) P (x, f (x)). PP
y = PP (x x0 ) + f (x0 )
PP x ,
PP = tan =

f (x) f (x0 )
y
(KP )
=
=
(KP)
x x0
x

y
x
, y ()
y = f (x), x0 x, x (= h)
.
P , P ,
P, . , x0
, h, h = 0.

y
P

f (x )

f (x 0 )

x0

x = x0 + h

6.1: .

83

6.

, ,
x0 . , PP ,

.P = lim PP = lim
xx0

xx0

f (x) f (x0 )
= tan
x x0

. , , R :
lim

x0+

y
y
= lim

x x0 x

PP ,
P P ( x > x0 ), P P
( x < x0 ).
x0 , y
. , limxx0 x
R,
,
f x0 , (x0 , f (x0 ))
.P . ,

y = .P (x x0 ) + f (x0 )
x0 , x0 .

6.2
6.2.1

6.1
f : A R x0 A. f x0 ,

f (x) f (x0 )
lim
xx0
x x0
R. , f x0 :

( )
df
df 

,
f (x0 ),

dx x0
dx x0

(x = x0 + h),
lim

xx0

f (x) f (x0 )
f (x0 + h) f (x0 )
= lim
h0
x x0
h

y = f (x) f (x0 ) x = x x0 ,
:
y
f (x) f (x0 )
= lim
lim
xx0
x0 x
x x0
, R (
).

84

6.2

f , .
6.1:
f f (x) =
x R x = 0. :

6.2:

x1
h
xxh
= lim
h0 hx(x + h)
1
= lim
h0 x(x + h)
1
= 2
x

f (x + h) f (x)
= lim
h0
h0
h
lim

, x = 0

1
x

1
x+h

( )
1
1
= 2
x
x

( )

x cos 1 , x = 0
f (x) =
x2

0,
x=0

x = 0.
(
)
1
(0
+
h)
cos
0
2
f (0 + h) f (0)
(0+h)
= lim
lim
h0
h0
h
[
( )]h
1
= lim cos
h0
h2

, (an ), (bn ) an =

1
bn = 2n
,
[
( )]
[
( )]
1
1
lim cos
= 0 = 1 = lim cos 2
2
an
bn

2
4n+ ,

, f x = 0.
f : A R B A.
6.2
f
B f (x) x B.

,
. f : A R x0 A.

85

6.
y

x0

()

x0

()

x0

()

6.2: : () f+
(x0 ) = f
(x0 ), (f+
(x0 ), f
(x0 ) R), ()

f+ (x0 ) = +, f (x0 ) = , () f+ (x0 ) = f (x0 ) = +.

6.3

f x0 , R
(
)
f (x0 + h) f (x0 )
f (x) f (x0 )
lim
= lim
x x0
h
h0+
xx+
0

, f x0
f+ (x0 ).
6.4

f x0 , R
(
)
f (x) f (x0 )
f (x0 + h) f (x0 )
lim
= lim
x x0
h
h0
xx
0

, x0
f (x0 ).
f x0 ,
x0
:
f x0 f (x0 ) = f+ (x0 ) = f (x0 ), f (x0 ) R
R,
, , ( 6.2()).
.
,
y- ( 6.2(), 6.2()).

. :

6.1 ,
.

86

6.2

6.3: f (x) = |x|.

f x0 , limxx0
R, x = 0 :

f (x)f (x0 )
xx0

(= f (x0 ))

lim f (x) = lim (f (x) f (x0 ) + f (x0 ))

xx0
]
[
f (x) f (x0 )
= lim
(x x0 ) + f (x0 )
xx0
x x0
[
]
f (x) f (x0 )
= lim
(x x0 ) + lim f (x0 )
xx0
xx0
x x0
f (x) f (x0 )
= lim
lim (x x0 ) + f (x0 )
xx0
xx0
x x0
= f (x0 ) 0 + f (x0 )

xx0

= f (x0 )
x0 .

,

(, , ). f (x) = |x| ( 6.3),
R. x = 0 ,
. ,
f+ (0) = lim

x0+

f (x) f (0)
x
= lim
=1
+
x0
x0 x

f (0) = lim

x0

f (x) f (0)
x
= lim
= 1

x0
x
x0

f+ (0) = f (0).
87

6.

6.2.2

f , g , :
(f + g) (x) = f (x) + g (x)
(f g) (x) = f (x) g (x)
(f ) (x) = f (x), R
(f g) (x) = f (x)g(x) + f (x)g (x)
( )
f
f (x)g(x) f (x)g (x)

(x) =
g
[g(x)]2
:
(c) = 0, c R

lim

xx0

f (x) f (x0 )
cc
= lim
= lim 0 = 0
xx0 x x0
xx0
x x0

(xn ) = nxn1 , n Z

n N,
lim

xx0

f (x) f (x0 )
xn xn0
= lim
xx0 x x0
h
(x x0 )(xn1 + xn2 x0 + . . . + xxn2
+ xn1
)
0
0
= lim
xx0
x x0
= lim (xn1 + xn2 x0 + . . . + xxn2
+ xn1
)
0
0
xx0

= x0n1 + xn2
x0 + . . . + x0 xn2
+ xn1
0
0
0
= nx0n1
n = 0, (xn ) = (x0 ) = (1) = 0, .
n Z n < 0, m = (n) N,
lim

xx0

xn xn0 m=n
xm xm
f (x) f (x0 )
0
= lim
= lim
xx0 x x0
xx0
x x0
x x0
)
m(
(xx0 ) xm xm
0
= lim
m
xx0
(xx0 ) (x x0 )
xm xm
0
= lim
m
xx0 (xx0 ) (x x0 )
(
)
(x x0 ) xm1 + xm2 x0 + . . . + xxm2
xm1
0
0
= lim
m
xx0
(xx0 ) (x x0 )
=

xm1
+ x0m2 x0 + . . . + x0 xm2
+ xm1
0
0
0
x2m
0

mxm1
0
= mxm1
= nxn1
0
0
x2m
0

88

6.2

(xr ) = rxr1 , r Q
(ln x) =

1
,x>0
x

lim

xx0

ln xx0
f (x) f (x0 )
ln x ln x0
= lim
= lim
xx0
xx0 x x0
x x0
x x0
(
)
1
x + x0 x0
= lim
ln
xx0
x x0
x0
1
(
) xx
0
x x0
= lim ln 1 +
xx0
x0
(
x0 1
) xx
x0
0
1

= lim ln
1 + x0
xx0

xx0

1
1
ln 1 +
u x0
u
1
1
=
ln e =
x0
x0

)u ]

= lim

(loga x) =

1
x ln a

(ax ) = ax ln a, a > 0
(ex ) = ex
(sin x) = cos x

lim

xx0

f (x) f (x0 )
sin x sin x0
= lim
xx0
x x0
x x0
(
)
(
)
0
0
2 sin xx
cos x+x
2
2
= lim
xx0
xx
( xx0 ) 0
(
)
sin
x + x0
2
= lim
lim cos
xx0
xx0
xx0
2
2
= cos x0

(cos x) = sin x
(tan x) =

1
cos2 x
(

(tan x) =
=

sin x
cos x

1
cos2 x + sin2 x
=
2
cos x
cos2 x

89

(sin x) cos x sin x(cos x)

cos2 x

6.

(cot x) =

1
sin2 x

(sinh x) = cosh x
(cosh x) = sinh x
1
cosh2 x
1
(coth x) =
sinh2 x
(tanh x) =

6.2.3

.
6.2 f : A R g : f (A) R. f
x A g y = f (x),
g f x :
(g f ) (x0 ) = g (f (x)) f (x)
Leibniz, u = f (x) v = g(u),
( )

dv du
dv
=
dx
du dx

f x0 g y0 = f (x0 ).

g(y) g(y0 )
, y = y0
(y) =
y y0

g (y0 ),
y = y0
y0 ,
lim (y) = lim

yy0

yy0

g(y) g(y0 )
= g (y0 ) = (y0 )
y y0

x0 ,

lim

xx0

g (f (x)) g (f (x0 ))
g (f (x)) g (f (x0 )) f (x) f (x0 )
= lim
xx0
x x0
f (x) f (x0 )
x x0
[
]
f (x) f (x0 )
= lim (f (x))
xx0
x x0

f (x) = f (x0 ), f (x) = f (x0 ).

f (x) x0 , x0 , limxx0 f (x) = f (x0 ),
lim (f (x)) = lim (y) = (y0 ) = g (y0 )

xx0

yy0

90

6.2

lim

xx0

f (x) f (x0 )
= f (x0 )
x x0

lim

xx0

g (f (x)) g (f (x0 ))
f (x) f (x0 )
= lim (f (x)) lim
xx0
xx0
x x0
x x0

= g (y0 )f (x0 )

. ,
(f g h) (x) = f (g (h(x))) g (h(x)) h (x)
, ,
du dv dw
du
=
dx
dv dw dx
u = f (v), v = g(w), w = h(x).
6.3:

f (x) = xa , a x > 0,
(
)
f (x) = (xa ) = ea ln x
= ea ln x (a ln x)
a
= xa = axa1
x

6.4:

f (x) = tan (3 + cos x),

1
(3 + cos x)
cos2 (3 + cos x)
sin x
= 2
cos (3 + cos x)

f (x) =

6.5:

f (x) = sin (cos (sin x)),

f (x) = cos (cos (sin x)) (cos (sin x))
= cos (cos (sin x)) ( sin (sin x)) (sin x)
= cos (cos (sin x)) sin (sin x) cos x

f (x) = f (x0 ),

g (f (x)) g (f (x0 ))
f (x) f (x0 )
= 0 = (f (x0 ))
x x0
x x0

91

6.

6.3
f : A R,
A. f (x0 ) = 0 x0 A,
f y0 = f (x0 )
(
,

)
f 1 (y0 ) =

df 1
dy

1
f (x0 )

)
=(
y0

1
)

df
dx x
0

y = f (x), y0 = f (x0 ), x = f 1 (y), x0 = f 1 (y0 ), f .

, f x0 , f 1 y0 .
, :
lim

yy0

f 1 (y) f 1 (y0 )
x x0
= lim
= lim
xx
xx0
y y0
0 f (x) f (x0 )

1
f (x)f (x0 )
xx0

1
f (x0 )

(
)
1
f 1 y0 , f 1 (y0 ) = (f (x0 )) .

6.6:
y = arcsin x. x = sin y,
dx
= cos y
dy

dy
1
1
= dx =
dx
cos y
dy
[
]
cos y = 0. y = arcsin x 2 , 2 , , ( )

, y 2 , 2 . cos y > 0,

cos y = 1 sin2 y = 1 x2 . ,
1
(arcsin x) =
1 x2
:
1
(arcsin x) =
1 x2
f 1 y0 ,
(
)
(
)
f 1 f (x) = x, f 1 (y0 ) f (x0 ) = 1.

92

6.2

1
(arccos x) =
1 x2
1
1 + x2
1
(arccot x) =
1 + x2
(arctan x) =

6.2.4

6.5
f : A R, x. f x, ,
f
f

d2 f
dx2

,
f = (f )

( )
d2 f
d df
=
dx2
dx dx
, , ,
:
(
)
d3 f
= f (x)
3
dx
(
)
4f
d
f (4) (x) = 4 = f (3) (x)
dx
........................
(
)
dn f
f (n) (x) = n = f (n1) (x)
dx
f (3) (x) =

6.7:
f (x) = xn , n N, f (k) (x), 1 k n.
n!
n!
n!
(xn ) = nxn1 = (n1)!
xn1 , (xn ) = (n1)!
(n 1)xn2 = (n2)!
xn2 ,

n!
(xn )(k) =
xnk , 1 k n
(n k)!
k = 1, (xn ) =
(xn )(m) =

n!
n1
(n1)! x

n!
xnm ,
(n m)!

(
) (
(xn )(m+1) = (xn )(m) =

1m<n

n!
xnm
(n m)!

n!
(n m)xnm1
(n m)!
n!
=
xn(m+1)
[n (m + 1)]!
=

.
93

6.

f , g n , n-
(f g) Leibniz:
n ( )

n (k) (nk)
(n)
(f g) =
f g
k
k=0

6.2.5

f (0) (x)

= f (x),

g (0) (x)

= g(x).

x = f (t), y = g(t). (x, y) , x = f (t), y = g(t).

, x2 + y 2 = 4 ,
x = 2 cos t, y = 2 sin t, t [0, 2). ,
.
f , g . f
A, t = f 1 (x)
(
)
y = g f 1 (x) . , :
dy dx
dy
=
dt
dx dt
,

dx
dt

= 0,
dy
dy
g (t)
= dt =
dx
dx
f (t)
dt

6.8:

x = cos t + 1, y = sin t + 1, t [0, 2), x = 21 .
dx
= sin t,
dt

dy
=
dx
x =
x =

2 3
2

1
2
1
2:

cos t = 12 , sin t =
y =

2+ 3
2

sin t =

dy
= cos t
dt

dy
cos t
dt
=
dx
sin t
dt

23 .

sin t =

23 .

3
2 ,

y =


12
1
dy 
=
=

(
)

3
dx 1 , 2+ 3
3
2
2
2

12
dy 
1
=
=

3
dx ( 1 , 23 )
3
2
2
2

(
)
2+ 3
1
1
1
3+1
y
x
=
y = x+
2
2
3
3
3
94

6.2

6.4:
x = 12 .

(
)
2 3
1
1
1
31
y
=
x
y = x +
2
2
3
3
3
6.4 () .

6.2.6

6.6
y = f (x) F (x, y) = 0,
.

, F (x, y) = 0
. ,
. , x2 + y 2 = 1

, f1 (x) = 1 x2 f2 (x) = 1 x2 ,
[1, 1] .
. F (x, y) = 0 y, ,
. , , F (x, y) = 0 ,
, . ,
.
6.9:

x2 + y 2 = 1,
( 2
)
x + y 2 = (1)
2x + 2yy = 0
x
y =
(y = 0)
y
95

6.

6.10:

ln x + e x = 2
x = 0

)
y
ln x + e x = (2)
)
(
y
1
y xy
x
+e
=0

x
x2
y

x y xe x + ye x = 0
y

y xe x = x + ye x
y

y =

6.3

x + ye x
y
x

xe

= ex +

y
x

6.7
f : A R x0 A, )
(x x0 ), R, ) : A R, x0
(x0 ) = 0,
f (x) f (x0 ) = (x x0 ) + (x)(x x0 )
x A.

, .
f , x = x0 ,
f (x) f (x0 )
= + (x)
x x0

lim

xx0

f (x) f (x0 )
= lim ( + (x))
xx0
x x0
= lim + lim (x)
xx0

xx0

= + (x0 )
=
, f x0 , x0 , f (x0 ) = . , f x0 ,

f (x) f (x0 )
f (x0 ), x = x0
(x) =
x x0

0,
x = x0
limxx0 (x) = 0 = (x0 ). ,
f (x) f (x0 ) = f (x0 )(x x0 ) + (x)(x x0 )
96

6.3

(x0 ) = 0 (x) , f x0 .
x x0 = h, f : A R f (x0 + h) f (x0 ) =

f (x0 )h + (x0 + h)h.

6.8

f x0
(dfx0 )(h) = f (x0 )h

(x0 + h) A.

, f x0 f = f (x0 +h)
f (x0 ) x0 x0 + h ( h),
f = (dfx0 )(h) + h
limh0 = 0. , , , h.
f (x) = x, f (x) = 1,
(dxx0 )(h) = 1 h = h = x
.
f (x0 )h
(dfx0 )(h)
=
= f (x0 )
(dxx0 )(h)
h
f x0 .
6.11:

y = 2x3 + 5x 2, x R
dy = (2x3 + 5x 2) dx = (6x2 + 5) dx

6.12:

y = tan(5x), x =
dy = (tan(5x)) dx =

(2k+1)
,
10

k Z,

5
cos2 (5x)

dx

h. 6.5 f , x0 .
x0 . , x0 + h, h = 0. BCD tan = (CD)/(BC). (BC) = h tan = f (x0 ), (CD) = f (x0 )h =
(dfx0 )(h). f x0 x h f x0 . f
CE, f = (dfx0 )(h)h + h, h DE. h, DE,
(dfx0 )(h) f x0 .
97

6.

y
E

f (x 0 + h )

D
B

f (x 0 )

Df

(dfx )(h )
0

x0

x0 + h

6.5: .

L(x) = f (x0 )(x x0 ) + f (x0 ), f x0 . L

f x0 : ) f x0
(L(x0 ) = f (x0 )) ) f x0 (L (x0 ) = f (x0 )).
(,
).

6.13:

f (x) = x3 , f x = 2 :
L(x) = f (2)(x 2) + f (2)
(
)
= 3 22 (x 2) + 23
= 12(x 2) + 8
= 12x 16

f
f , x =
dx = h. f = df + x, ,
x. ,
f df

(= f (x) dx)

, , , ,

f (x0 + h) f (x0 ) + (dfx0 )(h) h

98

6.3

6.14: 3 30

( 3.1072325...). f (x) = 3 x x0 = 27 ( x0
) f ) 30). ,
x0 + h = 30, h = 3. ,
( ) 
f (30) f (27) + 3 3 x 
27
(
)


1
3

= 27 + 3
3x2/3 27
1
=3+3
27
28
=
= 3.11
9

, 3 30
0.12% .

99

6.

100

7.1

. f : A
R, x0 A.
7.1
f x0 , > 0,
f (x0 ) f (x) x A |x x0 | < .

7.2
f x0 , > 0,
f (x0 ) f (x) x A |x x0 | < .

. x0 , x0 .

.
7.3
f : A R x0 A ,
f (x0 ) f (x) x A.

7.4
f : A R x0 A ,
f (x0 ) f (x) x A.

,
.
Fermat .
:
7.1 f : [a, b] R x0 (a, b)
x0 , f (x0 ) = 0.

f x0 (a, b).
> 0, x [a, b] |x x0 | <
f (x0 ) f (x)

101

7.

h = x x0 ,
f (x0 ) f (x0 + h)

f (x0 + h) f (x0 ) 0
|h| < . h > 0,

f (x0 + h) f (x0 )
0
h

f x0 ( , f x0 )

f (x0 + h) f (x0 )

f+
(x0 ) = lim+
0
h
h0
,

f (x0 + h) f (x0 )
0
h

h < 0, f x0

f
(x0 ) = lim
h0

f (x0 + h) f (x0 )
0
h

f x0 (f+
(x0 ) = f
(x0 ) = f (x0 )),
,

f (x0 ) = 0
f x0 .

Fermat ( 7.1),
f , , x. Fermat
. , f (x0 ) = 0
x0 f , x0
. , f : R R f (x) = x3
x = 0, f . ,

, . ,
, .
, , f : R R f (x) = |x|,
( ) x = 0, .
, Fermat
. ,
( ) . f : [a, b) R,
() x = a. , ) f x = a ,
) f x = a f+ (a) 0 (f+ (a) 0). f : (a, b] R () x = b,
) f x = b , ) f
102

7.2

f (x 0 ) = 0

x0

7.1: Fermat.

x = b f (b) 0 (f (b) 0).

) , )
) ,
( ).
. ,
.
, ,
. ,
.

7.2
7.2.1

Rolle

7.2
f : [a, b] R, [a, b]
(a, b). f (a) = f (b), (a, b), f () = 0.

f [a, b], . x1 , x2 , . x1 (a, b),

Fermat f (x1 ) = 0, = x1 . , x2 (a, b), f (x2 ) = 0,
= x2 . , x1 , x2 [a, b],
f ( f (a) = f (b)), f .
, f (x) = 0 x (a, b),
.

f : [a, b] R Rolle,
a, b
103

7.

y
f (x 3 ) = 0
f (x 1 ) = 0

f (a ) = f (b)

f (x 2 ) = 0

a x1

x2

x3

7.2: Rolle.

x- ( 7.2).
. s(t)
, .
t1 , t2 (s(t1 ) = s(t2 )),
Rolle t1 , t2 s (t) . ,
: , t (t1 , t2 ). ,
,
.
[t1 , t2 ], s (t)
.
7.1:
f : [a, b] R,
.
(a, b).
x1 , x2 , x3 f x1 < x2 < x3 ,
Rolle [x1 , x2 ] (f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) = 0), 1 (x1 , x2 ),
f (1 ) = 0. , 2 (x2 , x3 ), f (2 ) = 0. 1 = 2 ,
Rolle (1 , 2 ) f , f (1 ) =
f (2 ) = 0. , (1 , 2 ) (a, b), f () = 0.

7.3()-7.3() Rolle, . ,
, .
,
x-.
s .

104

7.2
y

x0

()

()

x0

()

7.3: Rolle: () [a, b], () x0 (a, b), () x0 (a, b).

7.2.2

Lagrange

7.3 f : [a, b] R [a, b]

(a, b), (a, b),
f () =

f (b) f (a)
ba

g : [a, b] R,
g(x) = f (x)

f (b) f (a)
(x a)
ba

g [a, b], (a, b), g(a) = g(b) = f (a). ,

Rolle (a, b), g () = 0. ,
g (x) = f (x)

f () =

f (b) f (a)
ba

f (b) f (a)
ba

7.2:
ex 1 + x
x R. , x = 0. ,
f (x) = ex , x > 0 f
[0, x]. , (0, x),
f () =

f (x) f (0)
x0

e =

ex 1
x

105

7.

f ,
> 0 e > 1

ex 1
> 1 ex > 1 + x
x

x < 0, [x, 0]
(x, 0),
f () =

f (0) f (x)
0x

e =

ex 1
x

f ,
< 0 e < 1

ex 1
< 1 ex > 1 + x
x

ex 1 + x x R.

7.3:
2 . f : [1, 2] R

f (x) = x [1, 2], (1, 2),

1
2 1
=
= 21
21
2
f ,
1<<2

1
1
1
> >
2
2
2 2

1
1
> 2>1+
2
2 2

2 2 = 8 < 9 = 3,
1+

3
4
> 2>
2
3

Lagrange : f [a, b],

,
(a, f (a)), (b, f (b)) ( 7.4). ,
s(t),
[t1 , t2 ],
1)
s (t) s(t2t2)s(t
.
t1
106

7.2

f (b)
f (a )

7.4: Lagrange.

7.4 f A
f (x) = 0 x A, f .

x1 , x2 A, x1 < x2 . [x1 , x2 ] f
(x1 )
, (x1 , x2 ), f () = f (xx22)f
. , , f () = 0,
x1
x1 , x2 A f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), f .

f, g A f (x) = g (x) x A,
, f (x) = g(x) + c, c R.

7.2.3

Cauchy

7.5
f, g : [a, b] R, [a, b] (a, b). (a, b),
f () (g(b) g(a)) = g () (f (b) f (a))
g () = 0 g(a) = g(b),
f ()
f (b) f (a)
=
g ()
g(b) g(a)

, .

107

7.

h : [a, b] R,
h(x) = f (x)(g(b) g(a)) g(x)(f (b) f (a))
h [a, b] (a, b), h(a) = h(b) = f (a)g(b) f (b)g(a).
Rolle (a, b), h () = 0,
f ()(g(b) g(a)) g ()(f (b) f (a)) = 0

[
]
7.4:
f, g : 0, 2 R, f (t) = 2 sin t,
g(t) = 4 cos t.
]
(
)
[
Cauchy 0, 2 , 0, 2 ,
)
[ ( )
]
[ ( ]
g(0) = g () f
f (0)
f () g
2
2
f (t) = 2 cos t, g (t) = 4 sin t, f (0) = 0, f ( 2 ) = 2, g(0) = 4, g( 2 ) = 0,
tan = 1, = 4 2 . , ,
.
, h(x) , y = f (t), x = g(t).
h x2 + 4y 2 = 16 ( 7.5). ,
f ()/g () dy/dx t = = 4 ,

C(2 2, 2). ,
(b)f (a)
ya
C y = 21 x + 2 2. , fg(b)g(a)
xybb x
,
a
A(0, 2) B(4, 0) ( A
t = 2 B t = 0). y = 12 x + 2, ,
, C. , Cauchy
( )
Lagrange,
.

7.3

7.6 f : A R ( A ), A x A. f :
A, f (x) > 0,
A, f (x) < 0,

108

7.3
y

7.5: Cauchy .

A, f (x) 0,
A, f (x) 0,
A, f (x) = 0.

f (x) > 0 A, f ( ). a, b A, a < b.

, (a, b),
f () =

f (b) f (a)
ba

f () > 0 b a > 0, f (b) > f (a), .

. ,
f () A, f (x) 0 (f (x) 0).
, f : R R f (x) = x3 R
f (x) = 3x2 0.
7.5:
g(x) = f (x)/x, f (0) = 0 f .
g (0, +).
,
]
[
f (x) f (x)x f (x)
=
g (x) =
x
x2
,
f (x)x f (x) > 0 f (x) >
109

f (x)
x

7.

y
f (x ) > 0

f (x ) < 0

x0

7.6: .

[0, x], x > 0,

(0, x)
f (x) f (0)
f (x)
f () =
=
x0
x
f ,
x > f (x) > f () f (x) >

f (x)
x

g (x) > 0 (0, +).

7.4

.
7.7 f : A R x0 (a, b),
(a, b) A f (a, b). f (x) > 0 x (a, x0 )
f (x) < 0 x (x0 , b), f x0 ( 7.6).
, f (x) < 0 x (a, x0 ) f (x) > 0 x (x0 , b),
f x0 .

, .. x0 , (x0 , b) ,
(a, x0 ) .
f : R R
( )

x2 sin2 1 , x = 0
f (x) =
x

0,
x=0
110

7.5

7.7: f (x) = x2 sin2

(1)
x

7.7. H f x = 0,
x = 0 f .
,
. ,
7.8
f : A R
x0 A f (x0 ) = 0, x0
i) , f (x0 ) > 0,
ii) , f (x0 ) < 0.

f (x0 ) = 0. , , f (x0 ) = 0 f
x0 , f (x0 ) > 0 f (x0 ) < 0. , f (x) = x4
x = 0 f (0) = 0, f (0) = 0.

7.5

f , A.
7.5
f A, x1 , x2 A
R 0 1
f (x1 + (1 )x2 ) f (x1 ) + (1 )f (x2 )

7.6
f A, x1 , x2 A
R 0 1
f (x1 + (1 )x2 ) f (x1 ) + (1 )f (x2 )

111

7.

7.6:
f : R R f (x) = x2
. x1 , x2 R
f (x1 ) + (1 )f (x2 ) = x1 2 + (1 )x22
,
f (x1 + (1 )x2 ) = (x1 + (1 )x2 )2
= 2 x21 + (1 )2 x22 + 2(1 )x1 x2
x21 + x22 2x1 x2 ,
(
)
f (x1 + (1 )x2 ) 2 x21 + (1 )2 x22 + (1 ) x21 + x22
(
)
(
)
= 2 + 2 x21 + 1 + 2 2 + 2 x22
= x21 + (1 )x22
= f (x1 ) + (1 )f (x2 )

f (x1 + (1 )x2 ) f (x1 ) + (1 )f (x2 )

f .
,
x1 + (1 )x2 x1 x2 , [0, 1]. ,
(x1 , f (x1 )) (x2 , f (x2 ))
y=

f (x2 ) f (x1 )
(x x1 ) + f (x1 )
x2 x1

x = x1 + (1 )x2 y = f (x1 ) + (1 )f (x2 ).

, f ( 7.8), AB
f .
AB
f ,
f (x)

f (x2 ) f (x1 )
(x x1 ) + f (x1 )
x2 x1

f (x2 ) f (x1 )
f (x) f (x1 )

x x1
x2 x1

f (x)

f (x2 ) f (x1 )
(x x2 ) + f (x2 )
x2 x1

f (x2 ) f (x1 )
f (x) f (x2 )

x x2
x2 x1
112

7.5

f (x 2 )

k f (x 1 ) + (1 - k)f (x 2 )

C
A

f (x 1 )

D
x1

kx 1 + (1 - k)x 2

x2

7.8: .

y
f (x 1 ) < f (x 2 ) < f (x 3 )

x1

x2

x3

7.9: , .

, f x, x1 , x2
x1 < x < x2 ,
f (x) f (x1 )
f (x2 ) f (x1 )
f (x) f (x2 )

x x1
x2 x1
x x2
, AB AD DB.

7.9
f (a, b)
() (a, b), f ()
( 7.9).

, :
113

7.
y
6
4
2

-1

x
-2
-4
-6

7.10: f (x) = 1 + (x 1)3 .

7.10

f : A R , f :

A, f (x) 0 A,
A, f (x) 0 A.

7.7:
f : R R f (x) = xn , n N n > 2,
f (x) = n(n 1)xn2 . n , (n 2) ,
f (x) > 0 x = 0 . n , (n 2)
, f (x) > 0 x > 0 f (x) < 0 x < 0. ,
, (0, +) (, 0).
7.7
)
) .

, 7.10, f (x) = 1 + (x 1)3 .

f (x) = 0,
. , f (x) =
1
x 3 x = 0, .

( f (x) = x4 , f (0) = 0,
x = 0). f
x0 , f x0 , (a, b)
x0 (a, b) f (x) < 0 (f (x) > 0) (a, x0 ) f (x) > 0 (f (x) < 0) (x0 , b).

7.6

L Hospital

L Hospital , .
114

7.6 L Hospital

7.11 f, g,
A x0 A. f , g A, x0 .
g (x) = 0 x A x = x0
lim f (x) = lim g(x) = 0

xx0

xx0

lim f (x) = ,

xx0

lim

xx0

lim g(x) =

xx0

f (x)
f (x)
= lim
g(x) xx0 g (x)

limxx0 f (x) = limxx0 g(x) = 0.

A :
{
{
f (x), x = x0
g(x), x = x0
F (x) =
G(x) =
0,
x = x0
0,
x = x0
x0 . , x = x0 F (x) = f (x)
G (x) = g (x). x A x > x0 . F , G [x0 , x] (x0 , x), Cauchy. ,
(x0 , x),
F ()(G(x) G(x0 )) = G ()(F (x) F (x0 ))

f ()g(x) = g ()f (x)

f (x)
f ()
=
g(x)
g ()

+
x0 < < x, x+
0 x x0 ,

lim

f (x)
f ()
= lim
g(x) x+
g ()
0

lim

f ()
f (x)
= lim
g(x) x0 g ()

xx+
0

,
xx0

, ,
lim+

x0

f ()
f ()
f ()
= lim
= lim

g () x0 g () x0 g ()

lim

xx0

f ()
f (x)
= lim
g(x) x0 g ()

115

7.

x + ,

, x x+
0 x x0 .
L Hospital
. , ,
lim g(x) =

lim f (x) = 0,

xx0

xx0

limxx0 f (x)g(x) ( 0 )
f (x)

lim f (x)g(x) = lim

xx0

1
g(x)

xx0

00 . ,
lim g(x) =

lim f (x) = +,

xx0

xx0

limxx0 [f (x) + g(x)] 0 ,

)]
[
(
1
1
lim [f (x) + g(x)] = lim f (x)g(x)
+
xx0
xx0
f (x) g(x)
, 00 , 1 , 0 [f (x)]g(x) ,
lim [f (x)]g(x) = lim eg(x) ln f (x)

xx0

xx0

limxx0 [g(x) ln f (x)] 0 .

7.8:

ln(x + 1)
x0
sin x
lim

00 ,
ln(x + 1)
[ln(x + 1)]
= lim
lim
= lim x+1
x0
x0
x0 cos x
sin x
(sin x)
1

=1

7.9:

lim (x ln x)

x0+

0 (),
lim (x ln x) = lim

x0+

x0+

= lim

x0+

ln x
1
x
1
x
x12

116

= lim

x0+

(ln x)
( 1 )
x

= lim (x) = 0
x0+

7.6 L Hospital

7.10:

lim

x0+

x2x

00 ,
lim

x0+

)
x2x = lim e2x ln x
x0+

limx0+ (2x ln x) 0 (),

lim (2x ln x) = lim

x0+

x0+

= lim

x0+

, ,

lim

x0+

7.11:

(ln x)

ln x

lim ( 1 )
1 = x0
+
2x
2x
1
x
= lim (2x)
x0+
2x12

=0

)
x2x = e0 = 1

lim x1/x

x+

0 ,
1

lim x1/x = lim e x ln x

x+

limx+

x+

(1

ln x
,
(
)
1
(ln x)
1
lim
ln x = lim
=0
= lim

x+ x
x+ (x)
x+ x
x

lim x1/x = e0 = 1

x+

7.12:

lim (cos x)1/x

x0

1 ,
1

lim (cos x)1/x = lim e x2 ln(cos x)

x0

limx0

1
x2

x0

ln(cos x) 00 ,

sin x
1
[ln(cos x)]
cos x
ln(cos
x)
=
lim
=
lim
x0 x2
x0
x0 2x
(x2 )
(
)
1
sin x 1
1
= lim
= 11
2 x0
x cos x
2

lim

117

7.

P(r , q)

q
(

7.11: .

1
2

, ,
lim (cos x)1/x = e 2
2

x0

7.
, P
, (x, y), x, y
R P
. , ,
O ( ) ( ),
( 7.11).
x. P,
P O. ,
r ,
( ,
). P
(r, ). P ,
(0, ), .
, r ,
P(r, ) Q(r, ) r = 0
, |r|
.
,
(x, y), (r, ), .
, , (r, + 2k), k Z,
, , , (r, (2k + 1)),
k Z.
( ) , :
P(r, ) Q(r, + ) Q(r, ) O,
P(r, ) R(r, ) R(r, ) x-,
118

7.

y
S(-r , -q)
S(r , p - q)

P(r , q)

O
Q(r , p + q)
Q(-r , q)

R(r , -q)
R(-r , p - q)

7.12: .

P(r , q)

r
O

7.13: .

P(r, ) S(r, ) S(r, ) y-.

( 7.13)
x = r cos , y = r sin
,
r, ,
r2 = x2 + y 2 ,

tan =

y
x

x = 0 ( x = 0, y,
k + 2 ). , (r, )
, x, y. , ,
r,

r = x2 + y 2
[0, 2), :

x > 0, y 0
arctan xy ,

y
=
+ arctan x , x < 0

2 + arctan y , x > 0, y < 0

x
119

7.
(
)
7.1: r() = 1 + sin 2 , 2

2 3
2

2 2
2

1
2

6
3
2

2+ 2
2

2+ 3
2

(2, 2 )

2+ 3
2

, 3

2+ 2
2

, 4

(23 , 6 )
(0, - 2 )
(1,0 )

2- 2
2

,-

) ( ,1
2

7.14: r() = 1 + sin .

= 2 , x = 0, y > 0, = 3
2 , x = 0, y < 0. , arctan
( )
2, 2 .
7.13: r() = 1 +
sin , [0, 2). ,
r( ) = 1 + sin( ) = 1 + sin = r()
y. ,
.
,
r () = cos
r () > 0 2 < < 2 , r ,
. , , 7.1
r, , ( 7.14).
, 7.15 .

120

7.

() r() = 1

() r() =

() r() = sin

() r() = cos

() r() = 1 + sin

() r() = 1 + cos

() r() = sin 2

() r() = sin 3

() r() = cos 2

() r() = cos 3

() r() =

121

1
cos

() r() = |sin |

7.

() r() = |cos |

() r2 () = sin

() r2 () = cos 2

7.15: .

122

( ) ,
, .
. , ,
. , , ,
, ( ,
).

8.1

8.1
f A.
f F : A R,
F (x) = f (x)
x A.

8.1:
1. f : R R f (x) = x F (x) = 21 x2 .
2. f : R R f (x) = cos x F (x) = sin x.
3. f : R R f (x) = ex f .
4. f : (0, +) R f (x) =

1
x

F (x) = ln x.

F : A R f : A R,
= f (x) x A, G : A R

F (x)

123

8.

G(x) = F (x) + c, c R, f ,
G (x) = (F (x) + c) = F (x) + c = F (x) = f (x)
, F , G c R
f , f .
8.2
f : A R
f , {F (x) + c : F (x) = f (x), c R}.
f

f (x) dx
f

, .
F f ,

f (x) dx = F (x) + c, c R

d
dx

f (x) dx =

d
[F (x) + c] = f (x)
dx

(
d

)
f (x) dx

= f (x) dx

, f f ,

f (x) dx = f (x) + c
f, g,
:

[f (x) + g(x)] dx = f (x) dx + g(x) dx

cf (x) dx = c f (x) dx (c R )
:

xn+1
xn dx =

+ c, n Z {1} (x = 0 n < 0)
n+1

xa+1

+ c, x > 0, a = 1
xa dx =
a+1

ex dx = ex + c

ax dx =

ax
+ c, a > 0, a = 1
ln a

1
dx = ln |x| + c, x = 0
x
124

8.2

sin x dx = cos x + c

cos x dx = sin x + c

8.2
8.2.1

dx = tan x + c, x = k + , k Z
cos2 x
2
1
dx = cot x + c, x = k, k Z
sin2 x
1

dx = arcsin x + c = arccos x + c , x (1, 1)

1 x2
1
dx = arctan x + c = arccot x + c
1 + x2

8.1 f, g : A R, A.
f g ,

f (x)g (x) dx = f (x)g(x) f (x)g(x) dx

:

f dg = f g g df

H f g, H (x) = f (x)g(x).
f g H f g . ,

[f (x)g(x) H(x)] = f (x)g(x) + f (x)g (x) f (x)g(x) = f (x)g (x)

8.2:

ln x dx

, :

ln x dx = (x) ln x dx = x ln x x(ln x) dx

1
= x ln x x dx = x ln x dx
x
= x ln x x + c
125

8.

8.3:

x2x dx

( x )

x2x
2
1
x
dx =
x2 dx = x

2x dx
ln 2
ln 2 ln 2
x2x
2x
=

+c
ln 2 (ln 2)2
2x
=
(x ln 2 1) + c
(ln 2)2

8.2.2

8.2 f A F
. g : B R , g(B) A,

f (g(u))g (u) du = F (g(u)) + c

F, g B,
d
F (g(u)) = F (g(u))g (u)
du
F (g(u)) F (g(u))g (u):

F (g(u))g (u) du = F (g(u)) + c

, F (x) = f (x),

f (g(u))g (u) du = F (g(u)) + c

f (g(u))g (u) du = f (x) dx

x = g(u),
u. ,

f (x) dx x = g(u), dx g (u) du

(, dx ,
).
126

8.3

8.4:

u =

x x + 2 dx

x + 2, x = u2 2 dx = 2u du. ,

( 2
)
( 4
)
x x + 2 dx =
u 2 u 2u du = 2
u 2u2 du
2
4
= u5 u3 + c
5
3
2
4
= (x + 2)5/2 (x + 2)3/2 + c
5
3

8.5:

u =

8.3

cos x

dx
x

x, x = u2 dx = 2u du,

cos x
cos u

2u du = 2 cos u du
dx =
u
x

= 2 sin u + c = 2 sin x + c

8.3.1

Ax2

1
dx
+ Bx + C

:
A = 0, B = 0
, ,

1
1
1
1
dx
=
dx
=
d (Bx + C)
Ax2 + Bx + C
Bx + C
B
Bx + C
1
= ln |Bx + C| + c
B
A = 0, B 2 4AC > 0
x1 , x2 R, A(x x1 )(x x2 ). , ,

1
1
1
=
+
2
Ax + Bx + C
x x1 x x2



1
1

1 =
=
A(x x2 ) x=x1
A(x1 x2 )
127

8.



1
1

2 =
=

A(x x1 ) x=x2
A(x2 x1 )
,

1
1
2
dx
=
dx
+
dx
2
Ax + Bx + C
x x1
x x2
= 1 ln |x x1 | + 2 ln |x x2 | + c

A = 0, B 2 4AC = 0
0,
Ax2 + Bx + C = A(x x0 )2
x0 ,

1
1
1
dx
=
dx =
+c
2
2
Ax + Bx + C
A (x x0 )
A(x x0 )
A = 0, B 2 4AC < 0
,
(
)
B
C
B2
B2
2
2
Ax + Bx + C = A x + 2 x + +

2A
A 4A2 4A2
]
[(
)
B 2 4AC B 2
=A x+
+
2A
4A2
(
)
= A u2 + u20

B
,
u=x+
2A
, dx = du

1
1
dx =
2
Ax + Bx + C
A
=

1
Au0

u0 =

1
1
du =
2
2
u + u0
Au20

u
u0

1
)2

d
+1

2
=
arctan
4AC B 2
8.6:

4AC B 2
2A

u
u0

(
)

u
u0

1
)2

du
+1

1
arctan
Au0

2Ax + B

4AC B 2

u
u0

)
+c

1
dx
2
x 2x

, :
)

(
1
1
1
1
dx =
dx =

dx
x2 2x
x(x 2)
2(x 2) 2x


1  x 2 
= ln 
+c
2
x 

128

)
+c

8.3

8.7:

1
dx
2
3x + 2x + 11

]
[(
)
32
3x + 1 2
2

3x + 2x + 11 =
+1
3
4 2

u =

3x+1
,
4 2

3
32

1
3
dx =
2
3x + 2x + 11
32

1
)2

3x+1

4 2

dx
+1

1
)2

3x+1

4 2

1
dx =
4 2
+1

1
1
du = arctan u + c
u2 + 1
4 2

1
3x + 1
= arctan + c
4 2
4 2

8.3.2

Ax2

ax + b
dx
+ Bx + C

:
A = 0, B = 0
, :
)

b aC
a
ax + b
ax + b
B
dx =
dx =
+
dx
Ax2 + Bx + C
Bx + C
B Bx + C
(
)
a
aC
1
= x+ b
dx
B
B
Bx + C

a
bB aC
1
= x+
d (Bx + C)
2
B
B
Bx + C
a
bB aC
= x+
ln |Bx + C| + c
B
B2
A = 0
:

x
b
ax + b
dx = a
dx +
dx
Ax2 + Bx + C
Ax2 + Bx + C
Ax2 + Bx + C

a
2Ax + B B
b
=
dx +
dx
2
2
2A
Ax + Bx + C
Ax + Bx + C
(
)
(
)

d Ax2 + Bx + C
aB
1
a
+
b

dx
=
2A
Ax2 + Bx + C
2A
Ax2 + Bx + C
(
)
 2

a
aB
1


=
ln Ax + Bx + C + b
dx
2
2A
2A
Ax + Bx + C
129

8.

8.3.1.
8.8:

8.9:

2x + 1
dx
x+3
2x + 1
dx =
x+3

(
2

5
x+3

)
dx = 2x 5 ln |x + 3| + c

4x 1
dx
x2 2x + 1

x
1
4x 1
dx = 4
dx
dx
2
2
2
x 2x + 1
x 2x + 1
x 2x + 1
(
)

d x2 2x + 1
1
=2
dx + 3
dx
2
x 2x + 1
(x 1)2
3
= 2 ln (x 1)2
+c
x1
3
= 4 ln |x 1|
+c
x1

8.3.3

p(x)
dx
q(x)
p(x), q(x) x. .
p(x) q(x), . ,
p(x) = (x)q(x) + (x)
(x) q(x),

p(x)
(x)
dx = (x) dx +
dx
q(x)
q(x)
,
.
p(x)
q(x)
. q(x)

q(x) = C(x x1 )n1 . . . (x xN )nN (x2 + b1 x + c1 )m1 . . . (x2 + bM x + cM )mM
130

8.3

C R, b2i 4ci < 0 i = 1, . . . , M xi , i = 1, . . . , N q(x)

ni . p(x)
q(x) . ,
(x x0 )n n :
A1
A2
An
+
+ ... +
x x0 (x x0 )2
(x x0 )n
A1 , A2 , . . . , An R, (x2 + bx + c)m b2 4c < 0 m :
B 1 x + C1
B2 x + C2
Bm x + Cm
+ 2
+ ... + 2
2
2
x + bx + c (x + bx + c)
(x + bx + c)m
Ai , i = 1, . . . , n Bi , Ci , i = 1, . . . , m

.
, , , ,

1
Bx + C
I1 =
dx

I
=
dx
2
(x x0 )n
(x2 + bx + c)m
m, n N. , n = 1

1
1
I1 =
dx = ln |x x0 | + c
dx =
n
(x x0 )
x x0
n > 1

I1 =

1
dx =
(x x0 )n
=

(x x0 )n dx =

(x x0 )n+1
+ c
n + 1

1
+ c
(1 n) (x x0 )n1

( m > 1,
m = 1 ):

Bx + C
I2 =
dx
2
(x + bx + c)m

x
C
=B
dx
m dx +
2
2
(x + bx + c)
(x + bx + c)m
) (
)
( 2
d x + bx + C
B
bB
1
=
dx
m + C
2
2
2
(x + bx + c)
2
(x + bx + c)m
(
)
( 2
)1m
B
bB
1
=
x + bx + C
+ C
dx
2(1 m)
2
(x2 + bx + c)m
|
{z
}
I

I :

[
I =
dx =
(
(x2 + bx + c)m

131

x+

)
b 2
2

1
(
+

4cb2
2

)2 ]m dx

8.

u0 =

4cb2
2

u0 u = x + 2b , u0 du = dx

u0
1
1

( 2
)m du = 2m1
I =
du
2
2
2
(u + 1)m
u0 u + u0
u0
|
{z
}

Im

(m > 1) :
Im

Im

1
1 + u2 u2
=
du
=
du
(u2 + 1)m
(u2 + 1)m

1
u2
=
du

du
(u2 + 1)m
(u2 + 1)m1
((
)1m )

u2 + 1
u

= Im1
d
2
1m
( 2
)1m

u u +1
1
1

du
= Im1
+
2
2 2m
2 2m
(u + 1)m1
(
)1m
u u2 + 1
3 2m
I

=
2 2m m1
2 2m

m > 1
I1 = arctan u + c , Im
.

8.10:

3x2 11x + 9
dx
(x 1)(x2 4x + 4)

(x 1)(x 2)2 ,
:
3x2 11x + 9
A
B
C
=
+
+
2
(x 1)(x 4x + 4)
x 1 x 2 (x 2)2
(A + B)x2 + (4A 3B + C)x + 4A + 2B C
=
(x 1)(x 2)2
,

A+B =3
A=1

B=2
4A 3B + C = 11

4A + 2B C = 9
C = 1
,

)
1
2
1
+

dx
x 1 x 2 (x 2)2
1
= ln |x 1| + 2 ln |x 2| +
+c
x2

3x2 11x + 9
dx =
(x 1)(x2 4x + 4)

132

8.3

8.11:

1
dx
2
(x + 4x + 5)2

x2 +4x+5 , (x+2)2 +1.

u = x + 2, dx = du

2
1
1
u + 1 u2
dx
=
du
=
du
2
2
(x2 + 4x + 5)
(u2 + 1)
(u2 + 1)2

u2
u2 + 1
du

du
=
(u2 + 1)2
(u2 + 1)2
(
)

1
1
1
=
du
+
u
d
u2 + 1
2
u2 + 1

1
1
u
1
=
du +

du
2
2
2
u +1
2 (u + 1) 2
u +1
1
u
= arctan u +
+c
2
2
2 (u + 1)
1
x+2
= arctan (x + 2) +
+c
2
2
2 (x + 4x + 5)

8.3.4

R (ex ) dx

, x1 , x2 , , xn R(x1 , x2 , , xn ). ex
u = ex
x = ln u
dx =

1
du
u

u:

1
x
R (e ) dx = R(u) du = R1 (u) du
u
8.12:

ex
dx
1 + e2x

u = ex ,

ex
u 1
1
dx =
du =
du
2x
2
1+e
1+u u
1 + u2
= arctan u + c = arctan ex + c

133

8.

8.3.5

R (sin x, cos x) dx

u = tan

x
2

sin x =

2 tan x2
1 + tan2

2u
1 + u2

cos x =

1
1+

1 u2
1 + u2

x
2
tan2 x2
tan2 x2

2
du
1 + u2
,
(
)

2u 1 u2
2
R (sin x, cos x) dx = R
,
du
=
R1 (u) du
1 + u2 1 + u2 1 + u2
dx =

u.
8.13:

1
dx
sin x

u = tan x2 ,

1
2
1
1
dx =
du = ln |u| + c
du
=
2u 1 + u2
sin x
u
1+u2

x 

= ln tan  + c
2

8.3.6

sinm x cosn x dx

m, n N + {0}, :
m, n
, , n = 2k + 1, k N + {0},

m
n
sin x cos x dx = sinm x cos2k x cos x dx

(
)k
= sinm x 1 sin2 x cos x dx

(
)k
= sinm x 1 sin2 x d (sin x)
u = sin x.
m .
134

8.3

m, n
m = 2k1 n = 2k2 , k1 , k2 N,
1 cos 2x
2
1
+
cos
2x
cos2 x =
2
sin2 x =

sin x cos x dx =

1 cos 2x
2

)k1 (

1 + cos 2x
2

)k2
dx

.
8.14:

sin2 5x dx

1 cos 10x
1
1
sin 5x dx =
dx =
dx
cos 10x dx
2
2
2
1
1 1
1
= x
sin 10x + c =
(10x sin 10x) + c
2
2 10
20
2

8.15:

sin3 x cos4 x dx

sin3 x cos4 x dx = sin2 x cos4 x sin x dx

(
)
=
1 cos2 x cos4 x d(cos x)

( 6
)
cos x cos4 x d(cos x)
=
1
1
= cos7 x cos5 x + c
7
5

8.3.7

(
)
R x, x2 a2 dx

x 2 a2 = u x

x=
135

u2 + a2
2u

8.

x2 a2 =

dx =

u2 a2
2u

u 2 a2
du
2u2

( 2
)

(
)
u + a2 u2 a2 u2 a2
2
2
R x, x a dx = R
,
du = R1 (u) du
2u
2u
2u2

u.
8.16:

x2

dx
x2 1

2
x2 1 = u x, x = u 2u+1
dx =
,

x2 1 =
x2

u2 1
2u .

,
)2

4
u2 1
u + 2u2 + 1
du
=
du
2
u 1
2u2
4u3
)
( 2u
1
1
1
1
1
1
=
u+
+ 3 du = u2 + ln |u| 2 + c
4
2u 4u
8
2
8u

)2 1 

1
1(


x + x2 1 + ln x + x2 1 (
=
)2 + c

8
2
8 x + x2 1
 1(
)2 1 
)2

1(


2
2
=
x + x 1 + ln x + x 1
x x2 1 + c
8
2
8


1 2
1 

= x x 1 + ln x + x2 1 + c
2
2

dx =
x2 1

u2 +1
2u

8.3.8

u2 1
du
2u2

)
(
R x, x2 + a2 dx

x 2 + a2 = u x

u2 a2
2u
2 + a2

u
x2 + a2 =
2u
x=

136

8.3

u 2 + a2
du
2u2
, u:
( 2
)

(
)
u a2 u2 + a2 u2 + a2
2
2
R x, x + a dx = R
,
du = R1 (u) du
2u
2u
2u2
dx =

8.17:

dx
4 + x2

u2 +4
u2 4
u2 +4
2
2u , dx = 2u2 du 4 + x = 2u ,

1
1 u2 + 4
du =
du
u2 +4 2u2
u
2u





= ln |u| + c = ln x + 4 + x2  + c

dx =
4 + x2

8.3.9

4 + x2 = u x. x =

(
)
R x, a2 x2 dx

x = a sin u
)
(
u 2 , 2 .

a2 x2 = |a| cos u

dx = a cos u du

(
)
R x, a2 x2 dx = R (a sin u, |a| cos u) a cos u du = R1 (sin u, cos u) du

, sin u,
cos u ( 8.3.5, 8.3.6).
8.18:

9 x2 dx

(
)
x = 3 sin u, u 2 , 2 , dx = 3 cos u du

2
2
9 x dx =
9 9 sin u 3 cos u du = 9 cos2 u du

9
9u 9
=
(1 + cos 2u) du =
+ sin 2u + c
2
2
4
137

8.

u = arcsin x3
2x
sin 2u = 2 sin u cos u =
3

( x )2
3

2x
9 x2
9

x x
9
9 x2 dx = arcsin +
9 x2 + c
2
3
2

8.3.10

)
(
R x, ax2 + bx + c dx

:
a > 0, b2 4ac > 0

)2
(
)2 ( 2
(
)
b
b 4ac

ax2 + bx + c = a x +
= a u2 u20
2a
2a

4ac
b
u = x + 2a
, u0 = b 2a
. , dx = du,
(
)
(
)

)
(
b
2
2
2
2
2
R x, ax + bx + c dx = R u , a u u0 du = R1 u, u u0 du
2a
2

8.3.7.
a > 0, b2 4ac = 0

(
)
b 2
ax + bx + c = a x +
2a
2

)
( 

)
(

b 
2

R x, ax + bx + c dx = R x, x +  dx = R1 (x) dx
2a

a > 0, b2 4ac < 0

)2
)2 (
(
2
4ac b
b

ax2 + bx + c = a x +
+
2a
2a

b
, u0 = 4acb
, dx = du
u = x + 2a
2a
(
)
(
)

(
)
b
2
2
2
2
2
R x, ax + bx + c dx = R u , u + u0 du = R1 u, u + u0 du
2a

, 8.3.8.
a < 0, b2 4ac > 0

)2 (
)2
2 4ac
b
b

ax2 + bx + c = a
x+
2a
2a
138

8.3

4ac
b
u = x + 2a
u0 = b 2a
, dx = du.
(
)
(
)

(
)
b
2
2
2
2
2
R x, ax + bx + c dx = R u , a u0 u du = R1 u, u0 u du
2a
2

8.3.9.
8.19:

x+1

dx
x2 + 4x + 3

x2 + 4x + 3 = (x + 2)2 1, u = x + 2,

x+1
u1

dx =
du
x2 + 4x + 3
u2 1

u2 1 = t u,
u=

du =

t2 + 1
2t
t2 1
dt
2t2

8.20:

2
1 t2 1
t 2t + 1
dt =
dt
2t2
2t2
)
(
1
1
1 1
1
+ 2 dt = t ln |t|
+c
=
2
t
2t
2
2t
t2 1
=
ln |t| + c
2t





= u2 1 ln u + u2 1 + c





= x2 + 4x + 3 ln x + 2 + x2 + 4x + 3 + c

u1

du =
u2 1

t2 +1
2t
t2 1
2t

dx
2
x + 2x + 5

, :

1
1
1
(

dx
dx =
dx =
)
2
2
x + 2x + 5
x+1 2
(x + 1) + 4
2
+1
2

=
du
2
u +1

2
u = x+1
2 . u + 1 = t u,
u=

t2 1
2t

139

8.

du =

t2 + 1
dt
2t2

8.3.11

1 t2 + 1
1
dt
=
dt = ln |t| + c
t2 +1 2t2
t
 2t



= ln u + u2 + 1 + c


(


)2

x + 1
x
+
1

+ 1 + c
= ln 
+
2

 2





= ln x + 1 + x2 + 2x + 5 + c

du =
2
u +1

(
)

ax+b n2 ax+b
ax+b
n
n

1
R x, cx+d , cx+d ,..., cx+d dx

m N n1 , n2 , , n .

m ax + b
u=
cx + d

x=

dum b
a cum

dx = mum1

bc ad
du
(a cum )2

, ni , i = 1, ,

ni

ax + b
=
cx + d

ax + b
cx + d

)1

ni

= u ni

nmi , m ni .
(
)

n1 ax + b
n2 ax + b
n ax + b
R x,
,
, ,
dx =
cx + d
cx + d
cx + d
)
( m

(
) bc ad
m
du b nm nm
m1
n
1
2

,
u
,

,
u
mu
= R
,
u
du
a cum
(a cum )2

= R1 (u) du
u.
,
, m = n1 .

140

n1

ax+b
cx+d , -

8.3

8.21:

dx
x1 4x1

u = 4 x 1, x = u4 + 1 dx = 4u3 du.
:

1
4u3
u2

dx
=
du
=
4
du
u2 u
u1
x1 4x1
)
(
1
=4
u+1+
du
u1
)
(
1 2
=4
u + u + ln |u 1| + c
2



= 2 x 1 + 4 4 x 1 + 4 ln  4 x 1 1 + c

141

8.

142

f : [a, b] R,
[a, b]. f ,
x x x = a, x = b,
= {(x, y) : a x b, 0 y f (x)}
E, .
,
.
, , , , .

9.1

Riemann

9.1

[a, b]
= {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn }

x0 = a, xn = b x0 < x1 < . . . < xn .

[a, b] = {a, b},

. [a, b] [xi1 , xi ], i = 1, . . . , n, [a, b] (
9.1).
9.2

xi xi1 , i = 1, . . . , n, [xi1 , xi ]:
= max{x1 x0 , x2 x1 , . . . , xn xn1 }

x0

x1 x2 x3

...

xn

xn
(= b)

(= a)

9.1: [a, b].

143

9.

x2

x1

x0

xn -1

x1 x2 x3

xn

xn

...

(= b)

(= a)

9.2: .

9.1:

= {0, 0.5, 0.8, 1.2, 1.5, 2}

[0, 2] 0.5.
= {1 , 2 , . . . , n }, i [xi1 , xi ], i = 1, . . . , n,
( 9.2).
, , .
f : [a, b] R, [a, b]
.
9.3
Riemann f
[a, b]
S(f, , ) =

f (i )(xi xi1 ) =

i=1

f (i )xi

i=1

xi = xi xi1 .

Riemann , ,
.
f [a, b],
Riemann f [a, b] n ,
xi xi1 f (i ), i = 1, . . . , n,
f , x x
x = a, x = b, 9.3.
9.4
f : [a, b] R Riemann [a, b], > 0 > 0,
[a, b] <
|S(f, , ) L| <
L R, .

f Riemann [a, b], L

f [a, b]
b
b
f (x) dx
f
a

144

9.1 Riemann

y = f (x )

x1

x0

xn

xn -1

x2

x1 x2 x3

...

xn

xn

9.3: Riemann .

a, b , , x .
f Riemann [a, b],
[a, b] ,
b
b
b
f (t) dt
f (u) du =
f (x) dx =
a

, Riemann .
9.2:
f : [a, b] R f (x) = c, c R,
[a, b], [a, b]
:
n
n
n

S(f, , ) =
f (i ) xi =
c xi = c
xi = c(b a)
i=1

i=1

i=1

, > 0 > 0,
|S(f, , ) c(b a)| <
< , . f
[a, b],

c dx = c(b a)

.
f : [a, b] R = {x0 = a, x1 , . . . , xn1 , xn = b}
[a, b].
145

9.
m3

y = f (x )

mn

m2

x1 x2 x3

...

xn

(= a)

M3

Mn

Mn

M1

mn

m1

x0

M2

y = f (x )

xn

x0

(= b)

(= a)

x1 x2 x3

...

xn

xn
(= b)

()

()

9.4: () () .

9.5

mi = inf{f (x) : x [xi1 , xi ]} Mi = sup{f (x) : x [xi1 , xi ]}

i = 1, . . . , n, f [a, b]
:
L(f, ) =

mi xi ,

U (f, ) =

i=1

i=1

Mi xi

, (
Riemann) . ,
f ( 9.4()), ( 9.4()).
[a, b]
L(f, ) U (f, )
mi Mi , i = 1, . . . , n. , [a, b]
, .
. , ( ) [xi1 , xi ]
.
L(f, ) L(f, )
U (f, ) U (f, )
U (f, ) L(f, ) U (f, ) L(f, ). ,
,
inf sup min max
[a, b], (
).

146

9.1 Riemann

( ). , 1 , 2
[a, b],
L(f, 1 ) U (f, 2 )
)
)
. :
9.6
:

To f [a, b]

f (x) dx = inf{U (f, ) : P}

f (x) dx = sup{L(f, ) : P}

P [a, b].

,
: f : [a, b] R [a, b], f [a, b] :

f (x) dx =

f (x) dx

, f
[a, b].
f [a, b],
[a, b]

L(f, )

f (x) dx U (f, )

, , f
L = {(x, y) : a x b, 0
y f (x)}, L , E(L ) E(). ,
f U U ,
E() E(U ). , f
[a, b],
f :

E() =

f (x) dx
a

, , . ,
,
.

147

9.

9.1
[a, b].

f : [a, b] R ,

:
9.2
f : [a, b] R [a, b],
[a, b].
, f : [a, b] R [a, b],
. , ,
. ,
.
f : [a, b] R [a, b] , [a, b] < ,
:

f (x) dx = 0

f (x) dx
f (x) dx =

.
f, g : [a, b] R [a, b], :
f + g [a, b],
b
b
b
(f (x) + g(x)) dx =
f (x) dx +
g(x) dx
a

c f , c R, [a, b],
b
b
c f (x) dx = c
f (x) dx
a

f g [a, b],
|f | [a, b],
 b
 b



|f (x)| dx
f (x) dx

a

f (x) 0 [a, b],

b

f (x) dx 0

f (x) g(x) [a, b],

b
b
f (x) dx
g(x) dx
a

148

9.2

g
E1

E1
E2

f
m

E2
O

E3
a

()

()

9.5: b
b
: () f (x) g(x) a f (x) dx a g(x) dx, () m f (x) M m(b a)
b
f (x) dx M (b a).
a

m f (x) M [a, b],

b
m(b a)
f (x) dx M (b a)
a

. 9.5(), f (x) g(x),

f x- (= E1 + E2 )
g (= E2 ).
, m f (x) M , 9.5(),
E3 = m(b a) E2 + E3
x,
E1 + E2 + E3 = M (b a).
9.3
f : [a, b] R [a, b],
[a, c] [c, b], c (a, b).

f (x) dx =
a

f (x) dx +
a

f (x) dx
c

f : [a, b] R [a, b], [c, d], [c, d] [a, b].

9.2
9.2.1

,
.
, .
149

9.

9.4 f : [a, b] R, [a, b].

F : [a, b] R
x
F (x) =
f (t) dt
a

[a, b].

x0 [a, b] h > 0, x0 + h [a, b],

F (x0 + h) F (x0 ) =

x0 +h

f (x) dx

x0

x0 +h

f (x) dx =
a

f (x) dx
x0

f [a, b], , M R,

M f (x) M
x [a, b]. ,

M h

x0 +h

f (x) dx M h

x0

M h F (x0 + h) F (x0 ) M h
h < 0,

F (x0 + h) F (x0 ) =

x0

f (x) dx
x0 +h

M (h)

x0

f (x) dx M (h)

x0 +h

M h F (x0 + h) F (x0 ) M h

|F (x0 + h) F (x0 )| M |h|
, =

M,

|h| < ( > 0)

|F (x0 + h) F (x0 )| M |h| < M

=
M

> 0, F x0 .

9.5 f : [a, b] R ,
f F : [a, b] R,
x
F (x) =
f (t) dt
a

150

9.2

d
dx

f (t) dt

= f (x)

[a, b].

f [a, b], > 0 > 0,

|f (x0 + h) f (x0 )| < c, 0 < c < 1, |h| < , x0 [a, b]. :

)

  ( x0 +h
x0

 F (x0 + h) F (x0 )
 1


=
f
(x)
dx

f
(x)
dx

f
(x
)

f
(x
)

0
0

 h

h
a
a


 1 x0 +h



=
f (x) dx f (x0 )
 h x0




 1 x0 +h

1 x0 +h


=
f (x) dx
f (x0 ) dx
 h x0

h x0
  
   x0 +h
 1
1

=   
[f (x) f (x0 )] dx   |h| c

h  x0
h
<
|h| < , F (x0 ) = f (x0 ).

9.3:

F : R R,

1
x2 +1

F (x) =
c

G(x) =
c

1
dt
1 + 2 cos2 t

1
dt
1 + 2 cos2 t

h(x) =

x2

1
+1

F = G h, F (x) = G (h(x))h (x).

G (x) =

F (x) =

1
1 + 2 cos2

(
(

1
x2 +1

1
1 + 2 cos2 x

1
2
x +1

151

)
=

1
1 + 2 cos2

1
x2 +1

2x
(x2

+ 1)2

9.

9.6
f : [a, b] R, [a, b].
F : [a, b] R f [a, b],

f (x) dx = F (b) F (a) = [F (x)]ba

f
x
F (x) =
f (t) dt + c
a

c R. ,

f (t) dt + c = c

F (a) =
a

F (b) =

f (t) dt + c =
a

f (t) dt + F (a)
a

a > b,
, a, b.

9.2.2

9.7
,

f, g : [a, b] R

f (x)g (x) dx =
a

[f (x)g(x)]ba

f (x)g(x) dx

b
b
f dg = [f g]ba
g df
a

f g ,

(f (x)g(x)) = f (x)g(x) + f (x)g (x)

,

(f (x)g(x)) dx = [f (x)g(x)]a

(f (x)g(x)) dx =
a

[f (x)g(x) + f (x)g (x)] dx

152

9.2

f (x)g(x) dx +
a

f (x)g (x) dx

.
9.8 f : [a, b] R g : [, ] R, g() = a, g() = b, g([, ]) = [a, b].

f (x) dx =
a

f (g(t))g (t) dt

F f , F g (f g)g
, , . :

f (x) dx = F (b) F (a)

a

f (g(t))g (t) dt = F (g()) F (g()) = F (b) F (a) =

f (x) dx
a

g(t) . , ,

1
1
dx
2
1 1 + x
x = g(t), g(t) =

1
dx =
1 + x2

1+

12
t

g(1) = 1, g(1) = 1,
)
(
1
1
1
dt
2 dt =
2
t
1 1 + t

1
t

1
dx = 0
1 + x2

( )
1
dx
=
arctan
1

arctan(1)
=

=
1 + x2
4
4
2

, g
[1, 1].

153

9.

9.4:
f : [a, a] R.
a
f (x) dx
a

f . :
0
a
0
a
a
f (x) dx =
f (x) dx +
f (x) dx =
f (x) dx +
f (x) dx
a
a
0
a
0
a
a
a
=
f (x) dx +
f (x) dx =
[f (x) + f (x)] dx
0

f , f (x) = f (x)
a

f (x) dx = 2
a

f (x) dx

f , f (x) = f (x),
a
f (x) dx = 0
a

9.2.3

:
9.9 f : [a, b] R
g : [a, b] R, g(x) 0 g(x) 0 [a, b]. (a, b),

f (x)g(x) dx = f ()
a

g(x) dx
a

g(x) = 1, f : [a, b] R ,
(a, b),
1
f () =
ba

f (x) dx
a

f
[a, b]. :
f : [a, b] R = {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn } [a, b]
xi = ba
n . , f (1 ), . . . , f (n ), i [xi1 , xi ],
i = 1, . . . , n,
f (1 ) + . . . + f (n ) f (i )
1
ba
1
=
=
f (i )
=
S(f, , )
n
n
ba
n
ba
n

i=1

i=1

154

9.3

9.6: .

= {1 , . . . , n }. f [a, b] ,
0 ( n +), S
,
f (1 ) + . . . + f (n )
1
lim
=
n+
n
ba

f (x) dx
a

f [a, b] ,
f . , ,

{
1,
1 x < 1
f (x) =
x + 1, 1 x 2

[ 1
]
(
)
2
2
1
1
5
3
1
f (x)dx =
dx +
(x + 1) dx =
2+
=
2 (1) 1
3 1
3
2
2
1
[1, 2] f
( 9.6). f x = 1,
.

9.3

, .
f : [a, +) R, [a, u].
9.7
f [a, +)
:

f (x) dx = lim
a

u+ a

f (x) dx

R. .
R, .

155

9.

, f (, b]
[u, b], f :

f (x) dx = lim

u u

f (x) dx

R.
f : R R [a, b]
R, f

f (x) dx =

f (x) dx +

f (x) dx

c R, . ,
c.
9.5:

I1 =
1

1
dx,
x2

I2 =
1

1
dx
x

f (x) =
= [1, u] [1, +).
I1 :
]
[
+
u
1
1
1 u
I1 =
dx = lim
dx = lim
u+ 1 x2
u+
x2
x 1
1
)
(
1
=1
= lim
1
u+
u
1
, g(x)
x2

1
x

I1 , I2 :
+
u
1
1
I2 =
dx = lim
dx = lim [ln x]u1
u+
u+
x
x
1
1
= lim (ln u ln 1) = +
u+

. 9.7(), 9.7()

u
u
1
1
dx,
dx
2
1 x
1 x
u > 1 ( ). ,
{(x, y) : x 1, 0 y x12 }
{(x, y) : x 1, 0 y x1 }.
. f : [a, b)
R, [a, u] [a, b).

156

9.3

y=

1
x2

y=

1
x
u
1 dx

1 x

u
1 dx
2
1 x

()

()

9.7:
.

9.8

f [a, b)

f (x) dx = lim

ub

f (x) dx
a

R. ,
.

, f : (a, b] R
[u, b] (a, b], :
b
b
f (x) dx = lim
f (x) dx
ua+

R.
, f : (a, b) R

f (x) dx =

f (x) dx

f (x) dx +
c

c (a, b), .
9.6:

I1 =
0

1
dx,
x

I2 =
0

1
dx,
x2

:
1
1
[ ]1
1
1
dx = lim
dx = lim 2 x u
I1 =
x
x
u0+ u
u0+
0
[
]
= lim 2 1 2 u = 2 0 = 2
u0+

I1 . I2 :
[
]
1
1
1
1
1 1
I2 =
dx
=
lim
dx
=
lim

2
x u
u0+ u x2
u0+
0 x
157

9.

y=

1
x2

1
1 dx
2
u x

1 dx

u x

y=

1
x

()

()

9.8: .

(
= lim

u0+

1
1
u

)
= +

. 9.8(), 9.8()
1
1
1
1
dx, =
dx,
2
x
u
u x
u (0, 1).
{(x, y) : 0 < x 1, 0 y 1x } {(x, y) : 0 < x 1, 0 y x12 }.

, ,
.
9.9
f : (a, +) R
:
+
c
+
f (x) dx =
f (x) dx +
f (x) dx
a

c (a, +), .

f : (, b) R:

f (x) dx =

f (x) dx +

f (x) dx
c

c (, b), .
, .
158

9.4
y

y
a

y = f (x )

y = f (x )

E1

O
b

E2

y = f (x )

()

()

E3
d b

()

9.9:
.

9.4
9.4.1

f : [a, b] R, x [a, b].

E=

f (x) dx
a

f ,
x x = a, x = b ( 9.9()). [a, b] (
9.9()),
b
b
f (x) dx
[f (x)] dx =
E=
a

f [a, b],

E=

|f (x)| dx

, f
. , 9.9() :
c
d
b
E = E1 + E2 + E3 =
f (x) dx
f (x) dx +
f (x) dx
a

f, g : [a, b] R f (x) g(x) [a, b],

f , g x = a, x = b
( 9.10()),

E=

(f (x) g(x)) dx

b
E=
|f (x) g(x)| dx
a

, 9.10(),
E = E1 + E2 + E3
159

9.

y = f (x )

y = f (x )

y = g(x )

E1

O a

E2
c

b
E3

y = g(x )
()

()

9.10: .

(f (x) g(x)) dx +

(g(x) f (x)) dx +

(f (x) g(x)) dx

f : [a, b] R,
r = f (). ,
f = a, = b. =
{0 = a, 1 , . . . , n1 , n = b} [a, b] =
{1 , . . . , n } . f
= i1 = i Ei ri = f (i )
i = i i1 ( 9.11()):
Ei =

i 2 1
r = [f (i )]2 i
2 i
2

1
i=1

[f (i )]2 i

Riemann 12 f 2 . , 0,

1 b
E=
[f ()]2 d
2 a
f, g : [a, b] R
f () g() [a, b] ( 9.11()),
= a, = b,
1
E=
2

b(

)
[f ()]2 [g()]2 d

, , x = x(t), y = y(t),
t [t1 , t2 ]. y(t) 0, x (t) 0, x(t1 ) = a
160

9.4

qi

q =b

qi -1
DEi

q =b

ri
r = f (q)

EE

r = f (q)

q =a

Dqi

q =a
x

r = g(q)

()

()

9.11: = a, = b () f , () f, g (f () g()), .

x(t2 ) = b. ,
x x = a, x = b

t2

E=

y(t)x (t) dt

t1

.
9.7:
r() = sin ,
1
2 ( 9.12). , [0, ],
[, 2] , r() 0. , :

1 2
1 2
1 1 cos 2
E=
r () d =
sin d =
d
2 0
2 0
2 0
2
[
]
1
sin 2

=
4
2
4
0

9.4.2

f : [a, b] R, [a, b], (a, b)

. AB AB
f , = {x1 = a, x2 , . . . , xn1 , xn = b}
[a, b] ( 9.13). AB
[xi1 , xi ]
(xi1 , f (xi1 )), (xi , f (xi )).

i =

(xi xi1

)2

+ (f (xi ) f (xi1 )) =
161

f (xi ) f (xi1 )
1+
xi xi1

]2
xi

9.

9.12: r() = sin ,

.

y
y = f (x )

B
Dl i

xi

xi

9.13: .

i (xi1 , xi ),
f (i )(xi xi1 ) = f (xi ) f (xi1 ). ,

n

1 + [f (i )]2 xi
i=1

Riemann 1 + (f )2 ,
= {i : f (i ) = (f (xi ) f (xi1 ))/(xi xi1 )}. ,
, AB
b
AB =

1 + [f (x)]2 dx

,
x = x(t), y = y(t), t [t1 , t2 ],

t2

AB =

[x (t)]2 + [y (t)]2 dt

t1

162

9.4

y = f (x )
Ei

x i -1 x i

9.14: .

, f r = f (),
b
AB =

[f ()]2 + [f ()]2 d

9.8:

2
f : [0, 1] R f (x) = x2 . ,

1+

[f (x)]2 dx

9.4.3

1 + x2 dx

=
0

1 + x2 = u x, :

1+ 2

u2 + 1 u2 + 1
1
1 + x2 dx =
du =
2
2u
2u
4
1
[ 2
]1+2
1
1 u
=
+ 2 ln |u| 2
4 2
2u 1
)
1
1 (
= + ln 1 + 2
2 2

1+ 2 (

2
1
u+ + 3
u u

)
du

R3
, . ,
R > 0 ,
x- {(x, y) :
x2 + y 2 R2 , y 0}.
f : [a, b] R
[a, b]. Vi
Ei x ( 9.14).
163

9.

x x
x [xi1 , xi ] [f (x)]2 . f
[xi1 , xi ], mi , Mi [xi1 , xi ], mi f (x) Mi
. Vi xi = xi xi1
m2i ( ) Mi2 ( ). :
m2i xi Vi Mi2 xi

m2i

Vi
Mi2
xi

Vi
x
f 2 [xi1 , xi ],
i
i [xi1 , xi ],

[f (i )]2 =

Vi
xi

Vi = [f (i )]2 xi

V =

Vi =

i=1

[f (i )]2 xi

i=1

Riemann f 2 , ,
[a, b]. , ,
,

V =

[f (x)]2 dx

, f, g : [a, b] R f (x) g(x)

x [a, b], x
f g ,
b{
}
[f (x)]2 [g(x)]2 dx
V =
a

x = x(t), y =
y(t), t [t1 , t2 ], x(t1 ) = a, x(t2 ) = b x (t) > 0,

t2
V =
y 2 x dt
t1

9.9:

x- x-
f : [0, ] R f (x) = sin x ( 9.15). , :


2
V =
[f (x)] dx =
sin2 x dx
0

164

9.4

1.0

0.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0 0.0
0
0.5

1
2

1.0-0.5

-1.0

9.15: f (x) = sin x, 0 x ,

x x.

=
0

[
]
1 cos 2x

sin 2x
dx =
x
2
2
2
0

2
=
2

165

9.

166

 10

. ,
.

10.1

(an ).
10.1

a0 + a1 (x x0 ) + . . . + an (x x0 ) + . . . =
n

an (x x0 )n

n=0

x0 R.

an . x = 0,
n

a0 + a1 x + . . . + an x + . . . =

an x n

n=0

x0 = 0, y =
x x0 :

an (x x0 )n =
an y n
n=0

n=0

,
x = 0.
x , ,
.
10.2

n
n=0 an x0 .

n
n=0 an x x

167

= x0 ,

10.

x = 0,

x=0:
an xn = a0

n
n=0 an x

n=0

x
. ,
.
10.1:

1 + x + x + x + ... =

xn

n=0

1 1.
R |x| < 1,
|x| 1. , ,

xn =

n=0

1
,
1x

|x| < 1

n

n=0 an x x0 R,
x |x| < |x0 |. , x0 R,
x |x| > |x0 |.
n
,
n=0 an x :
x = 0,
x R,
R R R > 0, |x| < R
|x| > R. x = R x = R,
.
R .
R = 0, R = +.
, .
n

n=0 an x x,
R. ,

n

n=0 an x : (R, R), [R, R),
(R, R], [R, R], {0}, R, R > 0.
,

n
.
n=0 an x .

lim n |an | R lim n |an | = +.

R=

lim

:
168

|an |

10.1

R = 0, x = 0,
R = +, x R,
R R R > 0, x (R, R),
|x| > R, x = R, x = R.
, R .


 an 

R = lim 
an+1 
10.2:

1 n
1
1
x = x + x2 + x3 + . . .
n
2
3

n=1

an = n1 ,



 an 
 = lim n + 1 = 1

lim 
an+1 
n

R = 1. x = 1,

1 n 1
x =
n
n

n=1

n=1

R ( ). x = 1,

1 n (1)n
x =
n
n
n=1

n=1

, Leibniz. ,
1 n
n=1 n x x [1, 1).

10.3:

1
1
1
(x 2)n = (x 2) + (x 2)2 + (x 2)3 + . . .
n!
2!
3!

n=1

, y = x 2,

1 n
y
n!

n=1

an = n!. :


 an 
 = lim (n + 1)! = lim(n + 1) = +

lim 
an+1 
n!
y R, x R.

169

10.

10.4:

(1)n 5n

n3

n=1

(x + 1)n

y = x + 1,

(1)n 5n

n3

n=1

an =

(1)n 5n
.
n3

1
lim
= lim
n
|an |

yn

n
n3
1
=
5
5

R = 15 . y = 15 ,

(1)n 5n

n3

n=1

yn =

(1)n
n=1

n3

R ( Leibniz). y = 15 ,

(1)n 5n

yn =

n3

n=1

1
n3

n=1

. 15 y 15 ,

6
4
x
5
5

n=0 an x

R > 0,
f (x) =

an x n

n=0

(R, R).
f .

n
n
n=0 an x
n=0 bn x

an xn =

n=0

bn xn

n=0

an = bn .
, . ,
f (x) =
g(x) =

n=0

an xn ,

|x| < R1

bn xn ,

|x| < R2

n=0

170

10.2 Taylor Maclaurin

:
(f + g)(x) =

|x| < min{R1 , R2 }

(an + bn )xn ,

n=0

(c f )(x) =

(can )xn ,

|x| < R1

n=0

c R. ,
(f g)(x) =

|x| < min{R1 , R2 }

cn xn ,

n=0

c0 = a0 b0
c1 = a0 b1 + a1 b0
......................
cn = a0 bn + a1 bn1 + . . . + an1 b1 + an b0
......................
f + g f g,
min{R1 , R2 }.

n

n=0 an x R, f
f (x) =

an x n

n=0

(R, R), (R, R),

f (x) =

nan xn1

n=1

an n+1
f (x) dx =
x
+c
n+1
n=0

, .

10.2

Taylor Maclaurin

Taylor :
10.1 f : [a, b] R, (n+1)
x0 [a, b]. x [a, b] x = x0
f (x) =

f (m) (x0 )
f (n+1) ()
(x x0 )m +
(x x0 )n+1
m!
(n + 1)!

m=0

x, x0 x, x0 n.

171

10.

Tn,x0 (x) =

f (m) (x0 )
(x x0 )m
m!

m=0

Taylor n f x = x0 ,
Rn,x0 (x) = f (x)

f (m) (x0 )
f (n+1) ()
(x x0 )m =
(x x0 )n+1
m!
(n + 1)!

m=0

f x = x0
Tn+1,x0 (x) Tn,x0 (x). Taylor
f (x) = Tn,x0 (x) + Rn,x0 (x)
Rn,x0 (x0 ) = 0 n.
f
Taylor. , |Rn,x0 (x)|
.
f Taylor n x0 x0 n:
(m)
f (m) (x0 ) = Tn,x
(x0 ),
0

m = 0, . . . , n

Taylor f ,
T1,x0 (x) = f (x0 ) + f (x0 )(x x0 )
, , f
x = x0 . , x = a, x = b
f Taylor,
f (b) = f (a) + R0,a (b) = f (a) + f ()(b a)

f (b) f (a)
ba
.
f () =

10.5: 15
Taylor. f (x) = x.
x = 15, x0 = 16 n = 2 ( ),
:
f (15) = T2,16 (15) + R2,16 (15)
Taylor :
1

f (x) = x 2 f (16) = 4
1 1
1
f (x) = x 2 f (16) =
2
8
1 3
1

f (x) = x 2 f (16) =
4
256
172

10.2 Taylor Maclaurin

f (16)
f (16)
(x 16) +
(x 16)2
1!
2!
1
1
= 4 + (x 16)
(x 16)2
8
512

T2,16 (x) = f (16) +

T2,16 (15) = 4
,

15 = f (15) T2,16 (15) =

1983
512 .

R2,16 (x) =

1
1983
1

=
8 512
512

f ()
(x 16)3
3!

[15, 16], :


]
 3 52  [ 1
1



|R2,16 (15)| = 

,

 8 3! 
16384 3600 15

1
16384


 15

1983 
512

1
3600 15

1
( 16384

6.1035 105 , 3600115 7.1722 105 ), ,



 15 1983  = 6.35288 105 .
512

f , Taylor f
x = x0

f (n) (x0 )
n=0

n!

(x x0 )n = f (x0 ) +

f (x0 )
f (x0 )
(x x0 ) +
(x x0 )2 + . . .
1!
2!

, Taylor
Taylor . , Taylor x0 = 0
Maclaurin f .

f , f (x) =
n=0 an (x
n
x0 ) , R > 0,
an =

f (n) (x0 )
n!

: Taylor
; . ,
x0
lim Rn,x0 (x) = 0

n+

f (x) =

f (n) (x0 )
n=0

n!
173

(x x0 )n

10.

10.3
.

10.6: Taylor f (x) = x2 + x + 1

x = 1. :
f (x) = x2 + x + 1 f (1) = 3
f (x) = 2x + 1 f (1) = 3
f (x) = 2 f (2) = 2
f (n) (x) = 0,

n>2

Taylor :

f (n) (1)
n=0

n!

(x 1)n = f (1) + f (1)(x 1) +

f (1)
(x 1)2
2

= 3 + 3(x 1) + (x 1)2
, ,
f (x) = 3 + 3(x 1) + (x 1)2
x R, Rn,1 (x) = 0 n 2.

Taylor f x ,
, f (x).
( 10.1)
{
e1/x , x = 0
0,
x=0
2

f (x) =

f R, f (n) (0) = 0.
Taylor f x = 0 0, ,
f , x = 0.
Maclaurin , :

=
xn = 1 + x + x2 + . . ., |x| < 1,
1x
n=0

ln(1 + x) =

(1)n+1
n=1

ex

1
1
xn = x x2 + x3 . . ., |x| < 1,
2
3

1 n
1
1
=
x = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + . . ., x R,
n!
2
6
n=0

sin x =

(1)n 2n+1
1
1
x
= x x3 + x5 . . ., x R,
(2n + 1)!
3!
5!

n=0

174

10.2 Taylor Maclaurin

tb]

10.1: e1/x .
2

T8,0 (x )
y = ex

T2,0 (x )
y = cos x

T3,0 (x )
T2,0 (x )

T1,0 (x )

T14,0 (x )
()

()

10.2: () y = ex () y = cos x Taylor

x = 0.

cos x =

(1)n
n=0

(2n)!

x2n = 1

1 2
1
x + x4 . . ., x R,
2!
4!

, 10.2 ex cos x,
Taylor .

175