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Taking Action on Adolescent Literacy by Judith L. Irvin, Julie Meltzer and Melinda S.

Dukes

Preface Acknowledgments Introduction PART 1: Goals


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Chapter 1. Student Motivation, Engagement, and Achievement Chapter . Integrating !iterac" and !earning# Across the Content Areas Chapter $. Integrating !iterac" and !earning# Interventions for Struggling %eaders and &riters Chapter '. Sustaining !iterac" (evelopment# School, Parent, Communit", and (istrict Support

PART 2: Action Steps


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Chapter ). (evelop and Implement a Schoolwide !iterac" Action Plan Chapter *. Support +eachers to Improve Instruction Chapter ,. -se (ata to Make (ecisions A.out !iterac" +eaching and !earning Chapter /. 0uild !eadership Capacit" Chapter 1. Allocate %esources to Support !iterac" Conclusion

Chapter 1. Appendi2 A# 3our 4ignettes Appendi2 0# 5lossar" Appendi2 C# +ools for !eaders +aking Action Appendi2 (# %esources for 3urther !earning Appendi2 E# %esearch %eferences %eferences A.out the Authors %elated ASC( %esources# !iterac" and Adolescents

A Stud" 5uide for +aking Action on Adolescent !iterac"# An Implementation 5uide for School !eaders Cop"right

Co yright ! "##$ by Judith Irvin. All rights reserved. %o art o& this ublication 'ay be re roduced or trans'itted in any &or' or by any 'eans, electronic or 'echanical, including hotoco y, recording, or any in&or'ation storage and retrieval syste', (ithout er'ission &ro' ASCD.

Preface
+his .ook was developed for middle school, high school, and district leaders who want to help students improve their academic achievement through a focus on literac". In it we descri.e a !eadership Model for Improving Adolescent !iterac" whose components can and should .e included in an" literac" improvement effort to ensure that the effort is s"stemic and sustaina.le. +he model is designed to illustrate how principals6 traditional areas of responsi.ilit", when seen through the lens of literac", can .e used to improve students6 reading, writing, speaking, and thinking skills and have a positive effect on student achievement. In addition to principals, others involved in the effort7including literac" coaches, assistant principals, team leaders, and department chairs7will find the information, vignettes, suggestions, resources, and ke" messages in this .ook helpful as the" work to improve students6 literac" ha.its and skills. (istrict8level leaders who need to understand and support school improvement efforts can use this .ook as a guide as the" work with schools. Prospective school leaders will appreciate the discussion of the components of schoolwide change with a focus on literac". &e have had e2tensive e2perience working with middle and high school educators across the -nited States and have learned a great deal from school leaders working to improve literac" in their schools. &e have seen pockets of e2cellence where teachers and administrators 9put it all together: and create a literac"8rich environment that pervades the school and classrooms. It is our intention to share what we have learned from literac" leaders throughout the nation in a reada.le and usea.le form. &e hope it is helpful to "ou in "our work to improve literac" and learning for all of "our students.

Acknowledgments
&riting this .ook was a colla.orative effort in thinking and writing. &e have attempted to capture and distill the advice and e2perience of man" educators across the -nited States who share a commitment to the support and development of adolescent literac". +he voices and efforts of hundreds of people are echoed in these pages. 3irst and foremost, thanks to Andres ;enri<ue= at the Carnegie Corporation of >ew ?ork, who .egan the conversation several "ears ago with @udith Irvin a.out the need for tools for school

leaders to use to improve literac" and learning among their students and who championed resource support for the development of the model and the writing of this .ook. ;is powerful vision continues to inspire our work.

ntroduction
+his .ook is for school and district leaders who want to make a difference in the lives of their students through a focus on literac". &hat does literac" have to do with high dropout rates, low test scores, frustrated teachers and students, and irate emplo"ersA @ust a.out ever"thing. Adolescent literac" is in a state of crisis. A sense of urgenc" pervades local and national conversations on the topic. +he Alliance for E2cellent Education estimates that as man" as / million middle and high school students read .elow grade level B@oftus, CC D. +he num.er at risk is far higher when we talk a.out the literac" ha.its and skills that students will need to meet 1st8centur" demands# core su.Eect knowledge, 1st8centur" content, learning and thinking skills, information and communications technolog", and life skills BPartnership for 1st Centur" Skills, CC*D. Students are dropping out of school in large num.ers, man" .ecause the" do not have the academic literac" skills to .e successful in school. !imited literac" skills are a .arrier to getting and retaining good emplo"ment and participating activel" as a citi=en. A su.stantial percentage of high school graduates need remedial classes in reading and writing when the" get to college. 0usinesses spent more than F$ .illion in a recent "ear to provide .asic writing classes to emplo"ees BCollege 0oard, CC'D. Scores on the >ational Assessment of Educational Progress B>AEPD remain flat. +he .ottom line is that man" students in the -nited States are leaving high school unprepared to read, write, speak, listen, and think at a level needed for college, careers, or citi=enship. Man" school leaders are daunted ." the si=e and comple2it" of the task. S"stemic development of literac" influences7and is influenced ."7all aspects of school including curriculum, instruction, assessment, policies and structures, resource allocation, teacher professional development, and school culture. +herefore, it is understanda.le that man" middle and high school leaders wonder where to .egin and what is involved in the process of improving literac" achievement for all students. &hat can school and district leaders doA Actuall", a lot. In fact, savv" principals use a s"stemic focus on literac" as a lever for school improvement. +he central feature of this .ook is a !eadership Model for Improving Adolescent !iterac" that outlines the components essential to an" literac" improvement effort. &e assume that school leaders know how to .e effective managers and instructional leaders. +he model shows how principals can improve student literac" and increase student achievement in general ." approaching their traditional areas of responsi.ilit" with a new focus on literac". Gur goal in this .ook is to help middle school, high school, and district leaders address the challenge of improving students6 skills in reading, writing, speaking, and thinking. School and

district leaders need to know what the" can do to reverse the c"cle of failure e2perienced ." so man" students in the areas of reading and writing and how schools can .e organi=ed to prepare all students to meet the literac" demands of 1st8centur" life, .e it in school, in the workplace, or as a citi=en. In the .roadest sense, school and district leaders need to take three important steps#
). Develop and communicate a literacy vision. *ork to(ard a shared understanding o& literacy goals, and create a school(ide literacy vision that (ill ins ire &aculty, students, arents, and the co''unity to 'otivate and engage students in beco'ing co' etent readers, (riters, s eakers, and thinkers. +Cha ter ) resents strategies &or 'otivating and engaging students and addresses the connection bet(een 'otivation and achieve'ent., ". Translate the literacy vision into action. -stablish and lead a school(ide literacy tea' that includes re resentatives &ro' all content areas (ho (ill (ork to develo and i' le'ent a school(ide literacy action lan. .rovide /uality teacher ro&essional develo 'ent and e0 ect all teachers to rovide literacy su ort in the content areas. -nsure that literacy interventions are in lace to hel struggling readers and (riters. Set u rocedures to 'onitor rogress. +Cha ters " and 1 address classroo' conte0ts and instruction2 Cha ter 3 rovides data4driven a roaches &or ho( to develo a literacy action lan2 Cha ters 5, $, and 6 rovide tools &or ho( to su ort and 'onitor teachers, use data e&&ectively, and build leadershi ca acity to take action2 and Cha ter 7 addresses allocation o& resources., 1. Create and sustain a supportive, literacy-rich environment. .ro'ote an acade'ically oriented, orderly, and ur ose&ul school cli'ate (ith literacy as the central &ocus. +Cha ter 8 rovides s eci&ic strategies &or creating a literacy4rich environ'ent.,

In addition to practical ideas and suggestions, the .ook contains fictional vignettes .ased on our actual e2periences in schools across the -nited States. +he vignettes are not case studies of specific schoolsH rather, the" illustrate the points we discuss Bsee Appendi2 ( for references to actual case studies of middle and high schools engaged in efforts to improve literac"D. In some of the chapters descri.ing the action steps we suggest tools to use with "our schools. +hese tools can .e found in Appendi2 C. Each chapter closes with ke" messages. In the ne2t section of this Introduction, we .riefl" discuss how adolescent literac" reached the level of a crisis, the challenges of literac" development in the information age, and how school leaders can .ecome more informed a.out literac". &e then present a vignette of a literac"8rich high school to help readers visuali=e what can .e accomplished through a sustained literac" improvement effort, followed ." an overview of the !eadership Model for Improving Adolescent !iterac".

A History of Neglect: Literacy Support in Middle and High Schools


%ecent polic" reports such as Reading Next: A Vision for Action and Research in Middle and High School Literacy B0iancarosa I Snow, CC'D, Reading to Achieve: A Governor's Guide to Adolescent Literacy B>ational 5overnors Association, CC*aD, Reading Bet een the Lines: !hat the A"# Reveals A$out "ollege Readiness in Reading BAC+, CC*aD, !riting Next: %ffective Strategies to &'(rove !riting of Adolescents in Middle and High Schools B5raham I Perin, CC,D, and )ou$le the !or*: "hallenges and Solutions to Ac+uiring Language and Acade'ic

Literacy for Adolescent %nglish Language Learners BShort I 3it=simmons, CC,D have helped to focus attention on the fact that man" middle and high school students are not reading and writing at levels that ena.le them to compete in a rapidl" changing information age. ;owever, secondar" schools have largel" neglected literac" instruction. Most people would consider it ludicrous to stop teaching mathematics when students finish the elementar" grades. ?et students in the -nited States have generall" not received s"stematic or consistent instruction in literac" .e"ond grade ). &hile in kindergarten through $rd grade, students learn the structure of stories, a .asic sight voca.ular", phonics, and fluenc" with simple stories. ;owever, even students who were successful readers and writers in the earl" grades ma" e2perience difficult" as the demands of te2t .ecome more challenging BSnow, CC D. 3our reasons underlie wh" adolescent literac" development has .een neglected in middle and high schools#

decision 'akers do not understand the co' le0 nature o& literacy learning, secondary teachers are not trained to su ort students9 literacy develo 'ent, resources have been ut into early literacy re&or' e&&orts to the neglect o& adolescent literacy, and literacy de'ands are higher than ever be&ore.

Decision Makers' Lack of Understanding


+hose who decide what is taught in schools, such as state8 and district8level personnel and school .oard mem.ers, have t"picall" not understood the comple2 demands of literac" placed on students as the" enter the middle grades and mistakenl" assume that students do not need continued support in reading and writing. 0ut 9middle and high school students JmustK .uild on the literac" strategies the" learned in the earl" grades to make sense of a.stract, comple2 su.Eects far removed from their personal e2periences: BMoore, 0ean, 0ird"shaw, I %"cik, 1111, p. 'D. Success in the middle and high school classroom re<uires increasingl" comple2 reading, writing, and thinking ha.its and skills. Students entering a middle or high school speaking a language other than English B5arcia, CCCD or students struggling with .asic reading and writing a.ilities face almost insurmounta.le literac" tasks ever" da" in ever" classroom. +he assumption has often .een that students learn to read in elementar" schoolH the effort in middle school and high school has .een remedial or limited to the EnglishLlanguage arts curriculum, if it occurs at all BPeterson, Caverl", >icholson, G6>eal, I Cusen.ar", CCCD. +he realit" is that man" students who have .asic reading and writing skills will re<uire ongoing assistance in the forms of modeling, e2plicit instruction, and ample practice opportunities to develop the proficient reading and writing skills re<uired for academic success. Gthers will need continued assistance in .asic skills. Appropriate programs, policies, and approaches to address the various needs of students must .e put into place. &hen decision makers do not understand the comple2it" of literac" development and the interconnections .etween literac" and content8area learning, the result has .een that little support is availa.le to help students develop the academic literac" skills the" need to .e successful in school and in life.

Teachers' Lack of Preparation


Most middle and high schools have few teachers Bor administratorsD with an" degree of confidence or competence in teaching reading and writing. Most secondar" teachers lack knowledge a.out content8area literac" .ecause the" maEored in English, math, social studies, science, music, or art. Su.Eect area teachers often feel unprepared to assist students in negotiating difficult and content8dense .ooks BCoone", 1111D. Most do not feel confident a.out how to teach students effective writing or higher8order thinking skills, and although the" ma" assign writing or reading, the" do not know how Band are sometimes unwillingD to assist students with reading their te2t.ook, or how to model <ualit" writing, or how to teach pro.lem solving using reading and writing. In addition, fewer than 1C percent of middle and high schools have literac" specialists in their .uildings to work with students and other teachers in an" capacit" BSouthern %egional Education 0oard, CC D. +his lack of onsite e2pertise in literac" in most middle schools and high schools severel" limits efforts to improve the academic literac" skills of students.

Favoring Earl Literac at the E!pense of Adolescent Literac


As noted in a Eoint position paper ." the International %eading Association and the >ational Middle School Association,
:oung children 'ust get o&& to a good start in reading2 ho(ever, it is a serious 'istake to assu'e that a good start is su&&icient &or roducing co' etent readers. The ability to co' rehend a variety o& te0ts, to use so histicated co' rehension and study strategies, to read critically, and to develo a li&elong desire to read is not ac/uired entirely during the early years. A good start is critical, but not su&&icient. +%ational Middle School Association, "##), . ),

+he efforts directed toward literac" learning for primar" grade students implemented over the past decade are .eginning to .ear fruit, .ut structures are needed to support students6 continued growth as readers and writers. 3unding for reading at the middle school and high school levels is much lower than at the elementar" levels, and this condition has e2isted for man" "ears. Adolescent literac" is Eust .eginning to receive the understanding, attention, funding, and support traditionall" directed toward earl" reading development. Educators and stakeholders at large are increasingl" recogni=ing the urgent need to provide consistent and sustained support in literac" .e"ond the elementar" grades. &ith national attention now .eing turned to the needs of secondar" school students, one can onl" hope that in the ne2t few "ears, resources and programs will .e put in place for improving adolescent literac".

Unprecedented Literac Demands


In the 1st centur", higher literac" levels are re<uired than has .een the case in the past BMoore et al., 1111D. Some educators and communit" mem.ers mistakenl" .elieve that .eing a.le to read and write narrative te2t BstoriesD is sufficient to succeed in school and in life, that reading is the same no matter what "ou read. 0ut the challenge of reading and writing varies with the t"pe of te2t and the purpose. %eading for pleasure is different from reading an instruction manual or

reading an informational &e. site. &riting a letter to a friend re<uires different skills than writing a research report, a .usiness plan, or a letter to the editor. 0asic reading and writing skills 7such as those taught in elementar" school7are not sufficient to succeed in high school, college, or the workplace. In middle and high school, students are e2pected not onl" to read and understand increasingl" difficult te2t, .ut also to remem.er and organi=e information to demonstrate what the" learned. Content8area standards are filled with literac"8.ased demands to descri.e, anal"=e, discuss, and s"nthesi=e content. ?et stud" after stud" reveals that students are not .eing taught to do this t"pe of high8level reading, writing, and thinking in most middle and high school classrooms BSchmoker, CC*D. 0asicall", there appears to .e a gap .etween what we assess and what we teach BSturtevant et al., CC*D. &ell8meaning teachers discouraged ." students who cannot, do not, or will not read ma" actuall" ena.le their resistant readers to read less, e2acer.ating the pro.lem BSchoen.ach, 5reenleaf, C=iko, I ;urwit=, 1111D. 0" receiving the content through other means such as hands8on proEects, videos, and lectures, students ma" learn the content .ut .e una.le to go on to learn more on their ownH the" .ecome more dependent on the teacher to feed facts, concepts, and generali=ations to them .ecause the" have not learned the skills re<uired to access, evaluate, and s"nthesi=e information themselves. Comparing the reading and writing e2pectations in college8 preparation tracks and in Advanced Placement and other advanced classes with those in general or non8college8preparation tracks reveals a startling gap in the amount and <ualit" of assigned reading and writing. Students in the general and the non8college8prep tracks appear to get less practice and little support to develop the skills necessar" to their success in life, work, and school B5amoran I Mell", CC$D. Schools need to address this pro.lem, with skill development incorporated into the fa.ric of teaching and learning across the content areas. +eachers need to understand the literac" demands of their content areas and .e a.le to teach their students how to meet the re<uirements of state standards that insist on students reading like historians, writing like scientists, and thinking like mathematicians. (ifferent content areas re<uire different literac" ha.its and skills. %eading a pla" is not the same as reading a math te2t.ook or a primar" source or a technical manualH writing a letter is not the same as writing an essa" or a la. reportH and presenting a dramatic reading is different than e2plaining a science fair proEect or participating in a de.ate. +eachers who e2plicitl" teach students to present, to read, and to write in all of these different disciplines ena.le their students to .ecome independent learners.

Literacy in an Information Age


+he world of adolescents toda" constitutes a media8rich, information8dense conte2t for literac". Most middle and high school teachers spent their own school "ears in a completel" different technological era and perhaps have difficult" understanding how the information age and the technolog" resources availa.le toda" change the milieu for learning. 3or e2ample, writing a report on a countr" C or $C "ears ago Bstill a standard assignment for toda"6s studentsD entailed consulting the enc"clopedia and a few li.rar" .ooks for facts and somewhat sterile information, making note cards, developing an outline, and writing the paper. In contrast, a 5oogle search of a

countr" name79Ireland,: for e2ample7can produce literall" millions of Internet references, including information on maps, universities, art, literature, sports, food, travel, and politics. +o find out more, a student could Eoin a chat group a.out Ireland or with Irish people, view Irish +4 online, and listen to authentic Irish folk music. +hese are potentiall" powerful wa"s to get insight into a culture and to gain hands8on e2perience that was simpl" not availa.le to earlier report writers. In this technological conte2t, it is important that an assigned investigation such as a countr" report .e focused and relevant to the learners and that the" .e taught skills for selecting, anal"=ing, organi=ing, and summari=ing information7a much more comple2 task given the mass of information availa.le. +eachers across the content areas are increasingl" aware of the potential of technolog" to enrich teaching and learning. 0ut the" ma" not .e aware of how these technologies Band adolescents6 comfort with themD change the ver" nature of reading, writing, and learning. 9+eachers need to engage directl" in these new te2tual cultures . . . of mass media. &ithout this, we risk producing literacies that have little salience and critical purchase on the real worlds where adolescents live their lives: BElkins I !uke, 1111, p. 1'D. >o one can den" the new technologies that are availa.le, .ut few middle and high school educators are prepared to incorporate these technologies into their task of developing academic literac" for a wide variet" of learners. +echnolog" can, and some sa" 'ust, .e an integral part of this central task, especiall" .ecause the world of work and learning that these students will participate in as adults will include technolog" as an ever8present realit". -nderstanding the relationship .etween literac" and technolog" means that schools should e2amine

(hat ty es o& acade'ic literacy habits and skills are needed to re are students &or the &uture they &ace2 ho( conte0ts &or conducting research, learning, reading, and (riting have changed because o& the available technologies2 and ho( assign'ents, teaching goals, and understandings about literacy have shi&ted.

;or e0a' le, the need to criti/ue in&or'ation sources has never been 'ore i' ortant2 (ord rocessing can su ort the (riting rocess as never be&ore2 and reading and (riting hy erte0t is very di&&erent in ter's o& rocess, genre, and structure &ro' reading and (riting conventional linear rose. Those (ith convenient Internet access can easily connect to e0 erts and to 'ountains o& in&or'ation, raising /uestions about validity, lagiaris', criteria &or ade/uate er&or'ance, and the digital divide. Technology can also be a o(er&ul tool &or assisting those (ith reading di&&iculties to i' rove their decoding, &luency, and co' rehension skills. In addition, technology can hel teachers and school leaders i' rove their kno(ledge base about literacy, and they can use technology to 'otivate students to co' lete reading and (riting tasks by roviding 'otivating conte0ts &or learning. Technology can also rovide access to content4area te0ts at 'any reading levels, so'ething that 'ost educators have not been able to o&&er until no(.

Developing Literacy Expertise


I had to learn about literacy 'ysel& . . . 'y background (as as a business teacher. I built 'y o(n background kno(ledge right alongside o& 'y teachers. I had to ask 'ysel& . . . (hat do I need to kno( to lead this e&&ort< =>igh school rinci al

Literacy refers to the communication modes of reading, writing, listening, speaking, viewing, and representing. ;elping students to understand, anal"=e, and respond to the challenging te2ts that the" find in content8area classes is essential to the development of academic literac" ha.its and skills. Gf course, thin*ing is essential for all communication s"stems. Although our main focus in this .ook is academic literac"7t"pes of literac" that students need to .e successful in school7we recogni=e that students have multiple literacies that the" use in and out of school settings for various reasons. +he first step in an" literac" improvement effort is to .ecome more knowledgea.le a.out the literac" learning process Bconceptual knowledgeD and effective instructional support for literac" Bpedagogical knowledgeD. G.viousl", it is impractical to e2pect ever" middle and high school principal to .ecome a literac" e2pert. 0ut .ecause secondar" schools t"picall" do not have man" teachers and administrators with professional training in literac", school leaders need to find wa"s to increase their own and their teachers6 knowledge .ase and to provide teachers with strategies to motivate and teach students to read and write proficientl". School leaders we talked with noted the .enefits of colla.oration and critical dialogue with other administrators, literac" coaches, reading specialists, and teachers. Some schools and districts emplo" outside consultants to provide the conceptual and pedagogical knowledge a.out literac". Gther schools and districts create professional learning communities or esta.lish peer8coaching structures in which teachers support one another while tr"ing out literac" support strategies in classrooms. In some schools, teachers and administrators engage in stud" groups. In all cases, it is important to develop a common understanding a.out what is meant ." specific literac" terms, which ma" .e unfamiliar or ma" have a speciali=ed meaning or ma" .e used inconsistentl" in the field. 3or e2ample, in this .ook, we refer to literacy coaches as those teachers who work primaril" with other teachers and who do not have a student assignment, and reading s(ecialists as teachers who work in intervention classes with students. 0ut in some pu.lications, these terms are used interchangea.l". B+o clarif" the meaning of terms and to provide the .asis for a common understanding, a glossar" of literac" terms appears in Appendi2 0.D &hatever the vehicles used, learning a.out literac" is the necessar" first step to developing and implementing a literac" improvement effort in a middle or high school. And e2pertise in literac" is most .eneficial when held collectivel" ." the entire school communit". BSee Appendi2 ( for a list of resources for further learning and Appendi2 E for a selected set of research reviews that informed our thinking as we developed the !eadership Model for Improving Adolescent !iterac".D

0ut leaders should .eware7collective knowledge a.out literac" is not enough. +he gap .etween knowledge and practice must .e .ridged. +herefore, it is important for school and district leaders to esta.lish e2pectations and to provide the necessar" follow8up in classrooms to implement effective instructional practices. BSee Appendi2 C for a set of practical tools for leaders# a +eacher Mnowledge Inventor", a Classroom G.servation 5uide, and a !iterac" Assessment %eview +ool.D

reating a !ision
Principals often ask us, 9&hat does a literac"8rich school look likeA ;ow is it different from what is going on at our schoolA: It is difficult to develop a vision without having some sense of the goal. +his entire .ook is a.out turning a vision into a realit"7creating a literac"8rich middle or high school that successfull" develops the academic literac" ha.its and skills of all students. %eading through the .ook, reflecting upon how the descriptions of a literac"8rich school resem.le or do not resem.le schools with which leaders are familiar, and discussing the ideas with colleagues will help the vision .ecome more real. !eaders will also come to understand how these components might .e implemented at their school. Another activit" that leaders can do is to facilitate a discussion with facult" around what their school would look like if the literac" initiative were successful. &hat would students .e doingA &hat would teachers .e doingA &hat would the environment .e likeA +he responses can .e compiled and used as a guide for action and a litmus test for progress. Can a schoolwide focus on literac" really make a differenceA In his .ook Results No , Mike Schmoker B CC*D makes a cogent, powerful case for focusing on literac" as a lever for school improvement. ;e discusses the power of 9generous amounts of close purposeful reading, rereading, writing, and talking: as the essence of authentic literac"#
These si' le activities are the &oundation &or a trained, o(er&ul 'ind=and a ro'ising &uture. They are the (ay u and out=o& boredo', overty, and intellectual inade/uacy. And they9re the ticket to ensuring that record nu'bers o& 'inority and disadvantaged youngsters attend and graduate &ro' college. + . 31,

Consider the following fictional vignette. !ike others throughout the .ook Bincluding four in Appendi2 AD, it is a composite .ased on our e2perience, not a case stud". 0ut reading it ma" provide a sense of what we mean ." a school that is s"stemicall" developing student literac"H it ma" inspire "ou to action. Gf course, it is onl" one description of how a successful literac" improvement effort might look. Another school might .e ver" different. +his vignette is .ased on a high school. A middle school vignette can .e found in Appendi2 A. +he Eourne" is not a.out cop"ing what someone else is doing .ut a.out enacting a vision that achieves the goal of motivating and engaging students to improve their reading and writing proficienc", provides teachers with the knowledge and support to provide <ualit" literac" instruction as part of content8 area teaching and learning, and, therefore, raises student achievement. !al*ing into Li$erty High School gives one the i'(ression that this is an unusual (lace, A #V 'onitor in the hall is running school announce'ents: activities scheduled for tonight include

'eetings of the s(eech clu$ and of the editors of the literary 'aga-ine. a (lay rehearsal. and various s(orts tea' (ractices/ a (oetry 0a' ill $e held on 1riday/ and the ords of the ee* are nefarious, curmudgeon, draconian, viscosit", and definitive. Student art or* is (ro'inently dis(layed. and various contra(tions are set u( on a ta$le in the foyer2a sign says they are data collection instru'ents $eing used as (art of a science in+uiry into the $uilding's environ'ent, A student al'ost runs you over as he delivers the ee*ly school (a(er to (eo(le in the office/ after a(ologi-ing. he offers you a co(y, 3ou notice that the ne s(a(er. as ell as all of the signs in the office. is in %nglish and S(anish/ 'ore than 45 (ercent of Li$erty students s(ea* S(anish at ho'e, #he (rinci(al greets you and says that today is 60ust an ordinary day2you 'ay not see anything s(ecial in ter's of literacy.7 $ut you are elco'e to loo* around and co'e $ac* and tal* ith hi' after the tour, After you get your visitor's (ass. t o students a((ear and announce that they are your tour guides, 3ou start off ith the' do n the hall to the history ing, #he to(ic of study in every classroo' is o$vious fro' the ords on the ord all. dis(lays of student or*. or discussions ta*ing (lace, %very classroo' has 6$ell or*7 (osted on the $oard2a +uic*8 rite or so'ething to read, &n one or t o classroo's. a teacher is at the front of the roo' ex(laining so'ething. $ut in the other eight classroo's. it is so'eti'es difficult to find the teacher, "lassroo's loo* ell stoc*ed ith the'e8related $oo*s at a variety of reading levels, Students are reading. riting. discussing. or or*ing on the co'(uter alone or in (airs, 3ou as* students hat they are doing. and the ans er varies:

We are working on our research project on the economic costs of malnutrition. We have to come up with a response to the problematic situation the teacher gave us on taking sides in the Revolutionary War. We are learning our part of the chapter so we can do a jigsaw. We are comparing our answers on last night's anticipation guide for the reading we did. We are practicing our Renaissance character monologues.

3ou 'ove on to the %nglish ing of the $uilding. here you find an e+ually diverse array of activities: students are or*ing in s'all grou(s on a Ro'eo and 9uliet !e$ +uest re+uiring the' to re rite a scene in conte'(orary language and a s(ecific style. doing reci(rocal teaching ith a section of +he 5rapes of &rath, conducting (eer revie s of essays. or*ing in (airs to code (arts of 3ever, co'(aring and contrasting the fil' version of +he @o" !uck Clu. ith the novel, &n another roo'. students are doing 6$oo* co''ercials7 that the audience rates using a ru$ric, Student riting is (osted every here, 3ou assu'e that in the 'ath classroo's things ill $e 'ore staid. $ut you are rong, &n one geo'etry class students are reading and discussing a section of 3latlandH in another they are de'onstrating to the class ho they solved (ro$le's using 5eometer6s SketchpadH in a third classroo' they are co'(leting a la$ on finding the volu'e of irregularly sha(ed o$0ects such as $ananas, &n one alge$ra class. students are reading and coding the text in (airs/ in another. they are or*ing together to develo( (ro$le's that ill $e included on an u(co'ing test, %very

classroo' has a ord all/ tri(le8entry voca$ulary 0ournals are evident on 'any students' des*s, &n an Alge$ra && class the teacher is handing $ac* or* to the students/ a closer loo* reveals that sta(led to each student's ritten descri(tion of ho to solve the (ro$le' is a (ro$le'8solving ru$ric ith indications of ho the student and the teacher rated the (ro$le' on each di'ension: clarity. 'athe'atical accuracy. logic and coherence. and use of 'athe'atical voca$ulary, #he teacher 'entions that using the (ro$le'8solving ru$ric is ne for hi' this year. $ut he cannot $elieve ho ell it is or*ing and ho 'uch $etter (ro$le' rite8u(s are getting, &n the science ing. even 'ore is going on, &n one class. the s'all8engine re(air teacher and the (hysics teacher are coteaching/ later you see the students' (ro0ects in the vocational ing of the $uilding, &n another class. students are on their ay out to collect 'ore data on strea' (ollution/ in a third. students are using a co'(uter8'odeling (rogra' to develo( a theory in genetics class, Students are or*ing in grou(s to create su''aries of articles related to as(ects of ha$itat and $iodiversity. or*ing in (airs to fill out a se'antic feature analysis on characteristics of diseases. or or*ing on their o n to rite (ersuasive essays a$out the (ros and cons of genetically altered foods, !ords. $oo*s. and discussion are evident every here, #he voices are those of the students. not the teacher. and 0ust a$out everyone see's to $e on tas*, !hen it is ti'e for school ide sustained silent reading. everyone in the $uilding (auses, Secretarial staff. custodial staff. educational technicians. students. teachers. and ad'inistrators relax and read for :5 'inutes, Many students eagerly read the ne issue of the school ne s(a(er, So'e ear head(hones, 3our guides a(ologi-e and ex(lain that you need to sto( the tour and read, 3ou enter a classroo' and select a (a(er$ac* fro' a rac*2you do not ant to $e the only (erson not reading; After :5 'inutes. you notice a lo hu', 3our guides 'ention that after the reading (eriod. (eo(le tal* a$out hat they are reading2 hat it 'ade the' thin* a$out. if they reco''end the $oo*. and so forth, As you continue your tour. you notice $oo* lists ith ratings on every classroo' door, 3ou (ass t o co'(uter la$s here students are using (rogra's to i'(rove their reading s*ills, 3our guides (oint out several classes here one of the teachers of %nglish language learners is coteaching ith a content area teacher, 3ou reali-e that al'ost half of the classes you o$served had t o teachers, !hen you as* a$out it. the guides say that s(ecial education teachers and the literacy coaches often coteach classes. and also that on 'any occasions t o classes ill co'$ine2an art class and a social studies class. or a career and technical education <"#%= class and an %nglish or a science class2and then $oth teachers ill $e in the classroo', #he guides say that this is great $ecause then students have 'ore than one (erson to go to for hel(. and it 6'ixes it u( a little7 and 'a*es class 'ore interesting, #he e'(hasis on voca$ulary. reading. and riting continues to $e evident hen you tour the unified arts and "#% classes, Students are reading and discussing articles. creating re(air 'anuals. riting art criti+ues. co'(leting nutrition logs. and riting re(orts on or* sa'(les, >ne of the teachers ex(lains the e'(hasis on authentic tas*s in the unified arts and "#% classes and tells a$out the 'any co''issioned or*s $eing underta*en for the co''unity, She adds that students read. rite. and tal* a$out everything, #he focus is on +uality. (ro$le' solving. and (rofessional (resentation, 3ou o$serve that students see' to read and rite 'ore in the "#% class than in their %nglish class, #hey all have to co'(lete (ortfolios,

A student co'es u( to you and as*s here you are visiting fro' and if you have for'ed a 6definitive7 o(inion a$out the school, 3ou stress that you are 0ust visiting. not evaluating. and the student laughs and as*s you to sign a card 6certifying7 that she used one of the 6 ords of the ee*7 a((ro(riately in conversation, 3ou are ha((y to sign, No that she $rings it to your attention. you reali-e that you have heard the ords nefarious and viscosit" 'ore than once today and that this as not coincidental, >n the ay $ac* to the office. you (ass a literacy coach or*ing ith three teachers on ho they can use their ord alls 'ore actively, &n the auditoriu'. students are (racticing for a de$ate on hether coal and nuclear energy or alternative fuels are the route to energy self8sufficiency for the ?nited States, &n another roo'. a student is videoconferencing ith his ele'entary school reading $uddy2together they are reading and discussing 3rog and +oad. 3our guides ex(lain that so'e *ind of literacy8related co''unity service is ex(ected of everyone in @5th grade, "hoices include reading the ne s(a(er to $lind (eo(le. creating $oo*s on ta(e for the ele'entary school students. having an ele'entary reading $uddy. tutoring in the after8school (rogra'. or*ing on the school ne s(a(er. translating and recording school ne sletters for (arents ho do not s(ea* %nglish or ho do not read. riting letters for nursing ho'e residents. and translating health infor'ation at the local clinic for S(anish8only s(ea*ers, 3ou return to the office. here your guides leave you to discuss hat you o$served ith the (rinci(al, 63eah. & tend to forget all e no have in (lace here.7 the (rinci(al says, 6#he scores are going u(. $ut & thin* the energy you 'ention is even 'ore i'(ortant2*ids *no hen they co'e here that they are going to have an active. interesting day learning. reading. riting. and thin*ing, #eachers are 'uch 'ore creative than they used to $e. and the standards are higher, #he literacy tea' is the 'ost (o(ular standing co''ittee; #he co''unity is 'ore su((ortive. too. $ecause they see hat the students can do, Students (rovide reading and translation services. fix cars and re(air s'all engines. create gra(hic logos for $usinesses. create !e$ sites for local organi-ations. and conduct research on local issues, 6!e had to get the intervention (iece right. too, #hat too* a hile, At first e 'erely offered a reading course for students scoring $elo grade level, But e reali-ed that one course as not enough, !e then 'ade sure that students ith literacy learning needs ere su((orted throughout the day, !e $egan our su''er reading ca'( three years ago, #hat did a lot to (rovide additional su((ort for students ho scored at the lo est levels, 6>f course. not all of this ha((ened overnight, &n fact. the students resisted at first, #hey ere +uite used to Agetting $y,B #hese changes 'eant that they had to or* 'ore, !e did a lot of discussing and visioning/ e had a nu'$er of $oo* discussion grou(s/ e develo(ed a literacy (lan that e continue to 'onitor and revise/ and e did a lot of teacher (rofessional develo('ent, !e or*ed it out ith the district so that content8area teachers could get inservice (oints to ard their recertification for the (rofessional develo('ent they ere doing, 6>ur 'edia center has $een integral to the hole effort as ell, "irculation is ay u(. and the li$rarianC'edia s(ecialists have $een onderful a$out getting curriculu' 'aterials for teachers to su((ort units of study, #he teachers see the' as real resources2es(ecially hen it co'es to issues of (lagiaris' and citing online sources,

6& had to $e out there leading the charge, >f course. & as luc*y that & have t o good literacy coaches and that 'y district as su((ortive of the changes e anted to 'a*e, #he co''unity as hel(ful. too, !e're not a rich school2 e needed hel(, 3ou *no . there are still a fe (eo(le ho are not really on $oard, But e hold the' accounta$le. and 'e'$ers of 'y ad'inistrative tea' do regular literacy al*8throughs and chec* in ith fol*s, Literacy su((ort for students has $eco'e (art of the culture of Li$erty High School2(art of the ay e do things around here,7 +his .ook clarifies and descri.es the roles, responsi.ilities, and actions that leaders of middle schools and high schools can take to enact a vision similar to that depicted in the vignette. &e do not envision literac" development as an 9add8on.: %ather, we discuss leadership roles and responsi.ilities through the lens of literac" to make it clear how literac" development relates to the areas for which school leaders are alread" held accounta.le. &e developed the !eadership Model for Improving Adolescent !iterac" through a review of the research, interviews with school leaders, careful e2amination of the roles of leaders in successful schoolwide literac" efforts, and ongoing discussions with school and district leaders. +he model is .ased on the assumption7.orne out ." the efforts of man" middle and high school leaders throughout the -nited States7that a well8designed, thoughtfull" implemented literac" action plan can serve as a lever for school reform, and that the ultimate goal of literac" improvement is student motivation, engagement, and achievement. +hrough our e2tensive work with school leaders, we noticed that effective leaders for literac" focused on certain t"pes of tasks and worked in similar wa"s. &e .elieved that if accuratel" captured, the work of those leaders could guide others attempting to support literac" development for adolescents. 3urther, it .ecame clear that literac" action plans that "ielded results had common components. &e found, however, that knowing a.out these components did not necessaril" mean that school leaders were confident in moving forward or that the" understood their role in the process of literac" improvement. Improving students6 reading and writing a.ilit" is a task that re<uires the dedication, knowledge, and skills of the entire school communit". It is tempting to .u" a program here, sponsor an inservice activit" there, or offer a special course in reading. +hese isolated attempts to improve literac" seldom make a lasting difference or sufficientl" affect the literac" development of most students. E2ample after e2ample shows that successful school leaders engage in a process that accesses the e2pertise of all and develops a sense of shared responsi.ilit" for ensuring that all students can read, write, and think proficientl". In schools that enact and sustain comprehensive and coordinated literac" programs, leaders at .oth the district and school levels pla" significant roles in leading for literac" improvement. In the following overview of the !eadership Model for Improving Adolescent !iterac", we descri.e each component and indicate where the components are addressed in the .ook. +he <uotations included throughout the overview are from middle and high school principals and literac" coaches whom we interviewed as we were developing the model.

"vervie# of the Leadership Model for Improving Adolescent Literacy


Improving student reading and writing re<uires the active participation of teachers across the content areas, reading specialists, special education teachers, teachers of English language learners BE!!sD, school and district administrators, parents and communit" mem.ers, and the students themselves. 0ut it is school leaders who can .est lead the charge for literac" improvement. +o do this, leaders .enefit from knowing what actions to take. +he !eadership Model for Improving Adolescent !iterac" provides this guidance. +he components of the model are s"nergistic and interdependentH the" are separated here onl" to provide an initial understanding of what is involved in leading for literac". 3or e2ample, using data to make decisions cannot .e separated from improving teaching and learning or from the interventions implemented for struggling readers and writers or from developing an effective literac" action plan. +he model, which appears on page 1,, has .oth goal and action components. +he three goals are

student motivation, engagement, and achievement +center o& the &igure,2 integrating literacy and learning across content4area classroo's and through use o& literacy interventions +inner band,2 and sustaining literacy development by including the school environ'ent, arents and the co''unity, and the district +outer band,.

The &ive action steps, indicated by the oints o& the star in the &igure, rovide leaders (ith roles and res onsibilities &or leading a school(ide literacy i' rove'ent e&&ort. The action steps are implement a literacy action plan, support teachers to improve instruction,

use data to make decisions, build leadership capacity, and allocate resources.

Leadership Model for Improving Adolescent Literacy

"tudent Motivation# Engagement# and Achievement $%hapter &'


*hen I visited classroo's, the students (ere not engaged in learning. Three or &our hands (ere u , but &or the 'ost art, students (ere 'erely going through the 'otions to &inish assign'ents. *here (as the real learning< =Middle school literacy coach

Student Motivation. %ngage'ent. and Achieve'ent occupies the center of the graphic of the model. +he ultimate goal of a schoolwide literac" improvement effort is increased student motivation, engagement, and achievement. If students are not motivated to activel" engage with reading, writing, and thinking, the" will not have the opportunit" to improve their literac" ha.its and skills and the" will not .e successful as learners. &hile students are engaged, teachers have the opportunit" to provide coaching and instruction, thus improving student competence and confidence. School leaders have an important o.ligation to understand the well8researched connections .etween motivation, engagement, and achievement. E<uall" important are understanding and carr"ing out the leadership roles and responsi.ilities re<uired to ensure that all classroom conte2ts address what is known a.out successful adolescent literac" and learning. It is

appropriate that students are in the center of the model. +he entire model is focused upon their success.

(ntegrating Literac and Learning $%hapters ) and *'


I hear teachers say, ?I don9t (ant to teach reading,@ and I kno( they are Aust unco'&ortable because they do not &eel re ared. So I had to hel teachers understand that literacy learning in our school (as not o tional. =Middle school rinci al

&ntegrating Literacy and Learning is the inner .and on the graphic. +his component concerns what happens in classrooms with teachers and students and is of paramount importance. All students need support to meet the demands of increasingl" comple2 te2ts used in content areas. In addition, some students who struggle with reading and writing need e2tra time and instruction to develop their literac" skills. Literacy development across the content areas Much has .een written a.out the effectiveness of literac" practices in content8area classrooms and the reciprocal connection .etween a focus on content8area literac" and standards8.ased instruction. +eachers who successfull" integrate literac" into content8area instruction help students to use reading and writing on a dail" .asis to improve learning. Curricula and instruction that are connected to state standards and assessments re<uire teachers to use literac" strategies regularl" and purposefull" to scaffold and differentiate instruction. It is essential for school leaders to esta.lish and reinforce e2pectations that all teachers em.ed literac" development into content8area instruction. It is also critical that leaders provide effective professional development so that teachers can meet these e2pectations in wa"s that improve student learning while addressing state content standards. Literacy interventions for str!ggling readers and "riters It has .ecome clear that man" students in middle and high schools need intensive support to strengthen their reading and writing a.ilities. Moreover, the literac" needs of students var". School leaders need guidance in designing, implementing, and monitoring specific interventions to meet the needs of struggling readers and writers. Critical issues for intervention strategies include the identification of students in need of further supportH the appropriate format, structure, content, and focus of remediationLacceleration optionsH <ualified instructorsH and appropriate assessment measures. Struggling readers and writers can onl" .e helped when all of their teachers recogni=e and support them.

"ustaining Literac Development $%hapter +'


Bne o& 'y teachers brought it to 'y attention that there (asn9t one re&erence to our ne( literacy &ocus on our *eb site. I started looking around and realized that (e needed literacy to be 'ore visible to arents, visitors, district ersonnel, and students. =>igh school rinci al

Sustaining Literacy )evelo('ent occupies the outer .and on the graphic. School leaders .enefit from understanding the implications and opportunities inherent in creating a literac"8rich

environment, involving parents and communit" mem.ers, and garnering support from the school district. School environments should reflect a focus on literac". &hat is in the ph"sical environment that communicates that a school is a readingLwritingLthinking communit"A Schoolwide initiatives such as sustained silent reading time, a read8aloud program, dail" .ook commercials, or a communit" read can enhance efforts and give a clear message to students that literac" is important. It is imperative that school structures and policies such as the master schedule support the literac" improvement effort. Aligning school structures and policies changes the ver" culture of the school to one that focuses on literac" improvement. +he media center can pla" an important role as well. Parents and comm!nity mem#ers are necessar" partners in improving literac"H the" can ena.le critical connections for students and .ring authenticit" to the importance of reading and writing proficientl". Most parents want to understand how the" can help with literac" efforts for their child and for the school. In addition, communit" mem.ers can help ." serving as positive adult role models, mentoring students, offering resources and apprenticeship opportunities, and promoting the literac" effort. School districts pla" an essential role in the ever"da" management of schools. 0e"ond that function, however, school districts can provide instructional leadership support for principals and other school leaders, align and interpret the curriculum, support school8.ased coaching and mentoring, and collect and anal"=e data so that school personnel can use it to make instructional decisions. School districts can help or hinder the literac" improvement effort underwa" at a school, and school leaders need to .e a.le to work with the district to advocate for site8.ased decisions and support.

(mplement a Literac Action Plan $%hapter ,'


Develo ing a literacy lan see'ed like Aust one 'ore e0ercise until (e got the (hole &aculty involved. Then it beca'e the vehicle to e0a'ine ho( (e actually do business in this school. It no( guides the decisions (e 'ake every day. =Middle school literacy coach

&'(le'ent a Literacy Action Dlan is the first action step, represented ." the top point of the star on the graphic. After a review of the relevant data and discussions, a literac" team or other teacher8leader group writes a plan to meet the literac" needs of students. +his plan is shared in teams or departments to seek facult" input. It includes goals and o.Eectives, and it specifies who is responsi.le for what and outlines specific availa.le resources re<uired for implementation. Gnce the plan is developed, it can .e evaluated, updated, and readEusted as programs and interventions are implemented. +he literac" action plan is a strategic tool for leaders .ecause it provides a customi=ed .lueprint for a schoolwide literac" improvement effort. +he plan should guide decisions a.out instruction, curriculum, and resource allocation on a dail", semester, and annual .asis.

"upport Teachers to (mprove (nstruction $%hapter -'


My assistant rinci al and I are constantly 'onitoring (hat is going on in the classroo'. My teachers (ere not used to being observed. In &act, one teacher said to 'e, ?*hat are you doing on the third &loor<@ I Aust said, ?I9' here because that is (here your classroo' is . . . and I9ll be back here again to'orro(.@ =>igh school rinci al

Su((ort #eachers to &'(rove &nstruction is the second action step, located on the upper8right point of the star on the graphic. Students .enefit from sustained engagement with purposeful reading, writing, and thinking tasks coupled with ongoing strategic assistance to develop the skills the" need to .ecome independent learners. School leaders should support and guide teachers as the" strive to improve instruction and, ultimatel", student learning. Professional learning communities, coaching, teacher professional development, and making the work pu.lic are strategies that school leaders can use. In addition, school leaders have the responsi.ilit" to ensure that .est practices are actuall" implemented in classroomsH the" can do this through classroom o.servations, literac" walk8throughs, teacher evaluation, and new teacher induction.

Use Data to Make Decisions $%hapter .'


*e analyzed the classroo' assess'ents, and they (ere very ele'entary2 but students have to take the state test at the high school level. *e sa( clearly that there (as a 'is'atch bet(een (hat students (ere e0 ected to do in class and (hat they (ere e0 ected to er&or' on the state test. =Literacy tea' 'e'ber

?se )ata to Ma*e )ecisions is the third action step, represented ." the lower8right point of the star on the graphic. School leaders at all levels .enefit from understanding how different t"pes of data can inform decision making. +eachers and administrators who anal"=e data to understand the literac" and learning needs of their students and use the data to make curricular decisions are generall" more successful in implementing improvement efforts and sustaining them over time. School leaders .enefit from knowing the different t"pes of e2isting data availa.le to them, other forms of data the" can collect, and wa"s to anal"=e and use data to inform reading and writing instruction. 3urther, it is to their advantage to know how to connect data to the school6s literac" goals and o.Eectives to improve content8area learning and to identif" students who need to .e placed in intervention classes.

/uild Leadership %apacit $%hapter 0'


I realized (hen I started at this school that I needed instructional leaders to (ork side by side (ith 'e. So I chose the de art'ent chairs=they (ere the grou I decided to invest in. I started (ith the eo le (ho (ere o en to eo le co'ing into their classroo's. =>igh school rinci al

Build Leadershi( "a(acity is the fourth action step, represented ." the lower8left point of the star on the graphic. Principals need the support of other leaders in the school communit", including the mem.ers of the literac" team, the literac" coach and reading specialist, the curriculum coordinator, the media specialist, the department chairs, and the teachers. A literac" team can .e fundamental in developing a literac" action plan, and a literac" coach can pla" an essential role in .uilding collective competence in literac" instruction ." providing leadership and support. Successful schools make provisions for all teachers to develop e2pertise in literac" and to work in vertical as well as hori=ontal teams to guide and support <ualit" teaching and learning. +o sustain literac" improvement efforts over time, shared leadership is important.

Allocate 1esources $%hapter 2'


I kne( (e needed a literacy coach to 'ove this e&&ort &or(ard, but the 'oney Aust (asn9t there. I took the roble' to the literacy tea', and (e brainstor'ed (ays o& getting the su ort &or teachers. Cy changing the schedule so'e, (e (ere able to &ree u t(o teachers &or one4hal& day each to act as 'entor teachers. =Middle school rinci al

Allocate Resources is the fifth action step, represented ." the upper8left point of the star on the graphic. Schools and districts will .enefit from focusing the allocation of their limited resources in support of literac" improvement efforts and creativel" apportioning time, space, personnel, support for professional development, materials, technolog", and funding. Time and space for colla.oration and reflective dialogue are essential for teachers and students. A schedule that gives students e2tended time for literac"8connected learning ever" da" is necessar" for them to develop reading and writing fluenc", voca.ular", and skills in strategic reading and comprehension. Personnel such as the media specialist, reading specialists, and literac" coaches o.viousl" pla" ke" roles in implementing the literac" plan. ;owever, it is important that the school principal .e at the center of the efforts to improve literac". Professional development, including time for teachers and administrators to learn a.out, reflect on, and implement .est practices, is essential. All educators involved in the effort can learn the process and components of literac" learning and how to modif" instruction to support literac" and learning in their classrooms. Materials that students can and want to read have to .e availa.le to students .oth in the media center and in classroom li.raries. Students should .e encouraged to read a wide variet" of te2ts Bnarratives, e2positor" works, poetr", maga=ines, newspapers, and electronic te2tD. Technology such as software packages, the Internet, and media tools can .e an invalua.le tool for literac" and learning. $!nding is essential in an effort to improve literac" in terms of .ooks and reading materials, test protocols, software, professional development, and, perhaps, additional teaching or resource

staff. School leaders can list the goals and o.Eectives in the school literac" plan in order of priorit" and search the .udget for wa"s to direct funding toward literac" efforts.

"ur $urpose
+hrough this .ook, we hope to facilitate the work of school and district leaders to help all students read and write at high levels and to do so using a wide variet" of te2ts. &e .elieve that all students in grades * through 1 need ongoing literac" support7those who struggle, those who read on grade level, those whose academic skills are strong, those for whom English is not their first language, those who have special learning needs, and those who feel unmotivated and disenfranchised. Although some of the approaches, t"pes of programs, and support for each of these groups of learners ma" var", the essentials of what school leaders need to know and .e a.le to do to facilitate their growth and success do not change. ?oung and older adolescents Bappro2imatel" ages 11 through 11D attend school in a variet" of settings, including traditional elementar", middle, or high schoolsH magnet schoolsH career and technical education centersH and special needs centers. &e hope to help the leaders in all of these settings to see literac" support as central to, not peripheral to, students6 academic success. !iterac" is not something to add to an alread" overcrowded plateH literac" is the plate.

%hapter &3 "tudent Motivation# Engagement# and Achievement

Why is this component important? Ceco'ing skilled readers, (riters, s eakers, listeners, and thinkers re/uires a' le o ortunity &or ractice, authentic reasons &or co''unicating, and e&&ective instructional su ort. To achieve co' etence in literacy, students 'ust be 'otivated to engage (ith literacy tasks and to i' rove their ro&iciency as readers and (riters. Instruction and ractice then rovide the coaching and &eedback necessary to gain co' etence. Increased co' etence ins ires continued 'otivation to engage. This cycle su orts i' roved student achieve'ent. The role o& school leaders is to ensure that this cycle o& engage'ent and instruction is rovided by all teachers to all students.

!iterac" is a .ig part of the ever"da" world of adolescents. +he" pass notes, read e8mail, write in Eournals, share stories, stud" the driver6s manual, decipher train schedules, search the &e., send instant messages to one another, read reviews of video games, discuss movies, post .logs, participate in poetr" Eams, read maga=ines and novels, and so much more. ?et man" middle and high school teachers and administrators lament that students Eust do not read and write an"more, often .laming toda"6s +4 and video game culture.

&e maintain that man", perhaps most, teenagers are actuall" highl" motivated readers and writers7Eust not in school. 3or school leaders who want to improve the academic literac" skills of students so that the" will .e more successful in school, this situation poses a challenge. Addressing this challenge is the ke" to a literac" improvement initiative. ;elpful <uestions for school leaders to ask include the following#

*hat evidence do (e have o& students9 out4o&4school literacy skills that (e can build u on to encourage co' letion o& reading and (riting assign'ents in school< *hat 'otivates and engages students to read and (rite, and ho( can (e include these ty es o& o ortunities throughout the school day and across the content areas< *hat kinds o& coaching, instruction, and ractice develo ro&iciency in reading and (riting, and ho( can leaders su ort teachers to rovide these<

Man" researchers have e2plored the richness, competence, and depth of adolescents6 out8of8 school literacies Bsee for e2ample, Alvermann, CC$, CC'H !ee, CC)H Smith I &ilhelm, CC D. +he motivation for students to read and write outside of school seems to .e threefold# B1D the topic needs to .e something the" feel is important to communicate a.outH B D the topic needs to .e something the" feel strongl" a.out or are interested inH or B$D the reading or writing needs to take place when the" want to do it, or 9Eust in time.: Add to this a feeling of competence with the language, topic, or genre and multiple authentic opportunities for feed.ack and practice. +hese conditions produce situations in which adolescents are highl" engaged with reading and writing. Consider, for e2ample, this instant message BIMD conversation .etween two teens who rarel" read or write in school. >ote the participants6 high level of fluenc" with a code that man" adults do not understand#
JZD (hat9s the 8)) on tonight il!D (e r abt" hit the 'all JZD (hich ) il!D TM JZD no(< il!D yeah=going " get so' 4za n then Eu a 'ovie. u co'ing< JZD 'ay4b. (hich 'ovie< il!D dky=there r a &e( do e ones. (hat do you (ant " c JZD idk il!D (hat about (ol&creek JZD str6 J y< that (hat you (ant il!D AEc

JZD (hat ti'e< Fo ala il!D : JZD bcoz got " do so'e &a'ily stu&&. hit 'y nu'bers b8 u go il!D a4rite JZD g"g il!D k JZD cul6r il!D c ya

If adolescents have reading and writing skills as we claim, wh" is it so difficult to get man" of them to read a chapter in the histor" te2t or finish a short stor" in a literature antholog"A Several issues are at pla". 3irst, out8of8school literac" skills ma" not .e ade<uate for, or easil" transfera.le to, academic reading and writing tasks. Second, man" teachers do not .uild upon or .ridge from out8of8school literacies to develop academic literac" skills .ecause the" ma" assume that .ecause students ill not read and write that the" cannot. +hird, most academic reading and writing assignments are not particularl" motivating or engaging. And fourth, man" middle and high school teachers do not have the e2pertise to provide reading and writing instruction in the content areas. Man" students approach assignments as something to get through without understanding the relevance of those assignments to their lives. Man" tr" to avoid assigned reading .ecause for them reading is an unpleasant, arduous, and unrewarding taskH for some middle and high school students, their decoding and .asic fluenc" skills are too limited to read grade8level te2t.ooks. 3or far more students, the content of the te2t.ook, article, or trade .ook is too difficult or too irrelevant to their e2perience, and encountering the information on the page is not sufficient for understanding. +hese students need to talk, write, and connect the content to what the" alread" know to make sense of the material on the page. Gther students do not see the relevance of the assigned reading to their lives and are not interested in putting forth the effort to complete the task. Gften, however, man" of these same students are a.le to persevere with difficult reading if the" are interested in the su.Eect at hand and if the" get appropriate help7that is, if the" can .e motivated and supported to engage with the task. Engagement with learning is essential, .ecause it is engagement that leads to sustained interaction and practice. Coaching, instruction, and feed.ack .ecome critical to ensure that students develop good ha.its and increase their proficienc". Increased competence t"picall" leads to motivation to engage further, generating a c"cle of engagement and developing competence that supports improved student achievement. In the !eadership Model for Improving Adolescent !iterac", the interconnected elements of Student Motivation. %ngage'ent. and Achieve'ent make up the central goal of a schoolwide literac" improvement effort and are represented as the center circle on the graphic that depicts

the model. In this chapter, we descri.e the well8researched connections .etween motivation, engagement, and achievement. +hen we present strategies for motivating students to engage with literac" tasks, followed ." a discussion of how engagement is connected to development of proficienc" and what leaders can do to promote student motivation, engagement, and achievement. +wo vignettes illustrate aspects of motivation and engagement, first through relationship .uilding, then through instructional conte2t. In .oth, the classroom itself is used as an intervention to get disengaged students motivated and involved in reading and writing for authentic purposes. &e conclude the chapter with ke" messages.

%hy Motivation and Engagement Are Important


-ntil recentl", most middle and high schools in the -nited States have not included a focus on improving academic literac" skills7reading, writing, speaking, listening, and thinking7as a primar" educational role. People have largel" assumed that students are supposed to arrive in middle and high schools with ade<uate reading and writing skills that the" can then appl" to assignments involving increasingl" comple2 reading and writing tasks. If, ." chance, students do not arrive with these skills, educators sometimes prescri.e remediation. More often, students are a.le to get through classes without reading and writing much at all. &ell8meaning teachers ma" focus on alternate methods7showing and telling as opposed to reading and writing7to ensure that students are 9fed: the content and not 9penali=ed: for having low literac" skills. +he result is that the students with the weakest skills often get the least amount of practice. Gther teachers assign reading and writing tasks and give low or failing marks to students who do not complete the assignments, assuming that motivation, not a.ilit", determines if the work is turned in. +he mindset of man" teachers and administrators is that if students do not have the re<uisite reading and writing skills ." middle or high school, it is simpl" too late. A num.er of educators speculate that some students Eust do not like to read and write79that6s Eust the wa" it is.: Additionall", man" middle and high school teachers do not know how to provide e2plicit reading and writing instruction. Specific literac" instruction, as part of content8area learning, tutoring services, learning centers, or stud" skill classes, has .een virtuall" unknown in man" middle and high schools. 3or students with poor academic literac" skills, this lack of em.edded and e2plicit literac" support results in a downward spiral that can lead to academic failure. It is especiall" important to motivate students who arrive in middle and high school classrooms with a histor" of failure as readers or writers. People are understanda.l" reluctant to persist at .ehaviors that the" do not enEo" or that make them feel incompetent7adolescents even more so. Adolescents with poor literac" skills will sometimes go to great lengths to hide their deficienc"H some of them devote considera.le energ" to 9passing: or to distracting attention from their struggles, and the effort re<uired is a maEor reason wh" man" drop out of school. ?et discussions with teens who are struggling readers and writers do not suggest convictions such as 9we are proud of not .eing a.le to read and write well: and 9we should .e left alone to reap the lifelong conse<uences of leaving school with inade<uate literac" skills to face the workplace and the responsi.ilities of citi=enship.: Man" of these students understand that poor literac" skills place them at a distinct disadvantage economicall", personall", vocationall", and

politicall". +he" want to .e .etter readers and writers, .ut in addition to their weak literac" skills, other serious .arriers interfere, such as

'ini'al and o&ten ina ro riate hel , alienation &ro' unco'&ortable school environ'ents and curricula that see' irrelevant to their lives, and unrece tive environ'ents &or ad'itting the level o& vulnerability they &eel.

Motivation and engagement do not constitute a 9warm and fu==": e2tra component of efforts to improve literac". +hese interrelated elements are a primar" vehicle for improving literac". -ntil middle and high school educators work strenuousl" to address all of the .arriers, and there." motivate students to .ecome engaged with literac" and learning, in the words of one student we interviewed, 9I can tell "ou it Eust ain6t gonna happen, "ou see what I6m sa"in6A:

&he onnection 'et#een Motivation( Engagement( and Achievement


0" the time students reach middle and high school, man" of them have a view of themselves as people who do not read and write, at least in school. It is often difficult for teachers to know if middle school and high school students cannot or ill not do the assignmentsH often all the" know is that students do not do them. ;erein lies the challenge for teachers and administrators# how to 'otivate middle and high school students to read and write so that the" engage in literac" tasks and are willing to accept instruction and take advantage of opportunities to practice and accept feed.ack, there." improving their academic literac" skills that will, in turn, improve their content8area learning and achieve'ent. +his is not an eitherLor proposition. Instruction without attention to motivation is useless, especiall" in the case of students who are reluctant to read and write in the first place. As Mamil B CC$D points out, 9Motivation and engagement are critical for adolescent readers. If students are not motivated to read, research shows that the" will simpl" not .enefit from reading instruction: Bp. /D. In other words, adolescents will take on the task of learning how to read Bor writeD .etter onl" if the" have sufficientl" compelling reasons for doing so. 0ecause motivation leads to engagement, motivation is where teachers need to .egin. %eading and writing, Eust like an"thing else, re<uire an investment ." the learner to improve. As humans, we are motivated to engage when we are interested or have real purpose for doing so. So motivation to engage is the first step on the road to improving literac" ha.its and skills. -nderstanding adolescents6 needs for choice, autonom", purpose, voice, competence, encouragement, and acceptance can provide insight into some of the conditions needed to get students involved with academic literac" tasks. Most successful teachers of adolescents understand that meeting these needs is important when developing good working relationships with their students. ;owever, man" teachers have not thought of these needs in relation to their potential conse<uences for literac" development, that is, to what e2tent the" meet these needs in the classroom through the academic literac" tasks the" assign and the literac" e2pectations the" have for students.

Motivating students is important7without it, teachers have no point of entr". 0ut it is engage'ent that is critical, .ecause the level of engagement over time is the vehicle through which classroom instruction influences student outcomes. 3or e2ample, engagement with reading is directl" related to reading achievement B5uthrie, CC1H 5uthrie I &igfield, CCCD. Engagement7with sports, ho..ies, work, or reading7results in opportunities to practice. Practice provides the opportunit" to .uild skills and gain confidence. ;owever, practicing without feed.ack and coaching often leads to poor ha.its. Coaching7or, in this case, e2plicit teaching7helps refine practice, generates feed.ack, creates structured e2ercises targeted to specific needs, and provides encouragement and direction through a partnership with the learner. >ote that more modeling, structure, and encouragement are often needed to engage students who are motivated to .egin .ut who have weaker skills and therefore ma" not have the a.ilit" or stamina to complete tasks on their own. Sustained engagement, therefore, often depends on good instruction. 5ood instruction develops and refines important literac" ha.its and skills such as the a.ilities to read strategicall", to communicate clearl" in writing or during a presentation, and to think criticall" a.out content. 5aining these improved skills leads to increased confidence and competence. 5reater confidence motivates students to engage with and successfull" complete increasingl" comple2 content8area reading and writing tasks, and this positive e2perience leads to improved student learning and achievement. +hus, teachers have two primar" issues to contend with when tr"ing to improve the literac" skills of unmotivated struggling readers and writers# B1D getting them to engage with academic literac" tasks, and B D teaching them how to complete academic literac" tasks successfull". Proficienc" is developed through a c"cle of engagement and instruction B5uthrie I &igfield, 111,H %oe, CC1D. 3igure 1.1 shows a !iterac" Engagement and Instruction C"cle that e2emplifies the interrelatedness of teaching and learning within the conte2t of literac". $ig!re 1 1 The Literacy %ngagement and Instr!ction &ycle >ot availa.le for electronic dissemination.
"ource#$he iteracy %ngagement and &nstruction 'ycle

+his c"cle represents the learning conditions and support re<uired for literac" learning to take place. +eachers and administrators who understand what this c"cle looks like within the content8 focused classroom can support the activation and maintenance of the c"cle for all students. +he vignettes in the ne2t two sections of this chapter illustrate how teachers can make this happen and what t"pes of learning environments are effective for motivating students to engage with academic literac" tasks. 3or leaders, the challenge is how to support teachers to develop these t"pes of classroom e2periences and conte2ts so that the" .ecome t"pical practice, rather than the e2ception.

'rea)ing the ycle of *ailure


0reaking the c"cle of failure for struggling readers and writers and engaging all students to participate activel" in their own literac" development re<uires the use of classroom environments themselves as interventions. In some cases, it is the classroom culture that prompts or supports reluctant readers and writers to ant to engage with literac" tasks, resulting in their .eing more open to instruction. Such classroom environments provide motivation to read, multiple opportunities and authentic reasons to engage with te2t, and safe wa"s to participate, take risks, and make mistakes. In these classrooms, students feel that the teacher reall" cares a.out them and their learning. +he following vignette illustrates how this t"pe of classroom conte2t worked to encourage the literac" and learning of one student. "arly arrived at high school reading at the Eth8grade level, )uring 'iddle school. she got involved ith a rough cro d that did not care 'uch a$out doing school or*. and figured that no one cared 'uch any ay. so hy should she tryF She used to li*e $oo*s a$out real (eo(le and stories that the teachers in ele'entary school read aloud, &n ele'entary school. she had $een a (retty good student, )uring the first ee* of Gth grade. "arly's %nglish teacher told her that she ould li*e "arly to 0oin the 'entoring clu$, "arly told her. 6No disres(ect. $ut & don't thin* so,7 #he teacher. Ms, !arren. (ersisted, 1urther'ore. she read all of "arly's (a(ers. chec*ed in ith her daily. and had a fran* tal* ith "arly a$out ho she had a lot of (otential. as very s'art. and needed to get her reading and riting u( to s(eed, #he $oo*s and short readings that Ms, !arren assigned in %nglish ere interesting and relevant to "arly. descri$ing real events and (eo(le ith dile''as. $ut they ere hard for her to read, Students in Ms, !arren's class ere encouraged to share their o(inions and ideas2$ut they al ays had to $ac* the' u( ith hat they had read in the text, Ms, !arren taught her students 'ulti(le strategies for a((roaching different ty(es of texts and al ays connected hat they ere reading to i'(ortant the'es in students' lives2(o er. cheating. love. violence, "arly tried the strategies and found they hel(ed a lot, "arly $egan to or* hard2$ut 0ust in that one class, She agreed to 0oin the 'entoring clu$ $ecause Ms, !arren 0ust ore her do n and *e(t as*ing her again and again, #o her sur(rise. "arly found she loved tutoring younger students. and the ex(erience 'ade her or* harder on her o n reading and riting s*ills so she could $e a good role 'odel for #yanna. the 4th grader she 'et ith after school, "arly's attendance i'(roved $ecause hen she s*i((ed school. $oth Ms, !arren and #yanna got on her $ac* a$out it, She started or*ing harder on her (a(ers $ecause Ms, !arren co''ented on the' and scheduled ti'e to 'eet ith her one8on8one to revise the', She as*ed "arly +uestions a$out her intent as though she ere a real author, Later "arly ad'itted. 6At the $eginning & didn't thin* a$out hat & as riting/ & 0ust rote so'ething do n to turn in, But then & started thin*ing 'ore a$out it,7 "arly also li*ed that Ms, !arren al ays gave students a choice of hat to rite a$out, Mid ay through the year. Ms, !arren told "arly that she had a lot to say and suggested that she su$'it one (articular essay to the school literary 'aga-ine, +he Mag. "arly $al*ed. $ut Ms,

!arren su$'itted it any ay and it as acce(ted, Hids ho' "arly did not even *no ca'e u( to her and co''ented on ho 'uch they li*ed it, !hen she as as*ed to $e on the editing co''ittee for +he Mag. she as sur(rised, She started to thin* that 'ay$e she asn't so stu(id after all and ent to the Learning "enter for hel( ith alge$ra, Her grades started to i'(rove, #he follo ing year. hen she as as*ed hat 'ade the difference for her. "arly res(onded i''ediately: 6&t as Ms, !arren. #yanna. and that darn (iece she IMs, !arrenJ su$'itted to +he Mag. Hind of a co'$ination, &'' still not so good at 'ath, & have trou$le so'eti'es reading 'y history $oo*. and & hate $iology2it's gross, But no & *no that & a' s'art and that hat & do 'atters and that & a' 0ust shooting 'yself in the foot if & don't try, & never thought a$out college $efore. $ut no & thin* & ant to go,7 Middle and high school leaders can reverse the downward spiral of failure man" students e2perience ." creating a literac"8rich environment throughout the school Bsee Chapter ' for suggestionsD, esta.lishing classroom environments as descri.ed in this vignette as the norm, and e2pecting all content8area teachers to provide literac" instruction in the content areas. Although Ms. &arren was apparentl" well versed in strategies for improving reading and writing, most content8area teachers, including man" English teachers, are not. School leaders can support teacher learning a.out content8area literac" instruction through fre<uent, high8<ualit", Eo.8 em.edded professional development and ." providing opportunities for strateg" sharing, feed.ack, and coaching. Content8area teachers must accept the challenge of integrating literac" and learning for their students. !ikewise, students cannot .e e2pected to develop skills when the conte2ts for engagement and support for instruction are not in place. As descri.ed in the vignette, Carl" was unengaged in school and not willing, at first, to participate in her own literac" development. She needed to see that someone cared, needed to have authentic and motivating reasons to read and write, and needed support to improve her literac" skills. >one of this was likel" to magicall" happen Eust .ecause the educators in the school s"stem announced that the" .elieve in high standards for all students. 0ut Ms. &arren knew how to create a classroom culture that supported literac" development. 3or Carl", as for man" students, motivation and engagement led to increased literac" skills and higher self8esteem as a reader, writer, and learner, which led, in turn, to improved academic achievement.

onditions for Engagement


+he literature is full of e2amples of how the climate and conditions of the classroom reall" can make a difference in whether or not adolescents choose to engage in literac" tasks. &e know that the learning environment and culture within each classroom pla" a part in supporting or undermining the chances that middle and high school students will participate in, and therefore .enefit from, literac" development through the engagement8instruction c"cle. +his is the case with students at all literac" levels, including struggling readers and writers, English language learners, reluctant readers and writers, and aliterate students Bthose students who have ade<uate reading and writing skills .ut t"picall" choose not to read or writeD. +his understanding means it is well worth pa"ing attention to the elements of classroom culture and environment to ensure that the conditions for literac" learning are in place. +he following vignette descri.es students6

engagement with a variet" of literac" tasks when these were assigned within a motivating and supportive learning environment coupled with effective instruction. #he Kth grade students on the )rea' #ea' at Lincoln Middle School ere studying the to(ic of ater +uality, 1or this interdisci(linary unit. Ha'al. Ayan. Mara. and %ri*a ere (ut into a grou(, None of the' really understood hy atersheds ere i'(ortant hen they $egan the (ro0ect, #he first assign'ent as to read and discuss a cha(ter in the science $oo*, #he ter'inology as hard. and they really did not understand hat the cha(ter as a$out even after (revie ing it, But the science teacher (rovided strategies for learning the voca$ulary and reading the text. so even though the grou( 'e'$ers ere not ins(ired. they ere a$le to co'(lete the assign'ent, Me'$ers of Ha'al's grou( $eca'e 'ore interested hen they sa the results of a local survey of aste dis(osal ha$its of $usinesses and households, #he results indicated that 6really disgusting stuff7 as $eing du'(ed near the city's 'ain su((ly of drin*ing ater, Students listened to a local scientist and a govern'ent official tal* a$out atershed and ater treat'ent issues2(olicies. (ollution. (rotections. and current threats, Students then too* a tour of the local ater treat'ent (lant, &n social studies class they de$ated the (ros and cons of $ottled ater in ter's of environ'ental and e+uity issues, Based on additional research and res(onses to e8'ail +uestions su$'itted to the s(ea*ers. the students created a (hysical 'odel of the atershed and the ater treat'ent facility and discussed (ossi$le areas of concern, %ach tea' of four identified *ey +uestions and ent into the field to conduct tests of ater and soil for the (resence of (ollutants, #hen they learned to read govern'ent charts re(resenting safe levels of these su$stances in the (u$lic ater su((ly and technical docu'ents descri$ing the treat'ent (lan for the city, Ha'al's tea' carefully co'(ared its test results ith the infor'ation on the charts, !hat they found as distur$ing, Levels of certain toxic su$stances and $acteria ere high in the reservoir. $ut the ater treat'ent facility as not addressing the (ro$le' $y changing the treat'ent of the ater. suggesting that the city's drin*ing ater 'ay not $e safe, #he teachers encouraged the students to re(ort their findings using Do erDoint (resentations, Students ere given a s(ecific for'at for (resenting their +uestions. data. conclusions. and reco''endations, #ogether ith teachers. the students develo(ed a ru$ric for each co'(onent of the (resentations, #he t o (resentations ith the highest scores $ased on the ru$ric ould $e (resented to the city council, #he 'e'$ers of Ha'al's tea' or*ed hard on their (resentation2harder than they had ever or*ed $efore, Ha'al and his fello grou( 'e'$ers chec*ed and rechec*ed facts. read and reread articles. discussed and de$ated hat the reco''endations should $e. and revised and edited their (resentation, #o 'a*e sure they understood hat they ere reading. the grou( too* the articles to the Learning "enter during lunch. here a teacher sho ed the' so'e strategies for finding facts and ta*ing notes, #hey used these strategies to tac*le so'e tough text. including findings fro' a scientific re(ort, #he t o students ith li'ited %nglish (roficiency in the grou(. Ayan and Mara. as*ed the others re(eatedly if hat they rote as 6>H,7 Ha'al. usually a(athetic hen it ca'e to school. sa this issue as i'(ortant2he had four younger $rothers and sisters. and his fa'ily used ta( ater for coo*ing and drin*ing all the ti'e/ he anted it to $e

safe, %ri*a. ho as usually shy in class $ut ho really li*ed 'usic. 'ade u( a the'e song a$out ater safety to acco'(any their (resentation, !hen Ha'al's tea''s (resentation as chosen as one of the t o to $e shared at the city council 'eeting. their class'ates ere sur(rised, But Ha'al and his tea''ates ere not2this as an i'(ortant o((ortunity to $e heard, &n their 'inds. this as 'uch 'ore i'(ortant than the rest of the stuff they usually did at school2and they ere illing to (ut in the ti'e and effort to do it right, !hen a staff riter fro' the local ne s(a(er attended the (resentation and (ressured the city to res(ond to the students' findings. the students *ne their effort had $een orth hile, In this vignette, several ke" factors relating to motivation inspired Mamal6s team to engage with much more rigorous reading and writing than was t"picall" the case. +he students were working together on an issue the" thought was importantH the" had choice and autonom" in the decisions a.out how to gather and present the informationH and the presentation was for an authentic audience .e"ond the teacher or their peers. In 5uthrie and Mnowles6s CC1 review of the empirical literature and their three8"ear stud" of MN1 classroom events that prompted sustained literac" interactions, the" outline seven principles for promoting motivation to read#

use o& conce tual the'es to guide in/uiry, real4(orld interactions as s ringboards &or &urther in/uiry, encourage'ent o& sel&4direction, the e0istence o& a variety o& te0ts, su ort &or the use o& cognitive strategies,

social collaboration, and o ortunities &or sel&4e0 ression.

Futhrie and Gno(les see this net(ork o& variables as those ?likely to s ark and sustain the long4 ter' 'otivation re/uired &or students to beco'e &ull 'e'bers in the (orld o& engaged readers@ + . )$1,. Like 'any researchers and ractitioners, Futhrie and Gno(les stress the connections bet(een the a&&ective, social, and cognitive as ects o& reading. Although this research (as not solely &ocused on adolescents, all o& these &actors (ere in lace during the (ater /uality roAect described in the vignette, and they contributed greatly to the engage'ent and success o& Ga'al9s grou .

Strategies to Engage Students


Gne e2tensive review of the literature related to adolescent literac" BMelt=er, CC H Melt=er I ;amann, CC'D generated three promising practices that teachers can use to motivate students, including English language learners, to read, discuss, and strengthen literac" skills across content areas#

making connections to students' lives, thereby connecting background kno(ledge and li&e e0 eriences to the te0ts to be read and roduced2 creating safe and responsive classrooms (here students are ackno(ledged, have voice, and are given choices in learning tasks, reading assign'ents, and to ics o& in/uiry that then strengthen their literacy skills2 and having students interact with te(t and with each other about te(t in (ays that sti'ulate /uestioning, redicting, visualizing, su''arizing, and clari&ying, re&erably in the rocess o& co' leting authentic tasks +tasks (ith a ersonal ur ose or &or a larger audience than the teacher,.

Adolescent motivation in general is highl" varia.le and is often dependent upon purpose and conte2t, including relationships with peers, parents, teachers, and others. +herefore, a variet" of motivational entr" points need to .e present to spur student engagement with literac". Content8 area classrooms that implement these three practices tend to .e well stocked with .ooks, maga=ines, technolog" resources, and a variet" of other t"pes of te2ts and materials. +he ne2t sections descri.e what each of these practices looks like in the classroom.

Making %onnections to "tudents' Lives


In classrooms that promote motivation, teachers continuall" make connections .etween te2ts and the life e2periences of students, films, other te2ts, previous school e2periences, and the topic at hand. 0efore assigning a piece of te2t to read, teachers provide students with a purpose for reading, and the" consciousl" activate students6 prior knowledge. +eachers use a variet" of approaches7demonstration, film, field trips, picture .ooks, discussion7to .uild students6 .ackground knowledge and regularl" ask students to present similarities and contrasts .etween their own life e2periences and what is in the te2t. 3or e2ample, students might participate in hands8on activities that the" then activel" discuss and anal"=e .efore completing related reading and writing. Motivation to read and write is enhanced ." their new knowledge and e2perience and ." the discussion that precedes the reading and writing. Students feel as though their life e2periences are relevant and appreciated and that the" are e2pected to use their own and others6 e2periences to make sense of te2t and content. +he" view the content the" are learning as meaningful and connected, not isolated and foreign. %eading, discussing, anal"=ing, and creating te2ts .ecome primar" formats for learning and e2pression. Esta.lishing a purpose for reading is also related to improved comprehension. &hen students have a purpose for reading, have ade<uate .ackground knowledge, and make personal connections to what the" are reading, the" can persevere through challenging te2t. ;elping students to make connections is essential .ecause student engagement is determined ." the personal purpose for reading, the particular te2ts .eing read, and the links .etween the te2ts and students6 personal circumstances. ;elping students make connections .etween their own goals and their choices of te2ts is also important for how students develop the a.ilit" to use te2t to learn. In the vignette, Mamal and his team were a.le to make connections .etween what the speakers said, what the te2t.ook said, what articles and reports revealed, and the field trips the" took.

+he" had opportunities to discuss what each meant and allowed the connections .eing made and the conclusions .eing drawn to spur further in<uir".

%reating "afe and 1esponsive %lassrooms


In safe and responsive classrooms, teachers respond to adolescents6 needs for choice and fle2i.ilit" and offer clear e2pectations and support for higher achievement. +eachers are also responsive to differing cultural and socioeconomic perspectives, making their appreciation of these perspectives clear through their facilitation of discussion, choices of literature, structuring of assignments, and assessment strategies. +eachers who successfull" .uild upon the multiple literacies that students .ring with them to the classroom learn a.out these literacies and help students understand how the forms of argumentation, categori=ation, and rhetoric that the" commonl" use out of school are similar to and different from those commonl" encountered in academic te2ts. Most important, teachers must understand that engagement feels like a high risk for man" students. 3or those with low literac" self8esteem, the motivation to read and write depends on their Eudgments regarding whether teachers will give up on them or .elieve that the" are worth the investment of time and encouragement. +eachers who persist in tr"ing to reach resistant or reluctant learners continue to repeat invitations to Eoin in the discussion, valuing small contri.utions and allowing students to participate at their own pace. +eachers must make clear to students that the" care a.out their learning and their development of literac" skills, as well as their well8.eing as individuals. It is oka" to make mistakes in these classrooms7the teacher acknowledges e2plicitl" that learning is a continuum and that the role of students in a learning communit" is to improve their own skills and help others to improve theirs. &hen possi.le, teachers incorporate a choice of topic or format and, sometimes, goal setting and self8assessment into reading and writing assignments to accommodate var"ing student interests and learning st"les and to engage students in developing their proficienc" as readers and writers. In the vignette, Mamal6s group clearl" felt that the classroom was a safe environment in which to learn, <uestion, and present ideas. +he team was encouraged to make choices, follow lines of in<uir", and use a variet" of sources of information. +he teacher validated a personal reason for pursuing the topic and encouraged various means of e2pression. %esources were provided and support was availa.le to help the students as needed.

4aving "tudents (nteract with Te!t and with Each 5ther A6out Te!t
In classrooms that support motivation, students fre<uentl" work in small groups and pairs to anal"=e te2ts and to edit one another6s writing assignments. +eachers structure learning e2periences to help students develop deeper comprehension through discussion, to de.ate using te2t8.ased reasoning, and to understand various points of view. A colla.orative learning e2perience within the conte2t of a classroom environment that welcomes and supports diverse perspectives is the norm across the content areas. +he multiple literacies that students .ring to the classroom are viewed as a capacit" and a resource. +eachers might encourage students to compare and contrast how a scene could .e descri.ed using first language, home dialects or vernacular English, or IM script. (ifferent wa"s of approaching and solving pro.lems in math

and science and writing are discussed and appreciated. &hen students share how situations similar to those .eing studied in social studies or read a.out in English would pla" out within their own cultural conte2ts, teachers value their contri.utions as additional insight into the topic at hand, not a distraction. Mamal and his team mem.ers were a.le to discuss their proEect with one another from its inception through its presentation. +he" were a.le to discuss te2ts and to use their native languages when necessar" to understand or e2plain to one another or to find out how to e2press something in English. Class activities encouraged discussion and de.ate and e2ploration of multiple, often conflicting, te2ts and points of view.

Focusing on Authentic Literac Tasks


Authenticit" is often the hidden ke" to motivating reluctant readers and writers to engage in academic literac" tasks. ?et in man" middle and high school classrooms, authentic literac" tasks, if the" occur at all, tend to .e infre<uent events. Moreover, man" teachers consider si'ulated performance tasks to .e authentic7a perspective students often do not share. Adolescents want their work to matter, and the" want to conduct in<uir" for reasons other than it .eing an assignment or an e2ercise. Authentic literac" tasks pla" into adolescents6 needs to do things that are real and often prompt new effort for rehearsal, comprehension, discussion of content, planning, revision and editing tasks, summari=ing, and other literac" skills .ecause these activities are .eing carried out for purposes other than 9Eust passing it in to the teacher.: +his phenomenon was evident in the vignetteH the fact that water <ualit" was a real issue that mattered to Mamal and his teammates led to much more rigorous effort than standard te2t.ook reading assignments had elicited. Gther authentic literac" tasks include adolescents reading with "ounger students or creating .ooks on tape or authoring .ooks for them, designing &e. sites, writing newspaper articles, and conducting and reporting upon in<uiries that reflect real societal concerns Bsuch as neigh.orhood crime, pollution, teen issues, or school or cit" policies that affect them or their familiesD. +hese strategies often motivate and engage students to persist with challenging or e2tended reading or writing tasks BAlvermann, CC1D.

Encouraging %ritical Literac


;elping students to anal"=e .ias, perspective, audience, and the underl"ing assumptions and purpose of a piece of writing is an authentic approach for stud"ing te2ts .ecause it empowers students to understand that te2ts are not infalli.le. As vehicles for communicating the point of view of the author, te2ts are infused with su.Eectivit" and .ased on assumptions. -nderstanding the larger political, historical, and economic conte2ts within which te2ts are produced allows students to comprehend wh" certain perspectives are valued a.ove others, what assumptions underlie the author6s words, whose ideas gain currenc", and wh" this might .e the case. Students can appl" these understandings to their reading of an article a.out a scientific discover", primar" sources, histor" te2t.ooks, novels, newspaper stories, and man" other t"pes of te2t. 3or man" students, this approach to stud"ing te2t is motivating and meaningful and leads to greater

engagement with te2t. 3or Mamal and his teammates, understanding the te2ts so the" knew if the water s"stem was at risk was an important reason to persevere through challenging material.

Using Technolog
+he use of technolog" is often highl" motivating to adolescents in terms of getting them to read and write more carefull" and with more effort. +he a.ilit" to revise on the computer, to add effects Bcolor, graphics, soundD to presentations, and to code or mark te2t using word processing features such as highlighting motivates man" students, especiall" when this capa.ilit" is com.ined with an authentic purpose to read and write. Some students are much more likel" to persevere with skill development if it is presented through a computer program or to complete an in<uir" assignment if it is structured as a &e. <uest. In the vignette, Mamal and his teammates used a PowerPoint presentation to successfull" present their case. +he technolog" was a useful and eas"8to8use tool that helped communicate their ideas to their audience.

onnecting Engagement to Improved $roficiency


Although it ma" .e eas" to see how these learning conditions stimulate motivation and engagement, the connection to how the" .uild literac" skills and improve literac" learning ma" .e less clear. G.viousl", willingness alone does not make one competent. As previousl" shown in the engagement8instruction c"cle B3igure 1.1D, when coupled with support and instruction, engagement with literac" tasks that one perceives are worth completing allows for guided practice. 0ecause skillful coaching improves performance during practice, practice allows for improvement to take place. 0ut Eust as responsive classrooms do not happen ." accident, neither does literac" learning for the vast maEorit" of students. Most students need skillful literac" instruction within the conte2t of content8area learning to support their ongoing literac" development, including e2plicit instruction in reading strategies and skills and how these can .e applied to various genres and conte2ts. In Chapters and $, we present, in detail, the t"pes of strategies and skills that reading and writing instruction should include as part of .oth content8area instruction and intensive interventions for struggling readers and writers. In the following sections we descri.e three additional t"pes of academic literac" ha.its and skills that the research stresses as .eing necessar" for all students to develop to .ecome independent learners# metacognitive skills, voca.ular" development, and the a.ilit" to generate <uestions. Competence in each of these three skill areas supports students6 a.ilities to learn content. +eachers6 conscious development of each of the three, coupled with attention to motivation, will support engagement with academic literac" tasks and improve reading and writing proficienc". Students6 academic success is dependent upon developing competence with each of these, whether or not the" are used in conEunction with reading or writing.

Developing Metacognitive "kills


Metacognitive skills allow students to monitor their own comprehension effectivel". +hat is, learners reali=e when the" do not understand something or when something does not make sense. Students with good metacognitive skills can use a variet" of 9fi28up: strategies when reading or listening, like rereading, listing or visuali=ing, <uestioning the te2t, relating the content to personal .ackground, or using te2t aids to assist with comprehension. &eaker readers can learn the metacognitive strategies that stronger readers use. +hese strategies help weaker readers improve reading comprehension and, therefore, improve their content area learning. 0eing a.le to use metacognitive strategies independentl" as needed to strengthen and deepen literac" and learning is the de facto definition of an 9independent learner.: +his sense of having more control over one6s reading and learning through the development of metacognitive skills t"picall" motivates students to sustain engagement.

Developing 7oca6ular
4oca.ular" development is intertwined with reading comprehension and content8area learning. Students need a variet" of strategies the" can use to learn and remem.er the man" technical terms, ke" concepts, and academic voca.ular" that the" encounter in the stud" of various disciplines. +here is no evidence that 9assign, define, and test,: the most prevalent approach used in middle and high school classrooms for learning voca.ular", is effective in helping students to learn words. According to Allen B1111D, teachers in each content area should implement purposeful voca.ular" instruction to

increase reading co' rehension, develo kno(ledge o& ne( conce ts, i' rove range and s eci&icity in (riting, hel students co''unicate 'ore e&&ectively, and develo dee er understanding o& (ords and conce ts (ith (hich students are only no'inally &a'iliar.

Struggling readers and (riters and 'ost -LL students also need ur ose&ul attention to the study o& (ords +root (ords, a&&i0es, and the develo 'ent o& acade'ic language +non4content4 s eci&ic (ords &ound in rinted directions, &or's, te0tbooks, novels, and other ublications,. Throughout the literature, vocabulary develo 'ent is stressed as a key co' onent o& literacy.

8enerating 9uestions
3inall", students need to learn how to generate good <uestions. Ouestioning is effective for improving comprehension .ecause it provides students with a purpose for reading, focuses attention on what must .e learned, helps develop active thinking while reading, helps monitor comprehension, helps review content, and relates what is .eing learned to what is alread" known BArm.ruster, !ehr, I Gs.orn, CC1D. ;aving students generate their own <uestions a.out a te2t

has also .een shown to .e an effective strateg" for improving reading comprehension7 <uestioning .ecomes a vehicle for connecting the te2t to their own prior knowledge. Ouestioning is a part of several other learning strategies. 3or e2ample, writing8to8learn strategies, written responses to higher8order8thinking <uestions, engagement in Socratic discussion, use of anal"tical graphic organi=ers, in<uir"8.ased learning, and colla.orative routines for te2t stud" all involve asking and answering <uestions, and all have .een proven effective in improving literac" ha.its and skills, including reading comprehension. (eveloping metacognitive skills re<uires asking oneself if a particular te2t is making sense, and if not, wh" not. Activating prior knowledge, descri.ed in the literature as an essential wa" to connect students with te2t and improve reading comprehension and the a.ilit" to learn from te2t, re<uires asking <uestions. Man" stages of the writing process, from choosing a topic to developing an outline, revising, and pu.lishing, also re<uire the a.ilit" to ask <uestions. Completing research is highl" dependent on identif"ing ke" issues and framing good <uestions to guide in<uir". Again, the premise that students need to .e a.le to ask effective <uestions is not one that is found in man" middle and high school classrooms, where the focus is t"picall" on answering <uestions asked ." the teacher or the te2t. E2plicitl" teaching students these literac" ha.its and skills and providing multiple opportunities to practice them across content areas will ensure that students develop competence in these three areas. 3or e2ample, teachers can focus on voca.ular" development with each unit of stud", or teach how to complete a research paper and present research findings through a focus on <uestioning. As the engagement8instruction c"cle B3igure 1.1, p. $'D illustrates, this increased competence will further motivate students to engage with reading and writing tasks and will lead to improved student achievement.

onnecting Learning to Adolescents+ Needs( Interests( and Dispositions


Adolescents are not passive recipients of information who have few skills. +he" are, instead, activel" curious "oung people with .ackground knowledge and a wide range of literac" skills that the" ma" or ma" not .e using in school. Improving their skills involves gaining their participation. Sometimes teachers and administrators spend considera.le energ" fighting with adolescents instead of harnessing their a.ilities and skills in the service of improving their literac" and learning. +o help adolescents improve their academic literac" ha.its and skills, teachers and administrators can .uild on needs, interests, and dispositions that adolescents have, such as those presented in 3igure 1. .

$ig!re 1 2 Lin'ing Instr!ction "ith (eeds) Interests) and *ispositions

Adolescents+ (eeds) Interests) and *ispositions

Possi#le Instr!ctional Response

Provide choices in >eed for controlLautonom"


Assign'ent to ics Assess'ent 'odes Cooks to read Brder o& co' leting (ork

-se technolog" to support Interest in technolog"Lmedia


Co''unication .resentation Hesearch

>eed to .e heard (isposition to de.ate

Provide authentic audiences, e2pectations, and opportunities for writingLspeaking for an audience .e"ond the teacher Plan man" opportunities for

Debate Te0t4based discussion B inion boards Clogs Letters to the editor Student correction o& contentE&or'at errors

Set up opportunities for >eed to make a difference


Heading toEtutoring others Hesearch into real issues A renticeshi s

Creating in&or'ational *eb sites *riting articles &or ublication .eer editing

>eed to .elong

Create a classroom culture and reinforce classroom norms that support the development of a communit" of readers, writers, and thinkers +each students how to participate in

Sense of accomplishment
Literacy goal setting

.rogress 'onitoring Ise o& rubrics Collaborative tea'ing &or co' letion o& literacy tasks

%hat Leaders an Do
School leaders know that most academic learning in middle and high schools takes place within classrooms. !eaders who are aware of the options teachers have to promote student motivation and engagement with literac" tasks can ensure that these options are in place in ever" classroom. Principals can work with teachers to identif" a vision for what classrooms where students are motivated to engage with literac" development would look like. &hat would teachers .e doingA &hat would students .e doingA &hat would the classroom environment .e likeA +hen teams of teachers can define what immediate steps the" can take to move toward this vision. +he vision can .e reintroduced during the "ear to check on progress and remind teachers of this priorit". &hen principals do walk8throughs or visit classrooms, their feed.ack to teachers might include references to aspects of the learning environment, assigned tasks, or instructional support that appeared motivating to students. Principals should also provide feed.ack a.out how man" students appeared to .e activel" engaged in learning so that teachers can monitor their progress in reaching and involving increasing num.ers of students. !eaders can provide opportunities for teachers to share strategies for motivating and engaging different t"pes of learners so these strategies are used more widel" across classrooms. School leaders also should think a.out the school environment in its entiret". ;ow would visitors know that this is a school that values and encourages reading, writing, and thinkingA Esta.lishing a literac"8rich schoolwide culture that is focused on student motivation, engagement, and achievement will make it easier for teachers to feel supported to make changes, will reinforce ke" messages to students and parents a.out the importance of reading and writing, and will clarif" to teachers that school leaders are willing to 9walk the talk.: B&e present more ideas on what a schoolwide culture and environment look like in Chapter '.D A primar" role of school leaders is to motivate teachers to engage in the professional development necessar" for them to learn how to support the literac" development of their students more effectivel". As long as teachers see a lack of engagement as 9the students6 fault,: the" will not .e provoked to change their own classroom practices to focus on motivation and sustained engagement with reading, writing, and thinking. If the" do not know strategies that support literac" in the content areas, the" cannot .e e2pected to incorporate them into classroom teaching and learning. School leaders need to motivate and engage teachers to make necessar" changes in classroom learning environments and instruction through high8<ualit" professional development, esta.lishing an e2pectation that this will occur and providing support. B&e descri.e strategies for providing the support that teachers need in Chapter *.D School leaders ma" want to surve" students a.out their attitudes toward reading and writing and solicit students6 suggestions on what t"pes of classroom environments and support the" would

find helpful to their learning. Sometimes hearing what students sa" is motivating to them is helpful to teachers who do not understand the challenges of literac" development from the students6 point of view. %elevance, relationships, and rigor are the rall"ing cr" of middle and high school reform efforts B(aggett, CC)D. +hrough an unwavering focus on literac" improvement, all three can .e achieved. School leaders need to understand the goal7student achievement7as well as the primar" route to that goal7increased motivation and engagement of students and teachers, leading to improved teaching and learning and higher self8efficac" of teachers and learners. +he end result will .e greater student success.

,ey Messages
+his chapter discussed the critical relationship .etween student motivation, engagement, and achievement and how school leaders can use classroom environments and conte2ts as intervention tools, interrupting a c"cle of failure. Some students arrive at middle or high school with the hard shells of resistant readers or writers, .ut, underneath, no student wants to fail. Enacting the engagement8instruction c"cle is essential to ensuring that all students have a chance for success. ;elping students to .ecome active participants in their <uests to .ecome competent, confident readers, writers, speakers, and thinkers re<uires classroom conte2ts that motivate and engage students, coupled with e2plicit literac" instruction that supports the improvement of their skills. +he following are the ke" messages from this chapter#

A &ocus on 'otivation and engage'ent is the key to any e&&ort to i' rove adolescent literacy habits and skills. Sustained engage'ent in reading and (riting tasks cou led (ith e&&ective instruction leads to i' roved learning. Three strong strategies &or i' roving 'otivation and engage'ent are authentic tasks, critical literacy, and use o& technology to su ort literacy develo 'ent. Students9 'otivations to read and (rite are highly variable and de endent on ur ose, erceived value, sel&4e&&icacy, interest, and conte0t. ;ocusing on instruction (ithout attention to 'otivation is not likely to be success&ul (ith adolescents. Classroo' environ'ents and teacher actions can sustain and encourage, or under'ine, student 'otivation and engage'ent in acade'ic literacy tasks. Three i' ortant instructional ractices are having students 'ake connections, creating sa&e and res onsive classroo's, and having students regularly interact (ith te0t and (ith one another about te0t. Increasing students9 co' etence through e0 licit literacy instruction (ithin the conte0t o& a su ortive learning environ'ent (ill increase student engage'ent and i' rove student achieve'ent.

!iterac" is an integral part of adolescents6 identities. Man" struggling readers and writers have decided that improving their reading and writing skills is not worth the effort. +eachers ma" not

know what to do when confronted with students who do not or will not read or write. &hen school leaders are aware of the connection .etween student motivation, engagement, and achievement, and know the strategies and practices that have .een effective in .reaking through students6 resistance, the" can support necessar" changes in classroom environments, instructional practices, and school culture. Principals can support teachers6 professional development, sponsor discussions among teachers a.out what the" can do to infuse their content8area teaching with the effective practices mentioned in this chapter, and ensure that classroom environments and instruction include a strong focus on student motivation and engagement. Caring teachers, along with instructional and environmental supports, can go a long wa" to turning around a histor" of failure for man" adolescent readers and writers.

%hapter ,3 Develop and (mplement a "choolwide Literac Action Plan

Why is this component important? A school(ide literacy action lan is an essential blue rint &or i' roving student achieve'ent. An e&&ective lan re/uires the skill&ul use o& data about student er&or'ance, literacy needs and e0 ectations in the school and co''unity, school ca acity to su ort literacy develo 'ent, current teaching ractices, and e&&ectiveness o& the

literacy rogra'. To generate change, leaders 'ust actively use a literacy action lan to guide decision 'aking around instruction, rogra''ing, and resource allocation.

(esigning an effective literac" action plan to guide a schoolwide literac" improvement effort is not eas"H however, such a plan is essential for school leaders who are serious a.out addressing the literac" and learning needs of students. In Chapter ,, we descri.e how school leaders can use student performance data to focus the school on improving students6 literac" and learning and make appropriate decisions a.out student placement. Certainl", student performance data constitute the most critical information that drives planning for literac" improvement. A good plan specificall" indicates what t"pes of student performance data are .eing collected and how the data will .e used. ;owever, to ensure that improvement is sustained, additional t"pes of data are important to consider when developing and implementing a comprehensive literac" action plan. After a plan has .een developed and implemented, school leaders must then collect data to monitor its success, including the effectiveness of specific literac" interventions. +he .iggest concern a.out developing a data8.ased literac" action plan is that it will not guide action. +oo man" times a plan is developed onl" to .e 9left on the shelf.: Schmoker B CC*D points out that most strategic planning in education is ineffective .ecause the documents produced are fragmented, complicated, and convoluted, and often do not lead to improved student outcomes. In other words, the improvement plans are difficult to use, rarel" used, or .oth. According to Schmoker, ela.orate school improvement plans that do not focus e2clusivel" and directl" on curriculum implementation and improving instruction are not helpful to improving student achievement. +his does not mean that a literac" action plan is a .ad idea. Gn the contrar", man" schools we have worked with use their literac" action plan to focus their efforts and guide their work to improve student proficienc" in reading and writing. ;owever, school leaders must develop a data8.ased literac" action plan that the" will activel" use to guide ongoing decisions a.out instruction, programming, and resource allocation. School leaders need to o.tain .road .u"8in to the plan7it should not .e developed ." a small group of people and kept secret. It is important that the plan .e measura.le, coherent, concrete, and comprehensi.le to teachers and administrators. !ast, it is important that the plan .e seen as proactive, not as compliance to a mandate, even if a mandate is what prompted the plan6s development. Gne principal told us that it was her school6s literac" action plan that made the difference in how she was a.le to focus on instructionH now she thinks a.out how all decisions support or affect literac" development. Another credits her school6s literac" action plan for their school6s 9sta"ing the course: and making sure the" are not distracted from the goal of improving literac". &'(le'ent a Literacy Action Dlan is the top point in the graphic of the !eadership Model for Improving Adolescent !iterac" and is the first action ste(. School leaders must work with their facult" to create a plan that .rings together all of the other action steps discussed in the following chapters to ensure that ever" content area classroom and literac" intervention focuses on improving students6 literac" ha.its and skills through emphasis on student motivation, engagement, and achievement.

In this chapter, we descri.e the ke" components of an effective literac" action plan and steps to develop this plan, along with approaches that leaders might use to collect and anal"=e relevant data. +hen we descri.e a data8driven program8monitoring c"cle that leaders can use to evaluate the effectiveness of the plan in action. Segments of a vignette descri.ing how one middle school developed and used a literac" action plan are interspersed throughout the chapter. &e conclude with ke" messages.

Essential omponents of an Effective Literacy Action $lan


An effective schoolwide literac" plan guides action on man" levels, focusing multiple activities toward increasing students6 reading, writing, and thinking skills. A comprehensive literac" action plan has action steps related to five ke" areas#

Strengthening Literacy Develo 'ent Across the Content Areas2 Literacy Interventions &or Struggling Headers and *riters2 School .olicies, Structures, and Culture &or Su Cuilding Leadershi Ca acity2 and Su orting Teachers to I' rove Instruction. orting Literacy2

+he ke" components of the literac" action plan mirror components of the !eadership Model for Improving Adolescent !iterac" .ecause the action plan acts as a .lueprint for implementing a schoolwide literac" improvement effort. (etermining appropriate overall goals for literac" improvement re<uires the gathering and anal"=ing of relevant data. +hen, .ased on the data, leaders can define and implement action steps related to each component. In the following section, we descri.e each of the essential components of a comprehensive literac" action plan in more detail and note the t"pes of data that leaders can collect and anal"=e for each. Each action plan component also includes a mini8chart showing two related action steps that are part of a sample literac" action plan. Gf course, the appropriate action steps a particular middle or high school should take will depend upon what that school6s data indicate.

"trengthening Literac Development Across the %ontent Areas


As descri.ed in Chapters 1 and , motivating and engaging students and developing their literac" skills are necessar" outcomes for an" literac" improvement effort. A schoolwide literac" action plan needs to include specific steps to set the e2pectation and provide the support so that all content8area teachers implement classroom instruction that is motivating, engaging, and strateg" .ased. 3igure ).1 shows two e2amples of action plan goals that target literac" development across content areas.

$ig!re , 1 Action Plan Goals for Literacy *evelopment Across &ontent Areas

Goal

Time Line

Action Steps

Person-s. Responsi#le

Reso!rces +ime on restructured da"s

%vidence of S!ccess (epartment minutes

Schedule time for Content area department team leaders meetings Activate su.Eect areaLgrade8level discussions on reading and writing strategies School "ear Share effective +eachers, strategies in literac" team facult" meetings mem.ers Include one Principal strateg" in each monthl" facult" newsletter Time Line Action Steps Assess and catalog availa.le te2ts in su.Eect areas Person-s. Responsi#le Media specialist and department chairs

Planning time 3acult" agendas

+eacher Monthl" suggestions and newsletters feed.ack Reso!rces Summer stipends, printing %vidence of S!ccess !ist of te2ts

Goal

3orm a English chair partnership with >ewspapers in !ocate and use a Summer Education B>IED variet" of te2ts in School su.Eect areas "ear E2pand Principal and classroom local school li.raries related council to content E2plore options Principal for su.scri.ing to electronic te2t data.ases

+ime to make Agendas of contacts meetingsH >IE resources in classrooms +ime and .udget for purchasing .ooks Su.scription fee >um.er of li.raries and .ooks Purchase of data.ase

Literac (nterventions for "truggling 1eaders and :riters


As we note in Chapters $ and ,, setting up literac" interventions for struggling readers and writers is an important component of school improvement efforts. (eciding on the methods and t"pes of programs to offer for these interventions will depend on data a.out student needs, school capacit", and teacher knowledge. 3igure ). shows two e2amples of action plan goals that target literac" interventions for struggling readers and writers.

$ig!re , 2 Action Plan Goals That Target Str!ggling Readers and /riters

Goal

Time Line

Action Steps

Person-s. Responsi#le

Reso!rces +est data

%vidence of S!ccess Student lists

Identif" students (istrict and in lowest <uartile school test coordinator %esearch, Principal, identif", and reading purchase a specialist validated reading programs for targeted students

Information on %esearch notes, reading meeting agendas programs, funds

Purchase and implement reading program to meet Identif" an Principal, Summer the needs of intensive reading assistant School students scoring in course in master principal for "ear the lowest <uartile schedule master on the reading schedule assessment Assign <ualified Principal, teachers to the human reading course resources personnel Place students in Principal, course and reading monitor progress teachers Goal Time Action Steps Person-s.

3le2i.le master 3inished master schedule schedule

Oualified teachers

+eacher list with <ualifications

Course materials, professional development Reso!rces

Student grades, promotions, improvements on assessments %vidence of

Line %esearch, identif", and purchase materials Provide literac" Implement a Summer professional schoolwide writing School development program "ear Provide time for cross8functional planning during the school da"

Responsi#le Principal, assistant principals, teachers Principal, district supervisors of su.Eect areas Master schedule coordinator, department chairs

S!ccess +est data, Student reports grades, sent to teachers attendance data Gutside professional development consultants +eacher surve"s, evaluations, sign8 in sheets

3le2i.le master +eacher surve"s, schedule, minutes from instructional planning materials meetings

"chool Policies# "tructures# and %ulture for "upporting Literac


3or man" schools this is a 9hidden: component not alwa"s articulated in a literac" action plan. ?et ignoring a school6s policies, structures, and culture ma" mean that B1D there are aspects of these in place that will impede literac" improvement efforts if not addressed, and B D action steps do not .uild on current school capacit" in these areas, with the result that actions are not taken or sustained. 3or e2ample, action steps that rel" on a department structure for enactment ma" not .e relevant if the school uses team8.ased instruction. !ikewise, if a school facult" has had su.stantial training in a process for instructional planning or writing across the curriculum, it makes sense to .uild upon and connect the literac" effort to those areas of e2pertise instead of 9replacing: earlier work. 3igure ).$ shows two e2amples of action plan goals that one middle school included in its literac" plan related to school policies, structures, and culture. 0oth goals focus on developing a school culture in which teachers coordinate their efforts to design and implement curriculum and instruction across su.Eect areas, as well as to provide instruction .ased on a variet" of assessment and performance options.

$ig!re , 0 Action Plan Goals for School Policies) Str!ct!re) and &!lt!re

Goal

Time Line

Action Steps

Person-s. Responsi#le

Reso!rces

%vidence of S!ccess

3orm grade8level Principal, teams assistant principals, curriculum chairs 3orm curriculum committees to develop instructional goals that Coordinate curriculum and Summer encompass instruction School su.Eect areas across su.Eect "ear areas (evelop themes and curriculum8 integrated proEects that support the themes Provide time for cross8functional planning during the school da" Goal Time Line Action Steps Curriculum chairs, principal, assistant principals

+est data, grades, time to plan, summer stipends

Meeting agendas, formation of teams, assignment of students

+ime during Committee summer to plan for roster, planning instruction, leveled minutes, instructional agendas materials and te2ts, Internet access Instructional materials, planning time, summer stipends, district supervisors of su.Eect areas 3le2i.le master schedule, instructional materials, Internet access Reso!rces +eacher plan .ooks, developed instructional materials Minutes of planning meetings, teacher surve"s, evaluations %vidence of S!ccess

Curriculum chairs, department chairs

Master schedule coordinator, department chairs Person-s. Responsi#le

(esign and Summer 3orm a cross8 Principal, implement School functional assistant instruction that "ear curriculum team principals, uses formal and to agree upon teachers informal common assessment assessment instruments practice Create common 5rade8level ru.rics teams, department chairs

+ime to meet Meeting during the summer, agendas, stipends, formation of assessment teams instruments

+ime to plan, su.stitute coverage, sample ru.rics, Internet access

Planning minutes, agendas, developed and field8tested ru.rics, students6

work Incorporate performance assessments in classroom instruction (epartment Sample chairs, teacher performance leaders assessments, planning time, summer stipends, district8level supervisors, support of testing director Master schedule coordinator, department chairs +eacher plan .ooks, developed performance tasks, student work and proEects

Provide time for cross8functional assessment review

3le2i.le schedule, Minutes of time .eforeLafter planning school, restructured meetings, da"s teacher surve"s, evaluations

/uilding Leadership %apacit


As we make clear in Chapter /, principals cannot lead a literac" improvement effort alone. +he" need to figure out how to augment staff e2pertise in literac" and distri.ute roles and responsi.ilities for literac" improvement across the school. A literac" action plan should specificall" descri.e wa"s to .uild leadership capacit". 3or e2ample, it can specif" allocation of resources for new positions and time for new committees to meet and for teams and department chairs to discuss implications of the plan for their work, and for specialists to coteach, meet, or mentor others. +he two e2amples of action plan goals in 3igure ).' focus on strategies to .uild the leadership capacit" of teachers ." esta.lishing demonstration classrooms and offering support for classroom8.ased research that e2amines student work.

$ig!re , 1 Action Plan Goals for 2!ilding Leadership &apacity

Goal Esta.lish two literac" demonstration classrooms in

Time Line

Action Steps

Person-s. Responsi#le

Reso!rces +ime to meet during the summer, stipends,

%vidence of S!ccess Meeting agendas, formation of teams

Summer Identif" teacher Principal School leaders who can "ear provide classroom demonstrations and

modeling for their peers Provide Principal professional development to demonstration8 classroom teachers Create Principal, opportunities for department classroom visits to andLor o.serve curriculum demonstrations and chairs modeling Goal Time Line Action Steps Person-s. Responsi#le Curriculum andLor department chairs

assessment instruments School literac" coach, outside professional development consultants +ime to plan, su.stitute coverage Classroom o.servations, teacher and student surve"s, evaluations G.servation ru.rics, teacher surve"s, notes

each content area

Reso!rces +ime to meet during the summer, stipends, assessment instruments +ime to plan, su.stitute coverage, professional materials Su.stitutesH time for meeting outside of contract, if necessar"H stipendsH cop"ing .udget 3le2i.le schedule, time .eforeLafter

%vidence of S!ccess Meeting agendas, formation of teams

Engage in Summer Identif" teachers classroom8.ased School and teacher teams research ." "ear to engage in e2amining classroom8.ased student work research (esign tuning protocols for e2amining student work

(epartment andLor curriculum chairs

Sample protocols, e2amined student work, teacher and student surve"s Classroom o.servations, teacher and student surve"s, evaluations

Provide common planning time

Principal

Provide time for constructive feed.ack and

Master schedule coordinator,

Minutes of planning meetings,

follow8up activities department chairs

school, teacher surve"s, restructured da"s evaluations, presentations of results

"upporting Teachers to (mprove (nstruction


Middle and high school teachers cannot .e e2pected to implement literac" support for students without targeted professional development and support. An important component of the overall literac" action plan is a plan for the t"pes of support and professional development necessar" to help teachers improve content8area literac" instruction and successfull" implement literac" interventions with struggling readers. B&e present information a.out formats and options for teacher professional development in Chapters * and 1.D +he two e2amples of action plan goals in 3igure ).) focus on supporting teachers ." providing coaching, peer o.servation, and colla.oration, as well as ." offering them opportunities to attend and present at local, state, and national professional conferences. -ltimatel", of course, the measure of effectiveness for each of these action steps will .e increased student achievement.

$ig!re , , Action Plan Goals for S!pporting Teachers to Improve Instr!ction

Goal

Time Line

Action Steps

Person-s. Responsi#le

Reso!rces +ime to meet during the summer, stipends, assessment instruments +ime to plan, su.stitute coverage

%vidence of S!ccess Meeting agendas, formation of teams

Engage in Summer Identif" teacher Principal coaching, peer School leaders who can o.servation, and "ear provide classroom colla.orative demonstrations and planning modeling for their peers Create opportunities for classroom visits to o.serve demonstrations and modeling Provide Principal, department andLor curriculum chairs Principal

G.servation ru.rics, teacher surve"s, notes

(istrict

Classroom

professional development in coaching and mentoring

supervisors of su.Eect areas, outside professional development consultants Master schedule coordinator, department chairs Person-s. Responsi#le 3le2i.le schedule, time .eforeLafter school, restructured da"s Reso!rces 3unds for mem.ership

o.servations, teacher and student surve"s, evaluations

Provide time for constructive feed.ack and follow8up activities

Minutes of planning meetings, teacher surve"s, evaluations %vidence of S!ccess Mem.erships and professional development materials

Goal

Time Line

Action Steps

Provide department Principal mem.erships in professional organi=ations %esearch local, state, and national conferences and su.mit proposals for attendance and presentations Curriculum andLor department chairs

%esearch time, Su.mitted Internet access proposals

Provide opportunities to attend and present at local, state, and national professional conferences

Summer School Send teachers and "ear teacher teams to local, state, and national conferences

Principal

School and district funds

+eacher presentations to colleagues, conference evaluations Minutes of planning meetings, teacher surve"s, evaluations

Provide time for constructive feed.ack and follow8up activities

Master schedule coordinator, department chairs

3le2i.le schedule, time .eforeLafter school, restructured da"s

&he -oles of School Leaders and the Literacy &eam


As demonstrated in the charts associated with each component, leaders can appl" sound action8 planning principles to the conte2t of literac", setting data8driven goals, outlining action steps, delineating time lines and responsi.le parties, descri.ing indicators of effectiveness, and allocating the necessar" resources. 0uilding this t"pe of plan re<uires school leaders to have an understanding of issues related to student motivation and engagement, classroom conte2ts, and strategic interventions Bsee Chapters 1 through $D. 3urther, developing a schoolwide literac" action plan re<uires leaders to have an understanding of how to support teachers BChapter *D, what t"pes of student performance data are availa.le to them BChapter ,D, and how to .uild leadership capacit" BChapter /D. In addition, it is important for leaders to have good information a.out school capacit", teacher knowledge and practice, and the literac" needs and e2pectations of the school and communit". +he literac" team s"nthesi=es the data on student performance, communit" input, teacher knowledge and use of literac" support strategies, and school support structures and policies to develop a clear picture of what currentl" e2ists and what is needed to improve literac" for all learners. 0ased on this review, school leaders set literac" goals that are data .ased, reasona.le, and measura.le. +he team then develops a literac" action plan ." assessing each goal and determining the action steps necessar" to reach it. +he action plan should include the person or persons responsi.le for each action step, the time line, and the measures of success. 5oal setting and action planning are the areas in which school leaders work with the literac" team to 9put it all together.: A data8driven process for goal setting and action planning is important to ensure that thoughtful actions take place and can .e sustained. A literac" action plan that is grounded in student performance data and supported ." additional data from assessments of school capacit", school and communit" e2pectations, and teacher practices is more likel" to support student literac" and learning. School leaders must pla" two additional roles to ensure that the plan that is developed is implemented. +he first is to set forth a vision that stakeholders can support. Gne wa" to do this is through .rainstorming as a facult" what the literac" improvement initiative would look like if it were successful. &hat would students .e doingA &hat would teachers .e doingA &hat would the environment .e likeA +hen, an overarching vision statement must .e developed that can set the tone for the initiative and .e used to communicate to parents, students, and the communit" what the school is attempting to accomplish. ;aving this vision, activel" referring to it, and using it to guide how teachers and students are supported are three wa"s that school leaders can ensure that the initiative will sta" focused. +he second role is getting ever"one on .oard. 3or a plan to succeed, colla.orative implementation must occur. +eachers need to 9.u" in,: or students will not receive e<ual access to <ualit" reading and writing instruction and regular guided practice in content8area reading and writing. ;aving a common vision that is articulated, referenced, and used ." school leaders will help, as will ade<uate and ongoing teacher professional development. B&e provide ideas for how to work with reluctant teachers in Chapter /.D +he ke" point here is that it is the responsi.ilit" of

school leaders to get ever"one to .e an active participant in enacting all the parts of the school6s literac" action plan. !eaders need to have and communicate a vision and secure the colla.oration and effort of school staff. +he" also need to have a good plan, .ecause without it, not much will change for students. +his chapter focuses on the development of an effective literac" action plan. 0ut we caution leaders to pa" attention to the two issues of vision and colla$orative i'(le'entation to ensure that the schoolwide literac" improvement effort is successful. School leaders who have good data on students6 reading and writing needs, measura.le literac" goals, and specific action steps to address student needs can develop an effective literac" action plan. +he" can use this plan to guide the school6s literac" improvement efforts over time. +he ne2t sections of this chapter outline how to gather and anal"=e this information and how this t"pe of data can productivel" inform the processes of setting literac" improvement goals and creating a literac" action plan.

.sing Multiple Data Sources to Develop a Literacy Action $lan


As we discuss in Chapter ,, student performance data are central to literac" improvement efforts in middle and high school. +his t"pe of data is critical when determining students6 instructional needs as individuals and ." grade8level cohort, determining the need for additional programming or t"pes of intervention, and monitoring the success of support in the classroom. Student performance data alone, however, are not sufficient for driving a literac" improvement effort .ecause the" do not take into account the school and communit" conte2t within which learning and literac" development occur. Student performance data indicate hat is needed .ut do not show ho this can .e put into place. Performance data also do not tell the specific actions re<uired to ensure that the support structure is in place to sustain s"stemic improvement as opposed to something that will fade if ke" individuals retire or move to other schools. 3or e2ample, in schools with high staff turnover, crafting a literac" action plan so that it incorporates new policies and support structures, grade8level or departmental agreements, and mentoring can make it more likel" that changes will endure. Student performance data also do not inform school leaders a.out the level of support for literac" improvement that is alread" in place through school structures, policies, and resources and in terms of teachers6 current knowledge and practice. 3or e2ample, teachers ma" participate in professional development in content8area writing strategies that can .e used to support reading comprehension. Professional learning communities ma" .e in place that can provide a read"8made structure for a literac" improvement effort to .uild upon. Gr the li.rar" collection ma" .e outdated and limited, .ut the school ma" have availa.le technolog" that can effectivel" support .oth reading and writing, as well as provide supplemental te2ts. +he goal of a literac" improvement effort is to create an organi=ation that can sustain high levels of literac" and learning for current and future students. 3ew schools have unlimited resources to devote to literac" supportH deciding how to use the availa.le resources wisel" re<uires gathering data a.out school and communit" priorities and e2pectations, current programs, structures and policies, and teacher professional development needs. Gtherwise leaders ma" Eump on

.andwagons or select program options that do not ma2imi=e availa.le resources, meet e2pectations, or address pressing needs. 3igure ).* shows kinds of data in addition to student performance data that leaders can use as the" develop a literac" action plan.

$ig!re , 3 Additional 4ey *ata for *eveloping Literacy Action Plans

In 5rder to Set appropriate and measura.le literac" goals

Leaders &an &ollect *ata A#o!t School and communit" needs and e2pectations a.out literac"

Assess resource allocation and ade<uac" of current +he school6s current capacit" to support polic" and practices and determine what needs to .e literac" put into place or improved (etermine current literac" e2pertise in the school, Current teaching practices that provide support teacher use of literac" support strategies, and literac" support across the content areas or develop a targeted professional development plan as part of specific programs of stud" In the following vignette, we present an e2ample of how school leaders used multiple sources of data to develop a literac" action plan. +o create their plan, in addition to looking at student performance data, school administrators carried out a needs assessment, determined the school6s capacit" to meet the needs of different t"pes of learners, and determined the professional development and t"pes of support teachers needed to improve content8area literac" development. +he vignette is divided into sections that show how leaders at this school gathered and used each t"pe of data to craft their literac" action plan. Each section of the vignette is followed ." a description and additional e2amples of how leaders can collect and anal"=e data to create a literac" action plan. )e!itt Middle School is a #itle & school serving a$out G55 students in grades L through K, #he to n here the school is located is in transition fro' a 'ill to n to a to n ith a tourist8$ased econo'y, Several river guide co'(anies are $eginning to flourish. artist studios are $eing installed in the old factory $y the da'. and ne $ed8and8$rea*fast inns and restaurants no occu(y the handso'e @Gth8century ho'es that once housed co'(any 'anagers, Before the 'ills closed. it as +uite (ossi$le to 'a*e a living ith an Kth grade education, !hen )e!itt Middle School recently conducted a survey of (arents' ex(ectations a$out student achieve'ent. 'ore than K5 (ercent of the (arents stated their ex(ectation that students should graduate ready for college. career. and citi-enshi(, 3et Kth grade scores on the state assess'ent

sho ed 'ore than E5 (ercent of students ere not 'eeting the standard in reading. and al'ost K5 (ercent ere not 'eeting the standard in riting, #i' Hancoc*. the school's energetic ne (rinci(al. sa a focus on literacy across the content areas as a ay to close this ga( $et een (arent ex(ectations and student (erfor'ance, #i' $rought together his leadershi( tea'. hich had re(resentatives fro' all grade levels and content areas. and told the' that the school had district su((ort to conduct a literacy audit to deter'ine ho to (roceed, #he audit ould hel( the tea' collect vital infor'ation a$out the school's ca(acity to su((ort literacy i'(rove'ent, An outside literacy consultant ould analy-e this infor'ation. together ith student (erfor'ance data and data on teacher *no ledge and current (ractice/ the consultant ould 'a*e reco''endations for hat they should include in their literacy action (lan,

"chool and %ommunit ;eeds and E!pectations A6out Literac


In the vignette, it was necessar" for +im to understand the communit"6s needs and e2pectations, as well as the e2pectations of the school6s staff, as part of developing an effective plan. ;e made sure to understand the school .oard6s priorities and the district6s goals and to align the school6s efforts with them. +he parent surve" indicated a gap .etween e2pectations and perceptions of what was occurring at the school for students. +he facult" was polled to determine how their own knowledge and the literac" e2pectations of their students might .e contri.uting to how instructional needs were .eing met. It is important to decipher school and communit" needs and e2pectations concerning literac" so that the school can set measura.le literac" goals that are responsive and appropriate. 0" conducting a literac" needs assessment, school leaders evaluate how the school is currentl" meeting students6 literac" needs. +he process can focus stakeholders6 attention on literac" and can uncover missed opportunities and underused resources. (ata sources that can contri.ute to the needs assessment include

trends in state assess'ent results, teacher /uestionnaires, student surveys, literacy goals in school i' rove'ent lans, and &ocus grou s and other discussions (ith teachers, students, and arents.

Cased on the &eedback received, school leaders can create or re&ine the school9s lan &or acco' lishing its 'ission and identi&y areas o& concern, thereby ensuring that its literacy goals 'atch the e0 ectations o& students, teachers, arents, and the co''unity.

+he impact of this process will .e different depending on the school and the communit" involved. (iscovering the gap .etween assumptions and realit" can .e what ena.les one school to succeed with improving literac" where another fails to do so. Consider what would occur if the following communit" and school assumptions remained unchallenged#

School leaders in an area (ith a large ercentage o& -nglish language learners think they are 'eeting e0 ectations (ith their current o tions &or -nglish4as4a4second4 language and bilingual rogra's, yet arents and students strongly re&er a sheltered4 instruction a roach. Ad'inistrators assu'e that students have ade/uate access to co' uters, but due to scheduling, lace'ent, and sta&&ing issues, a 'aAority o& students are &rustrated by their li'ited access. So'e teachers assu'e that arents do not care because they do not attend school 'eetings and &unctions but lo( attendance 'ay, in &act, be due to language barriers, (ork schedules, trans ortation issues, cultural di&&erences, and lo( arent reading levels. Teachers9 erce tions that a grou o& reluctant readers actually cannot read 'ay be erroneous. It 'ay be that these students (ill not or do not read (hat they see as irrelevant assigned reading but that they avidly read 'aterials o& interest outside o& school. Thus, 'otivation instead o& ability 'ay e'erge as an essential issue in addressing acade'ic literacy develo 'ent (ith certain students.

E2amining assumptions such as these will provide ke" information school leaders can use when deciding what programs to put in place or what the school6s literac" improvement goals should .e. Setting literac" improvement goals without esta.lishing .aseline data to determine the starting point is not a productive wa" to proceed. >either is setting a numerical improvement goal that does not address the differentiated needs of students with var"ing literac" a.ilities. 3or e2ample, an ar.itrar" schoolwide goal of raising standardi=ed test scores ." a certain percent means little if disaggregation of the scores reveals that students in some programs are alread" scoring much higher than others. +hus, this ar.itrar" goal will allow the instructional needs of man" students to remain unmet. 0" comparison, a goal of a 1C percent passing rate on the state reading test re<uires gathering current performance data a.out students at all levels of a.ilit" so that differential support can .e put into place. In some cases, it might .e necessar" to set two goals to guide action7one for students on or a.ove grade level and one for students whose reading level is .elow their current grade level. (iscovering the school and communit" e2pectations a.out literac" teaching and learning does not have to .e an overwhelming task. Principals can work with their literac" team to determine what is known a.out

s eci&ic rogra's to address the school9s 'ission, students9 reading and (riting abilities, arents9 concerns about literacy achieve'ent, students9 attitudes to(ard reading and (riting, and teachers9 belie&s about student literacy and learning.

;or e0a' le, the literacy tea' 'ight co' are attendance, dro out, and graduation rates (ith literacy er&or'ance to deter'ine i& (eak literacy skills are a strong contributing &actor to students9 'otivation to co' lete school. Br leaders 'ight survey student attitudes to(ard

literacy and learning to assess the i' act o& social and e'otional &actors on acade'ic success or &ailure. ;igure 3.$ outlines a &our4ste rocess &or conducting a literacy needs assess'ent.

$ig!re , 6 $o!r Steps for &ond!cting a Literacy (eeds Assessment

). Agree on questions. The literacy tea' agrees u on a short list o& i' ortant /uestions about literacy. ". Collect data. Literacy tea' 'e'bers 'ake and carry out a data collection lan to ensure that they (ill have the in&or'ation they need to ans(er ressing /uestions. 1. Review and summarize data. The literacy tea' revie(s all o& the in&or'ation gathered and su''arizes the data collected relative to each o& the /uestions osed. 8. Ma e recommendations and in!orm sta eholders. Cased on the in&or'ation collected, the literacy tea' establishes a list o& reco''endations that de&ine the e0 ectations o& school and co''unity 'e'bers around literacy and distributes a co y o& these reco''endations to all sta&& and co''unity 'e'bers (ho contributed data, so they kno( that their voices have been heard.

Assessing "chool and Teacher %apacit to (mprove Literac


+he ne2t step in developing a literac" action plan is for the literac" team to investigate the current capacit" of the school and the teachers to respond to these recommendations. Armed with those data, the literac" team can esta.lish reasona.le and measura.le literac" goals. 3or each literac" goal, the team clarifies a rationale for its inclusion, develops action steps, and decides how the team will measure progress. +his goal setting and action planning .ecomes the data8 .ased .lueprint for the school6s literac" improvement effort. +he ne2t part of the vignette descri.es how the (e&itt Middle School literac" team worked with a literac" consultant to conduct an inventor" of school capacit" and teacher knowledge and use of literac" strategies. +o determine students6 needs, the consultant anal"=ed student performance data. 0ut to make recommendations to address these needs, the consultant relied on the additional data a.out school capacit" and teacher practices. #he )e!itt Middle School literacy tea' or*ed ith the literacy consultant to develo( a school8 ca(acity (rofile through several discussions a$out the school's current structures. (olicies. culture. and use of resources, All 'iddle school teachers attended a (resentation a$out adolescent literacy and then co'(leted a co'(rehensive survey a$out their current teaching (ractices and *no ledge a$out content8area literacy su((ort, #i' also (rovided the consultant ith the results fro' the diagnostic reading assess'ent ad'inistered individually to all Lth. Mth. and Kth graders,

#he consultant analy-ed the data and (rovided a re(ort that docu'ented the i'(lications of the data as ell as a detailed set of reco''endations for action in the areas of school structures. (olicies and culture. content8area literacy su((ort. strategic interventions. and teacher (rofessional develo('ent, An exa'ination of various ty(es of data hel(ed infor' the reco''endations, Student performance data.#eachers and ad'inistrators ere a are that the (ercentage of students not 'eeting standards in reading as high, A closer loo* at the student (erfor'ance data sho ed that although the vast 'a0ority of students tested 6$elo grade level.7 'ost ere only one or t o grade levels $ehind, #he issue as that students ere not 'a*ing a year's orth of literacy gro th in a year's ti'e, #he 'a0ority of students ere actually entering 'iddle school on grade level. a tri$ute to the district's strong ele'entary literacy (rogra', But ithout fre+uent. (ur(oseful literacy su((ort as (art of content8area teaching and learning. these sa'e students ere losing ground hile at the 'iddle school, &n addition. a s'all nu'$er of students had test results that indicated a need for 'ore intensive intervention, Data on school capacity.)ata fro' the school8ca(acity (rofile revealed that so'e existing resources to su((ort literacy ere underused. such as the ell8stoc*ed li$rary and the fact that Mth and Kth grade students had la(to( co'(uters, >ther school ca(acities ere ha(ha-ard. such as a lac* of consistent (olicies a$out ho'e or*. lac* of teacher access to reading assess'ent results. inconsistent use of riting ru$rics. and a lac* of co''on 'aterials used to teach si'ilar courses, Dersistent the'es included the lac* of (rofessional learning co''unities at the school and 'ini'al ex(ectations in 'any classes for critical thin*ing exce(t for the 6high achievers,7 &n the o(inion of the literacy tea'. the school did not have a strong culture of reading. riting. and thin*ing, Teacher survey data.Analysis of the results of the teacher survey sho ed that 'ost teachers had very li'ited strategies for (roviding scaffolding $efore. during. and after reading/ idely varying ex(ectations for reading and riting even in the sa'e grade level/ and fe strategies to teach voca$ulary $esides 6assign. define. and test,7 #eachers said that students ere not 'otivated to read and rite $ut also said that they rarely allo ed students to choose to(ics to read or rite a$out,

(nvestigating the "chool's %urrent %apacit to "upport Literac Development


Gnce recommendations are developed .ased on the needs assessment, a different t"pe of data is re<uired to answer the <uestion# &hat is the school6s current capacit" for supporting literac"A +o find out, school leaders can inventor" resource use and the structures and policies in place that either support or limit literac" development. In the (e&itt Middle School vignette, school leaders hired an outside consultant. Gften an outside perspective or use of an e2ternall" developed, structured protocol can provide the greatest insight and an efficient process for developing a picture of the school6s capacit". Another approach is to ask the literac" team to work with educators throughout the school to develop an a..reviated t"pe of capacit" profile and then discuss hat is in (lace and or*ing. hat needs to $e i'(roved, and hat needs to $e (ut into (lace, 3igure )./ lists e2amples for how each area of capacit" might contri.ute to literac" support.

$ig!re , 7 8o" School &apacity &an S!pport Literacy Improvement

Area of School &apacity

%9amples That S!pport Literacy Improvement


Additional strategic reading classes or readingE(riting (orksho Ceginning all classes (ith reading relevant to the day9s (ork .ort&olio assess'ent and student e0hibitions Scheduled, school(ide sustained silent reading ti'e +1 to 3 ti'es er (eek, Juarterly Aoint 'eetings o& literacy tea's &ro' high school and &eeder 'iddle schools Classroo' libraries Technology to su assess'ent ort reading and (riting instruction and

School structures that support literac"

School resources that support literac"

.arallel curriculu' 'aterials at varying reading levels &or units o& study Heading rogra's &or learners (ith targeted literacy needs Multilingual rint resources and sta&& su Literacy coach osition Teacher ro&essional develo 'ent Hegularly scheduled reading assess'ents as art o& students9 educational e0 eriences Transition tea's that consider reading assess'ent in&or'ation (hen deter'ining student lace'ent *eekly co''on lanning eriods &ocused on collaborative e0a'ination o& student (ork Ise o& co''on (riting rubrics to assess student (ork Teacher agree'ent by de art'ent or grade level to use co''on set o& literacy strategies -0 ectation that -LLs use their &irst language (hen necessary to su ort literacy develo 'ent in -nglish and content area learning ort

School policies that support literac"

0ased on these data, the team can figure out wa"s to improve capacities that e2ist .ut could .e .etter used to support literac" development. Gften these occur predominantl" in five areas# time, technolog", li.rar", personnel, and schedule. Sometimes a .rainstorming discussion is necessar" to help transform what has t"picall" .een done into more effective support for literac". B3or more ideas a.out how to use resources effectivel" to support literac" improvement efforts, see Chapter 1.D Gnce the literac" team has created a school8capacit" profile that outlines what capacities, structures, and policies can .e put in place, the team will .e well on its wa" to understanding the assets the school alread" has to contri.ute to the literac" effort.

Understanding %urrent Teaching Practices That "upport Literac


In the vignette a.out (e&itt Middle School, it was clear that data a.out teachers6 current practices were central to developing the school6s literac" action plan. G.taining this information allowed school leaders to assess where there were gaps, plan the necessar" time and content for teacher professional development, and focus the time of the newl" hired literac" coach. +o determine how to .est support teachers to improve literac" teaching and learning, leaders need data a.out current teacher practices, that is, what do teachers know and how do the" currentl" develop literac" across the content areasA Answers to these <uestions will signal where teacher professional development and additional support are needed. +he" will also provide information a.out where strong instructional support e2ists for literac" development. +o o.tain good data a.out .oth, school leaders can surve", o.serve, and talk to teachers. Survey teachers a.out the literac" strategies the" know and use, the fre<uenc" with which the" use them, and the areas in which the" feel the" need more information. A +eacher Mnowledge Inventor" Bsuch as 3igure A.1 in Appendi2 CD and <uestionnaires can .e used to poll teachers a.out their knowledge and use of literac" support strategies. Principals might learn, for e2ample, that teachers sa" that students have difficult" learning content8area voca.ular", .ut teachers do not know of voca.ular" strategies the" can use .e"ond 9assign, define, and test.: +hese data can .e used to plan targeted professional development that addresses this need. Surve" data might also inform leaders of what t"pes of writing and reading are t"picall" occurring in each content area, leading to data8.ased polic"making. 3or e2ample, if ver" little writing is going on, setting a num.er of re<uired writing8to8learn assignments each week might .e an appropriate polic" response. >$serve teachers during literac" walk8throughs and classroom o.servations Bas descri.ed in Chapter *D and assess how teachers provide literac" support and what t"pes of issues the" find challenging. 3or e2ample, a principal might o.serve that teachers are a.le to use note8taking strategies introduced in a teacher workshop <uite easil" .ut find it more challenging to differentiate the use of reading comprehension strategies to meet the needs of readers at various levels. Again, these data can .e used to promote schoolwide conversations or stud" groups a.out using multiple te2ts with the same unit of stud" or how to use literac" support strategies to help struggling readers engage with challenging te2ts.

#al* ith teachers individually in goals conferences, in department or team meetings, or in focus groups targeted around specific literac" issues such as motivation and engagement. !isten for recurring themes around areas of frustration7these then .ecome data upon which to .ase decisions for increasing certain t"pes of resources and support. 3or e2ample, the literac" team might decide that ordering content8area periodicals is a valua.le wa" to ensure the availa.ilit" of relevant reading material for each content area. Gr instructional coaching could .e made availa.le for those teachers who do not understand how to set up reciprocal teaching in their classrooms. A continuation of the (e&itt Middle School vignette illustrates how these principles might .e put into action. #he consultant or*ed ith the 'iddle school leadershi( tea' to develo( a literacy action (lan that ould guide the school over the next three years, Because the tea' had data a$out school ca(acity and teacher *no ledge. the (lan as (ractical and $uilt directly on the school's strengths, &t esta$lished goals in each (riority area, )e!itt Middle School leaders decided that the a'ount of content8area reading and riting ould $e increased $y E5 (ercent in all classes. that 'ore o((ortunities for free8choice reading ould $e (rovided. and that teachers ould $e ex(ected to learn and use five co''on 6(o er strategies7 across the school, Another goal focused on increased teacher *no ledge and use of literacy su((ort strategies in all content areas, #o su((ort teacher develo('ent. the school ould hire a literacy coach. ad'inistrators ould focus (rofessional goals on literacy i'(rove'ent. and teacher (rofessional develo('ent over the next three years ould focus on literacy, &n addition. school leaders recogni-ed that literacy interventions for students ho ere reading 'ore than t o years $elo grade level needed to $e (ut into (lace and teachers (roviding that instruction ould need additional (rofessional develo('ent. given that the school did not have a reading s(ecialist, So'e action ste(s in each (riority area ere enacted i''ediately, 1or exa'(le. teachers at the school (rided the'selves on the +uality of their teaching. and hen 'ulti(le co(ies of selected texts ere 'ade availa$le for teacher study grou(s. 'any voluntarily $egan to increase their literacy *no ledge, Because all Mth and Kth grade students had access to la(to( co'(uters. ongoing sessions of (rofessional develo('ent in technology $egan to include ays to use co'(uters to su((ort reading and riting, #he schedule as changed to (er'it sustained silent reading t ice a ee* $eginning the follo ing se'ester, Literacy interventions ere ex(lored. and the school (urchased a reading (rogra' to 'eet the needs of those still struggling ith decoding and $asic fluency, #i' hired a literacy coach. and together they develo(ed a grant (ro(osal to su((ort the or*, !hen )e!itt Middle School received the grant. the hole staff as infor'ed that literacy i'(rove'ent ould $e the school's (ri'ary focus for the next three years, A (lan for teacher (rofessional develo('ent as (ut into (lace that 'atched the data8driven reco''endations of the audit re(ort and incor(orated the *no ledge and strengths of the ne literacy coach, Learning strategies. $ased on student needs. ere introduced to all faculty. and #i' 'ade it clear to teachers that he ex(ected to see the strategies used hen he did his al*8throughs, Having a (lan 'ade it easier to deter'ine next ste(s and stay on trac*,

Monitoring $rogram Effectiveness


School leaders have to know whether implementing the literac" action plan is helping the school meet its literac" goals. Administrators and mem.ers of the literac" team should also determine if the plan needs to .e changed or modified. +o do this, the literac" team can create an in<uir"8 driven process for program monitoring ." following these five steps Bsee 3igure ).1D#
). Determine what needs to "e nown. The literacy tea' begins the cycle by agreeing u on the /uestions to be ans(ered2 &or e0a' leD >ave (e 'et this year9s literacy goals< >o( (ill (e kno( i& a reading rogra' is (orking< >o( (ill (e kno( i& our literacy action lan is success&ul and &or (ho'< Are teachers in so'e de art'ents using the literacy strategies 'ore or di&&erently than teachers in other de art'ents< Do teachers (ho attend ro&essional develo 'ent rovide 'ore literacy su ort to students in the classroo' versus teachers (ho do not attend< ". #elect appropriate data sources to answer each question. These 'ight include reading logs, ort&olios, and several 'easures taken be&ore and a&ter i' le'entation o& the literacy action lan, such as surveys o& student attitudes, student test scores, individual reading inventories, and surveys or observations o& teachers. Many o& these sources are already in lace &ro' the data collection stage and can be easily re&or'atted &or this ur ose. 1. Descri"e evidence o! success. In this ste the literacy tea' articulates (hat success (ould look like &or di&&erent grou s o& students. It is i' ortant that these 'easures be stated in data4based or observable ter's and be reasonable to achieve. 8. Collect and analyze the data. During this ste the tea' dee ens and re&ines its in/uiry. ;or e0a' le, i& there is a di&&erence in ho( boys versus girls are res onding to a co' uter4based reading rogra', is it a signi&icant issue< *hat needs to occur &or the students (ho are not being hel ed by the rogra'< Br, i& there is a di&&erence in ho( teachers i' le'ent literacy su ort as a result o& attending ro&essional develo 'ent, is there evidence that the di&&erence is har'&ul< Are there s eci&ic grou s o& students (ho are not 'aking a year9s (orth o& literacy gro(th er acade'ic year as a result< 3. Decide what actions to ta e. I& the literacy tea' sees that rogra's are (orking &or so'e students but not others, (hat 'odi&ications or alternatives can be ut in lace< I& so'e teachers are roviding stellar literacy su ort but others sho( no changes in their classroo' ractice and evidence sho(s that students are 'issing out, ho( can this situation be re'edied<

$ig!re , : In;!iry &ycle for Program Monitoring


"ource#&n)uiry 'ycle for *rogram +onitoring

3igure ).1 shows the c"clical nature of this kind of five8step, data8driven process for program monitoring. At )e!itt Middle School. i'(le'entation of the literacy action (lan continued, But school leaders ere concerned that they ould not *no if the (lan as succeeding, #hey 'et and

develo(ed a set of indicators that ould tell the' if teachers and students ere 'eeting the literacy i'(rove'ent goals they had set. and they designed a set of data collection activities so they ould $e a$le to tell hat as or*ing, School leaders o$served that teachers ho ere initially reluctant ere no on $oard as they sa success ith the use of literacy su((ort strategies in their classroo's, At ee*ly tea' 'eetings. for'erly a ti'e hen teachers focused on logistics and issues ith individual students. the literacy coach and (rinci(al ere u(dated a$out ho teachers ere using various literacy su((ort strategies, A 'ath teacher re(orted that she as 6as*ing the students to do NARs INuestion8Ans er Relationshi(sJ all the ti'e. and their ans ers have really i'(roved,7 A science teacher said that he 6used *no ledge rating guides and 1rayer 'odels ith the voca$ulary ords and retention ent u( a lot,7 #he social studies teacher re(orted that she 6'odeled all of the roles for reci(rocal teaching and the students (racticed the'. and no the students see' to $e engaging 'ore ith the reading,7 )es(ite these encouraging signs. a re(eat of the reading assess'ent sho ed only slight (rogress for the 'a0ority of students. although the grou( of students ho ere further $ehind 'ade gains, #he literacy tea' revie ed the data and decided to reco''end a nu'$er of refine'ents to their original literacy action (lan to ensure that students ere reading and riting 'ore and receiving 'ore reading and riting instruction, #i'e for the school ide sustained silent reading (rogra' as increased fro' t ice a ee* to four ti'es a ee*, #he literacy consultant (rovided ti(s for i'(roving the culture of reading during SSR. and the literacy coach shared the' at tea' 'eetings, #eaching tea's develo(ed co''on agree'ents around hat strategies ould $e used to su((ort student learning across content areas, #he (rinci(al ex(licitly indicated that he ex(ected a s(ecified a'ount of content8area reading and riting acco'(anied $y instruction and 'odeling in every content area t o to three ti'es (er ee*, &n addition. the (rinci(al and assistant (rinci(al increased the nu'$er of al*8throughs they did each 'onth fro' one to four, As a result of all these 'easures. 'ore reading and riting instruction $egan ta*ing (lace, #he current reading assess'ent as not (roviding the infor'ation teachers needed and as re+uiring too 'any resources to ad'inister. so school leaders researched o(tions for a ne reading assess'ent that (rovided 'ore diagnostic infor'ation for every test ta*er, #he literacy tea' 'ade (lans to re(eat the audit in t o years to assess the overall i'(act of interventions over ti'e, #he district literacy goal is to have continuous i'(rove'ent of at least @5 (ercent 'ore students each year 'eeting and exceeding the standard on the state assess'ent in 4th grade and Kth grade. ith a @5 (ercent dro( each year in the (ercentage of students failing to 'eet the standard over the next five years, #he district feels this ill $e (ossi$le through a focus on content8area literacy su((ort and literacy interventions, %arly results sho that )e!itt Middle School is certainly doing its (art to 'eet or exceed that goal, If literac" goals are not .eing met, it is time to get some additional information as to wh" this is the case. &hen literac" goals have .een met, then the literac" team can set new goals that further scaffold literac" learning for all students. +hese ma" include directl" involving all teachers in the use of data to improve literac" and learning, and .roadening the schoolwide use of data, as we descri.e in Chapter ,.

Sometimes data seem to show progress or lack of progress when the real issue is how the data are .eing anal"=ed. 3or the purposes of program monitoring, data disaggregation is essential. 3igure ).1C descri.es two t"pical mistakes in monitoring progress and the kinds of data anal"sis that can remed" the pro.lem.

$ig!re , 1< Mista'es in Monitoring Progress and 8o" to Remedy Them

$otal progress or progress of structural groups is presented without an understanding of the composition of learners in those groups. Ise data to ensure that students are e/ually distributed +by gender, ability levels, ethnicity, econo'ic levels, across acade'ies or tea's or are strategically clustered (ithinEacross s'all learning co''unities, teaching tea's, or acade'ies +e.g., clustering o& -LLs or s ecial education students to rovide 'ore intensive su ort through coteaching (ith -LLEbilingual or s ecial education teachers on a articular tea',. ,ear-to-year cohort comparison does not show .progress./ *hen 'onitoring the success o& a literacy action lan, use trend4analysis strategies that look beyond year4to4year co' arisons to deter'ine i& the rogra' is truly 'aking a di&&erence or i& (hat looks like ositive results are only re&lections o& cohort di&&erences. As a leader, ensure that the re orted data are credible.

As the (e&itt Middle School vignette indicates, a solid .lueprint for improving literac" schoolwide can .e put into place through a literac" action plan that incorporates the features descri.ed in this chapter. Although other schools6 demographics, priorities, school capacit", teachers6 practices, and student assessment results ma" .e different from those at (e&itt Middle School, adapting sound action8planning principles and using data wisel" can help school leaders develop, implement, and monitor an effective plan.

,ey Messages
In this chapter, we descri.ed how school leaders can use data to develop, implement, and monitor schoolwide literac" action plans that ensure that students have the academic literac" skills necessar" to .e successful at school, at work, and in citi=enship. E<uall" important, ." generating a culture of continuous improvement in which individuals ask <uestions, collect and anal"=e data, take actions, and then collect more data to e2amine the impact of what was done, leaders .ecome fluent in the strategies needed to .e data.ased decision makers. 3ocusing this data8driven in<uir" process allows the principal and other school leaders to .e in the driver6s seat to improve literac" support and development for all students. Me" messages in this chapter include the following#

An e&&ective literacy action lan designed to 'eet the needs o& all students in the school is essential to leading a co' rehensive and coordinated literacy i' rove'ent e&&ort. A

literacy action lan allo(s all 'e'bers o& the school co''unity to understand the school9s current status, goals &or the &uture, the actions to be taken to reach the goals, (ho is res onsible, and ho( success (ill be 'easured. -&&ective use o& data is the key to a success&ul school(ide literacy initiative. Data on student er&or'ance, school and co''unity needs, school ca acity, and teacher ractices are hel &ul in develo ing an e&&ective literacy action lan. The leader o& a school has 'any sources o& data that can be used to clari&y and articulate the vision &or literacy and learning in the school, to develo a literacy action lan, and to 'onitor the lan9s e&&ectiveness. A literacy action lan has &ive key co' onentsD ). Strengthening Literacy Develo 'ent Across the Content Areas ". Strategic Interventions &or Struggling Headers and *riters 1. School .olicies, Structures, and Culture &or Su 8. Cuilding Leadershi Ca acity 3. Teacher .ro&essional Develo 'ent orting Literacy

-sing a data8driven plan to monitor the program is important to ensure that the literac" action plan is effective. As school leaders know, having a plan does not guarantee the availa.ilit" of resources to implement the plan. +he data ma" indicate a need for clear actions that school resources do not appear to permit. 3or committed school leaders, this situation often makes it difficult to develop, implement, and monitor a data8driven literac" action plan. ;owever, two points are important to keep in mind. &ith a data8driven plan in hand, it is often easier to o.tain district, grant, and communit" resources to support the school6s efforts. Second, sometimes the wa"s that resources have .een used in the past constrict people6s ideas of how the" might .e used differentl". School leaders need to think creativel" a.out how resources might .e reallocated to support literac" improvement. BIn Chapter 1 we discuss possi.le solutions to these and other issues related to resource use and limitations.D A data8driven literac" action plan .rings together all of the components of the !eadership Model for Improving Adolescent !iterac". -sing this plan to chart the wa" forward, leaders will .e a.le to keep their school on course for sustained improvement of literac" and learning for all of their students.
A endi0 C rovides a Teacher Gno(ledge Inventory that leaders can use as they develo a school(ide, data4driven literacy action lan.

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