The Hammar H2O R hydrostatic release unit is designed for liferafts from 6 to 150 persons.

The H2O Rconsists of a double looped white rope line, a release mechanism and a Red Weak Link breaking strength 2.2 0.4 kN). The strong white rope is secured to the deck or liferaft cradle and attached to the liferaft lashing with a sliphook. If the ship sinks, the water pressure will (within 4 metres) activate the sharp knife which cuts the white rope and the liferaft will float free. As the ship sinks, the liferaft painter line will be stretched and the liferaft starts to inflate. The Red Weak Link breaks and survivors can board the floating liferaft. The H2O R is made of glassfibre reinforced nylon, which means it won't rust. The H2O R needs no annual service maintenance or spare parts, however it must be replaced after 2 years. H2O's must be marked with its expiry date in order to be approved. Each has its own individual serial number. The Working of HRU: HRU acts as a connecting media between life raft container and ship deck, where it is stored. The HRU comes in action under the pressure of water exerted on HRU when the ship sinks below 4m of water level. The HRU consists of a sharp knife or chisel which is used to cut the strap lashed over the container carrying life raft, but it still holds the painter at the weak link. The HRU is connected to the container through a lashing arrangement which can be disengaged quickly by means of slip hook when launching the raft manually. The HRU is connected to a strong point on deck through a weak link. When vessel sinks, the HRU cuts the rope and the container floats to the surface of water. As vessel sinks further, the tension in the painter causes the life raft to inflate out of the container. The tension acting on the weak link will cause it to break making the life raft free from the ship. When vessel sinks, the HRU cuts the rope and the container floats to the surface of water.

HRU

LRIT :- LONG-RANGE IDENTIFICATION AND TRACKING

The long-range identification and tracking (LRIT) of ships was established as an international system on 19 May 2006 by theInternational Maritime Organization (IMO) as resolution MSC.202(81). This resolution amends chapter V of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), regulation 19-1 and binds all governments which have contracted to the IMO. The LRIT regulation will apply to the following ship types engaged on international voyages: All passenger ships including high-speed craft, Cargo ships, including high-speed craft of 300 gross tonnage and above, and Mobile offshore drilling units. These ships must report their position to their flag administration at least four times a day. Most vessels set their existing satellite communications systems to automatically make these reports. Other contracting governments may request information about vessels in which they have a legitimate interest under the regulation. The LRIT system consists of the already installed (generally) shipborne satellite communications equipment, communications service providers (CSPs), application service providers (ASPs), LRIT data centres, the LRIT data distribution plan and the International LRIT data exchange. Certain aspects of the performance of the LRIT system are reviewed or audited by the LRIT coordinator acting on behalf of the IMO and its contracting governments. Some[who?] confuse the functions of LRIT with that of AIS (Automatic Identification System), a collision avoidance system also mandated by the IMO, which operates in the VHF radio band, with a range only slightly greater than line-of-sight. (See AIS) While AIS was originally designed for short-range operation as a collision avoidance and navigational aid, it has now been shown to be possible to receive AIS signals by satellite in many, but not all, parts of the world. This is becoming known as S-AIS and is completely different from LRIT. The only similarity is that AIS is also collected from space for determining location of vessels, but requires no action from the vessels themselves except they must have their AIS system turned on. LRIT requires the active, willing participation of the vessel involved, which is, in and of itself, a very useful indication as to whether the vessel in question is a lawful actor. Thus the information collected from the two systems, S-AIS and LRIT, are mutually complementary, and S-AIS clearly does not make LRIT superfluous in any manner. Indeed, because of co-channel interference near densely populated or congested sea areas satellites are having a difficult time in detecting AIS from space in those areas. Fixes are under development by several organizations, but how effective they will be remains to be seen. An overview of the operational concept of LRIT LRIT is a maritime domain awareness (MDA) initiative to enhance maritime safety,security and protect the marine environment. LRIT allows Member States to receive position reports from vessels operating under their flag, vessels seeking entry to a ort within their territory, or vessels operating in proximity to the States coastline. There are two aspects to LRIT: 1. The reporting aspect where vessels to which LRIT applies report their identity and position, with a date/time stamp, every six hours (four times per day). 2. The receiving aspect where coastal States can purchase reports when vessels are within 1,000 nautical miles, or where port States can purchase reports when vessels seek entry to a port at a pre-determined distance or time from that port (up to 96 hours pre-entry). Put in simple terms, LRIT is a collection and distribution system for basic information on vessels, and applies to the following ships engaged on international voyages: All passenger ships including high speed craft; Cargo ships, including high speed craft of 300 gross tonnage and above; and Mobile offshore drilling units. Ships operating exclusively in GMDSS Sea Area A1 and fitted with an Automatic Identification System (AIS) are exempt from LRIT requirements, while ships operating in Sea Areas A2, A3 and A4 are required to be fitted with a system to automatically transmit LRIT information in accordance with SOLAS Regulations.

How does LRIT work? A request / response system The LRIT system involves a request and response process, with various components linked together. Ship LRIT equipment must be capable of being configured to transmit information as an Automatic Position Report (APR). The APR includes the identity of the ship, the position of the ship and the date and time of the position report. In addition, the equipment must be able to respond to poll requests for an on-demand position report and be able to immediately respond to instructions to modify the APR interval to a frequency of a maximum of one report every 15 minutes. The equipment requirement may be met through existing GMDSS Inmarsat equipment, or it may be necessary to install equipment designed to be LRIT compliant testing has been designed to ensure whatever equipment is used will work within the overall LRIT system. Shipowners should be aware of the Application Service Provider (ASP) that their flag has recognised or authorised to undertake testing. A system of systems A simplified overview of the data ow in LRIT is shown in figure 2. This shows the process for linking the collection centres (data centres) operated by the Contracting Government to an exchange system known as the International Data Exchange (IDE). The IMO has appointed the International Mobile Satellite Organization (IMSO) as LRIT Coordinator, who will undertake the audit and oversight functions for LRIT.

LONG RANGE IDENTIFICATION AND TRACKING OF SHIPS (LRIT) 1.Overview 1.1 As part of the international maritime communitys wide-ranging response to the growing threat from terrorism world-wide, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) decided to establish a new system for the global identification and tracking of ships. Following a major effort to identify appropriate technologies, establish the necessary global legal regime and achieve political consensus concerning the collection, distribution and use of the data, IMO has established a system for the Long-Range Identification and Tracking of Ships (LRIT). 1.2 The LRIT system consists of shipborne LRIT information transmitting equipment, Communication Service Provider(s), Application Service Provider(s), LRIT Data Centre(s), the LRIT Data Distribution Plan and the International LRIT Data Exchange. Certain aspects of the performance of the LRIT system are reviewed or audited by the LRIT Coordinator acting on behalf of all Contracting Governments to the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS). IMSO has been appointed to be the LRIT Coordinator . 1.3 Figure 1 provides an illustration of the LRIT system architecture.

Figure 1 1.4 Under new SOLAS Regulation V/19-1, ships will be required to report their position (LRIT information) automatically, to a special shore data collection, storage and distribution system, at least four times a day. LRIT information is provided to Contracting Governments and Search and Rescue services entitled to receive the information, upon request, through a system of National, Regional, and Co operative LRIT Data Centres, using where necessary, the International LRIT Data Exchange. 1.5 This article is intended to provide an overview of the general structure of the international LRIT system, with a summary of the most important LRIT functions and requirements. It does not supersede SOLAS Regulation V/19.1 or any of the supporting resolutions promulgated by IMO, which should always be consulted for definitive information.

2 The Regulatory Basis for LRIT 2.1 The obligations of ships to transmit LRIT information and the rights and obligations of Contracting Governments and of SAR services to receive LRIT information are established in regulation V/19-1 of the 1974 SOLAS Convention. 2.2 IMO has also established a series of Assembly Resolutions and MSC Circulars that provide details of the technical and operational criteria, and arrangements for the implementation of the LRIT system world wide. 2.3 Individual Flag States are expected to publish specific regulations for the ships on their Register providing detailed guidance on the implementation of LRIT, including ship equipment conformance test arrangements, plus the Application Service Provider(s) and Data Centre chosen by the Flag concerned. 3 Shipborne Equipment 3.1 The regulations that require ships to participate in the LRIT system apply to the following types of ships engaged on international voyages:

1. 2. 3.

passenger ships, including high-speed passenger craft; cargo ships, including high-speed craft, of 300 gross tonnage3 and upwards; and mobile offshore drilling units.

However, ships operating in Sea Area A4, as defined in SOLAS regulation VI/2.1.15, must comply not later than the first survey of the radio installation after 1 July 2009.

A typical GMDSS-compliant passenger ship

3.2 The shipborne equipment utilised for LRIT can be any communications terminal on board the vessel that is capable of automatically transmitting the ships LRIT information, without human intervention, at 6-hourly intervals to an LRIT data centre. 3.3 In addition, the shipboard equipment must be capable of:

being configured remotely to transmit LRIT information at variable intervals; transmitting LRIT information on receipt of a specific request from the shore (ie when polled); and being interfaced with an external global navigation satellite receiver (eg GPS), or have an internal positioning capability.

3.4 It must also meet a number of specific environmental and installation requirements, including the general requirements for shipborne radio equipment forming part of the global maritime distress and safety system (GMDSS) set out in IMO resolution A.,694(17). 4 The LRIT Information 4.1 The LRIT Information that is required to be transmitted by the ship is specified in new SOLAS Regulation V/19-1.5 and is limited to: 1. identity of the ship; 2. position of the ship (latitude and longitude); and 3. date and time of the position provided. 5 Communication Service Provider(s) 5.1 The Communication Service Provider (CSP) provides the communications services which transfer LRIT data securely from ship to the ASP on shore. The means of communication will often be via satellite, but the LRIT system itself is independent of the means of communication, and any method can be used, as long as the correct packet of data arrives on shore at the right periodicity or when demanded. The IMO Performance Standard requires that: The shipboard equipment should transmit the LRIT information using a communication system which provides coverage in all areas where the ship operates. 6 Application Service Provider(s) 6.1 The Application Service Provider (ASP) receives the LRIT reports transmitted by the ship via the CSP, adds certain additional information to each report, and forwards the reports to the Data Centre nominated by the ships Flag State. The information to be added to each LRIT report by the ASP includes: IMO ship identification number and MMSI for the ship; 1. name of the ship; 2. unique identification code for the LRIT Data Centre; and 3. a number of time stamps used for tracking and audit purposes. 6.2 In addition, the ASP is responsible for testing and configuring the ships communications terminal, both when the terminal is new and during continued LRIT reporting, including executing on demand transmissions of LRIT data. 6.3 Experience has shown that ships communication terminals do not always continue reporting automatically without further intervention, and the ASP is responsible for identifying when a terminal has ceased automatic reporting for any reason and resetting its reporting function when required. 6.4 Lastly, the ASP must ensure that LRIT information is collected, stored and routed in a reliable and secure manner. 6.5 The ASP is will often be a commercial entity, and is chosen and recognized by a Contracting Government to provide LRIT Data to their Data Centre. 7 LRIT Data Centres 7.1 The primary purposes of an LRIT Data Centre (DC) are to collect, store and make available to authorised entities the LRIT information transmitted by ships instructed by their administrations to utilise the services of that DC. In carrying out these core functions, the DC is required to ensure that LRIT data users are only provided with the LRIT information they are entitled to receive under the terms of SOLAS Regulation V/19.1. 7.2 In addition, the LRIT DC acts as a clearing house by receiving requests for LRIT information lodged in other DCs from its associated Administration(s) and obtaining the data requested. Generally LRIT reports so requested will be exchanged through the International Data Exchange. 7.3 LRIT Data Centres are required to archive their data so that the reports can be recovered, if required, at a later date and the activities of the DC can be audited by the LRIT Coordinator. 7.4 LRIT DCs may make a charge for LRIT data they provide to other DCs. 7.5 DCs may be either National (established to provide service to only one Contracting Government); Cooperative (established to provide services to a number of Contracting Governments) or Regional (established to provide services to a number of Contracting Governments acting through a regional entity of some kind). The IMO Performance Standard envisages also an International Data Centre (IDC), to provide LRIT services on an international basis to many countries that do not wish to establish their own DCs, but the IMO Maritime Safety Committee (MSC) has not yet decided to establish such an IDC. 8 International LRIT Data Exchange 8.1 The International LRIT Data Exchange (IDE) exists to route LRIT information between LRIT DCs using the information provided in the LRIT Data Distribution Plan. It is therefore connected via the internet to all LRIT DCs and the LRIT Data Distribution Plan server. 8.2 The IDE cannot access and does not archive the LRIT data itself, but it does maintain a journal of message header information which can be understood as the envelope containing the LRIT information. This journal is used for invoicing functions and for audit purposes. 8.3 The performance of the IDE is audited by the LRIT Coordinator. 9 LRIT Data Distribution Plan 9.1 The LRIT Data Distribution Plan (DDP) is principally a database that holds information needed to allow the international LRIT system to operate correctly. The DDP is consulted by any DC in order to determine whether a request for LRIT information should be allowed under the rules for the distribution of LRIT data. 9.2 The DDP information includes: 1. a list of the unique identification codes assigned to key elements in the LRIT system; 2. the coordinates which define the various geographical areas declared by Contracting Governments within which they wish to exercise their rights to receive or restrict the distribution of LRIT information as a Flag or Coastal State; and 3. a list of the ports and port facilities within the territory and places under the jurisdiction of each Contracting Government.

10 LRIT System Security 10.1 Current LRIT information can have both a security and a commercial value. It must therefore be strictly protected from unauthorised access in storage and when it is being exchanged. The LRIT Performance Standard provides for the protection of LRIT data through the protection not only of the databases themselves, but also the communication links used to exchange data. Recommended methods of data protection include: authorization prior to access; authentication of those accessing the data; confidentiality (usually by encryption of the data) and data integrity checking.

11 The LRIT Coordinator 11.1 IMSO has been appointed as the LRIT Coordinator by the Maritime Safety Committee; and has implemented that decision by amendments to the IMSO Convention and its operational procedures. 11.2 The functions of the LRIT Coordinator include: 1. assisting in the establishment of the IDE and IDC through issuing and evaluating Requests for Proposals to potential operators; 2. facilitating the testing and integration of new DCs and other elements into the international LRIT system; 3. reviewing the performance of the system on an annual basis, through review and audit of ASPs, DCs and the IDE, verifying in particular that Contracting Governments and Search and Rescue services receive the information they are entitled to, and not any information to which they are not entitled; and 4. providing an annual report to the Maritime Safety Committee on the performance of the LRIT system including any non-conformities, and making any appropriate recommendations with a view to improving the efficiency, effectiveness and security of the LRIT system. 11.3 The LRIT Coordinator is authorised to charge for the services it provides. 12 Access to LRIT Information 12.1 Under the terms of SOLAS Regulation V/19-1.8, governments are entitled to receive LRIT information, if they wish to do so, for security and other purposes, in four basic situations: 1. as a Flag State, an Administration is entitled to receive LRIT information about ships entitled to fly its flag irrespective of where such ships may be located; 2. as a Port State, a Contracting Government is entitled to receive LRIT information about ships which have indicated their intention to enter a port facility or a place under the jurisdiction of that Contracting Government, subject to certain restrictions; 3. as a Coastal State, a Contracting Government is entitled to receive LRIT information about ships entitled to fly the flag of other Contracting Governments, not intending to enter a port facility or a place under the jurisdiction of that Contracting Government, navigating within a distance not exceeding 1,000 nautical miles of its coast, subject to certain restrictions; and 4. the Search and Rescue Service of a Contracting Government may receive, free of any charges, LRIT information in relation to the search and rescue of persons in distress at sea. 12.2 In addition, the MSC has subsequently decided that Contracting Governments may request, receive and use LRIT information for safety and marine environment protection purposes. The details of these uses have not yet been worked out. 12.3 Contracting Governments will generally have to pay a small charge, reflecting largely the costs of data collection and storage, for the LRIT information they use. The MSC has decided that ships themselves shall not be charged for the transmission or other costs of participation in the LRIT system. Similarly, the LRIT system has been designed so that the capabilities of many existing satellite communication terminals (eg Inmarsat C), mandatorily fitted in most SOLAS ships, will be sufficient for LRIT purposes. As a result, it should not be necessary for the majority of ships to incur any significant cost in implementing the new LRIT reporting requirements.

What is a LRIT Certificate? A LRIT Certificate is a document issued by the flag state to evidence LRIT shipborne equipment is of a type approved by the Administration and passed a Conformance Test conducted by an authorized testing Application Service Provider (ASP).\ What vessels require a LRIT Certificate? LRIT requirements apply to the following ships engaged in international voyages: All passenger ships including high speed craft; Cargo ships, including high speed craft of 300 gross tonnage and above; Mobile offshore drilling units Mid-Deck Tanker From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Mid-Deck Tanker, damage up 3 m. Light gray is oil, dark gray is seawater. A Mid-Deck Oil Tanker is a tanker design, which includes an additional deck intended to limit spills if the tanker is damaged. The extra deck is placed at about the middle of the draft of the ship. This design is an alternative to thedouble-hull tanker design, and is superior in terms of spill volume. Although double-hull design is superior in low energy casualties and prevents spillage in small casualties, in high energy casualties where both hulls are breached, oil can spill through the double-hull and into the sea. In grounding events of this type, a mid-deck design overcomes this by eliminating the double-bottom compartments that are void with air. Since the density of seawater is greater than that of oil, water comes into the tanks instead of oil escaping out, and rather than spilling, oil is vented upwards into overflow tanks. A variation on the Mid-Deck Tanker is the Coulombi Egg Tanker, which was approved by IMO as an alternative to the double hull concept. The United States Coast Guard does not allow this design to enter US waters, effectively preventing it from being built, although it is superior to the double hull in high energy casualties. Preventing Oil Spills Alternatives To Double Hull Ship Design OPA 90, the legislation enacted after the Exxon Valdez incident mandated double hull technology, essentially wrapping a second hull around the first, on all newly built tankers. While this has been mostly effective and (had it been mandated for use on container ships) would have prevented last years San Francisco Oil Spill, it fails to protect the environment during catastrophic groundings. Mo Husain of MH Systems, Inc. has recently worked on perfecting alternative means of loss of containment prevention. He tells us:

COULOMBI EGG TANKER

Coulombi Egg, damage up 3 m. Light gray is oil, dark gray is seawater. The Coulombi Egg Tanker is a design that is aimed at reducing oil spills. It was designed by Anders Bjrkman. It was approved by IMO as an alternative to the double hull concept. The United States Coast Guard does not allow this design to enter US waters, effectively preventing it from being built.[citation needed] [edit]Concept The design is an enhanced Mid-Deck Tanker and consists of a series of centre and wing tanks that are divided by horizontal bulkheads. The upper wing tanks form ballast tanks and act as emergency receiver tanks for cargo should the lower tanks be fractured. The lower tanks are connected to these ballast tanks by non-return valves. When a lower tank is damaged, the incoming sea water pushes the oil in the damaged tank up into the ballast tank. Because of the hydrostatic pressure, there is an automatic transfer out of the damaged tank. [edit]Advantages The double-hull design is aimed at the probability of zero outflow. In low energy casualties where only the outside hull is penetrated, this will be the case. However, in high energy casualties both hulls are penetrated. As the tanks of a double hull tanker are larger than those of MARPOL-tankers and preMARPOL-tankers and the height of the cargo above the water line is higher, the resulting spill can be much larger than these single hull designs. In the Coulombi Egg design spillage is greatly reduced, possibly to zero. Where a double hull VLCC has a ballast tank coated area of about 225,000 m, in a Coulombi Egg tanker this area is reduced to 66,000 m. This reduces maintenance and corrosion risks, which otherwise may result in structural failure, as was the case with the Erika andPrestige. CONCEPT MADE SIMPLE The underpressure concept is best understood by making an analogy with which most people can identify. Imagine sipping water half-way up through a straw and sealing off the top of the straw with your fingertip. A simple principle of hydraulics allows the water to be held in the straw at this level until the finger is released. This same principle allows oil to be contained within the hull should a rupture occur in the tank. When a tanker is loaded, the oil level inside the tank is higher than the surrounding seawater level. This causes a higher pressure to exist inside the tanker due to hydrostatic pressure. Normally, when a hull is ruptured, the pressure inside forces oil to flow out up to the level of the surrounding seawater (discounting density). Using AUPS, this complete loss would not occur. The system equalizes the pressure inside and outside the tanker at the rupture point by applying a slight underpressure of 2 to 4 psi in the ullage space of the tank. As oil flows out, it is replaced by seawater up to the rupture point only. Oil loss is held to a minimum as all oil above the rupture point will remain in the tanker. In the event of an accidental grounding bottom rupture, AUPS would prevent virtually all oil spillage from the tanker

NOx REDUCTION
Secondary Methods Secondary, or after-treatment, is centred on treating the engine exhaust gas itself either by re-burning the exhaust gas or passing it through a catalyst or plasma system. There has been much development in selective catalytic reduction (SCR) and non-thermal plasma (NTP) systems over the last few years. Secondary methods, however, require a step change in capital cost, maintenance and through-life costs over primary methods. Three way catalysts, such as those used on Petrol engines, can not be used, as diesel engines are non-stoichiometric engines 1. Re-burning This technology consists of using fuel as a de-oxidiser into the exhaust system. Fuel is re-introduced into the exhaust gas, which is then re-heated in a boiler but at significant less temperature than the combustion within the diesel itself. Using this method significantly reduces NOx, however, the thermal efficiency of the cycle is significantly less than the diesel itself. Furthermore, there will be a significant increase in cost and space requirements. 2. Selective Catalytic Reduction The Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) method makes use of the that, using a catalyst, NOx can be converted into nitrogen and water by reaction reducing agents such as ammonia (NH3) or Urea (CO(NH2)2). NOx + NH3 N2 + H2O NOx + CO(NH2)2 N2 + H2O + CO2 The SCR technology is today installed and in operation on both low and medium speed diesel engines in the marine environment. Currently the most critical problems inherent with the SCR system for implementation in the marine environment are the investment and operation costs, the space problems for the catalyst elements and storage of either ammonia or Urea. 1.

Besides this, minor disadvantages such as toxicity of ammonia, impact on engine performance during engine load changes, and ammonia slip during transient responses can be eliminated by proper design aof the combined engine and SCR system. The reward of the SCR system is up to a 95% reduction in NOx emission and it is yet the only solution that has been implemented to meet strict limits on the allowable NOx emission. The reducing agent and sulphur from the fuel may react and create Ammonia-Sulphate at low exhaust gas temperatures. AmmoniaSulphate can clog the SCR, if the engine runs at low loads over an extended period. Therefore, the injection of reducing agent, and thereby the NOx reduction, may need to be stopped for safety purposes at low engine loads. Alternatively, fuels with a low sulphur content may be used on engines fitted with SCR. Superimposing the numerous primary methods available with SCR, does not have a significant effect on the total amount of NOx emission. However, it can reduce the consumption of reducing agent and thereby the operating costs, although some studies indicate a positive impact on cost. This depends on the specific engine configuration and requirement. Figure 4.8: - A Selective Catalytic Reduction System (After turbocharger arrangement, and only feasible for fuels with low sulphur content)

3. Plasma Reduction Systems, Plasma is a partially ionised gas comprised of a charge of neutral mixture of atoms, molecules, free radicals, ions and electrons. Electrical power is converted into electron energy and the electrons create free radicals, which destruct pollutants in exhaust emissions. The plasma is reactively hot but thermally cool which means that after treatment, little heating, if any, of the exhaust gas results.

Figure 4.9: - A schematic of a Non-Thermal Plasma System. The production of viable technology for the creation of non-thermal plasma (NTP) at atmospheric pressure has been underway for a number of years, and to date, systems have been developed for incinerator flue gas clean-up, waste solvent treatment, air filtration, UV waste water treatment. Currently, this technology is undergoing further development for diesel engine exhausts. A schematic of a NTP System is shown in figure 4.9.

The prototype solution for diesel exhaust after-treatment is based on a surface discharge and can be assumed to be an electrically augmented catalyst. The plasma is generated using an alternating high voltage to breakdown the gas between two electrodes. The region between the two electrodes is packed with a material resulting in voltage breakdowns in the voids between the material. The duration of the voltage breakdowns is only of the few nanoseconds. A non-thermal plasma is produced which, augmented by the catalyst, breaks down the exhaust emissions.

Figure 4.10: - NOx Reduction Performance of Non-Thermal Plasma Although the NTP System is still in is prototype phase for marine use, production costs should be relatively low cost. The system is compact and extremely flexible in terms of size and shape. Experiments to data have shown that a NOx reduction of up to 97% is achievable. When compared against the ISO 8178 C1 cycle, the NOx reduction performance of Figure 4.10 was achieved 1. Exhaust Gas Monitoring Techniques 1. Introduction To obtain an Interim Certificate of Compliance (called "Statement of Compliance"), - before the coming into force of Annex VI, an Engine International Air Pollution Prevention Certificate, the engine manufacturer must combine his engines into an engine group or an entire family. An engine from this group or family, representing the worst case of the group, i.e. adjustments/settings within the possible range leading to the highest NOx emission, is then selected for emissions testing. Alternatively, individual engines are to be tested. The tests to be conducted on this engine must meet the MARPOL Annex VI NOx technical code. The easiest way to check the correct adjustment of the engine to meet the IMO requirement is the parameter check method. This section discusses the types of emissions test equipment being used today and then goes on to discuss the ISO 8178 test cycles and emission measurement procedures. 2. Evaluation Systems Emissions evaluation equipment can be divided into two categories, either extractive or non-extractive. 1. Extractive Systems Extractive systems are permanently installed and require additional equipment to process the exhaust gas sample. The cost of extractive systems can very significantly however, they have the advantage of being able to be remotely located in a controlled environment, easier to operate, calibrate and maintain. Furthermore, extractive systems can be set up to monitor exhaust gas emissions from more than one engine. 2. Non-extractive Systems Non-extractive systems predominately use infrared or ultra-violet techniques. The advantages to these types of systems are that they tend to be more portable and provide more rapid responses. However, these systems tend to be difficult to calibrate. Non-extractive systems measure the exhaust gas emissions without extracting the exhaust gas from the uptake system. 3. Chemiluminescence Chemiluminescence or HCD (Heated Chemiluminescence Detector) is considered the accepted standard for laboratory and test cell measurement of NOx and was, in fact, the NOx Technical Code allows only the use of CLD/HCLD for NOx measurement. Chemiluminescence analysers need to have a continuous supply of clean dry air, otherwise, damage to the analyser components will result. If installed onboard, instrument air, if available, can be used for this purpose. If in the future should alternative methods should be adopted, the NOx Technical Code must first to be modified by IMO. 4. Infrared Analysers Non-dispersive infrared (NDIR) analysers have been used and many will satisfy the NOx technical code requirements. The NDIR are considered non-extractive devices and are capable of measuring CO and CO2. Although these devices allow for rapid response and therefore quick emissions measurement, they are difficult to calibrate. 5. Ultra-violet The UV analysers are particularly useful for measuring SO2 in the exhaust gas and come in extractive and non-extractive devices. UV analysers are not suitable for the measurement of NOx.

SPECIAL SURVEY - TANK TESTING

1.3. Tank testing 1.3.1. Tank testing may be carried out afloat but there are obvious advantages in testing tanks in dry dock where the smallest perforation or shell fracture will be apparent, provided that the necessary steps be taken by the owners' representative regarding re-inforcement of blocks. Testing is carried out as per the requirements of the Rules. Guidelines for testing and the pressure to be applied are given in below. During tests, you must satisfy yourself that there are no air pockets by checking that the water level is constant in the air pipe or sounding pipe as appropriate.

B. AIR TESTS

b.1 Where an air test is required, the effective air pressure shall not exceed 0.24 bars. b.2 The staff being protected, the maximum pressure shall be maintained a few minutes at the beginning, then reduced to 0.12 bars during the examination of the non-automatic butt welds. These welds shall be coated with an appropriate liquid (soapy water). b.3 The air pressure shall be clearly indicated by means of a water-column pressure gauge. Furthermore, an efficient safety system against overpressure shall be provided in the tested compartment. b.4 Test in a compartment for which a coating is intended shall be performed before application of the coating on the non-automatic butt welds. c. Vacuum tests of welds Particularly for small hull repairs on watertight parts, the portable vacuum box technique can be used to test welded joints. Tests should be carried out with at least 25% vacuum (- 0.25 bars) and soapy water, before application of any coating.

1.3.2. Tests of heavy fuel oil tanks, using the fuel oil itself, should be made where practicable with hot oil. Particular attention is given to security of tank lids, air soundings pipes and overflow pipes where applicable. 1.3.3. Testing of deep tanks is required when the compartment is used for water ballast or for a liquid cargo, either continuously or alternating from time to time with any cargo. 1.3.4. In refrigerated ships/gas carriers, for tanks the boundaries of which cannot be readily seen because of insulation, it is acceptable to test them by filling, isolating, and checking for a constant level in the sounding or air pipe after a suitable period. Any suspected leaks shall be attended to, even if this requires removal of insulation sections. 1.3.5. As concerns double bottom tanks in machinery spaces, it is sometimes difficult to have tank tops clean and dry for examination during a test; access may also be difficult. When the Surveyor has no doubt about the general condition of the tank top, he may be satisfied with filling and isolating the tank and checking the level in the sounding pipe after a suitable period. 1.3.6. To require a hose test for cargo doors, watertight bulkheads and watertight doors in watertight bulkheads.

Notes on use of doublers plates

In principle, the fitting of doubling plates is not considered for definitive repairs. In an area where the global ships strength is a matter of concern, this type of a repair is acceptable only in case of emergency in order to allow the ship to reach a port where the affected area will be accessible to allow definitive repairs. Where the global ships strength is not a matter of concern, this type of a repair can be provisionally accepted and in certain cases considered as definitive subject to periodical reexamination. Hereafter are defined the areas where such types of repairs can be accepted or not. When repairs are acceptable, the conditions to be met for fitting the doubling plates and to be considered as temporary or definitive repairs. Conditions to be met for fitting of doubling plates There are 2 types of conditions to be met: - The general conditions described in the present paragraph, - The additional conditions (if any) requested for each specific area. General conditions to be met There is no crack or grooving on existing plating. In such cases, repairs by doubling plates are accepted only in emergency case. The repaired area is not subject to perpendicular traction forces (i.e. in way of capstans, windlasses, winches, bollards, cranes, life boat davits, brackets, etc.). The fitting of doubling plate is not allowed between actual plating and brackets, stays, girders stiffeners, frames, and machinery foundations.Consequence of brackets, stays, foundations, etc. fitted on doubling plates is shown above. The remaining thickness of the actual plating is sufficient to allow an efficient welding. The condition of the surface of the actual plating is such that it will not jeopardize the welding of the doubling plate. The scantlings of the structural elements associated to the actual plating are in satisfactory condition, without cracks or grooving. The doubling of the actual plate is made with large doubling plates instead of fitting several patches. The doubling plate should be extended over the whole area of the diminished thickness plating. The thicknesses of the doubling plates are not less than the original plating thicknesses. Prior fitting, the actual plating and the doubling plates are bonded together with anticorrosive compound compatible with the welding. In addition to the fillet welding on edges, the doubling plates are slot welded when the breadth of the doubling plates is larger than the span between stiffeners or beams. For dimensions of slots and distance between them refer to the Rules. The fillet welding (unless specified otherwise hereafter) and slot welding is preferably carried out in way of the stiffeners associated to the actual plating. On completion of the repairs, the doubling plates and welding have to be efficiently protected against corrosion and the slots filled with anticorrosive compound. The hull certificate has to be endorsed with a visa stipulating the type of repairs carried out, the re-examination to be carried out and, if any, the definitive repairs to be carried out. Additional conditions to be met The additional conditions (if any) are specified hereafter for each specific area. Poop deck, superstructure decks The poop deck (when this deck is not part of the strength deck) and superstructure decks are not concerned by the global ship strength. On these decks, the fitting of doubling plates is acceptable and can be considered a definitive repairs under the conditions specified above. For poop deck having a length > 0,25 L, and for superstructure having a length > 0,15 L the proposals of repairs are to be submitted to the LPO for review. Refer to the Rules for definition of long or short superstructure. The repaired area has to be re-examined at the next special survey. When the results of reexamination are satisfactory, this type of repairs can be maintained until next special survey. Forecastle deck Due to concentrated loads on forecastle deck (windlass, bollards, chain cable stoppers, bulwark brackets etc.), this type of repair is not acceptable under these items. Elsewhere the provisional repairs by fitting of doubling plates are acceptable under the conditions specified in aa1 above till the next special survey subject to satisfactory re-examination of the repaired area at annual and intermediate surveys. The definitive repairs with inserted plates have to be carried out at the next special survey. STRENGTH DECK Deck plating outside areas between hatch openings and between hatch openings and superstructures Considering the global ships strength, the fitting of doubling plates is not acceptable excepted in emergency case for a short duration to allow the ship to reach a suitable port for definitive repairs. Deck plating between hatch openings or between hatch openings and superstructures The repairs by fitting of doubling plates is acceptable and can be considered as definitive repairs under the conditions specified hereafter in addition to those defined in 10.1.1. above.

Refer to the sketches hereafter: When the ratio (a/b) >= 0.2, the fitting of doubling plates is acceptable. When the ratio (a/b) <> Notes on temporary structural repairs The Surveyor should be satisfied that, in nature and extent, the temporary repairs maintain the local, longitudinal and transverse strength and the watertight integrity of the ship. The Surveyor must remember that in all cases of structural damage, when immediate permanent repairs are not effected, consideration must be given to the possible need for temporary reinforcement of the damaged area in order to maintain the structural integrity. In case of any doubt, the Surveyor should contact the CM and, in all cases, a suitable recommendation shall be imposed. If replacement of defective parts must be postponed, the following temporary measures may be acceptable at the Surveyors discretion.

The affected area may be sandblasted and painted in order to reduce corrosion rate. Doubler may be applied over the affected area. In case of buckling under compression, however, special consideration should be paid. See "notes on use of doublers". Stronger members may support weakened stiffeners by applying temporary connecting elements. Cement box may be applied over the affected area. A suitable condition of class should be imposed when temporary measures are accepted. Cement boxes Cement boxes are only accepted as emergency repair. It is important to remember that cement boxes are usually used for water tightness. The structure has no in-plane strength, only local lateral strength to keep the water out. When accepted, it should be of a quick setting kind and manufacturers instructions should be followed. The repair of various elements of the metal hull using concrete or reinforced concrete is executed to eliminate the effects of damage (holing of the hull) and wastage of hull parts. Stopping of holes with concrete is done by casting, the cement used for this purpose should have high binding properties and quick hardening characteristics and also quickly increasing mechanical strength. The concreting of holes is usually done in the following sequence. A patch is laid on the outside, while the inside damaged zone is cleaned of sludge, paint and rust. Over the hole wooden shuttering is prepared into which the cement mix is poured in and rammed. The cementing should be done in a continuous operation, and as rapidly as possible. The shuttering is removed when the cement hardens. Larger volumes of cement boxes should be strengthen using steel bars. Watertight sealants These are normally used for patching up leaks or to seal around doors or covers and have no structural strength and can only be used for emergencies and for additional safety in case of temporary repairs, around a bolted doubler plate for example. Clearly uses of such sealants have no reliable effect if the sealed structure is subject to movement. It is not always possible to see evidence of type approval of such products. Before agreeing to use of such products on a temporary basis, it should be established that the product is suitable for the type of repair and manufacturers instructions are followed for preparation and application. The seal should be visually examined and tested to the Surveyor's satisfaction. STRUCTURAL REPAIRS (superstructures and deckhouses) Generally accommodation structures have few damages compared to other structures due to low stress levels. Main damage is corrosion, which may cause serious problem since the structure is relatively thin. Serious corrosion may be found in exposed deck plating and house side adjacent to the deck plating where water is liable to collect. Corrosion is also found in accommodation bulkheads where fittings such as doors, side scuttles, ventilators, etc. are fitted and proper maintenance of the area is relatively difficult. Deterioration of the bulkheads including fittings may impair the integrity of weather tightness. Fractures caused by vibration may be found, in the structure itself and in various stays for such structures, mast, antenna, etc. For such fractures consideration should be paid to change the natural frequency of the structure in addition to the repair of the structure.

A PARTICULARLY SENSITIVE SEA AREA (PSSA) is an area that needs special protection through action by IMO because of its significance for recognized ecological or socio-economic or scientific reasons and which may be vulnerable to damage by international maritime activities. The criteria for the identification of particularly sensitive sea areas and the criteria for the designation of special areas are not mutually exclusive. In many cases a Particularly Sensitive Sea Area may be identified within a Special Area and vice versa. Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas PSSAs can benefit valuable ecosystems such as coral reefs, intertidal wetlands and important marine and coastal habitats. They are also important for migrating seabirds, dolphins, seals or other marine species, as well as feeding grounds for valuable fish stocks. In addition, they can benefit marine areas of particular importance for tourism, recreation, traditional subsistence, science or education. And if any of the above are close to shipping lanes, suffer from bad weather, have narrow passages, shallow depths, or submerged reefs, or are otherwise sensitive to shipping impacts, then they may need PSSA assistance to protect them.
EEDI Formula EEDI formula:amount of CO2 emission per tonne-mile EEDI=CO2 emission /transport work

Copt trips (x-q) how 2 try out all trips COPT trips - 1) Pump- lower and upper brng high temperature, pump casing, p/p overpressure 2) B/head stuffing box high temp 3) Turbine - rotor axial movement trip, LO low pr. trip, overspeed trip 4) Steam high back pr. trip, IG low low pr. trip, gas sampling high trip (p/p room) and emergency stops- remote and local high temp trips by immersing in bath, overspeed- reduce the setting while still rolling, lo low pr. similarly by draining the sensor line. HOW TO TRY OUT THE ALARM OF IG AND COPT. for alarms of Ig first check out the trips and alarms identified in the FSS code, then forpr. temperature try out do with a temperature caliberator orwater bath as pertheset value. For Pr. trips shut the line tothe pr. sensor. Forlevel sensors, take out thesensor or shut and drain the sensorline connection. What are clear grounds. Which regulation is it linked to ....? clear grounds: A PSCO inspects the certificates & in addition may inspect certain areas to ascertain condition of ship. If valid certificates or documents are not on board, or if there are clear grounds to believe that the condition of a ship, its equipment or its crew does not substantially meet the requirements of a relevant convention, a more detailed inspection will be carried out. If the ship is found to comply, the PSCO will issue a clean inspection report to the master of the ship. For the purpose of control on compliance with on board operational requirements, examples of clear grounds are, amongst others, the following: A report or notification by another Authority; A Report or complaint by the master, a crew member, or any person or organization with a legitimate interest in the safe operation of the ship, unless the Authority concerned deems the report or complaint to be manifestly unfounded. The ship has been accused of an alleged violation of the provisions on discharge of harmful substances or effluents; Regs are : all related to PSC- 1) Solas I/Reg 19, MARPOl Annx I, III, V/ Reg 8, Annx II /Reg 15....ILLC, STCW, Tonnage convention. pump room light switch location and speciality? Switch is located in non hazardous location and the switch is interlocked with a key. When u remove the key the light is switched off and now this key can be used to open that particular light fitting in the pump room. Its a safety feature meaning u can't remove a live bulb in the pump room. The pump room lights has an interlock with with pump room blower. Thus you cannot switch ON the lights unless the blower is switched ON. also the pump room blower is interlocked with the lights except for the emergency lighting so in an event of pump room blower tripping all lights ,except the emergency lighting will switch off.....this is also an indication for the personnel in the pump room to vacate the pump room immediately. That light interlock with blower is present. I am not sure if that only for the lights at the entrance or all the lights in the pump room. In any case only after a certain time delay after switching on blowers that lights at the entrance get switched on indicating certain no. of volumetric exchanges have taken place dear friends i hv always seen pumproom light & blower switch at entrance of accomodation from main deck, generally we hv two watertight door on each side on main deck. b/t these watertight door small comparment is formed; this is a location of pumproom light & blower switch.(i always found it on port side entrance) entry checklist is also posted near this switches. what r the non automatic disch to b logged in orb 1? non automatic disch is sludge discharge and de bunkering. there are OWS which has automatic discharge and non automatic dischare non automatic discharge what we actually use and its there in marpol , yes bunkering and sludge also have to be recorded in ORB but there are many things more u have to write if u need to know ur ship's displacement how will u proceed? if u hav draft fwd aft then calculate mean draft and according to that see hydrostatic table to find displacement how to rescue an asphyxia victim on board? asphyxia victim trapped in a compartment means he is trapped in thick dense smoke now all u hav to say u will enter inthe room with firemans outfit,lifeline all proper PPE with streacher and bring him in open air space...but inside the compartment u hav to proceed by touching back of ur palm and kneel down and sweep ur leg to find the victim. when a extinguisher is called portable. given in FFA code if mass of extinguisher is in between 5 kg to 23 kg then it can be said portable...chk FFA code What is collision bulkhead and tell me everything u know about it? A.) told him the location of the bulkhead and that it's between (5-8)% in the forward,is from the tank top to the upper most cont deck.....he asked why only upto 8% max what if i want to put it at 10%...i told him that then in that case in the event of water ingress due to damage to the fwd part it would trim excessively..and that the ratio has been provided after carful consideration...he was happy..also told him that loacting it too far from the fwd means lesser space for stowage for cargo...even more impressed with the answer...then he asked if the bulkhead is from the tank top to the upper most deck what is below it..i told him the DB will be there...he again wanted to hear someting specific...then he said it's the WATERTIGHT FLOOR...then he asked is only the collision bulkhead got a reduced thickness as we go up or is that the case with all watertight bulkheads....i just guessed it and said it's the case with all of them...he didn react so i assume it's the right answer..

Sub hazards of main hazard Health on LNG ships? sub hazards of health on LNG.... Asphyxia-chemica(interfere with the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood)l n simple (displacing the available oxygen in atmosphere) systemic poison-dysfunctions of nervous system,circulatory system,digestive system frostbite-contact with cargo chemical burns Mast riser safeties. Flame arrestor,Flame screen,Lightning Rod,Earthing(though i 4gt to mention dis),Fire fighting Arrangement,i said CO2 extinguisher. Loction of Flame arrestor n flame screen,Which comes 1st while coming down from mast riser to deck,said 1st Flame Screen n den Flame Arrestor,asked me if i m sure,said yes read it from Tanker Safety Guide,okay. In What category of chemical does veg oil comes? Category of vegetable oils has been reassessed and has been upgraded to Category Y by virtue of being evaluated as Persistent Floaters. In view of this recategorisation, from 1st January 2007, vegetable oils can only be carried on Type 2 o...r Type 3 Chemical tankers. Ships carrying vegetable oils under a NLS Certification will have to convert to a chemical tanker from 1st January 2007 and the crew will be required to have Chemical Tanker Endorsement. while lowering life boat , after release the dead man handle , boat falls drastically without any control , what are all the reasons. falls broken, falls release mechanism accidentally operated, centrifugal brake check, pawl & ratchet mechanism not properly engaged or faulty. condition for maintaining UMS...?????? fire protection, protection against flooding, control of propulsion machinery from navigation bridge, centralized control in machinery space, automatic fire detection system,fire extinguishing system, alarm system, automatic start emergency generator, local hand control of essential machinery, adequate settling tank capacity, regular testing n maintenance of instruments. psc comes on wht all checks will it carry out..???? started with why psc inspections are done... thn mentioned abt observations, detailed inspection,detention and suspension of inspection.... thn mentioned all da statutory certificates.... (all convention certificates,equipments complying to da conventions, safe manning now u r joining as 2nd engg... wht all will u do onboard.....???? started as per ISM follow safe working practices, maintenance of machinery, assigning jobs, deficiency findings n correction,reporting.....n sea worthiness. ISM Code, bfr joining the ship how will u knw if the company is following the policy, SMC, DOC, No of sms manuals normally kept, sms documentation & ism audit fr ism code n company policy what i mentioned is go thru the manual, chk the auditing, chk the certificates, near misses and chk the validity of the smc and doc, rest just brush thru the ism code Diff between IBC n BCH...?? BCH before 1st July, after that IBC came into force. IBC is mandatory under SOLAS chap-7 whereas BCH is voluntary. Post 1993,edition of BCH is shortened & asks users to refer... chapter 17/18 of IBC. Also difference in columns in new IBC & old one, Chap-17, UN no. & material of construction have been deleted in new IBC code. What is TLV-TWA, TLV-STEL, TLV-C...?? TLV TWA- Time weighted average.-Conc of vapour in air which may be experienced for an 8 hr a day or 40 hrs a week throughout a persons working life. Most commonly quoted TLV. TLV-STEL: Short term exposure limit-Max conc of vapour in air allowable for a period of upto 15 mins with not more than 4 exposures a day & at least 1 hr between each. Always greater than 1, not given for all vapours..TLV-C: ceiling conc of vapour in air which should never be exceeded. Only substances which are fast acting are given this. Ammonia n chlorine are among liquefied gases assigned this. Cargo venting system in chemical tankers....?? I told him that a vapor return line to the terminal will be there and at this time the mast riser should be blanked to prevent cargo vapor to release it to atmosphere.Chem tanker venting pls mention to Mr.Trassi regarding vapour return line to terminal given n mast riser is blanked. This is what he wants to hear( This was done on my chem.tanker only for highly carcinogenic cargoes like benzene, sulphuric acid not otherwise, but I didnt mention it) Why is freeboard less for oil tankers...?? Freeboard less on Oil tankers coz excellent subdivision of cargo, high water tight integrity of exposed deck, oil tight sealing for cargo hatches.

DETERMINISTIC APPROACH & PROBABILISTIC APPROACH

2.1 Approaches to be followed for damage stability investigation 2.1.1 General Damage stability calculations are required in order to assess the attitude and stability of the ship after flooding. In order to assess the behaviour of the ship after damage, two approaches have been developed: the deterministic and the probabilistic, which are to be applied depending on the ship type as specified in Part E. The metacentric heights (GM), stability levers (GZ) and centre of gravity positions for judging the final conditions are to be calculated by the constant displacement (lost buoyancy) method. 2.1.2 Deterministic approach The deterministic approach is based on standard dimensions of damage extending anywhere along the ship's length or between transverse bulkheads depending on the relevant requirements. The consequence of such standard of damage is the creation of a group of damage cases, the number of which, as well as the number of compartments involved in each case, depend on the ship's dimensions and internal subdivision. For each loading condition, each damage case is to be considered, and the applicable criteria are to be complied with. Different deterministic methods in damage stability have been developed depending on ship type, on freeboard reduction, and on the kind of cargo carried. The deterministic methods to be applied for passenger ships, oil tankers, chemical tankers, gas carriers and special purpose ships are reported in the relevant chapters of Part E. The deterministic methods to be applied in the case of freeboard reduction are specified in Ch 3, App 4. 2.1.3 Probabilistic Approach The probabilistic concept takes the probability of survival after collision as a measure of ship safety in the damaged condition, referred to as the attained subdivision index A. The damage stability calculations are performed for a limited number of draughts and relevant GM values in order to draw a minimum GM curve where the attained subdivision index A achieves the minimum required level of safety R. For cargo ships, each case of damage is not required to comply with the applicable criteria, but the attained index A, which is the sum of the contribution of all damage cases, is to be equal to or greater than R. The probabilistic method developed on the basis of the above-mentioned concepts is detailed in Ch 3, App 3. As a general rule, the probabilistic method applies to cargo ships of a length not less than 80 m, and for which no deterministic methods apply; the application of the probabilistic damage stability investigation is specified in the relevant chapters of Part E.

The probabilistic approach to damage stability

The probabilistic concept was originally developed in 1973 through study of data relating to collisions collected by IMO and adopted by resolution A.265 (VIII). This showed a pattern in accidents which could be used in improving the design of ships: most damage, for example, is sustained in the forward part of ships and it seemed logical, therefore, to improve the standard of subdivision there rather than towards the stern.

The probabilistic concept is based on statistical evidence concerning what actually happens when ships collide, in terms of sea state and weather conditions; extent and location of damage; speed and course of ship; and whether the ship survived or sank. Therefore, the probabilistic concept is believed to be far more realistic than the earlier "deterministic" method, in which ships subdivision is based on theoretical principles. The probabilistic method usually produces a set of regulations which include a standard and a method of calculating that standard to be applied to a ship or part of a ship. The probabilistic concept was introduced into SOLAS regulations for passenger ships in 1978 in the 1978 SOLAS Protocol. The probabilistic concept was introduced into SOLAS for cargo ships in 1990, applicable to cargo ships of 100 metres or more in length built on or after 1 February 1992; and in 1996 to cargo ships between 80 metres and 100 metres.

Curves of Statical Stability

Load Line requirements for minimum stability conditions The area under the GZ curve shall not be less than 0.55 m-rad up to an angle of 30 0.09 m-rad up to an angle of either 40 or the lesser angle at which the lower edges of any openings which can not be closed weather-tight are immersed 0.03 m-rad between the angles of heel of 30 and 40 or such lesser angle as mentioned above The Righting Lever (GZ) shall be at least 0.20m at an angle of heel equal to or greater than 30 The maximum GZ shall occur at an angle of heel of not less than 30 Initial transverse metacentric height shall not be less than 0.15m. For ship carrying timber deck cargo complying with (a), this may be reduced to not less than 0.05 metres. Curve Of Statical Stability Graph where GZ is plotted against the angle of heel. Drawn for each voyage condition by the ships officer. This curve is for a particular displacement and KG. From this curve it is possible to ascertain the following: Initial metacentric height point of intersection of the tangent drawn to the curve at the initial point and a vertical through the angle of heel of 57.3 (1 radian). Angle of contraflexure the angle of heel up to which the rate of increase of GZ with heel is increasing. Though the GZ may increase further, the rate of increase of GZ begins to decrease at this angle. The range of stability where all GZ values are positive. The maximum GZ lever & the angle at which it occurs. The angle of vanishing stability beyond which the vessel will capsize. The area of negative stability

The moment of statical stability at any given angle of heel (GZ x Displacement of the ship). The moment of dynamical stability work done in heeling the ship to a particular angle. Dynamical stability at = W x A (in t-m-rad) W = Displacement (in tonnes) A = area between the curve and the baseline up to the given angle of heel (in metre-radians). GZ Cross Curves of Stability To draw the curve of statical stability, we need GZ values for various angles of heel. For this we use the GZ cross curves of stability. These curves are provided for an assumed KG, tabulating GZ values for various displacements and angles of list. Called cross curves because the various curves actually cross each other. Since the curves are plotted for an assumed KG, if the actual KG differs from this a correction (GG1Sine) needs to be applied. This correction is positive if the actual KG is less than the assumed KG and vice-versa. After obtaining the GZ values at various angles, the curve of statical stability is prepared. KN Cross Curves of Stability Same as the GZ cross curves and also used to get the GZ values for making the curve of statical stability. The only difference being that here the KG is assumed to be ZERO. This solves the problem of a sometimes positive and sometimes negative correction, as now the correction is always subtracted. GZ = KN KG Sine

CROSS CURVES
The cross curves of stability provide a means of presenting stability for a wide range of displacements, heeling angles and an initial trim, not only in still water but also in waves. Since the location of the center of gravity varies with the loading of the ship, it is not practical to calculate the actual righting arm for all conditions of loading. Instead it is assumed that the center of gravity is zero and coincides with the keel. The resulting value is called KN*sin().

If used in combination with the critical points extension at the end of the report an overview is shown of all downflooding points showing for each heeling angle: The displacement at which downflooding occurs. The name of the critical point that is responsible for the downflooding. Crosscurves can be calculated to either side of the ship for a range of displacements, trims and heeling angles.

CROSS CURVES OF STABILITY

The Cross Curves Of Stability are used to determine the length of the righting arm at any angle of inclination for a given displacement. Using the ship's displacement (from the Draft Diagram and Functions of Form) a statical stability curve for the ship can be constructed. Instructions for use: 1. Enter the ships displacement along the horizontal axis. 2. Draw a vertical line at the ship's displacement. (Hint: "tick marks" are located along the top of the curve to assist in drawing this vertical line) 3. The displacement line will cross each "angle of inclination" curve at various points. 4. The righting arm for each angle of inclination is read along the vertical axis (left side). 5. Each righting arm is plotted at the corresponding angle of inclination on the "Statical Stability Curve Plotting Sheet" or on regular graph paper. STATICAL STABILITY CURVE (RIGHTING ARM CURVE) When a ship is inclined through all angles of heel, and the righting arm for each angle is measured, the statical stability curve is produced. This curve is a "snapshot" of the ship's stability at that particular loading condition.

CURVE OF STATIC STABILITY is a curve of righting arm GZ as a function of angle of inclination for a fixed displacement.
Computing it based on cross curves of stability. How to determine a curve of statical stability from a 3-D of cross curves of stability. (C.C.S.), e.g., the curve of static stability is the intersection of the curved surface and the plane of a given displacement. Determining a C.S.S. from 2-D C.C.S. is to let displcement = const., which intersects those cross curves at point A, B,, see the figure. 4.10 Dynamic Stability Static stability: we only compute the righting arm (or moment) given the angle of inclination. A true measure of stability should considered dynamically. Dynamic Stability: Calculating the amount of work done by the righting moment given the inclination of the ship.

STABILITY
Stability is one of the more quantitative aspects of how a floating object behaves in water. There are a number of calculated values that together determine the stability of a vessel. Initial stability concerns a vessel's initial resistance to being pushed over. The GM, or metacentric height, is the term used to measure initial stability. GM is measured in meters or feet; a larger value indicates greater stability. A "stiff boat" has a higher GM than a "slow roller." Too little GM results in a vessel with a long, slow roll that, while comfortable, could lead to capsizing. Excessive GM, however, results in a vessel with uncomfortable, snappy, motions in heavy seas that contributes to seasickness and can actually damage equipment as it "whips" the vessel upright after being pushed over by a wave. Righting energy is the term used to describe a vessel's ability to right itself after being heeled over. As the vessel heels, the vertical vector of the center of buoyancy moves away from that of the center of gravity. The distance between vectors, called the righting arm or GZ, varies as the vessel heels and is measured in meters or feet. Typically, righting arms are plotted on the vertical axis of a graph with the heel angle on the horizontal axis. The area under the curve so generated represents the amount of righting energy. A properly-loaded vessel should have positive righting energy to a heel of at least 50 degrees. The magnitude of the largest righting arm is also an indication of a vessel's stability. Because of the relationship between weight and buoyancy of a given hull shape, both GM and righting energy vary significantly with the weight and center of gravity of the loaded vessel. This means that how a vessel is loaded has the largest impact on the stability of the vessel. The previous paragraphs have discussed vessel stability characteristics in the intact state. They also apply to a damaged vessel. However, the buoyant force and center of buoyancy of the damaged hull will differ significantly from that of the intact hull, depending on hull compartmentation as well as the location and extent of damage.

DYNAMIC STABILITY
The dynamic stability is the area under the curve in metre-radians Multiplated by the ship,s displacement in tonnes. It is areas under the GZ Curve which are required for checking stability criteria which depending Upon the ship,s data may be expressed in metre-degrees or metre-radians. The area unde GZ curve also the potential energy available to return the Ship to the upringht. Principle of conservation of energy, the potential energy in converted into Rotation energy as the ship moves towards the upright. In calm water a boat will rarely turn over, but when waves begin pushing against a boats hull they can exert sufficient force to a capsize the most seaworthy of vessels. Capsizing occurs when wave energy overcomes the restoring forcing inherent in a boats design. This inherent, designed force is a combination of a vessels buoyancy (displacement) pushing upward at a distance (called a righting arm) from a vessels centerline, where the center of gravity is found (CG). So what am I saying? That for a vessel to return to an upright position after being rolled to one side it must be able to generate a restoring force, and this force requires a certain distance between CG to CB, or its center of buoyancy. A vessel with a high CG will develop a small righting arm and have a slow roll, while a vessel with a low CG will have a long righting arm and will have a snappy and powerful righting force. Knowing the boat's natural roll period is an excellent indication of its stability, and there are several rules of thumb we can use to evaluate roll period. In general an acceptable, but minimum, natural roll period (seconds) should be equal to a vessels maximum waterline beam in yards. For example a boat with a 30-foot beam should have a roll period of 10 seconds (30 feet/3 feet per yard = 10 yards or 10 seconds). Cruise ships with beams of 100 feet have roll periods of approximately 30 seconds (100 feet/3 feet per yard = 33 yards or 33 seconds). Additionally, a vessel's natural roll period may be calculated using this formula: Natural Roll Period = (.44 x Vessels Beam)/ Square Root of GM GM is the distance between the vessel's center of gravity (CG) and the metacenter (M), where metacenter is defined as the point through which the center of buoyancy acts when a vessel heels. GM is provided in a vessels design and can be general defined as eight percent of a vessels maximum beam. Waves have periods, which is the time it takes for successive crests to pass a given point. If the natural roll period of a vessel equals or is an even interval of wave period, then synchronous rolling or pitching is likely to occur. Synchronous rolling and pitching, at the least, makes vessels motion painful, and at its worst is sufficiently dangerous to capsize a vessel. What is synchronous rolling and pitching? It is wave action enhancing a boats roll such that the vessel is unable to come to an upright position and stop. It is similar to pushing a swing, where a person pushes at the outer ends of the swing, increasing the motions amplitude, and preventing the swing from slowing down and reaching equilibrium. All vessels have stability curves that show the righting force at increasing angles of heel. There is always a maximum angle of heel, after which there is no righting force and a capsizing force comes into action. A righting force exists so long as CG and CB are separated, but once a vessel rolls to an angle where CB and CG are no longer separated but are in line, a vessel reaches the point of neutral stability. There is no restoring force and the vessel will roll over vessels stability can be divided into two categories; initial stability and ultimate stability. Initial stability defines the angles of heel that are normal to a vessel's operation. This is usually between zero and 15 degrees of heel. At these angles a vessels CG and CB have the greatest horizontal separation and create the greatest restoring force. When the vessel exceeds the range of initial stability, it enters the arena of ultimate stability. The separation between CG and CB begins to decrease, due to an asymmetrical shape of the immersed hull due to these extreme heeling angles. The lesson herein both sail and powerboat operation is to keep a vessel within its range of initial stability. Do not allow prolonged exposure to sea conditions that roll a boat to its beam-ends. Every effort should be made to operate a vessel inside its limits of initial of stability. Knowing its natural roll period can help you avoid extended periods of exposure to seas that match the roll period, which could lead to synchronous rolling and pitching. Keep the CG low by storing heavy gear below deck, and reduce wave impact by choosing courses that keep seas abaft the beam DYNAMIC STABILITY This is the stability characteristic of the vessel when moving (particularly rolling) and is the energy necessary to incline a vessel to a certain angle of heel and thereby counteract the moment of statical stability. The dynamic stability may be determined by measuring the area under the righting lever curve (GZ curve) up to a certain angle of heel. The larger the area, the better is the dynamic stability. Waves are the most common external force that causes a vessel to heel. Steep waves with short wavelengths, particularly breaking waves, are the most dangerous to small vessels. The relationship between a vessels dynamic stability and wave energy is complex and is, for example, dependent on the speed and course of the vessel in relation to the speed and direction of the wave. However, in general, the smaller the vessels, the smaller the waves they are able to cope with ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

CURVE OF STATICAL STABILITY this is a curve that shows the following : (1.) angle of maximum stability (2.) maximum g.z. (3.) the righting lever at any angle (4.) angle of vanishing stability (5.) the range of stability (6.) angle where deck-edge immersion begins (7.) the amount of dynamic stability a vessel has (8.) the point of contra flexure (9.) the angle of inclination (10.) the initial g.m. (11.) the radians for that vessel

Understanding Intact & Damage Stability of Ships

The only time a vessel can be assumed to be stationary and in upright position is when it is in dry dock or before it is launched to the sea. Once in the sea, the ship has to sustain different environmental conditions, along with effects of various external and internal changes. A ship is always acted upon by several forces from factors such as seawater, wind, internal mass weight, free surface effect etc. Thus, it is of utmost importance for a vessel to always remain stable and afloat in all conditions. A Stable Ship Ship stability can be defined in simple terms as its characteristics or tendency to return to its original state or upright state, when an external force is applied on or removed from the ship. A ship is at equilibrium when the weight of the ship acting down through centre of gravity is equal to the up thrust force of water acting through centre of buoyancy and when both of these forces are in same vertical line. B is center of buoyancy and G is center of gravity A ship will come to its upright position or will become stable, when an external force is applied and removed, if the centre of gravity remains in the same position well below metacentric height of the ship. When ship is inclined, centre of buoyancy shifts from B to B1, which creates a movement and the righting lever returns the ship to its original position and makes it stable.

M is metacenter and GZ is righting lever A ship is seaworthy if it fulfills two important stability criteria- Intact and Damage stability. Requirements for Intact and Damage Stability of the Ship Intact stability For a cargo vessel, the intact stability requirements are follows Initial GM or metacentric height should not be less then 0.15 m. Righting lever GZ should be at least 0.2 m and angle of heel 30. Maximum righting lever should occur at heel >30 preferably but not less than 25. The Area of the GZ curve should be at least: a) 0.055 m radian up to = 30 b) 0.090 m radian up to = 40 c) 0.03 m radian between 30 and 40 or between 30 and angle of down flooding. The angle of down flooding is an angle at which deck immersion takes place with subsequent water ingress. Damage Stability A damage stability criterion varies from ship to ship and the requirement for the same is given in SOLAS chapter II-1. It may be single compartment flooding, multi compartment flooding, engine room flooding etc. Under all the criteria as applicable, vessel margin line should not be submerged after the damage. Margin line is an imaginary line drawn 75mm below the free board deck. Intact and damage stability are very important factors that govern the overall stability of the ship.

BONBJEAN CURVES a) Outline profile of a hull

b) Curves of areas of transverse sections (stations) c) Drafts scales d) Purpose: compute disp. & C.B., when the vessel has 1) a large trim, or 2)is poised on a big wave crest or trough. How to use Bonjean Curves Draw the given W.L. Find the intersection of the W.L. & each station Find the immersed area of each station

EFFECT OF SHIPS GEOMETRY ON STABILITY

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Conclusion: to increase GM ( Transverse metacenter height) increasing the beam, B decreasing the draft, T lowering C.G (ZG) increasing the freeboard will increase the ZG, but will improve the stability at large inclination angle. Tumble home or flare will have effects on the stability at large inclination angle.

ANGLE OF LURCH

DAMAGE STABILITY (STABILITY IN THE DAMAGED CONDITION)

Damage stability calculations are much more complicated than intact stability. Finite element analysis is often employed because the areas and volumes can quickly become tedious and long to compute using other methods. The loss of stability from flooding may be due in part to the free surface effect. Water accumulating in the hull usually drains to the bilges, lowering the centre of gravity and actually decreasing (It should read as increasing, since water will add as a bottom weight there by increasing GM) the metacentric height. This assumes the ship remains stationary and upright. However, once the ship is inclined to any degree (a wave strikes it for example), the fluid in the bilge moves to the low side. This results in a list. Stability is also lost in flooding when, for example, an empty tank is filled with seawater. The lost buoyancy of the tank results in that section of the ship lowering into the water slightly. This creates a list unless the tank is on the centerline of the vessel. In stability calculations, when a tank is filled, its contents are assumed to be lost and replaced by seawater. If these contents are lighter than seawater, (light oil for example) then buoyancy is lost and the section lowers slightly in the water accordingly. For merchant vessels, and increasingly for passenger vessels, the damage stability calculations are of a probabilistic nature. That is, instead of assessing the ship for one compartment failure, a situation where two or even up to three compartments are flooded will be assessed as well. This is a concept in which the chance that a compartment is damaged is combined with the consequences for the ship, resulting in a damage stability index number that has to comply with certain regulations. 3.6 Damage stability criteria 3.6.1 The angle of heel due to unsymmetrical flooding does not exceed 15 degrees. If no part of the deck is immersed, an angle of heel of up to 17 degrees may be accepted. 3.6.2 The metacentric height in the flooded condition is positive. 3.6.3 When any part of the deck outside the compartment assumed flooded in a particular case of damage is immersed, or in any case where the margin of stability in the flooded condition may be considered doubtful, the residual stability is to be investigated. It may be regarded as sufficient if the righting lever curve has a minimum range of 20 degrees beyond the position of equilibrium with a maximum righting lever of at least 0,1 metre within this range. The area under the righting lever curve within this range is to be not less than 0,0175 metre-radians. The Society is to give consideration to the potential hazard presented by protected or unprotected openings which may become temporarily immersed within the range of residual stability. 3.6.4 The Society is satisfied that the stability is sufficient during intermediate stages of flooding. In this regard, the Society will apply the same criteria relevant to the final stage, also during the intermediate stages of flooding. Damage Control Plan For passenger and dry cargo ships for which a damage stability calculation is to be performed a Damage Control Plan is to be prepared, containing the following information if applicable and partly beyond the requirements of MSC/ Circ. 919: ship's name shipyard and hull no. GL-register-no, Character of Classification and damage stability marking principal dimensions permissible number of persons to be carried

 subdivision index R main and local watertight subdivision numbering of compartments frame numbers and spacing penetration lines (e.g. B/5 or 760 mm-line) in each deck view simplified instructions in case of damage in order to prevent progressive flooding emergency exits watertight door location with control stations position of weathertight and unprotected opening points pipes in damaged area when the destruction of these pipes results in progressive flooding valves at bulkheads penetrations cross- and downflooding arrangement permanent solid or liquid ballast or min./max. quantities in tanks For the sake of clarity, unnecessary details, such as accommodation details or decks not considered in the damage stability calculation, are to be deleted from the Damage Control Plan

2. Damage Control Booklet

In addition to the aforementioned, booklets shall be made available according to MSC/Circ. 434 and MSC/ Circ. 919 containing the following information: introduction and description of this manual principal dimensions and main data stability limiting values (VCG/GM limit curve) ship's watertight arrangement position of watertight doors and hatches with information about operational instructions position of all weathertight and unprotected openings piping arrangement incl. available pumps and valve arrangement cross- and downflooding arrangement summary of the damage stability calculation with description of the analysis concept and damage stability criteria information of the damage control locations position of sounding devices All given information is to correspond with the Damage Control Plan ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Parametric rolling is a resonance phenomenon. It may occur in a head sea with an unfavorable combination of wave height, length, and period in relation to the ship. Sudden extreme rolls may occur without warning, leading to container stacks toppling over, like dominos, causing severe losses.Larger ships are less susceptible to parametric rolling, except in very extreme weather conditions. Smaller ships, however, may be at peril in more frequently occurring weather conditions. The trading route from Northern Europe to North America is the most likely location for parametric rolling for smaller Panamax ships. The heading distribution in relation to the weather direction is more evenly distributed, including a lot of head-sea conditions. This is due to the predominant weather direction and the fact that the crossing is much shorter than that of the Pacific (57 days), giving less room for maneuvering between the cyclones.Increased awareness among seafarers seemed to have curbed the number of incidents but more research and attention to this problem may still be required. DNV won the Seatrade award for IT innovation in 2002 for a system called Active Operator Guidance (AOG), which is an advance warning system to advise the bridge about rough weather and extreme motions. The know-how from the AOG project has made DNV an industry expert on parametric rolling.

PARAMETRIC ROLLING

Container Ships Motion in a parametric roll - Adverse affects of such phenomenon

The term parametric roll is used to describe the phenomenon of large unstable roll motion suddenly occurring in head or stern seas. Due to its violent nature, the large accelerations associated with the onset of parametric roll cause concern for the safety of container ships. Possible consequences include loss of containers, machinery failure, structural damage, and even capsize. Parametric roll is a threshold phenomenon. This means that a combination of environmental, operational and design parameters needs to occur before it is encountered. These are: 1) The ship would be traveling with a small heading angle to the predominant wave direction (head or stern seas). 2) Wavelength would be comparable to ship length. 3) Wave height would be large. 4) The ships roll damping characteristic would be low. If unfavorable tuning occurs between wave encounter period and natural or twice natural roll period of the vessel, then parametric roll motion can be experienced. Large containerships are particularly vulnerable to parametric rolling. This is because they have hull forms with pronounced bow flare, flat transom stern and wall-sided mid-ship section. Such features contribute to the variation of the ships stability characteristics due to the constant change of the underwater hull geometry as waves travel past the ship. Consequences of a Parametric Roll Parametric roll is an extreme condition for container securing since it combines the effect of large roll and pitch amplitudes. This scenario imposes significant loads on container securing systems. Such extreme roll angles exceed those usually adopted during machinery design. Possible consequences on machinery operation of the ship heeling to very large angles include loss of cooling water suction, exposure of lubricating oil sumps and hence shut-down of the main engine. The following points should be borne in mind: a) Parametric roll is a relatively rare phenomenon occurring in head or following seas, which is characterized by rapidly developed, large, unstable ship rolling. b) Risk control options exist in both design and operation of container ships that can effectively reduce the likelihood of a parametric roll occurring. c) Reducing the likelihood of its occurrence is considered a more effective approach than mitigating the consequences. d) Masters should be aware that, when conditions for parametric rolling exist, the action of putting the ships head to the sea and reducing speed could make rolling worse. e) The North Pacific in winter is known to be an area where conditions for parametric rolling exist.

Physics of Parametric Roll Resonance

As described earlier, when a ship is sailing in longitudinal (head or following) or nearly longitudinal seas, its stability increases in the wave trough and decreases on the wave crest. If this oscillatory change in stability occurs at approximately twice the natural roll period, roll motions may increase to a significant, possibly unacceptable, angle as a result of parametric roll resonance. A typical sample time history is shown in Section 1, Figure 4.

The most rapid increase of parametric roll motion could be observed when the ship experiences an external roll disturbance at the time when the wave crest is moving away from amidships, i.e., the condition of improving or increasing stability, in combination with an encounter frequency approximately twice that of the natural roll frequency. In this situation, the restoring moment tends to accelerate the ship back to equilibrium with a larger-than-calm-water moment because the ship is entering the wave trough where stability is improved. As a result, at the end of the first quarter of the period T, the roll angle is slightly larger than it would be in calm water. See Section 1, Figure 5. At the end of the first quarter period of roll oscillation, the ship reaches a zero-degree roll angle, which is the upright equilibrium attitude, but the roll motion does not stop there because of the roll inertia. During the second quarter of the period, the ship encounters a wave crest and its stability is decreased. Meanwhile, the roll motion inertia makes the ship continue to roll. The restoring moment now resists further motion, but with a lessthan-calm-water value since ship stability is lessened on the wave crest. As a result, the ship rolls more than it would in calm water with the same roll disturbance, consequently, after the second quarter, the increase in roll angle is even greater than after the first quarter. This is shown in Section 1, Figure 5. In the third quarter, the ship enters the wave trough and an increased restoring moment pushes it back with an increased force. The situation is analogous to that observed during the first quarter. The observations in the fourth quarter are similar to those in the second quarter, and the roll angle continues to increase, as shown in Section 1, Figure 5. With no further change in wave amplitude and ship speed, this combination of restoring (with a larger-than-calm-water) and resisting the roll (with less-than-calm-water) can cause the roll angle to progressively increase to a large and possibly dangerous level. This constitutes the parametric roll resonance phenomenon.

SQUAT EFFECT
The squat effect is the hydrodynamic phenomenon by which a vessel moving quickly through shallow water creates an area of lowered pressure that causes the ship to be closer to the seabed than would otherwise be expected. This phenomenon is caused when water that should normally flow under the hull encounters resistance due to the close proximity of the hull to the seabed. This causes the water to move faster, creating a low-pressure area with lowered water level surface (See Bernoulli's principle). This squat effect results from a combination of (vertical) sinkage and a change of trim that may cause the vessel to dip towards the stern or towards the bow.[1] Squat effect is approximately proportional to the square of the speed of the ship. Thus, by reducing speed by half, the squat effect is reduced by a factor of four.[2] Squat effect is usually felt more when the depth/draft ratio is less than four[2] or when sailing close to a bank. It can lead to unexpected groundings and handling difficulties. What is Ship Squat Effect? Motion of a ship on water is a result of several hydro dynamics in play all at same time. Of the several phenomena that occur at once, ship squat effect is a fairly important one. On several occasions, ships have run into extreme situations because of this particular effect. For all mariners and ship lovers, understanding what is ship squat and how it affects the motion of a ship is fairly important. What is ship squat effect? To understand this better, consider image of a ship moving through waters. As the ships hull cuts through the waters surface, a volume of water is shoved aside. This water is actually replaced to sides and underside of the ship. This creates a region of low pressure, causing the ship to dip vertically at points of low pressure. The vertical dip in the ship caused due to low pressure is actually the ship squat effect. This dip is proportional to the speed of the ship. The major effects of such low pressure conditions are especially felt in shallow water, even more so if the ship is going at a high speed. That is where the relation between ships speed and the squat effect comes handy. Altering the speed can greatly help maneuver through the shallow waters easily. Cutting the speed down by half would approximately lower the squat effect by a factor of four. Why is ship squat important? A ships squat is one of the more important things that help in ensuring a ships safety through water. Vessel squat is a combined outcome of ships dimensions, weight, water depth, wind draft and several other factors that come into play while a ship is in motion. Knowing a ships squat becomes important then as its loading capacity, speed, its seaworthiness through particular routes would all be affected by its squat value. As mentioned above, vessel squat is proportional to ships speed. So it becomes important information for a ships pilot that increasing his ships speed by a certain factor, he would also be increasing the ships squat. Or while loading a ship, say for a 100,000 tons dwt tanker, a load of extra 30 cm could increase the ship squat by 3%. These become crucial pieces if information to ensure a ship reaches destination safely. Besides, it is always sad when a ship runs aground or is rendered out of service, for any reasons. Certain factors like ships speed and load weight can be checked to prevent such incidents. Hence, knowledge of vessel squat could ensure a ship wouldnt have to face such avoidable circumstances.

Is ship squat good or bad? There is no straight answer to this question. In certain situations, while traveling in shallow waters, ships have been grounded due to ship squat effect. Grounding of QE2 would be a perfectly good example of that, where the ship ran aground despite of having enough room for its passage. That happened due to additional vertical dip experienced by ship, causing it to brush off against a rock that would otherwise have caused no harm. Since 1987, more than 113 ships have run aground chiefly because of the squat ships had to experience. On the flipside, this very property has been used in certain occasions to help ships pass through regions otherwise considered unfavorable. Travel of largest ship of the world, Oasis of Sea, through Great Belt Bridge would be a perfectly good example of that. It can be said now that the total squat ship has to experience plays role in its overall integrity, which is for sure. However, it becomes a matter of captains discretion especially upon entering shallow waters that can prevent things from going bad.

International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code

The International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code was developed as a uniform international code for the transport of dangerous goods by sea covering such matters as packing, container traffic and stowage, with particular reference to the segregation of incompatible substances. Development of the IMDG Code The development of the IMDG Code dates back to the 1960 Safety of Life at Sea Conference, which recommended that Governments should adopt a uniform international code for the transport of dangerous goods by sea to supplement the regulations contained in the 1960 International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS). A resolution adopted by the 1960 Conference said the proposed code should cover such matters as packing, container traffic and stowage, with particular reference to the segregation of incompatible substances. A working group of IMO's Maritime Safety Committee began preparing the Code in 1961, in close co-operation with the United Nations Committee of Experts on the Transport of Dangerous Goods, which in a 1956 report had established minimum requirements for the transport of dangerous goods by all modes of transport. Since its adoption by the fourth IMO Assembly in 1965, the IMDG Code has undergone many changes, both in appearance and content to keep pace with the ever-changing needs of industry. Amendments which do not affect the principles upon which the Code is based may be adopted by the MSC, allowing IMO to respond to transport developments in reasonable time. Amendments to the IMDG Code originate from two sources; proposals submitted directly to IMO by Member States and amendments required to take account of changes to the United Nations Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods which sets the basic requirements for all the transport modes. Amendments to the provisions of the United Nations Recommendations are made on a two-yearly cycle and approximately two years after their adoption, they are adopted by the authorities responsible for regulating the various transport modes. In that way a basic set of requirements applicable to all modes of transport is established and implemented, thus ensuring that difficulties are not encountered at inter-modal interfaces. IMDG Code classes For the purposes of this Code, dangerous goods are classified in different classes, to subdivide a number of these classes and to define and describe characteristics and properties of the substances, material and articles which would fall within each class or division. General provisons for each class or division are given. Individual dangerous goods are listed in the Dangerous Goods List, with the class and any specific requirements. In accordance with the criteria for the selection of marine pollutants for the purposes of Annex III of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto (MARPOL 73/78), a number of dangerous substances in the various classes have also been identified as substances harmful to the marine environment (MARINE POLLUTANTS). Responsibilities The classification shall be made by the shipper/consignor or by the appropriate competent authority where specified in this Code. Classes, divisions, packing groups Substances (including mixtures and solutions) and articles subject to the provisions of this Code are assigned to one of the classes 1-9 according to the hazard or the most predominant of the hazards they present. Some of these classes are subdivided into divisions. These classes or divisions are as listed below: Class 1: Explosives Division 1.1: substances and articles which have a mass explosion hazard Division 1.2: substances and articles which have a projection hazard but not a mass explosion hazard Division 1.3: substances and articles which have a fire hazard and either a minor blast hazard or a minor projection hazard or both, but not a mass explosion hazard Division 1.4: substances and articles which present no significant hazard Division 1.5: very insensitive substances which have a mass explosion hazard Division 1.6: extremely insensitive articles which do not have a mass explosion hazard Class 2: Gases Class 2.1: flammable gases Class 2.2: non-flammable, non-toxic gases Class 2.3: toxic gases Class 3: Flammable liquids Class 4: Flammable solids; substances liable to spontaneous combustion; substances which, in contact with water, emit flammable gases Class 4.1: flammable solids, self-reactive substances and desensitized explosives Class 4.2: substances liable to spontaneous combustion Class 4.3: substances which, in contact with water, emit flammable gases Class 5: Oxidizing substances and organic peroxides Class 5.1: oxidizing substances Class 5.2: organic peroxides Class 6: Toxic and infectious substances Class 6.1: toxic substances Class 6.2: infectious substances Class 7: Radioactive material Class 8: Corrosive substances Class 9: Miscellaneous dangerous substances and articles The numerical order of the classes and divisions is not that of the degree of danger. Marine pollutants and wastes Many of the substances assigned to classes 1 to 9 are deemed as being marine pollutants. Certain marine pollutants have an extreme pollution potential and are identified as severe marine pollutants. IMDG Code made mandatory Amendments to SOLAS chapter VII (Carriage of Dangerous Goods) adopted in May 2002 make the IMDG Code mandatory from 1 Janaury 2004. Also in May 2002, IMO adopted adopted the IMDG Code in a mandatory form - known as Amendment 31. However, the provisions of the following parts of the Code will remain recommendatory: chapter 1.3 (Training); chapter 2.1 (Explosives, Introductory Notes 1 to 4 only); chapter 2.3, section 2.3.3 (Determination of flashpoint only); chapter 3.2 (columns 15 and 17 of the Dangerous Goods List only); chapter 3.5 (Transport schedule for Class 7 radioactive material only), chapter 5.4, section 5.4.5 (Multimodal dangerous goods form), insofar as layout of the form is concerned; chapter 7.3 (Special requirements in the event of an incident and fire precautions involving dangerous goods only). In practice, this means that from the legal point of view, the whole of the IMDG Code is made mandatory, but provisions of recommendatory nature are editorially expressed in the Code (e.g. using the word "should" instead of "shall") to clarify their status.

The mandatory IMDG Code incorporates certain changes relating to specific products, as well as relevant elements of the amendments to the UN Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods, Model Regulations adopted by the UN Committee of Experts on the Transport of Dangerous Goods at its twenty-first session in Geneva from 4 to 13 December 2000. The amendments making the IMDG Code mandatory entered into force on 1 January 2004. Buy the IMDG Code The IMDG Code (Latest edition - Amendment 34-08) can be bought in hard copy and electronic format from the IMO Publications section . Also available is the IMDG Code Supplement, containing several related texts including a new revised EMS Guide, and the mandatory INF Code. IMDG Code for Windows v9 (DG200E) and the intranet version (DG201E) will be available from www.imdgsupport.com What's in it The Code lays down basic principles; detailed recommendations for individual substances, materials and articles, and a number of recommendations for good operational practice including advice on terminology, packing, labelling, stowage, segregation and handling, and emergency response action. The two-volume Code is divided into seven parts: Volume 1 (parts 1, 2 and 4-7 of the Code) contains sections on:

transport operations Volume 2 contains: the Dangerous Goods List (equivalent to the schedules in previous editions of the Code), presented in tabular format

general provisions, definitions, training classification packing and tank provisions consignment procedures construction and testing of packagings, IBCs,large packagings, portable tanks and road tank vehicles

limited quantities exceptions the Index

appendices The Supplement contains the following texts related to the IMDG Code: EMS Guide Medical First Aid Guide Reporting Procedures Packing Cargo Transport Units Safe Use of Pesticides INF Code

What You Need To Know About IMDG Code Amendment 36-12

October 3, 2012

New IMDG Changes Coming October/November 2012

The IMDG code 2012 amendment 36-12 comes into effect on 1 January 2013 if adopted by the national administration. It will become mandatory from 1 January 2014. The amendment comes with new UN numbers that go up to 3506 and new instructions about how packing should be done. There are also several detailed changes to the chapters and to the entries in the Dangerous Goods List. It is important for those in the sector to know what the changes are and what they will mean for business. Part 7 of the Stowage and Segregation has been completely reorganized to suit job function. While 7.1 and 7.2 contains the rules for general stowage and segregation, chapter 7.3 has been revised to carry regulations about how goods should be loaded into a CTU. Another change is with sources of heat. There has been a replacement of the regulations about various away from all sources of heat shading from direct sunlight and radiant heat, flames and speaks. Instead there is a general rule that says that cargo has to be protected from sources of heat and the meaning of this is laid out in 7.1.2. Some of the changes call for cargo being a minimum of 2.4 m away from ship structures that are heated. Also, cargo that is on deck but is not in CTUs has to shaded from direct sunlight. Also, depending on what is being shipped and on the route that will be taken, the exposure of CTUs on deck to direct sunlight may have to be reduced. The rules have also changed when it comes to foodstuff. Regulations about segregation of foodstuff that is now referred to as 1.2.1 have been amended with the removal of the specifications away from foodstuff and separated from foodstuff. A class or subrisk of 2.3, 6.1, 6.2, 7 and 8 and some particular DGL entries are not to be packed together with foodstuff in the same CTU. Provision has been made for some of the class 6.1 and 8 items and some particular DGL entries which can be shipped a CTU that is carrying food without having to get competent authority approval as long as a distance of at least 3m is maintained. Another amendment is to class 6.2 which will now require where segregation from food but it will be to value 2 rather then 3 if a CTU is closed. Value 2 still applies to the other classes and to DGLspecific goods but the value can be reduced to 1 if one of the items is a closed CTU. It can go up to O if both items are in closed containers. Lowering of the segregation value to 1 for class 8 and class 6.1 pg 111 has been done away with. Another Imdg code 2012 amendment 36-12 is to the rules of limited quantities. When they are being shipped in limited quantities, rigid intermediate packaging must be done for liquids in glass that are in class 8 packing group 11 as well as those with similar inners. Other LQ substances that are in fragile liners will have to be put in appropriate intermediate packaging when they are in stretch-wrapped trays or in shrink wrapping. Also, it will now be necessary to get a classification reference for UN 0333-7 fireworks from a competent authority. Stowage categories have been reduced to five and they are different from the current 01 to 05 categories. Imdg code 2012 amendment 36-12 will mean changes in the cost of shipping so the rates charged to clients will have to be revised accordingly. This will ensure the bottom line is not negatively impacted

THE NEW IMO PSPC COT PERFORMANCE STANDARD

Crude oil tanker owners face a new set of SOLAS regulations; the IMO MSC.288(87) Performance Standard for Protective Coatings for Cargo Oil Tanks of Crude Oil Tankers. The standard is designed to achieve a target coating lifetime of 15 years in cargo oil tanks of newly constructed crude oil tankers greater than 5,000dwt where; The building contract is placed on or after 1st January 2013 or, in the absence of a building contract The keels of which are laid or which are at a similar stage of construction on or after 1st July 2013 Or the delivery of which is on or after 1st January 2016 All coatings used within the cargo oil tanks will need to comply with PSPC regulations effective from 1st January 2013 - to comply; tank coatings must have a 'Type Approval Certificate'. Friday, 17th February 2012 The new SOLAS Regulation II-1/3-11, which entered into force on 1 January 2012, on corrosion protection of cargo oil tanks of crude oil tankers, requires cargo oil tanks to be protected against corrosion and makes IMO Resolution MSC.288(87) Performance Standard for Protective Coatings for Cargo Oil Tanks of Crude Oil Tankers (PSPC) mandatory. A copy of MSC.288(87) can be read here. The new regulations will be applicable to crude oil tankers, as defined in the MARPOL Convention, of 5000 tonnes dwt and above: for which the building contract is placed on or after 1 January 2013 or in the absence of a building contract, the keels of which are laid or which are at a similar stage of construction on or after 1 July 2013 or the delivery of which is on or after 1 January 2016 All cargo oil tanks of crude oil tankers shall be coated during construction in accordance with the Performance Standard for Protective Coatings for Cargo Oil Tanks of Crude Oil Tankers, or with an alternative means. The IMO have produced guidelines on the maintenance and repair of protective coatings in MSC.1 Circ/1399 Guidelines for Maintenance and Repair of Protective Coatings for Crude Oil Tanks of Crude Oil Tankers. A copy of MSC.1 Circ/1399 can be read here. Lloyd's Register have produced guidance for shipowners and operators, manufacturers and ship builders on corrosion protection of crude oil cargo tanks, which can be read here. Crude oil tankers - New regulation 3-11 - Corrosion protection of cargo oil tanks of crude MSC 291(87) oil tankers - Applicable to tankers of 5,000 tonnes dwt and above for which the building contract is placed on or after 1 January 2013 or in the absence of a building contract, the keels of which are laid or which are at a similar stage of construction on or after 1 July 2013 or the delivery of which is on or after 1 January 2016 = All cargo oil tanks of crude oil tankers shall be coated during the construction in accordance with the Performance standard for protective coatings for cargo oil tanks of crude oil tankers - or with an alternative means.

Corrosion protection of cargo oil tank of crude oil tankers

Following a number of accidents on board tankers that resulted in structural failure, the Maritime Safety Committee (MSC) of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) has adopted at MSC 87 corrosion protection measures of cargo oil tanks. As a consequence to this other resolutions and guidelines have been adopted. Through resolution MSC.291(87) a new regulation 3-11 has been adopted in SOLAS II-1/ Part A-1. The regulation includes mandatory coating standards which are to be adopted at the same time, for the corrosion protection of cargo oil tank of new crude oil tankers of 5000 dwt and above engaged on international voyages. For the definition of a "crude oil tanker" the regulations makes reference to items 1.11.1 and 1.11.4 of the Supplement to the International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate (Form B). The requirements do not apply to combination carriers and chemical tankers. As per paragraph 4 of the regulation, the Administration may exempt a crude oil tanker form the requirements and allow the use of novel prototype alternatives to the coating system provided they are subject to suitable controls, regular assessment and acknowledgment of the need for immediate remedial action if the system fails or is shown to be failing. Additionally, an exemption may be granted by the Administration if the crude oil tanker is build to be engaged solely in the carriage of cargoes and cargo handling operations not causing corrosion. The entry into force follows the same manner with SOLAS regulation II-1/3-2 were it depends on the date that the building contract is placed, the keel lay date or delivery date. The new regulation is applicable to new crude oil tankers that the date of building contract or the keel lay date is on January 1, 2013. Alternatively, this regulation is applicable to new crude oil tankers that the delivery date is on or after January 1, 2016. As a consequence to the above new regulation, IMO has adopted performance standard for protective coatings for cargo oil tanks of crude oil tankers through resolution MSC.288(87). The performance standard include requirements for area of application, design of the coating system, primary and secondary surface preparation, inspection and verification requirements, test procedures etc. MSC 87 has also adopted performance standard for alternative means of corrosion protection for cargo oil tanks of crude oil tankers through MSC.289(87). As of the date of the development of the Standard, the only well known alternative means of protective coating is the corrosion resistance steel. If this is to be used as alternative means, it shall comply with the Performance Standard for corrosion resistant steel as set out in the annex of the resolution. In case alternative methods are developed, these are to be implemented in additional annexes of the resolution. Also, through MSC.1/Circ.1381 modifications to footnotes in the coating performance standards adopted by resolution MSC.215(82) and MSC.288(87) have been adopted. In MSC.288(87) the footnote has been updated to include new performance standards for cargo oil tanks of crude oil tankers were as MSC.215(87) footnote has been modified to include new performance standards for protective coating in ballast water tanks. These amendments are applicable to all ship types of 500 gt or more that SOLAS regulations II-1/3-2 and/or 3-11 apply. Lastly, guidelines on the procedures for in-service maintenance and repair of coating systems for cargo oil tanks of crude oil tankers have been adopted through MSC.1/Circ.1399. These guidelines have been adopted following amendments to SOLAS II-1/3-11. Guidelines include repair and maintenance for coating in cargo tanks of all crude oil tankers as well as procedures and recommendations of the coating technical file (CTF). 7 COATING TECHNICAL FILE (CTF) 7.1 Maintenance and repair activities should be recorded in the CTF in accordance with the relevant section of these Guidelines15 and should be carried out in accordance with the procedures and recommendations provided in the CTF. 7.2 For maintenance, the following should be reported in the CTF: .1 copy of Technical Data Sheet, including: .1.1 product name and identification mark and/or number; .1.2 materials, components and composition of the coating system, colours; . 1.3 minimum and maximum dry film thickness; .1.4 application methods, tools and/or machines; .1.5 condition of surface to be coated (de-rusting grade, cleanness, profile, etc.); and .1.6 environmental limitations (temperature and humidity); and

.2 ship maintenance records of coating application, including: .2.1 applied actual space and area (in square metres) of each compartment; .2.2 ambient condition during coating; and .2.3 method of surface preparation. 7.3 For repairs, the CTF should contain at least the following: .1 copy of Statement of Compliance or Type Approval Certificate; .2 copy of Technical Data Sheet, including: .2.1 product name and identification mark and/or number; .2.2 materials, components and composition of the coating system, colours; .2.3 minimum and maximum dry film thickness; .2.4 application methods, tools and/or machines; . 2.5 condition of surface to be coated (de-rusting grade, cleanness, profile, etc.);and .2.6 environmental limitations (temperature and humidity); .3 shipyard work records of coating application, including: .3.1 applied actual space and area (in square metres) of each compartment; .3.2 applied coating system; .3.3 time of coating, thickness, number of layers, etc.; .3.4 ambient condition during coating; and .3.5 method and standard of surface preparation; .4 coating log issued by the coating inspector, stating that the coating was applied in accordance with the specifications to the satisfaction of the coating supplier representative and specifying deviations from the specifications (example of daily log and non-conformity report (see annex 2 to resolution MSC.288(87)); .5 shipyard's verified inspection report, including: .5.1 completion date of inspection; .5.2 result of inspection; .5.3 remarks (if given); and .5.4 inspector signature; and 6 procedures for in-service maintenance and repair of coating system, if different than original coating system.

DECK FOAM FOR FIRE EXTINGUISHING

Firefighting foam is made of three ingredients a foam concentrate, water, and air. The concentrate is mixed with water (proportioning), creating a foam solution. That solution is mixed with air (aspirated) to produce the foam, which is very fluid, readily flowing over liquid surfaces. The foam itself is a stable mass of small, air-filled bubbles with a lower density than oil, gasoline, or water.

Balanced pressure proportioning is the most common method used for foam system applications. The foam concentrate pressure is balanced with the water pressure at the proportioner inlet allowing the proper amount of foam concentrate to be metered into the water stream. With an aspirating discharge device, foam solution passes through an orifice, past air inlets, and into an expansion area to produce expanded foam. In nonaspirating devices, the foam solution doesnt mix with air until it first passes through the orifice and discharge outlet. HOW DOES FOAM WORK? Firefighting foam agents suppress fire by separating the liquid fuel from the air (oxygen) it needs to burn. Depending on the type of foam agent, this is done in one of several ways: n the foam blankets the fuel surface, smothering the fire and separating the flames from the fuel surface n the foam cools the fuel and adjacent heat and ignition sources n the foam suppresses the release of flammable vapors that can mix with air An AFFF agent forms an aqueous film on the surface of the hydrocarbon fuel. An alcoholresistant concentrate (AR-AFFF) will form a polymeric membrane on a polar-solvent fuel. CLASS A FOAM AGENTS Formulated using fluorine-free surfactants, Class A foam reduce the waters surface tension to form a clinging blanket that suppresses combustible vapors while cooling the fuel. Applied on the ground or through the air, SILV-EX foam immediately wets, cools, and insulates a fire. Its especially effective in fighting forest fires and fires in coal mines, power generation (coal bunkers), structures, tire and rubber factories, lumber mills, and paper warehouses. Created to perform specifically on Class A combustible materials, ANSUL-A foam is compatible for use in compressed air foam systems (CAFS) over the use range of 0.1% to 1.0%. CLASS B FOAM AGENTS ANSUL offers many foams to help fight Class B fires (petroleum-based products, flammable and combustible liquids, LNG, and rubber). ANSULITE Aqueous Film-Forming Foam (AFFF) can be applied through a wide variety of delivery systems, making them extremely versatile. This is an obvious choice for airports, refineries, manufacturing plants, municipal fire departments, and other operations involving the transportation, processing, or handling of flammable liquids. ANSULITE AFFF is available as 1%, 3%, and 6% concentrates or as 1% and 3% freeze protected concentrates. Based on AFFF chemistry to which a polymer is added, ANSULITE Alcohol-Resistant AFFF Concentrates (AR-AFFF) are effective on fires involving polar solvents, such as ethanol, as well as hydrocarbon fuels like gasoline. In 1988, chemists at ANSUL invented ANSULITE 3x3 Foam Concentrate, the first alcoholresistant AFFF capable of being used as a 3% concentrate on both polar-solvent and hydrocarbon fuels. ANSUL scientists later developed it in an exclusive low viscosity formula. ANSULITE ARC 3% or 6% can be proportioned according to the type of fuel hydrocarbon or polar solvents. Recommended for extinguishing fires involving hydrocarbons, Protein Foams at 3% concentrate produce stable mechanical foam with good expansion properties and excellent burnback resistance characteristics. Typically, protein foams are used to protect flammable and combustible liquids where they are stored, transported, and processed.

Compared to protein foams, Fluoroprotein Foam Concentrates provide better control and extinguishment, greater fluidity, and superior resistance to fuel contamination. Fluoroprotein foams are useful for hydrocarbon vapor suppression and have been recognized as very effective fire suppression agents for subsurface injection into hydrocarbon fuel storage tanks. Available as a 3% concentrate with excellent resistance to fuel contamination, ANSUL Fluoroprotein demonstrates good burnback resistance and is especially effective on fires involving hydrocarbon bulk storage and handling, such as refineries and petrochemical facilities.

HIGH-EXPANSION FOAM AGENTS

Especially useful on fuels such as liquefied natural gas (cryogenic fuels) for vapor dispersion and control, High-Expansion Foam Concentrates are used with air aspirating foam generators for applying foam to large areas in total flooding and three-dimensional applications (warehouses, ship cargo holds, mine shafts). Based on combinations of hydrocarbon surfactants and solvents, high-expansion foams are effective on hydrocarbon spill fires of most types and in confined areas. For use on all Class A, B, and LNG fires, JET-X high-expansion foam is available as a 2.75% concentrate. Capable of flooding large rooms and enclosures when used with JET-X high-expansion generators, JET-X foam effectively suppresses all types of spill fires. Also use JET-X foam with medium-expansion equipment. n Minimal water damage to structure or contents n Hazardous run-off is reduced compared to sprinkler systems requiring large volumes of water n Little or no damage to electrical equipment

Foam for fire protection purposes is an aggregate of air-filled bubbles formed from aqueous solutions, and is lower in density than the lightest flammable liquids. It is mainly used to form a coherent floating blanket on flammable and combustible liquids to prevent or to extinguish fires by excluding air and cooling the fuel. It also prevents re-ignition by suppressing formation of flammable vapours. It has the property of adhering to surfaces, providing a degree of exposure protection from adjacent fires. Foam is used as a fire prevention, control, or extinguishing agent for flammable liquid in tanks or processing areas. Foam solution for these hazards may be supplied by fixed systems or portable foam generating systems. Foam Types. The principal use of foam is to extinguish burning flammable or combustible liquid spills or tank fires by developing a coherent coolant blanket. Foam is the only permanent extinguishing agent used for fires of this type. Its application allows fire fighters to extinguish fires progressively. A foam blanket covering a liquid surface is capable of preventing vapour transmission for some time, depending on its stability and thickness. Fuel spills may be rendered safe by foam blanketing. The blanket may be removed after a suitable period of time. Foam is used to diminish or halt the generation of flammable vapours from non-burning liquids or solids, and to cut off access to air for combustion. The water content of foam cools and diminishes oxygen by steam displacement. Foam is also used to fill cavities or enclosures where toxic or flammable gases may collect. Foam solutions are conductive and therefore not recommended to be used for electrical fires. Foam ConCenTraTe Types 1. Protein foam concentrate. It is diluted with water to form 3% to 6% solutions depending on the type and, in general, it is only used for crude oil fires. 2. Fluoroprotein foam concentrate is very similar to protein foam concentrates. It may also deposit a vaporisation preventing film on the surface of a liquid fuel. It is diluted with water to form 3% to 6% solutions depending on the type, and is used for crude oil or refined oil products where a higher degree of protection is preferred. 3. Special alcohol type foam concentrate forms a foam that has an insoluble barrier in the bubble structure which resists breakdown at the interface of the fuel and foam blanket. It is used for fighting fires in water solution and certain flammable or combustible liquids and solvents that are destructive to regular foam. Mainly used for protection onboard chemical tankers 4. Synthetic foam concentrate includes: AFFF and medium and high expansion foam concentrates are used to produce foam or foam-to-solution volume ratios from 20:1 to approx. 1000:1 and are used for local protection and engine room hi-ex systems. SOLAS RULES. For ships carrying chemicals or oils in bulk, SOLAS/IMO require a fixed deck foam system for extinguishing fires on deck or in tanks. In principle, the systems required are identical; however, for chemical tankers, IMO type 2 and 3, the foam system is considerably larger than for crude oil tankers, due to the higher risk of fire in chemicals. Design Figures oiL Tankers. The foam system capacity shall be a minimum of the largest of the entire cargo tank deck covered with 0.6 l/ m2 /min. or 6.0 l/m2/min. for the largest cargo tank. ChemiCaL Tankers. The foam system capacity shall be a minimum of the largest of the entire cargo tank deck covered with 2.0 l/m2 /min. or 20 l/m2/min. for the largest cargo tank.

SYSTEM DESCRIPTION. All foam systems, consist of a water supply, foam liquid storage, a proportioning device and a distribution system. The water supply pump(s) provide(s) a certain capacity of seawater to the deck foam system, and is/are supplied by the ships fire pumps. The foam liquid is stored in a tank. The tank must be complete with vent, contents gauge, and access manhole. The foam is delivered via a high pressure foam liquid pump to the automatic foam liquid proportionator, which will accurately proportionate foam liquid at 3% to 6% to the seawater flow, irrespective of flow rate or pressure. For satisfactory operation of the proportionator, foam liquid must be supplied with a minimum pressure of at least 10 metres head higher than the inlet water pressure under all load conditions. The electrically driven foam liquid pump is provided for this purpose. Foam solution is supplied to the deck monitors and hand lines by the deck main fitted with isolating valves. Each monitor is isolated from the main supply pipe by means of butterfly valves, which are normally closed. Four portable foam-making branch pipes are provided. Each branch pipe has a solution rate of 400 l/min.

MARPOL LINE
When cargo discharged has been completed on a cargo system, the pipeline system should also be discharged ashore. The ideal arrangement for this operation is a stripping system which includes a separate, small diameter discharge (MARPOL), line to the midship manifold, with connections to each cargo manifold outboard of the manifold valve. If that arrangement is available, the following procedure can be used: Close the manifold valve. Open the stripping pump suction connection to the main cargo line in the pumproom. Open the deck drop valve on the main line. Open the main cargo pump bypass valve(s), (the pumproom loading/recirculating valve(s)), in the pumproom. Open the small diameter, (MARPOL), stripping discharge valve outboard of the manifold valve. Verify that the dock manifold valve is open. Start the stripping pump and run it at slow speed

CONTRAROTATING PROPELLER The two propellers rotate in opposite directions. The pitch and loading of the propellers is designed such that the resulting rotational energy in the wake is zero. To reduce shaft vibrations the number of blades of both [[propeller|propellers] is different, so that not all blades pass each other simultaneously. The diameter of the front propeller is often slightly larger than that of the rear propeller, to account for the contraction of the propeller wake and to avoid the rear propeller to hit the tip vortex of the front propeller. The rotational losses in the wake of a moderately loaded propeller are some 6 percent. Half of that rotational energy is generally recovered by the rudder. So the gain of a CRP is not more than some 3%. More important, however, is reduction of frictional losses which is possible by a CRP. This can be understood when it is realized that in the design of a single propeller the optimum efficiency is reached at a certain pitch and rotation rate. An increase in pitch will decrease the rotation rate. The result is an increase of the rotational losses and a decrease the viscous losses. The optimum is found when both effects are equal. In the case of a CRP, however, it is possible to increase the pitch of the propeller without penalty, because the rotational losses are recovered by the rear propeller. This makes it possible to reduce the rotation rate and thus the frictional losses without increasing the rotational losses. A CRP therefore has a lower rotation rate and the increase of efficiency from a single propeller can be as high as 15%. A low rotation rate can be difficult for the engine, however. The rear propeller is often directly couple with the main engine and its rotation rate is defined by the rotation rate of the engine. A gear box can be used to reverse the direction of rotation of the other propeller and to reduce its rotation rate. Planet gears are possible to reduce the rotation rate of both propellers, but until now ship owners have to been reluctant to use these gears for reason for reliability: when such a gear fails the ship is without propulsion. A major problem is also the bearing between the inner and outer shaft. Advantages The propeller-induced heeling moment is compensated (negligible for larger ships). More power can be transmitted for a given propeller radius. The propeller efficiency is increased by recovering energy from the tangential (rotational) flow from the leading propeller. Tangential flow does not contribute to thrust, conversion of tangential to axial flow increases both thrust and overall system efficiency. Disadvantages The mechanical installation of coaxial contra-rotating shafts is complicated, expensive and requires more maintenance. The hydrodynamic gains are partially reduced by mechanical losses in shafting. Contra-rotating propellers are used on torpedoes due to the natural torque compensation and are also used in some motor boats. The cost of boring out the outer shafts and problems of mounting the inner shaft bearings are not worth pursuing in case of normal ships. Features Contra-rotating propellers allow recovery of rotational energy and dispersion of load, achieving higher propulsion efficiency compared to regular rotatable PODs. Since the POD propulsion system can be rotated a full 360 degrees, it can be used as a powerful side thruster to dramatically improve maneuverability during low-speed operation while in port. Installation is easy because most of the rotatable drive system and the drive shaft system for power transmission, both of which form the rudder mechanism, are incorporated snugly into the POD. Since it requires only a small space for installation, inner vessel space is maximized. POD propulsion system is usually used in twin-screw vessels. Having two independent propulsion systems and rudder systems enhances redundancy in the event of an emergency.

CONTRA-ROTATING PROPELLERS

Whenever a propeller turns it exerts a thrust but it also rotates the water and this gives a loss of energy. If a second propeller os fitted immediately down stream but rotating in the opposite direction the second propeller exerts a rotating force on the water which opposes that of the upstream propeller. water flow is axial and the drive more efficient the costs involved are high due to complicated shafting and gearing that is required to drive the two shafts from a single source. In order to minimise problems of vibration the downstream propeller usually has more blades than the upstream blade but the thrust from each is designed to be the same.

PROPELLER DESIGN
In designing propeller, operating conditions of ship hull, engine, shafting etc. are to be considered carefully. MHl undertakes the design of the propeller, based on customer's specification, using accumulated technical knowhow and experience in shipbuilding. Two methods of designing propellers are well known, i.e. propeller design based on (1) Propeller chart, and (2) Propeller lifting line and surface theory. This propeller chart is used for initial design of a propeller and also detailed design of the conventional propeller. The wake-adapted type propellers and also highly skewed propellers are designed by using propeller lifting line and surface theor Contra-rotating propellers Contra-rotating propellers (CRP) have been known since 1836. They are commonly used in torpedoes and are often met in fast motorboats. Although their good hydrodynamic properties were well recognized they did not gain much popularity as ship propulsions because of the mechanical complexity associated with long shafts, their bearings and sealing. Contra-rotating propulsion systems have the hydro-dynamic advantage of recovering part of the slip-stream rotational energy which would otherwise be lost to a conventional single screw system. When a propeller accelerates water into itself from ahead and expels it astern, it generates thrust. Unfortunately, a sizeable percentage of the power delivered to the propeller also goes into twisting the water around, creating the helically shaped propeller wake. This rotational energy is doing nothing to drive the boat it is just waste. Fig. 4.1.Contra-rotating propeller Contra-rotating propellers eliminate this waste. In this type of installation, two propellers are positioned one immediately ahead of the other on the same shaft line, but rotating in opposite directions. The rotational energy imparted to the water by the forward propeller is cancelled out by the opposite rotation of the aft propeller. Furthermore, because of the two propeller configuration, contra-rotating propellers possess a capability for balancing the torque reaction from the propulsor which is an important matter for torpedo and other similar propulsion problems. In marine applications of contra-rotating propulsion is normal for the aftermost propeller to

have a smaller diameter than the forward propeller, and, in this way, accommodate the slipstream contraction effects. Similarly, the blade numbers of the forward and aft propellers are usually different. This is because the astern propeller is working in a faster water flow than the ahead propeller, and as a result, it must have a smaller diameter and steeper pitch. At the same time, both propellers should be absorbing the same horsepower hence the additional blade on the after propeller. Because of the large number of blades usually seven or nine, in total a contra-rotating propeller system has more blade area and thus lower blade loading than a comparable single propeller at the same horsepower. This reduces cavitation problems, and the large number of blades greatly diminishes vibration. A new concept of CRP propulsion is the hybrid CRP-POD propulsion system, shown to have the best hydrodynamic as well as total propulsion efficiency when CRP, twin-screw twin-skeg and single-screw systems were compared in model tests. Fig 4.2.

CRP POD PROPULSION SYSTEM

CRP has been developed by combining an electric pod propulsion unitand conventional diesel system. With this system, energy issaved by more than 13% as compared with the conventional twin shafts andpropellers system, contributing to a reduction of operation costs CO2 emission. propulsion and of

The CRP Azipod propulsion system consists of two contra-rotating propellers. Located on the same axis, but without physical connection, the pulling propeller of the Azipod unit will contra-rotate in relation to the shaft-driven main propeller. There is no need for a conventional rudder because The pulling Azipod unit acts as one. The pod propulsion unit is an azimuth type one driving a propellerdirectly coupled with a motor by incorporating the motor in a pod unit. This propulsion unit is at the stern of the hull, and also the unit has a function of rudder due to rotation. Thanks to its 360-degree free rotation, excellent steering performance is realized in harbor and pier operations, together with powerful propulsion. This compact system incorporating a propulsion motor in the pod was jointly developed by European electric manufacturer and shipyard in the early 1980s for ice breakers. The pod propulsion unit, a revolutionary system in those days, has been employed in more than 70 vessels, but since it is an expensive system, it has been used mainly in cruise passenger ships so as to make the best of its features, including excellent steering performance, vibration and noise suppressing effect, and high flexibility of inboard layout. As shown in Fig. 4.2, in this ship, the pod propulsion unit is located Immediately behind the coaxial line of the main propeller of one shaft, andtwo propellers are arranged like one set of contra-rotating propellers. The main propeller is a controllable pitch propeller, and is driven directly by two sets of medium speed diesel main engines by way of reduction gears with clutch and intermediate shaft. The pod propeller positioned behind is anelectric propulsion unit driven by an electric motor in the pod, using electricpower from the power generation plant. As a result, two sets of propellers can be installed without any appendages such as shaft bracket, and the resistance performance is significantly improved as compared with the conventional twin shafts ship. In addition, rotating the adjacent propellers in opposite directions could realize high propulsion efficiency by reducing tangential water flow. Advantages *The propeller-induced heeling moment is compensated (negligible for larger ships). *The slipstream from contra-rotating propellers is nearly smooth and straight, with little twist. Such propellers are, in theory, between 5 and 20percent more efficient than standard single propellers, but 8 to 10 percent Isa realistic practical range. *More power can be transmitted for a given propeller radius. *The propeller efficiency is usually increased. * Less emissions, environmentally friendly Particularly, for the CRP-POD hybrid system ,the advantages are: *The energy gain is even higher, because the resistance of the appendages(propeller shafts, brackets, skegs, rudders etc.) is absent. This significantly decreases the ships resistance since the propulsor is located in the decelerated flow region. * Two independent propulsion systems give high redundancy *No need for stern thrusters *Flexible general arrangement *Less pressure pulses on vessel hull *Easily adjustable propulsion machinery to match required propulsion power. * The hybrid concept is especially attractive when the main propulsion is very heavily loaded due to the large ship speed or power requirements of the vessel. Adding a pod to the main propulsion will raise the overall speed and power. Disadvantages * The main drawback to contra-rotating propellers is their tremendous complexity. Not only docs this increase the cost of contra-rotating propellers to far above that of comparable standard single propellers, but it also increases the level of maintenance required. Further, some of the gain inefficiency from thrust is lost to additional frictional resistance in the many extra gears and bearings. *The hydrodynamic gains are partially reduced by mechanical losses in shafting. * The sealing of the shafting against the ingress of water from outside is also a major problem. *The resistance of the pod parts (the motor housing and the strut). Apart from their long-standing use in torpedoes, contra-rotating propellers have been tried out in submarines, and more recently in merchant ships. The Grim wheel, is related to the contra-rotating propeller, but the aft propeller is not driven by a shaft. Unlike a contra-rotating propeller, the Grim wheel turns in the same direction as the propeller

VANE WHEELS
When the propeller diameter is restricted an increase in propeller diameter is beneficial for efficiency. A concept to obtain an increased diameter without increasing the diameter of the main propeller is the Vane wheel. It is also referred to as Grim vane wheel. Description The vane wheel is a second propeller downstream of the main propeller, which runs freely without torque on the shaft. The inner part of the vane wheel, the impeller part or turbine part, has a pitch such that the vane wheel is driven, by the wake of the main propeller. The outer part of the blades of the vane wheel, the propeller part, has a different pitch, which causes the vane wheel to generate thrust of the main propeller. The concept was designed by Grimse Leitrad and is patented. A vane wheel basically increases the propeller diameter. Since the vane wheel reduces the axial and tangential velocity in the wake of the main propeller, the optimum pitch of the propeller may be increased and the rotation rate decreased, similar to a contra-rotating propeller. That increases efficiency. It means that the main propeller has to be designed in combination with the vane wheel is not a retrofit, which can be added to any propeller. Vane wheels are subjected to strong fluctuations in loading. Problems with the strength of the blades have been encountered frequently and this las led to its limited application. Advantages

Substantial recovery of rotational energy. Less resistance from rudder behind the vane wheel, that is a better relative rotative efficiency. Better stopping ability.

GRIM VANE WHEELS

The vane wheel is a second propeller downstream of the mainpropeller, which runs freely without torque on the shaft.A vane wheel is composed of a set of equally-spaced narrow bladesmounted on a hub which freely rotates around the propeller shaft which isextended abaft the propeller. This device, invented by Professor Dr.OttoGrimm, is characterized by a diameter of some 25 per cent greater than thatof the propeller with pitch distributions such that the region in the propellerrace performs as a turbine and in the portion outside the race as a propeller. A vane wheel basically increases the propeller diameter. Since thevane wheel reduces the axial and tangential velocity in the wake of the mainpropeller, the optimum pitch of the propeller may be increased and therotation rate decreased, similar to a contra-rotating propeller. That increasesefficiency. It means that the main propeller has to be designed incombination with the vane wheel is not a retrofit, which can be added to any propeller. The inner part of the vane wheel, the impeller part or turbine part, hasa pitch such that the vane wheel is driven, by the wake of the main propeller.The outer part of the blades of the vane wheel, the propeller part, has adifferent pitch, which causes the vane wheel to generate thrust of the mainpropeller.Vane wheels are subjected to strong fluctuations in loading. Problemswith the strength of the blades have been encountered frequently and this hasled to its limited application. Advantages: Substantial recovery of rotational energy Less resistance from rudder behind the vane wheel,that is betterrelative efficiency Greater possible jet cross-section of vane wheel, since the low rpmrate and large number of blades enable smaller vertical clearances tobe accepted. Less resistance from rudder behind the vane wheel. This is reflected inthe relative rotative efficiency. Better stopping ability Reduces cavity Moreover, the higher rpm rate associated with the smaller diameter of the engine-driven propeller improves the weight and cost of thepropulsion unit. Disadvantages: Cost of the vane If not designed carefully, the resulting drag can create more resistancethan the energy retrieved. Strong currents can destroy the blades of the vane wheel It is clear that the vane wheel which rotates in the same direction as thepropeller at an angular velocity in the range of 35 to 50 per cent of that of the propeller makes use of both the axial and the tangential momentumlosses of the propeller.The propeller and vane wheel has a larger diameter than the propelleralone, entraining a greater volume of water and hence an increment inefficiency as dictated by momentum considerations. A similar incrementcan, of course, be secured by using a single propeller of the same, larger diameter, but this would require lower shaft speed and in addition,increasedvibratory excitation attending reduced tip clearance. In contrast, the lightlyloaded vanes can extend much nearer to the hull without producingsignificant vibratory forces.

GRIM WHEEL
The grim wheel is a free turning propeller mounted after the main propeller. It use the rotational energy of the main prop wash that would otherwise be lost to provide increased propulsive force. The inner section up to the diameter of the main propeller acts as the turbine section. The area outside this is the propulsive section, thus the grim wheel must be larger than the diameter of the main wheel Initial design had the grim wheel mounted on the main propeller boss. Severe problems including entire loss occurred. The more modern approach is to mount the wheel on the rudder horn. This having the added advantage of allowing a dedicated lube oil supply and reducing main prop shaft and stern tube bearing loading

MARINE PROPELLER CAVITATION

Cavitation can occur if an attempt is made to transmit too much power through the screw, or if the propeller is operating at a very high speed. Cavitation can occur in many ways on a propeller. The two most common types of propeller cavitation are suction side surface cavitation and tip vortex cavitation. Suction side surface cavitation forms when the propeller is operating at high rotational speeds or under heavy load (high blade lift coefficient). The pressure on the upstream surface of the blade (the "suction side") can drop below the vapor pressure of the water, resulting in the formation of a pocket of vapor. Under such conditions, the change in pressure between the downstream surface of the blade (the "pressure side") and the suction side is limited, and eventually reduced as the extent of cavitation is increased. When most of the blade surface is covered by cavitation, the pressure difference between the pressure side and suction side of the blade drops considerably, as does the thrust produced by the propeller. This condition is called "thrust breakdown". Operating the propeller under these conditions wastes energy, generates considerable noise, and as the vapor bubbles collapse it rapidly erodes the screw's surface due to localized shock waves against the blade surface. Tip vortex cavitation is caused by the extremely low pressures formed at the core of the tip vortex. The tip vortex is caused by fluid wrapping around the tip of the propeller; from the pressure side to the suction side. This video demonstrates tip vortex cavitation well. Tip vortex cavitation typically occurs before suction side surface cavitation and is less damaging to the blade, since this type of cavitation doesn't collapse on the blade, but some distance downstream. Cavitation can be used as an advantage in design of very high performance propellers, in form of the supercavitating propeller. In this case, the blade section is designed such that the pressure side stays wetted while the suction side is completely covered by cavitation vapor. Because the suction side is covered with vapor instead of water it encounters very low viscous friction, making the supercavitating (SC) propeller comparably efficient at high speed. The shaping of SC blade sections however, make it inefficient at low speeds, when the suction side of the blade is wetted. (See also fluid dynamics). A similar, but quite separate issue, is ventilation, which occurs when a propeller operating near the surface draws air into the blades, causing a similar loss of power and shaft vibration, but without the related potential blade surface damage caused by cavitation. Both effects can be mitigated by increasing the submerged depth of the propeller: cavitation is reduced because the hydrostatic pressureincreases the margin to the vapor pressure, and ventilation because it is further from surface waves and other air pockets that might be drawn into the slipstream.

COSTA BULB (PROPULSION BULB)

Limited to single screw vessels (usually) the bulb is a simple but effective device for recovering energy from losses aft of the propeller. It consists of a fabricated stream lined steel shell, manufactured in two halves and welded onto the rudder immediately aft of the propeller boss with its centre line continuous with the tail shaft.

The bulb eliminates vortici created due to turbulent flow and sudden contraction of the water which trails from the boss. Thsi contraction is caused by the suden release of the very large volumes of air released under normal operational conditions when the water passes through the prop It has a tranquillising effect on the flow of water behind a propeller. Reduces prop vibration, stiffens rudder, increases buoyancy and improves steering. Increase in propulsive efficiency is about 0.5% Promas integrates the propeller, a hub cap, a rudder bulb and the rudder itself into a Hydrodynamically efficient entity. A tapered hubcap is fitted to the hub of the propeller and leads the water flow on to a bulb which forms part of the spade rudder. The rudder has a twisted leading edge, optimised for the flow from the propeller, which converts into additional forward thrust some of the swirl energy in the slipstream that is normally lost. The result is an increase in propulsive efficiency of about 6 to 8 % depending on application, leading to reduced fuel consumption and emissions. Large steering forces can also be developed. Fact Sheet Whilst this information is given in good faith, no warranty or representation is given concerning such information, which must not be taken as establishing any contractual or other commitment binding upon Rolls-Royce plc or any of its subsidiary or associated companies. Installation of the Promas system follows normal shipyard practice. The rudder bulb is close to the propeller hub cap, but not attached to it. The nose of the bulb is curved, and gives good control of water flow from propeller to rudder even at large steering angles. The risk of hub vortex cavitation is removed. Consequently the radial distribution of hydrodynamic loads on the propeller blades can be modified, reducing tip loading and helping to cut the intensity of blade pressure pulses and associated noise and vibration. By twisting the leading edge of the rudder, the rudder blade forms a cambered hydrofoil profile enabling some of the swirl energy in the propeller slipstream to be converted into additional thrust that helps to propel the vessel.

KORT NOZZLE

The action of the screw within a nozzle with a small clearance between the tips of the prop blade and the walls of the nozzle ( clearance about 1/100 of prop diameter) is to eliminate or reduce trailing vortices which cause loss of efficiency and cavitation at the blade tips The propeller increases efficiency by about 0.4% and their is additional reduction in vibration, cavitation and erosion. It is particularly effective for tugs where they provide initial thrust although they can cause problems with manoeuvring From an operational point of view there are problems with cavitation around the inner section of the nozzles although from what I have seen this is not particularly severe. It is important to ensure contant clearance betwen the blades and nozzle inner circumference. this is particularly important say when fitting a new blade to a CPP. Failure to do so can lead to increased vibration, noise and cavitation SECURING OF PROPELLERS HYDRAULIC FLOATING OF PROPELLERS Used for keyless propellers, ensures the correct interference fit using measured oil pressures for expanding the boss and hydraulic jacks or a Pilgrim nut for pushing it up or down the tailshaft taper. No heavy slogging required and low shock loads are applied, quick and safe. A disadvantage is loss of bearing area due to oil grooves which means that propeller must be longer or greater in Dia to give sufficient area to transmit the torque. To remove, nut just slackened back. Oil injection applied to expand the boss which allows propeller to move off the taper. Another disadvantage of wet fitting over dry fitting is that wet boss expansion stress is 30% greater than dry fitted which means that boss must be thicker. an

SLEEVED PROPELLER

Usually fitted on large diameter shafting. Usually hydraulically floated and keyless. Difficult to bed large props to taper, easier to bed sleeve. Also each time a prop is refitted, prop bore becomes larger, this is accentuated in large bore dia props. Hence, after a few refits the prop moves to far up the shaft, more economical to replace the sleeve than the whole prop. Pearlitic cast iron used to mate with forged mild steel shaft because this combination offers the greatest resistance to fretting which can be caused by prop excited vibration Molecular fretting can occur internally, generally from the center outward due to molecular rubbing together. Surface fretting occurs at the surface due to two items moving over each other due to vibration.When fitting or removing, heat not to be used since it may effect the mechanical properties of the resin. Wedging or withdrawal systems should not be used since this would cause shearing of the araldite.

Traditional method
Shaft turned to top centre, i.e. when key is on top, convenient for key way inspection and prop slinging. Shaft locked, and prop nut just slacked. Coupling bolts at tail end flange removed, if lignum vitae bearing- stuffing bearing removed and tailed flange shored up against aft peak bulkhead. Secured lifting gear to propeller, then wedge off prop using box wedges between stern tube nut and ford face of prop. If tail end and bronze liner are to be inspected then it must be brought inboard which requires the removal of one or two lengths of intermediate shafting.

Bolted Controllable pitch propellers require a hollow prop shaft for the oil and feed back tubes to pass through. non of the above methods are suited to this. Instead the propeller is bolted to a flange, the other end of the propshaft must therefore be parallel to allow removal from the stern bearing. The prop shaft is attached to the intermediate shaft by a 'muff' coupling. Once the bolts have been tightened they are secured by tack welding locking bars across the heads.

DUCTED PROPELLER
A ducted propeller, also known as a Kort nozzle, is a propeller fitted with a non-rotating nozzle. It is used to improve the efficiency of the propeller and are especially used on heavily loaded propellers or propellers with limited diameter. It was developed by Luigi Stipa (1931) and Ludwig Kort (1934). The Kort nozzle is a shrouded, propeller assembly for marine propulsion. The hydrodynamicdesign of the shroud, which is shaped like a foil, offers advantages for certain conditions over bare propellers. Advantages are increased efficiency, better course stability and less vulnerability to debris. Downsides are reduced efficiency and course stability when sailing astern and increase of cavitation. Ducted propellers are also used to replace rudders.

Advantages and disadvantages

Kort nozzles or ducted propellers can be significantly more efficient than unducted propellers at low speeds, producing greater thrust in a smaller package. Tugboats and fishing trawlers are the most common application for Kort nozzles as highly loaded propellers on slow moving vessels benefit the most. Nozzles have the additional benefits of reducing paddlewheel-effect (e.g. the tendency of a right-hand wheel to back to the left) and reduce bottom suction while operating in shallow water. The additional shrouding adds drag, however, and Kort nozzles lose their advantage over propellers at about ten knots (18.5 km/h). Kort nozzles may be fixed, with directional control coming from a rudder set in the water flow, or pivoting, where their flow controls the vessel's steering. Shrouding of this type is also beneficial to navigation in ice fields since it protects the propeller tips to some extent. However, ice or any other floating object can become jammed between the wheel and nozzle, locking up the wheel. Fouled wheels in Kort nozzles are much more difficult to clear than open wheels.

Types
There are two types of ducts; accelerating and decelerating. With accelerating ducts, the inflow velocity and efficiency of the propeller is increased. This is the type that is used on heavily loaded propellers or propellers with limited diameter. As Ludwig Kort performed extensive research on this type, it is often called a "Kort nozzle". With the second type, the inflow velocity is reduced, whereby pressure is increased, reducing cavitation. This is called a pump-jet, especially in combination with fixed blades or stators. MARIN has done extensive research on ducted propellers. Many of the used profiles are based on the NACA airfoils of which the NACA 4415 has very good characteristics. Most commonly used are nozzle 19A and 37 of the MARIN series. These have a rounded trailing edge to ease fabrication and increase efficiency sailing astern. Initially, the propellers of the Wageningen B-series were used, later the Kaplan-type with a wider blade tip.

Physics
dT = Thrust dL = Lift pu: Negative pressure po: Positive pressure In a Kort nozzle, the inflow velocity is increased, reducing pressure. This lowers thrust and torque of the propeller. At the same time, a circulation occurs, resulting in an inward aimed force, that has a forward component. The duct therefore has a positive thrust. This is normally larger than the thrust reduction of the propeller. The small clearance between the propeller and duct reduces tip vortex, increasing efficiency. As drag increases with increasing speed, eventually this will become larger than the added thrust. Vessels that normally operate above this speed are therefore normally not fitted with ducts. When towing, tugboats sail with low speed and heavily loaded propellers, and are often fitted with ducts. Bollard pull can increase up to 30% with ducts. With decelerating ducts, the circulation opposite of the Kort nozzle, resulting in a negative thrust of the duct. This type is used for high speed vessels with increased exposure to cavitation and vessels that want to reduce noise levels, such as warships

Ducted propellers
To obtain the most thrust, a propeller must move as much water as possible in a given time. A nozzle will assist the propeller in doing this, especially when a high thrust is needed at a low ship speed. As we already know, as the propeller blades rotate in the water, they generate high-pressure areas behind the each blade and low pressure areas in front, and it is this pressure differential that provides the force to drive the vessel. However, losses occur at the tip of each blade as water escapes from the high pressure side of the blade to the low pressure side, resulting in little benefit in terms of pushing the vessel forward. The presence of a close fitting duct around the propeller reduces these loses by restricting water flow to the propeller tips.

A ducted propeller consists of a screw propeller surrounded by a non-rotating duct (shroud or nozzle) usually in the form of an axisymmetric(annular) aerofoil with a very small gap between the propeller blade tips and the internal surface of the duct, Fig. 1. The duct cross-section is normally circular. However, in ships with very blunt waterlines aft, the forward part of the duct may be widened laterally, giving the forward part of the duct an elliptical cross-section.

The concept of ducted propellers is due to Stipe (1931) and to Kort(1934). fig.3.1 Ducted propeller

Fig.3.2 Circulation around accelerating (a) and decelerating nozzle (b)dT=thrust; dL=lift; pu=negative pressure; p0=positive pressure

There are two types of ducts: 1.Accelerating ducts: An accelerating duct produces positive thrust and increases the efficiency of heavily-loaded props (a heavily-loaded prop is one where the power being put through it is close to the maximum absorbable for that prop design). With accelerating ducts, the inflow velocity and efficiency of the propeller is increased. This is the type that is used on heavily loaded propellers or propellers with limited diameter. As Ludwig Kort performed extensive research on this type, it is often called Kort nozzle. The Kort nozzle is a shrouded, ducted propeller assembly for marine propulsion. The hydrodynamic design of the shroud, which is shaped like a foil, offers advantages for certain conditions over bare propellers. Kort nozzles or ducted propellers can be significantly more efficient than unducted propellers at low speeds, producing greater thrust in a smaller package. Tugboats are the most common application for Kort nozzles as highly loaded propellers on slow moving vessels benefit the most. The additional shrouding adds drag, however, and Kort nozzles lose their advantage over propellers at about 10 knots (18.5 km/h).Kort nozzles may be fixed, with directional control coming from a rudder setin the water flow, or pivoting, where their flow controls the vessel's steering. Shrouding of this type is also beneficial to navigation in ice fields since it protects the propeller tips to some extent. In a Kort nozzle, the inflow velocity is increased, reducing pressure. This lowers thrust and torque of the propeller. At the same time, a circulation occurs, resulting in an inward aimed force, that has a forward component. The duct therefore has a positive thrust. This is normally larger than the thrust reduction of the propeller. The small clearance between the propeller and duct reduces tip vortex, increasing efficiency. As drag increases with increasing speed, eventually this will become larger then the added thrust. Vessels that normally operate above this speed are therefore normally not fitted with ducts. When towing, tugboats sail with low speed and heavily loaded propellers, and are often fitted with ducts. Bollard pull can increase up to 30% with ducts.

Accelerating ducts, Fig. 3.2 (a), are used in heavily loaded propellers. The small clearance between the propeller blade tips and the duct suppresses the trailing free vortices shed by the blades, the bound vortices on the blades joining the bound vortex ring on the duct. The shape of the accelerating duct at the forward end (leading edge) increases the mass flow to the propeller. At the after end, the duct is so shaped that the cross-section increases going aft and the normal slipstream contraction is suppressed. The increased inflow velocity causes a decrease in the thrust and torque of the propeller. At the same time, a circulation develops around the duct section resulting in an inward directed force which has a forward component, the duct thrust. The duct also has a drag directed aft, and this should be substantially less than the duct thrust. The total thrust of the propeller adduct taken together is then usually greater than that of an equivalent open propeller (i.e. one without a duct) whereas the torque is smaller. The efficiency of the ducted propeller is therefore greater than that of the open propeller. The improved efficiency of the ducted propeller may also be explained by the reduced kinetic energy losses in the slipstream due to the suppression of the trailing vortices and the reduction of the slipstream contraction.

2.Decelerating ducts: With the second type,Fig.3.2 (b), the inflow velocity into the propeller is reduced, whereby pressure at the propeller location is increased, and delays the cavitation. The duct has a circulation around it which produces an outward directed lift with a component directed aft, i.e. the duct thrust is negative. The efficiency of a ducted propeller with a decelerating duct is lower than that of an equivalent open propeller, but its cavitation properties are su-perior. Decelerating ducts are therefore used for high speed hydrodynarnic bodies in which it is necessary to minimize cavitation and underwater noise. A decelerating duct produces a negative thrust and is valuable for reducing cavitation. A decelerating duct is a major contributor to noise reduction which is why it is getting more popular with modern warship designs. The most used decelerating ducts systems the ones are called pump- jets, used in high-speed or shallow draft operating ships