Orthotropy Theory Enu

Theory
Physical and Shape Orthotropy

of Plates
2
PHYSICAL AND SHAPE ORTHOTROPY OF PLATES
A guide to the definition of input physical data for bridge, floor and foundation slabs with different cross-sections in two
perpendicular directions
Prof. Ing. Dr. Vladimr Kol, DrSc.
Copyright: FEM consulting s.r.o.
1993 - 2006
Physical and Shape Orthotropy of Plates
3
Purpose of the guide................................................................................................................4
Method......................................................................................................................................5
Core principal of solution........................................................................................................6
Stress components in physically orthotropic plates..............................................................7
Internal forces in physically orthotropic plates.................................................................... 10
Technical theory of plates with the effect of transverse shear taken into account ..............................................10
Plates with the effect of transverse shear taken into account .................................................................................12
Shape orthotropy of plates.................................................................................................... 14
Main principles of the transformation into physical orthotropy ..............................................................................14
Simple types of orthotropic plates ...............................................................................................................................14
Energetic equivalence of sectional characteristics....................................................................................................14
Bending and torsional moments ................................................................................................................................18
Plates without transverse contraction .................................................................................................................18
Plates with transverse contraction ......................................................................................................................22
Shear forces and reactions ........................................................................................................................................26
Plates with the effect of transverse shear taken into account .................................................................................27
Box-sections....................................................................................................................................................................30
Thick-walled box-section non-solid slabs ...............................................................................................................30
Thin-walled box-sections............................................................................................................................................32
Comparative example ................................................................................................................................................35
Multi-cell slabs with linear hinges in longitudinal direction.....................................................................................36
Other plate types.............................................................................................................................................................37
4
Purpose of the guide
The purpose of this guide is to provide instructions for the calculation of those input data for orthotropic plates that characterise
their physical properties, i.e. flexural, torsional and shear stiffness. In the program, these properties are described by the matrix
of physical constants D = [Dik]. It follows from the said that that elements Dik of this matrix are the very data that must be
calculated manually.
5
Method
It is assumed that the solution is obtained by means of the finite element method in its most often used deformation variant with
unknown deformation parameters of geometric nature. Matrix D combines (i) mutually determined static quantities (stress
components or, in case of plates, their resultant over a section i.e. internal forces in the plate) with (ii) corresponding geometric
quantities (deformation components or, in case of plates, those derivatives of deflection area w on which deformation
components depend):
(1) = D .
Matrix D can be defined separately for (i) each element or (ii) a specific group of elements. This allows for the analysis of plates
that are non-homogenous over the elements or that change their shape over the elements. Consequently, it is possible to
express, rather approximately, even the gradual change of geometry in a haunch or in a similar detail.
As the text should serve as a fast and easy-to-read reference, it is practically without any literature references.
6
Core principal of solution
Present-day programs and solution methods for orthotropic plates deal, in fact, only with what we call physically orthotropic
planar (two-dimensional) continuum filled with points in the mid-plane (x, y) of the plate, i.e. in the plane z = 0. The body of a real
slab is limited by the upper and lower surface z = h/2, where h is the thickness of the plate. Alternatively, the height may be
variable, i.e. h (x, y). It is assumed that a normal to the mid-plane (e.g. points with coordinates (x1, y1, z), - h/2 s z s h/2) remains
straight, i.e. undistorted, even in the deformed plate. In the standard Kirchhof theory, it remains even perpendicular to the
deflected surface of the plate w (x, y). If we take into account the effect of transverse shear txz, tyz on angular changes xz, yz,
this normal is generally rotated around x- and y-axis by angles x (x, y) and y (x, y). Even after such a generalisation, we have
only three functions of two variables to describe the deformation of the plate continuum (Boltzmann continuum for Kirchhof plates
and Cosserat continuum for Mindlin plates)
(2) w (x, y), x (x, y), y (x, y).
In a real three-dimensional body of a given plated structure, e.g. box-section, the displacement can be fully described by means
of three functions of three variables
(3) u (x, y, z), v (x, y, z), w (x, y, z),
from which the full description of its stress-state o can be derived. In order to be able to solve such a body as a plate, we must
define certain geometric assumptions that make it possible to apply functions (2) to find functions (3). For example, the simplest
Kirchhof assumption mentioned above is of the following form (Fig. 1):
(4)
y / ) y , x ( w z ) z , y , x ( v
x / ) y , x ( w z ) z , y , x ( u
y / ) y , x ( w ) y , x (
x / ) y , x ( w ) y , x (
) o , y , x ( w ) y , x ( w ) z , y , x ( w
y
x
c c =
c c =
c c =
c c =
=
Just one function of two variables w (x, y) is sufficient to describe functions (3).
This is the basis of the core principal of the solution, i.e. the transformation of the structure into a plate, and, conversely, the
utilisation of the results obtained from the plate-calculation in the design and checks of the analysed structure. An unambiguous
relation must exist between functions (2) and (3) - with the simplest one being of type (4). Under such conditions, it is no more
problematic to establish similar relations between internal forces or stress in (i) the structure and (ii) its plated-model.
In general, we thus reduce the three-dimensional problem into a two-dimensional one.

x
x, u

y
cw/cx > 0
y, v
cw/cy > 0
z, w
Fig. 1
7
Stress components in physically orthotropic
plates
For brevity, we will limit ourselves to the most frequent examples with the coordinate axes (x and y) put into the axes of
orthotropy. This approach is generally recommended, as it simplifies the notation.
The approach is based on general relations between (i) deformation components and (ii) stress components in the primary form
c = D
-1
0o:
(5)
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
t
t
t
o
o
o
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
c
c
c
xy
zx
yz
z
y
x
66
55
44
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
xy
zx
yz
z
y
x
a
a
a
0
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
0
a a a
a a a
a a a
Let us define the following constants known as technical constants:
() Three (Young) moduli of elasticity:
(6) .
a
1
E ,
a
1
E ,
a
1
E
33
3
22
2
11
1
= = =
() Three (Lam) shear moduli of elasticity:
(7) .
a
1
G ,
a
1
G ,
a
1
G
66
12
55
31
44
23
= = =
() Six (Poisson) coefficients of transverse contraction ik using the following formulas:
(8)
3 32 32 2 23 23
3 31 31 1 13 13
2 21 21 1 12 12
E / a E / a
E / a E / a
E / a E / a
= =
= =
= =
.
The identities () follow from the symmetry aik = aki, which means that from the nine E and constants, only six are independent.
Thus, together with three G constants, we get nine constants E, G, and that are necessary to describe the physical properties
of the analysed type of an orthotropic substance. Axes x, y, and z are marked with subscripts 1, 2, and 3. The coefficient ik
equals to the relative transverse contraction in the i-direction with tension ok = E2 in the k-direction. The subscripts of shear
moduli can be swapped: Gik = Gki.
The physical law (5) with technical constants can be, for clarity, re-written separately for normal and shear components (this
decomposition appears only in orthotropy):
8
(5a) o = c
(
(
(
(
(
(
o
o
o
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
c
c
c
c
1
z
y
x
3 3
32
3
31
2
23
2 2
21
1
13
1
12
1
z
y
x
D ,
E
1
E E
E E
1
E
E E E
1
.
Each line of matrix D
-1
c contains the same E modulus. The matrix is symmetrical and, therefore, it remains identical after
transposition. Consequently, we can write the formula with the same E moduli in columns:
(5b) . D ,
E
1
E E
E E
1
E
E E E
1
T 1
z
y
x
3 2
23
1
13
3
32
2 1
12
3
31
2
21
1
z
y
x
o = c
(
(
(
(
(
(
o
o
o
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
c
c
c
c
In considerations and in calculations we always use the form that is more suitable under the given circumstances. The form (5a)
is more frequent.
The matrix of physical constants is diagonal for shear components:
(5c) . D ,
G
1
0 0
0
G
1
0
0 0
G
1
1
xy
zx
yz
12
31
23
xy
zy
yz
t =
(
(
(
(
(
(
t
t
t
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
It is thus simple to write a reverse formula:

(5d)
(
(
(
= = t

12
31
23
G 0 0
0 G 0
0 0 G
D , D
The reverse formula to (5a) is less clear in terms of technical constants. It is however significantly simpler for orthotropic plates,
as it is based on the main static assumption of the theory of plates:
(5e) z (x, y, z) 0 .
Here, the formula (5a) splits into two simpler formulas:
(5f)
(
(
(
o
o
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
c
c
y
x
2 1
21
1
12
1
y
x
E
1
E
E E
1
and
9
(5g) | | .
E E
y
x
3
32
3
31
z (
o
o
(
= c
Component cz can be considered insignificant and can be omitted in further considerations, which applies also to orthotropy.
Contrary to isotropy, we can even define a material with non-zero transverse contraction in the (x, y) plane, but with zero 31, 32
or with E3 , and meet the condition that cz 0 at oz 0. It is however of no practical meaning.
The formula (5f) can be easily inverted, and thus we get to the full relation o = D c of type (5.1) = (5.5) (5.1) that takes form (9) for
plates, if we arrange the components in a way that is practical for plates:
(9)
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
c
c
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
t
t
t
o
o
yz
xz
xy
y
x
23
13
12
21 12
2
21 12
2 12
21 12
1 21
21 12
1
yz
xz
xy
y
x
.
G 0
0 G
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
G 0 0
0
1
E
1
E
0
1
E
1
E
0
0
10
Internal forces in physically orthotropic plates
Technical theory of plates with the effect of transverse shear
taken into account
This is what is termed as the Kirchhof theory of thin plates, based on formulas (4) and valid approximately within the range of
(10) , 100 C ,
c
L
w
m
~ s
(11)
5
L
h s ,
where:
wm - the maximal plate deflection,
h - the plate thickness,
L - the characteristic plate dimension in plan-view,
L = diameter of a circular plate, L = the shorter side of a rectangular or rhomboid plate, etc.
The consequences of failing to comply with (10) are:
Stress of significant intensity appears in the mid-plane of the plate, plane stress is added to the plate stress. We talk about
geometrically non-linear plates with large deflections. Only tensile stress appears in the limit point h 0, the plate becomes a
membrane under tension (film of pneumatic structures, three-dimensional geometrically non-linear problems).
The consequences of failing to comply with (11) are:
For h > L/5, we get thick plates with a significant influence of transverse shear on the overall energy, deformation and stress-
state of the plate, see paragraphs 5.2 and 6.3.
When conditions (10) and (11) are met, we define the following internal forces: Bending moment (subscript = the direction of
reinforcement) in [Nm/m]:
(12)
} }
o = o = . z d z M , z d z M
y y x x
Torsional moment in [Nm/m]:
(13)
}
t = = . z d z M M
xy yx xy
Shear forces in [N/m]:
(14)
} }
t = t = . z d T , z d T
yz y xz x
They are ignored over the thickness of the plate in the interval h/2 s z s h/2. Considering the hypothesis (4), geometric
conditions
(15) z / v y / u , y / v , x / u
xy y x
c c + c c = c c = c c c = c ,
physical relation (9) and conditions of moment equilibrium of a plate element around x- and y- axis, we get formula (1) in the
following form:
11
(16)
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
xxy
yyy
yyx
xxx
xy
yy
xx
3 22
3 11
33
22 21
12 11
y
x
xy
y
x
w
w
w
w
w 2
w
w
.
D D 0 0
0 0 D D
D 0 0
0 D D
0 D D
T
T
M
M
M
0
0
with the following elements of stiffness matrix D:
() Flexural stiffness:
(17) .
) 1 ( 12
h E
D ,
) 1 ( 12
h E
D
21 12
3
2
22
21 12
3
1
11

=

=
() Contraction stiffness:
(18) , D D D D
22 12 21 11 21 12
= =
() Torsional stiffness:
(19) .
12
h
G D
3
12 33
=
() Mixed stiffness:
(20) . D D 2 D D 2 D
21 33 12 33 3
+ = + =
In total, we need five entries for matrix D: h, E1, E2, G12, 12. The second coefficient of transverse contraction in the x-direction
with the elongation in the y-direction is
(21) .
D
D
E
E
11
22
12
1
2
12 21
= =
This number of entries can be reduced to four if we accept the assumption that a relationship similar to that valid for isotropy can
be applied to shear modulus G12, even though for geometric averages, see (39) below (another derivation was already presented
by M. T. Huber):
(22) .
) 1 ( 2
21 12
2 1
12
+
=
E E
G
Therefore, torsional stiffness D33 is no longer an independent constant, but, following from (19) and (17), it can be expressed as
(23) , D D ) 1 (
2
1
D
22 11 21 12 33
=
12
which can be written using (21) in the form:
(24)
. D D )
D
D
1 (
2
1
D
, D D )
D
D
1 (
2
1
D
22 11
22
11
21 33
22 11
11
22
12 33
=
=
Formula (20) represents a coefficient at mixed derivation in the main equation for plates
(25) p w D w D 2 w D
yyyy 22 xxyy 3 xxxx 11
= + +
and is decisive for the type of orthotropy defined by constant
(26) .
D D
D
22 11
3
= k
In the civil engineering practice, also the type (0 s k < 1) is usual. Sometimes we can meet the second type (k = 1) that can be
reduced to an isotropic solution. The third type (k > 1) can appear only rarely in steel plates with closed ribs that are rigid in
torsion.
Orthotropic constant k can be, in certain types of plates, considered a primary piece of data that has been verified in practice and
that represents the mixed stiffness of the plate . D D D
22 11 3
k = Thus, using (20) and (23), we can obtain the
contraction stiffness in the form
(27) . D D ) 1 ( D 2 D D
22 11 21 12 33 3 12
+ k = =
Usually, for k = 1 we get
(28) . ) D D isothropy ( D D D
11 12 22 11 21 12 12
= =
Plate reactions Qx, Qy are equal to shear forces Tx, Ty (similarly to beams) only if torsional moments Mxy at the edge are equal to
zero (e.g. fully fixed edge). Generally, e.g. in a simply supported edge, the complement due to torsion must be added:
(29) , / M T Q
n mn m m
c c + =
where m n is either x y or y x or any other direction of the edge n with normal m. If the reactions are not calculated, they
can be obtained from presented results with the derivatives calculated approximately by means of two adjacent values, e.g. in a
sequence of equidistant border points 1, 2, 3 with step d:
(30) d 2 : )] 1 ( M ) 3 ( M [ ) 2 ( T ) 2 ( Q
xy xy x x
+ =
Plates with the effect of transverse shear taken into account
In the classical theory of plates that was discussed in the previous paragraph, shear moduli G13, G23 from (9) have no effect as
the shear forces (14) are determined from the condition of moment equilibrium of the element, which leads to the last two lines of
matrix (16). In thick plates and within the range of approximately
13
(31) L / 5 < h < L ,
the right angle between the normal and the mid-plane of the plate is skewed by due to transverse shear txz, tyz and, following
from (4), the second and third line are eliminated. Then, according to (2) we have three independent functions w, x, y. Under
such conditions, the following formulas are considered
(32)
x y yz
y x xz
w
w
=
+ =
together with the fourth and fifth line of matrix (9). Therefore, instead of matrix (16) we get the matrix:
(33)
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

+
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
y
y x
xy
yy
xx
55
44
33
22 21
12 11
y
x
xy
y
x
w
w
w 2
w
w
D 0
0 D
D 0 0
0 D D
0 D D
T
T
M
M
M
0
0
with new elements that, for the simplest configuration of a constant transverse shear across the plate thickness h, are:
(34) , h G D , h G D
23 55 13 44
= =
and consequently, the five entries h, E1, E2, G12, 12 are extended by two more: G13, G23, which means in total seven entries for
the calculation of input data for D.
14
Shape orthotropy of plates
Main principles of the transformation into physical orthotropy
Certain bridge, floor, foundation and other structures are similar to plates in terms of the hypothesis (11), i.e. their total
thickness h is small in comparison with plan-dimensions L. On the other hand, they represent a body of a more general shape,
e.g. ribbed plates, hollow core slabs, plates with both weak and stiff reinforcement, e.g. with I-beams embedded in the concrete,
corrugated plates, double-layer braced plates, etc. Only occasionally is the total flexural stiffness of such shapes identical in both
(i) longitudinal x-direction and (ii) transverse y-direction. Usually, the stiffness in the two directions can differ even by a factor of
ten. This is not due to different modulus E1 and E2, but due to a varying section in planes x=constant. It is therefore the shape
(not physical) orthotropy of the plate in terms of shape or technical orthotropy. Global behaviour of such plates (without a
detailed stress analysis in the vicinity of statically, geometrically or physically singular points and without other irregularities due
to the real shape of the body) can be analysed by means of methods and programs developed for physically orthotropic plates,
as long as the following assumptions are taken into account:
Displacement components u, v, w (3) must be unequivocally derivable from the plate deflection surface w (or from the three
functions (2) in case of plates with the effect of shear taken into account) across the whole analysed body, which means also its
deformation c and stress o components, or the internal forces acting in the section across any part of the body. This requires
establishment of suitable geometrical hypotheses, such as (4), verified in terms of accurateness through various reasoning,
experiments, practical experience, etc.
Based on the hypotheses (a), the following must be unequivocally specified for every type of shape orthotropy in plates:
b1) INPUT: Constants Dik in the matrix of physical constants D for physically orthotropic plate that is going to
substitute the analysed plate in the calculation.
OUTPUT: Further utilisation of outputs of internal forces in the substitute physically orthotropic plate for the needs of design and
checking of the analysed plate with shape orthotropy, i.e. what internal forces or what stresses arise in the analysed plate.
An accurate analysis of meeting the assumptions (a) and accurateness or technical applicability of results would require a
comparison with the exact three-dimensional solution of a real structure at least in several characteristic or limit states, or with
reliable experiments and tests. This is available only for certain examples, e.g. for steel ribbed plates, etc. Then, more precise
data about the composition of the slab section appear in the input (b1). Mostly however, such analysis can not be performed and
only an approximate method can be used for the comparison, e.g. for box-section plates, which, however, is not a proof, as the
variation from the exact solution is not known. In view of numerous factors that influence the properties of civil engineering
structures, some well-tried formulas extended by up-to-date knowledge about, in particular, torsional stiffness can be
accepted for the approximate calculations.
Simple types of orthotropic plates
Energetic equivalence of sectional characteristics
In paragraph 6.2 we will discuss plates in which the effect of transverse shear can be neglected and in which the classical
Kirchhof hypothesis (4) is satisfied within the whole range. Practically speaking, these are common, not-too-thick plates that are
ribbed, corrugated or stiffened in two directions x y identical with the selected direction of coordinates (e.g. [1], p.37, Fig.9).
The principle of potential energy equivalence of internal forces in the real and substitute body must be observed in the
transformation into a physically orthotropic plate, i.e. in the calculation of constants Dik in the stiffness matrix
i
D
t
(16). For the
plates in question, it is the following formula
(35) | |dxdy ) w ( M ) w ( M ) w ( M ) w ( M
2
1
yx yx xy xy yy y xx x i
}}
+ + + = H
which is the integral of the products that represent only work of moments (similarly to a slim beam subjected to bending and
torsion) on curvatures that can be, for small deflections w, expressed by second derivatives. In the calculation of the substitute
plate by means of the finite element method, the second mixed derivative will be continuous everywhere (or at least everywhere
with the exception of shapes with zero surface area) and the following condition of equivalence is met
15
(36) wxy = wyx .
Similarly, the theorem of reciprocity of torsional moments will be valid in the substitute plate:
(37) Mxy = Myx ,
and thus (29) can be simplified to:
(38) | |
}}
+ + = H ) w ( M 2 ) w ( M ) w ( M
2
1
xy xy yy y xx x i
dxdy.
M
yx
T
y
M
y
x
M
x
+ d
x
M
x
T
x
M
xy
+ d
x
M
xy
M
x
M
xy
T
x
y
M
yx
+ d
y
M
yx
M
y
+ d
y
M
y
T
y
z, w
w
xx
w
yy
w
xy
w
yx
Fig. 2
The positive direction of all quantities is shown in Fig. 2. The comparative level (Hi = 0) is the primary non-deformed shape. Hi is
always positive.
Let us have a system of two beam skeletons that are parallel to x- and y- axes and have flexural stiffness (EJ)x, (EJ)y, torsional
stiffness (GJk)x, (GJk)y, flexural curvature kx = wxx,, ky = wyy and relative twisting 0x, 0y. The potential energy of bending and
torsional moments of such a system is
(39)

} (
0 + 0 + k + k = H . ds ) J G ( ) J G ( ) J E ( ) J E (
2
1
2
y y k
2
x x k
2
y y
2
x x i
Comparing (39) with (35), we can get only formally at the moment the following formulas for plate strips of unit width dx = 1 or
dy = 1:
(40)
y y k ky yx x x k kx xy
yy y y xx x x
) GJ ( M M , ) GJ ( M M
w ) J E ( M , w ) J E ( M
0 = = 0 = =
= =
As the transverse contraction and elongation of element sections cannot occur freely in a compact plate (Fig. 3),
16
PLATE
BEAM
x, u
z, w
M
w
M
Fig. 3
the plate strips are rather stiffer in bending than the beams. This can be included into the modulus of elasticity, and thus e.g. in
the case of an isotropic plate we have the module
(41) ,
1
E
E
2
i

=
which follows from the exact relation between o and c. In addition, it can be seen in Fig. 3 that the transverse contraction of the
section is prevented in plates by certain transverse moments M. E.g., the transverse moments occurring in isotropic plates
subjected to bending moment My and deformed to a cylindrical surface w(y) are
(42) M = Mx = My
and similarly, in plates subjected to bending moment Mx and bent to the surface w(x) we have:
(43) M = My = Mx .
This effect vanishes in materials without transverse contraction ( = 0).
Let us examine the consequences of formal equations (40) to (43) in isotropic plates with the thickness h << 1, so that
(44) . h
3
1
J J , h
12
1
J J
3
ky kx
3
y x
= = = =
Let us employ the well-known relation for shear modulus
(45) ,
) 1 ( 2
E
G
+
=
and let us name the known plate-constant as
(46) .
) 1 ( 12
Eh
D
2
3

=
We get formulas defining the relation between moments and curvature
17
(47)
) w w ( D M ) 1
, ) w w ( D M ) 2
yy xx x
xx yy y
+ =
+ =
that are in full compliance with formulas derived from the hypothesis (4). In addition, using Fig. 4, let us consider that the total
twisting 0 (more precisely the torsional curvature) of the plate element is influenced by both pairs of torsional moments, so that
(48) .
y x
0 + 0 = 0
In plates the continuous mixed derivative wxy = wyx = 0 (see also Fig. 2, the element is deformed into a warped line surface of a
hyperbolic paraboloid type y x
d
2
) y , x ( w 0 = in local coordinates x, y with the origin in the centre of the element, so that in
the corners
2
d
y ,
2
d
x = = we get w = w0. A general formula then follows from (40)
(49)
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = = 0
y k
yx
x k
xy
xy
) GJ (
M
) GJ (
M
w
and in the case of isotropic plates it is
(50)
. w GJ
2
1
M ,
GJ
M
2 w
: GJ ) GJ ( ) GJ ( , M M M M
xy k xy
k
xy
xy
k y k x k yx xy ky kx
= =
= = = =
M
yx
w
0
=w
1
+w
2
M
yx
d
w 2
0
= 0
M
xy M
xy
0
0
y
z
x
M
zy
w
1
M
xy
d
w 2
1
x
= 0
d
M
yx
w
2
M
yx
d
w 2
2
y
= 0
Fig. 4
18
After substitution from (44) and (45), multiplication by one in the form of

1
1
and use of
(1+) (1-) = (1-
2
) we obtain
(51) , w ) 1 ( N w ) 1 (
) 1 ( 12
Eh
) 1 (
) 1 (
w
3
h
) 1 ( 2
E
2
1
M
xy xy
2
3
xy
3
xy
=

=

+
=
which is the same formula that can be derived by an accurate procedure (integration of txy) from hypothesis (4). Therefore, the
beam-based theorization about physical constants of a plate leads to the correct stiffness matrix D of an isotropic plate. Using
(16) or (33), (47) and (51), we can write it in the form usual in FEM:
(52) .
w 2
w
w
2
1
0 0
0 1
0 1
D
M
M
M
xy
yy
xx
xy
y
x
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
It can be therefore expected that such a theorization will not be principally (i.e. as far as equilibrium and continuity conditions are
considered) defective even in simple plates with shape orthotropy, which is also supported by the existing experience obtained in
experiments and in real practice.
Bending and torsional moments
The dimension of these quantities is force, or more clearly, force length per unit width of a plate section. Using the main SI
units, it is N (Newton) or Nm/m (Newton meter per 1 meter of width).
Conversion to previously used units:
1 kp = 9,80665 N = 10 N
1 Mp=10
4
N = 10 kN
All sectional characteristics Jx, Jy, Jkx, Jky must be calculated either (i) for a unit width of a section or (ii) for another width of the
section b, e.g. for the distance between ribs or the size of the finite element and then the result must be divided by this b. The
dimension of J is therefore m
3
.
Plates without transverse contraction
This group includes practically all ribbed plates with open ribs (not hollow core slabs), because the flexural stiffness of such
plates is derived mainly from ribs that do not influence each other in transverse direction as there is no continuous contraction in
this direction. The value termed as effective value of is very small (e.g. 0.02) also in reinforced concrete plates with thin ribs,
especially after the formation of cracks in the tensile concrete, and calculations of such plates for = 0 are accurate. The matrix
of physical constants is diagonal as D12 = D21 = 0, see (28). What remains is to determine D11, D22, and D33.
The first two bending constants are quite clear and they can be calculated using (40) from
(53) D11 = (EJ)x, D22 = (EJ)y, [Nm].
The formulas include also possible diverseness Ex = Ey [Nm
-2
]. Jx, Jz [m
3
] are related to the unit width of plate sections in planes x
= constant and y = constant. For the most common situation of Ex = Ey = E and for the calculation of Jxb, Jyb [m
4
] for ribs with an
effective width of the plate bx, by we have
19
(54) .
b
EJ
D ,
b
EJ
D
y
yb
22
x
xb
11
= =
If the plate of the height h is ribbed only in its x-direction, then
(55) D22 =
12
Eh
3

For the needs of this calculation, in common concrete plates with ribs in both x- and y- direction, the full distance shown in Fig.
5a can be taken as the effective width bx, by.
a)
b)
I I I I
b
x b
x
b
x
b
x
b
x
b
x
b
x
b
x
Fig. 5
Only for thin plates, e.g. steel orthotropic deck slabs, the reduction of bx, by according to technical standards is more significant
(Fig. 5b). It is however necessary to considered the real loading conditions of the plate and other circumstances and not only
apply the formula given in the standard, as it is valid for stress rather than for the substitute flexural stiffness. When bx, by are
uncertain, we recommend a consultation with the author of this guide.
The third constant, torsional D33, is more problematic, but in most situation we can get satisfactory result using the formula that
follows from (24) for = 0.
(56) D33 =
22 11
D D
2
1
For isotropy and = 0, this formula transforms into the correct value of
2
1
D, see (52). This is then represented by one torsional
moment M
F
xy = M
F
yx of the substitute physically orthotropic slab.
(57)
. xy 22 11 xy 33
F
yx
F
xy
w D D w 2 D M M = = =
The equality M
F
xy = M
F
yx follows from the theorem of reciprocity of shear stresses txy = tyx (Fig. 6a) that must be valid on the
vertical edge of the plate element also in plates with shape orthotropy, but that does not imply the equality of torsional moments,
which clearly follows from Fig. 6b. Torsional moments can be obtained by the integration of the shear stress flow over the section
through planes x=constant and y=constant:
(58)
}}
= t =
Fx
xy x 33 x xn xy
, w 2 . D dF r M
20
(59) Myx=
}}
Fy
yn r d Fy = D33y . 2 wyx .
In order to apply formulas (58 and 59) accurately, we would have to know the exact distribution of shear flow over the sections of
the given plate with shape orthotropy. It is quite a difficult three-dimensional problem that would require rather challenging
application of the finite element method. Therefore, let us perform first an approximate technical calculation based on the
estimate of torsional stiffness strips, like beams in a grate, without continuous dependencies. As wxy is a continuous function in
plates, we have
wxy = wyx (Fig. 6c) and the comparative beams have the same relative twisting angle, and thus the ratio of moments (58) and (59)
is
(60) .
) GJ (
) GJ (
M
M
y k
x k
yx
xy
=
Let us define a sum-relation between moment (57) and moments (58), (59) that is not in contrast with the isotropy. If we compare
the formulas for energy (35) and (38) where there is a continuous mixed derivation of the function w, in which wxy = wyx, it follows:
a) x
y
z
M
yx
M
xy
yx
=
xy
M
yx
= M
xy
b)
yn
F
y
yx
=
xy
xn
F
x
M
yx
M
xy
c)
w
xy
= w
yx
GJ
kx
GJ
ky
Fig. 6
21
(61) . M 2 M M
F
xy yx xy
= +
This leads us to the following values:
(62) . M 2
) GJ ( ) GJ (
) GJ (
M , M 2
) GJ ( ) GJ (
) GJ (
M
F
xy
y k x k
y k
yx
F
xy
y k x k
x k
xy
+
=
+
=
Substituting (62) into the formula (49) we get
y k x k
F
xy
xy
) GJ ( ) GJ (
M 4
w
+
=
Comparing with the formula (57)
33
F
xy
xy
D 2
M
w =
we obtain the formula that will be used to calculate the input value D33, i.e. the torsional stiffness of the substitute physically
orthotropic plate.
(63) . ] ) GJ ( ) GJ [(
8
1
D
y k x k 33
+ =
Quantities Jx [m
3
] are related to a unit width of the section. Usually, they are calculated for another suitable width (beam-like
section) b, so that Jk = Jkb [m
4
]: b [m].
The drawback of this approach is that a pure Saint-Venant torsion is prevented in the plate in the x- and y- direction, as:
the surface shear stress is not zero (t = 0 on vertical sides of the surfaces ) over the whole surface of these strips,
free warping is prevented in these strips.
The deviation is not too large in rather thin plates with rather thick ribs. Under different configuration this approach can be applied
if everywhere Mxy Mx ,My. If we calculate quantities Jk from the accurate shear flow (58) and (59), the approach will be
always acceptable. Exceptions, such as plates with encased I-beam etc, should be consulted.
Approximate calculations of common structures can be performed with D33 determined from the formula (56) that does not
require identification of torsional stiffnesses. It can be proved that both the formula (56) and the future formula (72) for plates with
transverse contraction are in the case of isotropic plates identical with the formula (63), see the reasoning in paragraph 6.2.1
following the formula (44). It generally follows from (61) that
(63a) D33 = ) D D (
2
1
y 33 x 33
+
and in our simplification we have

D33x= . ) GJ (
4
1
D , ) GJ (
4
1
y k y 33 x k
=
22
Let us remind that the first subscript of t and M always denotes the area (section x = constant) on which t or M acts. The
moment Mxy thus shortens the plate strips parallel to the x-axis, and the moment Myx the strips parallel to the y-axis. See also Fig.
4 where the positive direction of these moments can be clearly seen.
Two special situations for formulas (62):
a) A plate with the same torsional stiffness in the x-direction and y-direction, i.e. Jkx=Jky and Mxy= Myx=
F
xy
M is the printed value
of the torsional moment.
b) A plate with a predominant torsional stiffness in one direction, caused e.g. by thick ribs that are rigid in torsion in one direction
let us mark it x. It is characterised by a strong inequality Jky Jkx. In such a plate the formulas (61) and (63) give
Mxy ~
2
F
xy
M , Myx ~
0 ,
and thus the torsional moment in the x-direction is the double of the printed moment and it is zero in the y-direction.
The real value is between the limits of type (a) and (b). If we deal with what is called design moments represented in outputs by
values
(64)
F
dim x
M = (sign. ) ( +
F
x
F
x
M M ), M
F
xy

F
dim y
M = (sign. ) ( +
F
y
F
y
M M ), M
F
xy
it must be considered that Mx=
F
y y
F
x
M M , M = (the superscript F still means the physically orthotropic plate for which the
whole calculation is done), but
F
xy
M is only a formal value. The application of values (64) is therefore useful for situations
approaching the limit of type (a). Otherwise, it would be reasonable to use a correction in the meaning of the formulas (61) or
(63).
Plates with transverse contraction
Coefficients of transverse contraction in plates with shape orthotropy can be, following from (16) to (18), assigned the following
visual meaning (Fig. 7):
23
Fig. 7
a)
b)
y
x
z, w
M
x
M
y M
x
w (x)
M
y
=
21
M
x
M
y
M
x
M
x
w (x, y)
M
y
= 0
c)
M
y
M
y
M
x
w (y)
M
x
=
12
M
y
24
Let us deform the plate element as in Fig. 7a into the shape corresponding to a cylindrical surface w(x) with a constant curvature
wxx. Then wyy = 0 and, according to (16), the following moments are necessary to cause such deformation:
(65) Mx = -D11wxx , My = -D21wxx = 21Mx.
If we subject the element only to moment Mx, it would lead to a state shown in Fig. 7b, because the following condition follows
from the second line of (16) with My = 0:
D21wxx+D22wyy = 0 ,
and therefore, the element would be distorted also in the y-direction with the curvature wyy = -D21wxx / D22 = -12wxx. To produce
the same curvature wxx, smaller moment would be sufficient:
Mx = -D11(1-2112) wxx .
Similarly, the following moments are necessary to produce a cylindrical deflection w(y) of the element in the y-direction (Fig. 7c):
(66) My = -D22wyy , Mx = -D12wyy = 12My .
If the load is formed only by moments My, i.e. if Mx = 0, it leads, according to the first line of (16), to a non-zero curvature wxx = -
D12wyy/ D11 = -21wyy. To produce the same wyy, a smaller moment is necessary:
My = -D22(1-1221) wyy.
Therefore, for plates with shape orthotropy we can introduce the following definition of the coefficients of transverse contraction:
The coefficient 21 is numerically equal to the moment My that must be applied to y=constant-edges of the element that is
subjected to moment Mx = 1 on edges where x=constant, in order to bend the element into a cylindrical surface w(x). Similarly,
the coefficient 12 is the value of Mx on x=constant-edges of the element subjected to moment My = 1 on edges where y=
constant and bent to a cylindrical surface w(y). It can be easily verified that in the case of physically orthotropic plates this
definition is equivalent to the original definition (8) and in the case of isotropic plates it results in the known relation 12 = 21 = .
At the same time, with this definition it is clear that if the structure resembles a strong grate with a thin plate, it is practically true
that 12 = 21 =0 and formulas from paragraph 6.2.2.1 are applicable.
The Maxwell-Betti theorem for plates with shape orthotropy:
If a plate element is subjected only to moment Mx = 1, it leads to curvatures
wxx = -1 / D11(1 - 1221),
(67)
wyy = + 12 / D11(1-1221).
If it is subjected only to moment My = 1, the curvatures are
wyy = -1 / D22(1-1221),
(68)
wxx = + 21 / D22(1-1221).
If the deflection is small, the radii of curvature are Rx = 1 / wxx , Ry = 1 / wyy. If we relate the moment to a unit width, i.e. if we think
about an element with sides bx = by = 1, then the angles of mutual twisting of the originally parallel vertical sides of the element
are
b = o x / Rx = wXX,
y
b = | / Ry = wyy.
The Maxwell-Betti theorem | = o results in the equality (67) = (68), i.e.
25
(69)
22
21
11
12
D D

=
which is identical with the equality (18) for physically orthotropic plates. However, in that case it was a result of a general
symmetry of physical constants (8) that follows directly from the requirement that the potential energy of internal forces of the
body be a homogenous quadratic function of stress components or deformation components.
Also in plates with shape orthotropy it must be ensured that the relation (69) is satisfied. If we use a technical reasoning or an
experiment to determine e.g. coefficient
21
for the situation shown in Fig. 7a, also the other coefficient (for the situation in Fig.
7c) is determined.
(70) .
D
D
21
22
11
12
=
Satisfying this relation does not result in large values of for technical materials that behave like physically orthotropic
materials (plywood, fibreglass, etc.). For example one specific type of pressed plywood has
;
7 , 46
305
D
D
22
11
= ; 13 , 0 ; 02 , 0
12 21
= =
or another type of cross-glued plywood gives
;
60
120
D
D
22
11
= . 071 , 0 ; 0355 , 0
12 21
= =
In practice, there may be a big ratio D11/D22 in shape-orthotropic plates, which may be in the range of 10 to 20.
Usually however, it is found that, at the same time, the coefficient
21
is very small, and therefore
12
does not exceed 0.5 or
1.0. With regard to the definition of
21 12
, by means of bending moments (Fig. 7), also values exceeding 0.5 or even 1.0 are
not, in technical point of view, faulty. After all, they do not represent physical coefficients of contraction, which would be limited by
volume changes of the substance. In real situations and with proper thinking about transverse moments, such values are really
rare.
As the determination of the actual coefficient
12
or
21
can itself represent quite a difficult problem, simple approximate
formulas are used in practice for what is called non-diagonal stiffness element D12 that does not include these coefficients, but
only the coefficient of the isotropic material that the plate is made of, for example = 0.15 for concrete or 0.30 for steel. In
ribbed plates and hollow core slabs, we can use the simplified formula (28):
(71)
D12 = , D D
22 11
or a similar formula (27) that, however, gives positive D12 only for 1 ) + , which e.g. limits its application in concrete to
situations when 0.85 1 ( ( that are however quite frequent.
Similarly, instead of (56) the simplified formula (23) can be used:
(72)
22 11 33
D D
2
1
D

=
and the increased modulus of elasticity (41) is substituted into the formulas (53) to (55), which represents a broadly small
increase of 2.25% in concrete and 9% in steel.
Conclusions from the previous paragraph 6.2.2.1 are applicable for the utilisation of values of Mxy.
Note concerning the plate mid-plane:
26
It can be seen in the previous figures that, generally, the centre of gravity of sections x=constant is located in a different distance
x
e from the top fibre than the centre of gravity of sections y=constant ( )
y
e . Therefore, we may ask a question about where
the mid-plane of the plate is located. This question disappears if we consider that we calculate with a two-dimensional plate
continuum where
y x
e , e belong in fact among the physical properties. More serious error, however, occurs in plates with
different ribs as a result of neglecting the planar stiffness
( )
2
0
1
Et
D

= of the top plate, or the area of thickness t. What
proved useful for such situations is the Giencke formula for mixed stiffness (20)
(73) ) ( , D
4
1
e e D e e C D
0
2
y x 0 y x 3
+
+ + + =
that is based on the total torsional stiffness of the plate
(74)
) (
( ) ) ( . GJ GJ
1 12
Et
C
y k x k
2
3
+ +

=
And this can be used to determine the orthotropy constant (26); see [1], p. 38
Shear forces and reactions
Shear forces result from the requirement of moment equilibrium of a plate element around the y-axis and x-axis (Fig. 2):
(75) ,
y
M
x
M
T
xy
x
x
c
c
+
c
c
=
(76) .
x
M
y
M
T
xy
Y
y
c
c
+
c
c
=
After substitution of (16), (58), (59) we have
(77) ( ) | ( ) | ( ) , w D 2 D w D w 2 . D w D w D T
xyy y 33 12 xxx 11 y yx y 33
x
yy 12 xx 11 x
+ = + + =
(78) |( ) ( ) | ( ) . w D 2 D w D w 2 . D w D w D T
xxy x 33 21 yyy 22 x xy x 33 y yy 22 xx 21 y
+ = + + =
If we compare this formula with the fourth and fifth line of matrix (16) for physically orthotropic plates, we can see that instead of
the mixed stiffness D3 according to (20) the fourth line now contains the element
(79) D3x = D12 + 2D33y
and the fifth line contains
(80) D3y = D12 + 2D33x .
27
In the basic plate equation (25) - which is the condition of vertical equilibrium of a plate element
y
y
x
x
T
T
c
c
+
c
c
+ p = 0
and simultaneously the Euler's differential equation of variational plate problem - the application of (79) and (80) changes the
expression 2D3 into the expression (D3x + D3y), so that we have the following formula for the determination of the value of D3
(81) ( ). D D
2
1
D
y 3 x 3 3
+ =
Approximately (see 63a) we have ( ) ( ) . GJ
4
1
D , GJ
4
1
D
y k y 33 x k x 33
= =
However, programs for physically orthotropic plates calculate Tx and Ty according to matrix (16). Values applicable for plates with
shape orthotropy can be derived from these values only by means of a rather complex calculation. If we already know torsional
moments Myx and Mxy, this calculation can be inspected directly by (75) and (76). In both situations, the derivatives are
substituted by differences of values in adjacent finite element nodes of the analysed plate and, therefore, we cannot get the full
conformity.
The first members (75) and (76) prevail over the second ones in the larger part of the plan-area of common plates and, in
addition, the difference between (79), (80) and (20) is not too big. Therefore, values Tx and Ty can be used for an approximate
shear design.
The reactions of the plate are calculated from (29) or (30) also for the plates with shape orthotropy.
Plates with the effect of transverse shear taken into account
This is an analogy to short, high, etc. beams in which it is not possible to neglect the effect of shear forces T on the deformation,
as that effect is comparable to the effect of moments M. This influences the shape of deflection line w(x) and thus also the values
of all statically determined quantities, e.g. hogging moments that are decisive for the design.
Current programs have been developed for physically orthotropic plates following the paragraph 5.2 with the matrix of physical
constants (33) and optional expansion into a full matrix of (5, 5) type in the case of a general anisotropy. Therefore, it is first
necessary to transform a shape-orthotropic plate into a physically orthotropic plate, i.e. to determine constants Dik in matrix (33).
Instructions from paragraph 6.2.2 apply to constants D11, D12, D22, D33. What remains is to determine constants D44 and D55 in
formulas
(82) Tx = D44
yz 55 y xz
D T , =
that specify the relation between shear forces and transverse shear components of deformation , i.e. the change of right
angles between the normal of the mid-plane of the plate after its transformation into the flexural surface w(x, y), see Fig. 8. These
deformations (32) are zero only if wx =
x y y
w , = (see the sign convention, Fig. 1 and 8), i.e. the Kirchhof hypothesis (4)
is valid.
The most important formulas are obtained if the transverse shear stress xz, yz is assumed distributed uniformly across the
sectional area Fx, Fy of sections with the width of b = 1 constructed though planes x=constant and y = constant. For a ribbed
plate in Fig. 8 we have
(83) .
b
F
F ,
b
F
F
y
1 y
y
x
1 x
x
= =
28
Fig. 8
In that case Tx = xzFx , Ty = yzFy , and with identical shear modulus G in both directions we have
(84) D44 = GFx , D55 = GFy
If there are no ribs in one or both directions and if the plate thickness is h, then in that direction
(85) Fx = h , Fy = h , and thus in the solution of an isotropic thick plate
(86) D44 = D55 = Gh.
These formulas are sufficient for the estimate of the magnitude of shear stress and for the estimate of required shear
reinforcement in concrete.
More detailed analysis however requires that the actual distribution of shear stress xz(z), yz(z) in interval -h1 z h2 be taken
into account, where h1 + h2 = h is the plate thickness and h1, h2 the distance of extreme fibre from the centroid of the section. In
plates with shape orthotropy, it is possible to use the well known Grashof Zuravky formula (with plate indexes)
(87) xz(z) =
( )
) z ( 2
z S
J
T
x
x
q
and similarly for yz where 2(z) is the width of a section in the point specified by the coordinate z, and S(z) is the first moment of
the section above this width related to the horizontal centroidal axis (Fig. 9). In rectangular section of width = 1 this formula
gives the distribution xz (z) that follows a parabola of the second order with its maximum
h
T
2
3
in the centroid.
The same distribution can be obtained in isotropic plates in the Kirchhof theory (4) from Cauchy equations of equilibrium, and
therefore, we can assume that the application of (87) in plates with shape orthotropy will be fairly accurate.
An uneven distribution of shear stress xz (z), yz (z) results in shear deformations xz (z), yz (z), distributed non-uniformly across
the plate thickness.
29
If we introduce the assumption of a rigid normal (Fig. 8), the consequence is that we get constant xz , yz and thus also xz , yz ,
and therefore the formulas (83) (86) are justified. If we apply the more accurate distribution (87) and want to stick to the
procedure of the finite element method, we have to find out the relation between Tx, Ty and values xz , yz, that are independent
on z and represent angular changes in the sense of the equivalence of the potential energy of internal forces. For plates with
shape orthotropy let us again proceed on the assumption of beam theorization: In a beam element of length l, in which a
constant force Tx is acting, the accumulated potential energy is:
Fig. 9
i = } }
Fx
l
2
1
(xzxz + xyxy)dFx
If we substitute into this formula from the Grashof hypothesis xz (87) and
xy (y,z) = xz (z)
( )
( ) z
z ytg
q
and from Hooks law

G
,
G
xy
xy
xz xz
t
=
t
,
we get
( )
( )
( )
( )
. dF
z tg y
1
z 4
z S
GJ 2
lT
x
z 2
2 2
2
2
Fx
2
x
2
x
i
|
|
.
|
\
|
q

+
q
} } = t
Let us introduce the usual formula for the energy with a corrective coefficient | that expresses the variation of t across the
section
(88) i = ,
GF
T
l
2
1
x
2
x
|
30
(89)
( )
( )
( )
( )
. dydz
z
z tg y
1
z
z S
J 4
F
2
2 2
2
2
Fx
2
x
x
|
|
.
|
\
|
q

+
q
} } = |
Let us write the energy (88) in the form of a half the product of the force Tx and path wT (Fig. 9):
, w T
2
1
T x i
= t
. l l
GF
T
w
xz
x
x
T
=
|
=
Then it is clear that a constant angular change, equivalent in terms of energy to variables xz (z), is
x
x
xz
GF
T
| =
. GF
1
T
xz x x

|
=
Instead of formulas (84) that are valid for a constant xz across the whole section, we may use the following elements of the
matrix of physical constants:
(90) D44 = , GF
1
D , GF
1
y
Y
55 x
X
|
=
|
where subscripts | indicate that | can be different for sections x=constant and y=constant.
Box-sections
Thick-walled box-section non-solid slabs
A non-solid plate with continuous hollow cores in one direction (let us denote it x) can be calculated as a shape-orthotropic plate
with transverse contraction and thus formulas from paragraph 6.2.2 apply to it.
The assumption is that the webs of the box-sections are thick enough. Their thickness ti (it can be even variable) should roughly
satisfy the inequality
(91) ti ,
10
h
where h is the total plate thickness. If the vertical webs are thick enough (ratio bs / b 1/10 ), the influence of shear forces on the
deformation of the plate can be neglected and the following formulas from paragraph 6.2.2 can be used to determine the matrix
of physical constants (Fig. 10):
( )
2
y
22
2
xb
11
1
EJ
D ,
1 b
EJ
D

=

=
31
. D D
2
1
D , D D D
22 11 33 22 11 12

= =
Section:
Rectangle (plate without ribs)
Solid circle and approximately also
solid n-angle (n > 6)
Circle thin-walled circular
rings and approximately n-angles (n > 6)
Steel I-beam no. 8 to 45
Concrete profiles: I, square, T, etc.
with sectional area F and web area Fs,
approximately
I-sections, squares, etc. with
the sum of vertical webs thickness t1
and radius of gyration to the neutral axis r:
E = t
1
t
2
e
1
e
2
6/5
32/27 (TP 3)
10/ 9 (ROARK)
2
2.8 to 2.1
F/Fs
2
2
2
1
2
r 10
er 4
1
t
t
k 1
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
( )
3
2
1
2
1
2
2
e 2
e e e 3
k

=
The value Jx is calculated for section y=constant with a unit width that goes through the thinnest part of horizontal webs of the
box-sections.
32
Fig. 10
Values Jxb are calculated for an I-section where the flange width b is always the distance
between the vertical axes of the boxes. In case of unequal boxes also the I-sections are
asymmetrical. Jxb is always related to the horizontal centroidal y-axis. The difference in the
height of the centroids of sections x=constant and y=constant (see the note at the end of 6.2.2)
is not significant. To determine the torsional element D33, also formula (63) can be used:
( ) ( ) | | , GJ GJ
8
1
D
y k x k 33
+ =
on condition that we take into account the remarks stated in paragraph 6.2.2 that are given after that formula. It means that the
differences between (i) values Jkx, Jky that follow from the Saint Venant torsion of beams and (ii) values Jkx ,Jky relating to the
actual shear flow by (58), (59) are in box-sections more significant than in plates with open ribs (Fig. 6b). In Fig. 10 the arrows
and circles show the shear flows that approximately occur due to the necessity to keep .
yx xy
t = t In closed box-sections with
vertical webs thick enough, shear circulation may develop and the corresponding Jxk from the beam-based calculation will be
broadly accurate. The circulation in the top and bottom part of the section y=constant will be however analogous to Fig. 6b, it will
be strongly suppressed and the torsional moment will be approximately defined by the pair of horizontal forces Vx with the lever
arm h0. What is important is whether there are transverse diaphragms in the plate and what the distance between them is, as the
shear flow is affected in their vicinity. If the diaphragms are distributed close to each other, box-sections are again in fact formed
in sections y=constant and their Jky, relating to a unit width, will be decisive for the calculation.
Thin-walled box-sections
They can be approximately analysed as plates with the influence of transverse shear taken account. In this analysis we use input
data based on the comparison with modified formulas of V. Kstek:
33
(92) , D
2
1
D , D D ,
a
J
1
E
D D
11 33 11 12
xa
2
22 11

= =

= =
where Jxa is the moment of inertia of the I-section of width a (Fig. 11) between box axes. It may however vary across elements,
i.e. different boxes. The stiffness D22 is not too overestimated as the influence of the web Jxa is small. Similarly, D33 is quite
accurate especially in internal boxes, as the amount of shear flow that gets into the internal thin webs is very small. We may
approximately calculate with a proximate value
a
J
xa
= , th
2
1
2
where t is the thickness of horizontal plates and h is their centre-
to-centre distance. For unequal thicknesses this value may be approximately determined from formula (96) presented later.
The shear stiffness D55 in transverse direction y (see the fifth line of the matrix (33)) can be found through the comparison of the
formula Ty = D55
yz
with the formula defining a relation between the transverse force
Ty = Va + Vb
in the highlighted I-shape frame of unit width and total skewing ,
2 1 yz
+ = where
2 1
are beam deflections of webs
and flanges. Taking dimension as in Fig. 11 we get
Fig. 11
(93) Vb = , V
a
o ,
t 6
a
t
h
t 6
a
t
h
3
b
3
h
3
a
3
h
+
+
= o
34
( )
( ) . 2
t
h
t
a
1 E
aT 2
3
h
3
a
y
yz (
o +
o +
=
Therefore:
(94) D55 =
( )
( )
| |. Nm ,
2
t
h
t
a
a 2
1 E
1
3
h
3
a
o +
o +
.
The shear modulus G23 (paragraph 5) was not needed for this calculation, but it could be determined for the substitute physical
plate continuum e.g. on the assumption of (34) from the formula G23 = D55 / h without introducing the conception of a sandwich
plate with a soft core.
Stiffness D55 is substantially increased in the location of transverse diaphragms. If they are very rigid and if they provide for non-
deformability of the section projection into the vertical plane, then yz can be neglected in elements located in the vicinity of these
diaphragms (see the procedure for D44). This should happen with reasonably designed diaphragms, the web stiffness of which is
higher by a factor of ten in comparison with the previously stated stiffness. The variation of D55 over elements can be easily taken
into account in FEM. In case of densely located diaphragms, if one diaphragm relates to each finite strip, we can calculate with
the average value of D55, but the effect of shear yz will be small, otherwise the diaphragm would not meet one of its main
purposes.
The stiffness D44 (4
th
line of the matrix (33)) is according to (95) larger than D55 by a factor of ten and the shear changes xz can
be neglected. In the input it can be expressed by the value
. 3 2 , 10
44 55
or D D = =

o
o
It could be also possible to modify the program for plates with the effect of shear in one direction that nullifies xz beforehand.
Processing of printed internal forces:
Mx | |.... N
per one I-section according to Fig. 11
we have M = a Mx ,
stress x= Mz / J ,
extremes x = M / W .
Tx | |.... Nm
1
similarly, per one I-section, we have T = aTx , stress xz according to (87), approximately for
very thin webs xz = T / h th only in the web.
| |.... N M
y
In the top and bottom plate, axial forces in the transverse y-direction will become apparent Ny =
My / h and stress yb = -My / h tb, ya = My / h ta.
| |.... Nm T
1
y
In the top and bottom plate, the transverse shear forces Vb and Va will occur following from (94),
i.e. Va = Ty / (1+), Vb = Va , with identical plate thickness.

b a
V V =
y
T
2
1
= .
The transverse shear stress is approximately:

b yzb
V = t . t / V , t /
a a yza b
= t
| |.... N M
xy
In the top and bottom plate, the horizontal shear forces Txy = Mxy / h occur and stress xyb = Txy /
tb , xya = Txy / ta .

These values can be used in steel plates to calculate principal stresses that can be used for the assessment of their safety. It is
similar in reinforced concrete structures (thin-walled), where the tension is carried by normal or prestressing reinforcement and
the effect of Mxy is reflected in the design moments, i.e. in the substitution of Mx , My by Mxdim, Mydim .
35
Comparative example
In order to compare the input data Dik, let us discuss an example of a deck slab box-section of the overbridge C 201 in Vsetn,
Czech Republic, made as a prefabricated lamellar structure.
Fig. 12
The division into finite elements was selected to coincide with the plan-view of the boxes, which means that the stiffness of
elements was based on the stiffness of individual boxes. The transverse section is schematically shown in Fig. 12 that would be
more complex due to the varying thickness of webs. The calculation according to paragraph 6.4.1 thick-walled structures
(92): Moments of inertia of individual boxes Jxb were found by means of a program for the calculation of geometric characteristics
of planar shapes. Moments Jy can be easily calculated using the formula
(95) ( ), t t
12
1
h
t t
t t
J
3
b
3
a
2
b a
b a
y
+ +
+
=
where
b a
t
2
1
t
2
1
v h + + = is the centre-to-centre distance of horizontal webs.
Vertical webs are of unified thickness 30 cm and their centre-to-centre distance is 300 cm. Further, let us give the approximate
dimensions of the box b3 in [cm]: tb = 18, v = 96, ta = 14, h = 112 and the same for box b4: tb = 19.5, v = 101.5, ta = 14, h = 118.
Physical constants E = 385000 daN/cm
2
(kp/cm
2
), =0,15.
The stiffness matrix of box b4 (higher numbers by (92) thick-walled, lower numbers by (93) thin-walled neglecting the vertical
webs):

.10kNm
(Mpm)
509
809
70 316
0
448
000
67 100
D = 70 316 431 03
8
0
67 100 448
000
199
228
0 0 224
000
36
For box b3 :

475
046
64
720
0
389
000
58
300
D = 64
720
391
887
0
58
300
389
000
183
374
0 0 194
500
The reduction of the flexural stiffness D11 by neglecting the vertical web is apparent; the stiffnesses D22, D33 will be larger, which
follows from the thin-walled theory. The differences in moments (multiples of type D11wxx etc.) will be smaller, as the larger D11
gives smaller deflection w and also smaller derivative wxx. It is known that moments in isotropic plates do not depend on D at all if
we consider only the action of forces. This independence is of different nature in orthotropic plates: the moments do not depend
on the absolute values of Dik, but on their ratios. The most typical ratio for this relation is
, D D / D 2
22 11 33
= _
see (26). Examples of the influence of _ on moments can be found in [ 1 ], pp. 48., table 2 and in diagrams in Fig. 13, p. 52.
Multi-cell slabs with linear hinges in longitudinal direction
This means perpendicular or oblique plates assembled from prefabricated blocks, in which we assume that no reliable monolithic
connection exists in the transverse direction (e.g. through transverse prestressing, which would cause that they would be treated
as monolithic plates in accordance with the previous paragraphs).
Fig. 13
37
Longitudinal joints transfer only shear forces Ty and no bending moments My.
There are many types of multi-cell slabs with linear hinges in longitudinal direction. In terms of input data Dik, all of them fall
between two limit situations (Fig. 12):
a) The vertical webs of the box-sections are so thin that practically no shear flows gets into them and the torsional moment Mxy
transfers only the shear in the top and bottom web. Then we may consider the equality
k ky kx yx xy
J J J and M M ~ ~ = ,
and therefore, following from (63), the torsional stiffness is
(96) | | Nm ,
b
GJ
4
1
D
kb
33
=
if we calculate Jkb [m
4
] for one prefabricated block of width b [m].
Similarly to box-sections, the formula (92) applies to other stiffnesses.
b) The vertical webs of the sections are so thick that a continuous circulation of shear flow occurs in sections x=constant, which
(considering the theorem of reciprocity
yx xy
t = t ) influences also the shear flow in sections y = constant. Then, we apply the
formula (63) with varying torsional stiffnesses Jkx , Jky [m
3
] and constant shear modulus G:
( )
ky kx 33
J J G
8
1
D + =
c) A special situation arises when the longitudinal joints cannot transfer any torsional moment. Then we have Jky = 0 ,
. GJ
8
1
D
kx 33
=
Formulas (62) generally apply to the evaluation of printed Mxy.
If the webs in plates in Fig. 13a are so slim that transverse skewing occurs, the appropriate stiffness D55 from paragraph 6.3 can
be found on the basis of the formula (95) from paragraph 6.42.
Other plate types
Reinforced concrete plates with different reinforcement Fax, Fay in x- and y- direction behave in the first phase practically like
isotropic plates until cracks form in the tensile part of the concrete. In the second phase, we have to find moments of inertia Jx, Jy
of the non-homogenous sections of unit width composed of (i) steel and (ii) concrete in compression. The ratio Jx/ Jy is
approximately equal (plus or minus a few per cent) to the ratio Fax/ Fay. As the zone of concrete in compression, where some
transverse contraction (or dilatation) still occurs, is small, the effective value is lower than 0.15. The value 0.02 was measured.
The stiffnesses are calculated from the formulas stated earlier
(97) , D D
2
1
D , D D D , J E D , J E D
22 11 33 22 11 12 y 22 x 11

= = ' = ' =
(98) .
1
E
E , 1 , Gh
1
D D
2
55 44

= ' ~ |
|
= =
The effect of shear is taken into account only in plates whose thickness h L / 5, see paragraph 5.2 and 6.3. Deviations that are
of practical significance occur only if h L/3.
Corrugated plates are calculated using the formula (98), and for sinusoidal shape of sections x = constant we take:
(99) ,
l 4 H 5 , 2 1
81 , 0
1 hH
2
1
J
2 2
2
x
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
38
,
12
h
s
l
J
3
y
=
where the shape of the corrugation is z = H sin x / l, the thickness of the corrugated plate is h, the amplitude of waves is H, and
the length of the chord of one half-wave is l. This can be used approximately also for non-sinusoidal shape of the waves.
Doubled corrugated plates (system BEHLEN, PUMS, etc.) require a special calculation of Jx. In extra-thin corrugated plates, Jx
can be calculated on the curve z = f(x) and then multiplied by the thickness h. The ratio Jy / Jx is almost zero.
Double-layer braced plates are beam systems used for roofing of extensive areas (stadium, etc.). For the needs of a preliminary
calculation, they can be considered as orthotropic plates, with moments of inertia derived from sectional areas Fax , Fay of the
beams in strips in x- and y- direction and lever arms rx , ry to the centroids of these areas, approximately rx . ry = . H
2
1
It is
possible to establish the effect of transverse shear similarly to paragraph 6.3. The torsional stiffness is practically zero (D33 = 0,
= 0 ) in common right-angled systems of strips without diagonals in horizontal planes; in other systems it must be determined by
means of comparative calculations. The printed values Mx, My, Tx, Ty can be used for the calculation of axial forces in beams by
means of the procedure that is common for lattice girders (intersection method). The procedure can be extended to generally
anisotropic plates and is suitable for a preliminary design or for the determination of an optimal variant, etc. After the final design
of the system, the accurate assessment can be performed following the calculation of axial forces in beams of the given system.
The beams are, depending on the nature of joints, considered as a three-dimensional lattice girder or as a frame.

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