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he study of how the universe began, how it changes and how it will end is called
cosmology. According to most cosmologists, the big bang theory explains how
the universe began. But it is a theory. Scientific theories are powerful in guiding
investigation, but also tentative in being open to change.

An expanding universe

The big bang theory

The evidence

Until Albert Einstein published

his theories about gravity in 1915,
cosmologists believed that the
universe never changed. There
was no evidence to suggest that
it did change. But if Einsteins
theories about gravity were right,
the universe had to be expanding.
Even Einstein himself couldnt
believe that the universe was
expanding. In fact, he even
changed his equations to fit a
universe that did not grow.
A number of other scientists
had more confidence in Einsteins
theories than Einstein himself
did. One of those scientists was
Edwin Hubble. He searched for
evidence to support Einsteins
theories. And, in 1929, he found
it when he realised that the red
shift was caused by the expansion
of the universe; that is, galaxies
that continously moved away from
the solar system, and each other,
at high speed. Following Hubbles
discovery, two major theories about
the universe were developed.

According to the big bang theory,

there was a beginning. The version
of this theory described on pages
2845 was first proposed in 1948, at
about the same time as the steady
state theory.

The expanding universe

The red shift provides evidence
for an expanding universe. It
supports the big bang theory and
causes problems for the steady
state theory. A steady state universe
could expand only if new stars and
galaxies replaced those that moved
away. There was no way to explain
how these new stars and galaxies
could be created from nothing.
Apart from that, these young stars
and galaxies could not be found by
astronomers.

The steady state theory

According to the steady state
theory proposed in 1948, there
was no beginning of the universe.
It was always there. The galaxies
have always moved away from
each other. In the extra space left
between the galaxies, new stars
and galaxies have been created.
These new stars and galaxies
replaced those that moved away, so
that the universe always looked the
same.

The great debate

A huge debate raged between
those who supported the steady
state theory and those who
supported the big bang theory.
In fact, the name big bang was
invented by Fred Hoyle, one of
the developers of the steady state
theory. He used the name to try
to ridicule the cosmologists who
proposed the big bang theory.
The debate continued for 17
years. During that time, evidence
supporting the big bang theory
grew. In 1965, the death blow
was finally delivered to the steady
state theory leaving the big bang
theory as the only theory supported
by evidence currently available.

The elements
According to the steady state
theory, the only way that helium
can be produced is by the nuclear
reactions taking place in stars.
About 8.7 per cent of the atoms
in the universe are helium. This is
far more than could be produced
by the stars alone. The percentage
of helium atoms can, however, be
explained by their creation as a
result of the big bang.

Before our current big bang theory was developed, an

earlier version existed, but it wasnt called the big bang.
In 1931, Georges Lemaitre, a Catholic priest
from Belgium, proposed his own theory that the
universe began as a space particle that exploded.
In 1933, he presented the details of his theory
to an audience of scientists in California. Albert
Einstein, by then recognised as one of the greatest
scientists of all time, was in the audience. At the
end of Lemaitres presentation, Einstein stood,
applauded and announced: That was the most
beautiful and satisfactory explanation of
creation that I have ever heard.

288
Science Alive for VELS Level 6

9hkdY^"
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ince the 1920s, scientists have known that the universe is expanding. But when,
if ever, will it stop expanding? If the universe does stop expanding, what will
happen to it? The question about the future of the universe and its eventual end
has not yet been answered, but a few theories exist.

The big crunch theory

The big chill theory

Some scientists believe that, while the universe is still

expanding, the rate at which it does so has slowed
down. Their belief is based on what we already know
about the effects of gravity on our own planet.
The Earth is a huge mass that exerts a gravitational
pull on all nearby objects. Thats why objects on Earth
fall. In fact, they are being attracted to the centre
of the Earth due to its gravitational pull. In the same
way, scientists believe that the incredible mass of
the matter that makes up the universe exerts a huge
gravitational pull. The gravitational pull inwards is
what scientists believe may be causing the expansion
of the universe to slow down.
The big crunch theory is one theory that describes
how the universe may end. The theory describes the
expansion and end of the universe as being similar
to the way an elastic band stretches until it reaches
its limit. The elastic band finally snaps back. So, what
happens when the gravitational pull inwards (due to
the mass of the matter in the universe) is greater than
the force of the big bang explosion pushing outwards?
Well, the expansion of the universe will start to slow
down, eventually stop, then the universe will come
crashing in with a big crunch. But dont worry
scientists believe that the end of the universe is at least
a hundred billion years away!
The big crunch theory is just one that scientists have
explored. However, in the past decade, new evidence
suggests that a big crunch may never happen.

Recently, scientists have argued that the expansion

of the universe is not slowing down, but speeding up.
By using modern technology, Australian astronomers
studying distant supernovas have calculated that the
distance of these stars is further than expected. The rate
of expansion of the universe was faster than previously
thought. The observations have since been confirmed
using other technology. Most scientists now
believe that the rate of expansion of
the universe is increasing.

The big crunch

theory says the
expanding universe
will snap back onto
itself in a crunch.
If it does, the big
crunch may squish
the universe into a
point, similar to how
scientists believe
it was before the
big bang. Some
scientists believe
that a big crunch
may be followed by
another big bang.

The big chill

theory says the
stars and planets
will draw far away
from each other.
The stars will burn
until they die and
planets will
freeze. The
universe will
become a
scattering of
particles. This
theory is the
currently accepted
one.

The big chill theory describes the continued

expansion of the universe, followed by a slow, fading
end. This theory says that the universe will continue
to expand and the galaxies, stars and planets will draw
further and further apart. The stars will continue to
burn until their fuel runs out, and then no more stars
will form. Over a huge period of time, what is left
of the dead stars and cold planets will disintegrate.
Eventually, even black holes will evaporate, leaving a
scattering of particles in the universe that may never
collide to form new matter.
The big chill is a theory that many scientists support
at this time. However, as new evidence becomes
available, scientists refine and update their theories. A
new theory is emerging (the big rip theory), but is not
widely accepted. As more observations are made, it
may be that scientists change their view.

290
Science Alive for VELS Level 6

Antigravity
Scientists believe that the force that
drives the expansion of the universe may
be antigravity. This force is just the opposite of
gravity: gravity pulls and antigravity pushes. The
further objects are from each other, the more
antigravity acts to push them away. In the early
1900s, Einstein calculated the amount of pushing
that antigravity does on the universe. However, at
the time, even Einstein thought his calculations
were incorrect. The idea of antigravity had not yet
been discovered. As it turns out, the calculations
Einstein made are in line with current ideas about
the way antigravity pushes the universe apart.

The big rip theory describes a violent end to the

universe when the galaxies and solar systems rip
apart. Following this, the planets and all atoms
will explode. This theory has been proposed only
recently, and is not widely accepted.

The big rip theory

This theory describes the most explosive ending of the
universe. A small group of scientists have proposed
that the universe will keep expanding with greater
and greater speed. The speed may become so great
that whole galaxies could be torn apart. In the next
several million years, after the end of the galaxies,
solar systems would be ripped open. Then, within
months, the planets and stars and finally, atoms,
would explode. This violent end of the universe would
also mark the end of time itself.
THINKING PROCESSES
6 Draw a flow chart that shows how a big bang big
crunch cycle may work.

universe may end.

(a) Name these theories.
(b) Which are the most accepted theories?
(c) Which theory is the latest theory?
2 Which theories say that the universe is expanding at
a faster and faster rate?
3 What is the difference between gravity and antigravity?

THINK
4 Why do you think that the big crunch ending of the
universe has been likened to an elastic band?
5 The big crunch theory is different from the other two
theories.
(a) Explain the major difference between the big
crunch theory and the other theories.
(b) Describe a similarity between the big chill theory
and the big rip theory.

IMAGINE
7 The end of the universe is an unimaginable time
from now. That is, it is so far away that we do not
have to worry. Some scientists hope that, in the
future, our understanding of the universe will have
increased so much that we may even be able to
create a new universe before this one ends. Imagine
that you are part of a team of scientists who create
the new universe. Describe it. What important
features will the new universe have? What kind of
future will it hold?

"learning

REMEMBER
1 There are three main theories that describe how the

291
13. Astronomy

I CAN:
list three possible futures for the universe
discuss differences between the theories that describe
the end of the universe
discuss similarities between the theories that describe
the end of the universe.

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ne of the nearest stars to Earth, apart from the Sun, is Alpha Centauri A. It is
4.3 light-years away. In other words, it takes 4.3 years for light to reach the
Earth from this star. When you look at Alpha Centauri A, you are seeing it as it was
4.3 years ago. We see our nearest neighbouring galaxies, the Magellanic Clouds, as
they were 160 000 years ago.

The light that reaches us from a distant star or galaxy

gives us clues about the history of the universe. This is
because the light has taken so long to reach us. Light
from distant stars and objects can also give us clues
about the types of substances found in these distant
objects.

The spectra of stars

A spectroscope is an optical instrument that splits
white light into a spectrum of colours. When light
from the Sun or another star is passed through a
spectroscope, the resultant spectrum has some dark
lines running through it. The dark lines correspond
to colours of light that have been absorbed by
substances in the star. Different substances absorb
different colours of light. By analysing the patterns of
dark and light bands in a spectrum, scientists can tell
which elements are present.

An expanding universe
In 1912, American astronomer Vesto Slipher observed
that the light from a distant galaxy was red shifted. In
1929, Edwin Hubble used Sliphers research to help
show that, not only are galaxies moving away from the
Earth, but also, the further away a galaxy is, the faster
it is moving. Hubble had discovered that the universe
is expanding and, therefore, provided evidence that
the big bang really did happen.

Viewing the visible light

spectrum
You will need:
incandescent light globe
hand spectroscope
other available light sources such as a fluorescent tube,
mercury vapour lamp or sodium vapour lamp.
Do not aim the spectroscope
directly at the Sun.
Construct a table in which to record your
observations of the incandescent light globe and any
other available light sources.

The spectrum of white light from a nearby star. The black

lines show that some colours have been absorbed by elements
in the star.

Look at an incandescent light globe through a hand

spectroscope.
1. Describe what you see.

Red shift and blue shift

Look at any other available light sources.

In 1868, an astronomer noticed that the black lines in

the spectrum of Sirius appeared to be the same as the
black lines in the hydrogen spectrum. However, the
black lines were shifted to the right to the red end of
the spectrum. This was the first observation
of what we know as the red shift. Most stars have spectra
with a red shift. A few stars have the black hydrogen
lines shifted to the left end of their spectra. This shift
is known as the blue shift. To explain the red shift and
blue shift, we first need to remember that light travels
through space as waves (see pages 2389). Red light
waves have a lower frequency than blue light waves.
That means that fewer red light waves pass any point in
space every second than blue light waves.

2. Draw a sketch of the spectrum from each

source, showing clearly the position of
any black lines observed.
To view the light
from the Sun, aim
the spectroscope
at a sheet of white
paper placed in
bright sunlight on the
ground. Alternatively,
aim it at a bright part
of the sky away from
the Sun.

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Science Alive for VELS Level 6

The Doppler effect

Imagine a bug treading water in a still pond. The waves move out in all
directions. The frequency of the waves (the number reaching you per
second) is the same everywhere in the pond.
Now, imagine that the bug is dragged slowly across the pond while still
treading water at the same rate. The waves still move out in all directions.
But the bug moves to the right before each new wave is made. The waves
in front of the bug are bunched up. The waves behind the bug are
spread out. If you are in front of the bug, and the bug is moving towards
you, you see more waves per second; that is, a higher frequency. If you
are behind the bug, so that it is moving away from you, you see fewer
waves per second; that is, a lower frequency. This effect is called the
Doppler effect.

Here it comes . . . there it goes

You have probably noticed how
the Doppler effect changes sound
waves at a railway crossing or at a
car racing track.
(a) Here it comes as the train
approaches, the bunched-up sound
waves have a higher frequency. So,
you hear a more highly pitched
sound than someone on the train
would hear.

The Doppler effect in space

The Doppler effect also explains
the red shift and blue shift in the
spectrum of stars. The light waves
coming from stars that are moving
away from our solar system have a
red shift. The light waves that we
receive on Earth from these stars
(the light waves that have travelled
from behind the star) are spread
out. Therefore, we see the black
lines at a lower frequency than they
really are. They are shifted towards
the red end of the spectrum. The
light waves that come from stars
that are moving towards our solar
system have a blue shift. Therefore,
the light waves that we receive on
Earth are bunched up. They have a
higher frequency and, therefore, a
blue shift.

(a)

(b)

(b) There it goes as the train speeds

away, the spread out sound waves
have a lower frequency. So, you
hear a lower pitched sound than
someone on the train would hear.

THINK
5 Explain why studying the radiation from distant
galaxies is like looking back into history.

REMEMBER
1 Why are there black lines in the visible light

6 Explain, in your own words, how the red shift

observed in galaxies supports the idea of an
expanding universe.
7 Give an example of the Doppler effect.

"learning

spectrum of stars?
2 What is meant by a red shift when talking about
stars?
3 What happens to the frequency of sound, if the
object producing it moves:
(a) towards you?
(b) away from you?
4 Which colour of light has the highest frequency
red or blue?

287
13. Astronomy

I CAN:
explain why black lines appear in the spectra of the
light from stars
describe and explain the Doppler effect
explain how the red shift supports the idea of an
expanding universe.

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hen and how did the universe begin? Is it possible that it was always there
that there was no beginning at all? These are fascinating questions.
The most commonly accepted theory among scientists at the moment is that the
universe began about 13 billion years ago with a big bang.

1 About 15 billion years ago

Its hard to imagine, but there was no
space and no time. All that existed was
energy. It was a huge amount of energy,
all concentrated at a single point called
singularity. Then came the big bang!
There was nothing before the big bang
because time did not exist.

2 One ten million trillion trillion

trillionths of a second later
1
s)
1043
Time and space began. Space
expanded quickly and the temperature
was about 100 million trillion trillion
degrees Celsius. (The current
temperature in the middle of the Sun is
about 15 million degrees Celsius.)
(10 43 s 

3 One ten billion trillion trillionths of

a second after the big bang
1
s)
1034
The universe expanded to about the size
of a pea. Matter was created in the form
of particles, including quarks, electrons
and positrons (positively charged
electrons). Electrons and positrons are
the largest of the particles. Many of the
particles collided with each other,
resulting in the release of a

huge amount of light energy. The

temperature cooled to about 1000 trillion
trillion degrees Celsius.

4 One ten thousandth of a second

after the big bang
1
s)
104
Protons and neutrons were formed
as many of the smaller particles (like
quarks) collided. There was still no
such thing as an atom. The expansion
and cooling continued. Light and
other radiation was trapped within the
universe because it was continually
reflected by particles. This made the
universe very bright.
(10 4 s 

5 One hundredth of a second

after the big bang
The universe was then about
the same size as our
solar system.

(10 34 s 

5
4

2
1

284
Science Alive for VELS Level 6

6 The next five minutes

By the time the universe was just
one second old, it was probably
more than a trillion trillion kilometres
across. It had cooled to about ten
billion degrees Celsius, still much
hotter than the centre of our own
Sun. During the next five minutes,
the nuclei of hydrogen, helium
and lithium formed among a
hot sea of electrons.

Go to
worksheet 00

7 300 000 years after the big bang

8 The next billion years

The universe had expanded to about one

thousandth of its current size. It had cooled to
a temperature of about 3000 degrees Celsius.
Electrons slowed down enough to be captured by
the nuclei of hydrogen, helium and lithium. The first
neutral atoms were formed. There was now enough
empty space in the universe to allow light to
escape to the outer edges. For the first time since
matter was formed,
the universe was
dark.
8

About a million years after the

big bang, the swirling cloud of
matter that made up the still
expanding and cooling universe
became a little lumpy. The
force of gravity pulled matter
towards the lumpier regions.
Galaxies began to form. Inside
the newly formed galaxies,
stars formed as the pull of
gravity became less even. The
first stars are believed to have
appeared about 200 million
years after the big bang. As
hydrogen, helium and lithium
atoms collapsed into stars,
nuclear reactions took place.
Their nuclei fused together
to form heavier nuclei. The
heavier atoms began to form.
Large amounts of energy were
released. Around some of the
newly forming stars, some of
the swirling clouds of matter
cooled and formed clumps.
This is how planets began to
form.

Billions and
trillions
One billion is equal to one
thousand million; that is,
1 000 000 000, or 109.
One trillion is equal to
one thousand billion; that is,
1 000 000 000 000, or 1012.
So, one billion trillion is
1 000 000 000 000 000 000 000, or
1021.
When numbers get that
large, there are too many zeros
to count. It is much easier to
use powers of ten notation, or
scientific notation.

REMEMBER
1 How old is the universe
believed to be?

2 According to the big bang

The big bang theory would

not make sense if it were not
for Albert Einsteins famous
equation. How can matter be
created from nothing? Well,
the singularity before the big
bang was not nothing. It was a
huge amount of energy (with no
mass) concentrated into a tiny,
tiny point.
Einstein proposed that energy
could be changed into matter.
His equation, E  mc2, describes
the change. E represents the
amount of energy in joules,
m represents the mass in
kilograms and c is the speed
of light in metres per second
(300 000 000 m/s).
Einsteins equation also
describes how matter can be
changed into energy. This is
what happens in nuclear power
stations and nuclear weapons.

285
13. Astronomy

theory, what existed at the

time of the big bang?
3 Approximately how long after
the big bang did:
(a) time and space begin to
exist?
(b) matter appear?
(c) protons and neutrons form?
(d) neutral atoms first exist?
(e) galaxies begin to form?
4 How did galaxies begin to
form?
5 What does Einsteins famous
equation have to do with the
big bang theory?

THINK
6 What would have happened
to the universe if, one million
years after the big bang,
the matter in it was evenly
distributed and not moving?

"learning

Einsteins
equation

I CAN:
write an account of the big
bang theory of the beginning
universe
explain the relevance of the
equation E  mc2 to the big
bang theory.

The afterglow
When the big bang theory was
proposed in 1948, it was calculated
that the universe would now, 15
billion years after creation, have a
temperature of 270 oC. Anything
with a temperature above absolute
zero ( 273 oC) emits radiation. The
nature of the radiation depends on
the temperature. It was predicted
that, because of its temperature,
the universe would be emitting
an afterglow of radiation. This
afterglow became known as cosmic
microwave background radiation.
This radiation was discovered by
accident in 1965. Engineers trying
to track communications satellites
picked up a consistent radio noise
that they just couldnt get rid of. The
noise wasnt coming from anywhere
on Earth because it was coming
from all directions. It was the cosmic
microwave background radiation
predicted earlier. Its discovery put
an end to the steady state theory.
Even Fred Hoyle, who had ridiculed
the idea of a big bang, admitted
that the evidence seemed to favour
the big bang theory.

Mapping the universe

In 1989, a satellite named COBE
(COsmic Background Explorer)
was put into orbit around Earth to

accurately measure the background

radiation and temperature of
the universe. COBE could detect
variations as small as 0.000 03 oC.
As predicted by the big bang
theory, it detected an average
temperature of 270 oC. In 2001, a
probe called WMAP was sent into
orbit much further away to gather
even more accurate data, detecting
temperatures within a millionth of
a degree. WMAP s first images were
released by NASA in February 2003.

This computer-enhanced image of cosmic

microwave background radiation was
produced by the WMAP mission. This
background radiation was released only
300 000 years after the big bang the first
radiation to escape. The image shows how
the temperature varied across the whole
universe 300 000 years after the big bang.
The blue parts of the map are the cooler
regions. These regions were cool enough
for atoms and, eventually, galaxies to
form. The red parts are warmer regions.
The map shows that galaxies are not
evenly spread throughout the universe.
They support the theory of an expanding
universe that began with a big bang.

REMEMBER
1 Two different theories of the
universe emerged in 1948.
(a) Name the two theories.
(b) Which theory proposed
that there was no
beginning?
2 How did the steady state
theory explain that the
universe was expanding, yet,
remained the same?
3 What evidence put an end to
the steady state theory?
4 List three major pieces of
evidence that supported the
big bang theory.

THINK
5 Suggest why Einstein could
not accept the idea of an
expanding universe.
6 Why measure background
radiation with a satellite or
space probe when it could
be done from Earth?
7 WMAP is able to provide a
picture of the universe as it
was 379 000 years after the
big bang. Why is it unable
to provide a map of the
universe as it was before that
time?

ICT
8 Visit the website for this

The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy

Probe (WMAP). WMAP s mission
is to gather evidence to help
cosmologists find out how the
universe began and predict what
will happen to it in the future.

"learning

book and click on the WMAP

weblink for this chapter (see
Weblinks, page 000) to find
out:
(a) the average temperature
of the universe
(b) when the first stars were
formed
(c) how old the universe is.

289
13. Astronomy

I CAN:
compare the big bang theory
of the universe with the steady
state theory
describe evidence that can
be used to support or reject
theories of the birth of the
universe.