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Motivational Theories
Contribution: Maslow's hierarchy needs of theory
One must satisfy lower level basic needs before progressing on to meet higher level growth needs. Once these needs have been reasonably satisfied, one may be able to reach the highest level called self-actualization. Every person is capable and has the desire to move up the hierarchy toward a level of self-actualization. Unfortunately, progress is often disrupted by failure to meet lower level needs. Life experiences including divorce and loss of job may cause an individual to fluctuate between levels of the hierarchy. Maslow noted only one in a hundred people become fully self-actualized because our society rewards motivation primarily based on esteem, love and other social needs. The original hierarchy of needs five-stage model includes: 1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep. 2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, and stability. 3. Belongingness and Love needs - work group, family, affection, relationships. 4. Esteem needs - self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, managerial responsibility. 5. Self-Actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences.

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Theory X and Theory Y: Theory X

In this theory, which has been proven counter effective in most modern practice, management assumes employees are inherently lazy and will avoid work if they can and that they inherently dislike work. As a result of this, management believes that workers need to be closely supervised and comprehensive systems of controls developed. A hierarchical structure is needed with narrow span of control at each and every level. According to this theory, employees will show little ambition without an enticing incentive program and will avoid responsibility whenever they can. According to Michael J. Papa, if the organizational goals are to be met, theory X managers rely heavily on threat and coercion to gain their employees' compliance. Beliefs of this theory lead to mistrust, highly restrictive supervision, and a punitive atmosphere. The Theory X manager tends to believe that everything must end in
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blaming someone. He or she thinks all prospective employees are only out for themselves. Usually these managers feel the sole purpose of the employee's interest in the job is money. They will blame the person first in most situations, without questioning whether it may be the system, policy, or lack of training that deserves the blame. A Theory X manager believes that his or her employees do not really want to work, that they would rather avoid responsibility and that it is the manager's job to structure the work and energize the employee. One major flaw of this management style is it is much more likely to cause diseconomies in large business. Theory Y In this theory, management assumes employees may be ambitious and self-motivated and exercise self-control. It is believed that employees enjoy their mental and physical work duties. According to them work is as natural as play. They possess the ability for creative problem solving, but their talents are underused in most organizations. Given the proper conditions, theory Y managers believe that employees will learn to seek out and accept responsibility and to exercise self-control and self-direction in accomplishing objectives to which they are committed. A Theory Y manager believes that, given the right conditions, most people will want to do well at work. They believe that the satisfaction of doing a good job is a strong motivation. Many people interpret Theory Y as a positive set of beliefs about workers. A close reading of The Human Side of Enterprise reveals that McGregor simply argues for managers to be open to a more positive view of workers and the possibilities that this creates. He thinks that Theory Y managers are more likely than Theory X managers to develop the climate of trust with employees that are required for human resource development. It's human resource development that is a crucial aspect of any organization. This would include managers communicating openly with subordinates, minimizing the difference between superiorsubordinate relationships, creating a comfortable environment in which subordinates can develop and use their abilities. This climate would be sharing of decision making so that subordinates have say in decisions that influence them.

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Two factor theory

Hygiene factors Hygiene factors are those job factors which are essential for existence of motivation at workplace. These do not lead to positive satisfaction for long-term. But if these factors are absent / if these factors are non-existent at workplace, then they lead to dissatisfaction. In other words, hygiene factors are those factors which when adequate/reasonable in a job, pacify the employees and do not make them dissatisfied. These factors are extrinsic to work. Hygiene factors are also called as Dissatisfies or maintenance factors as they are required to avoid dissatisfaction. These factors describe the job environment/scenario. The hygiene factors symbolized the physiological needs which the individuals wanted and expected to be fulfilled. Hygiene factors include:

Pay - The pay or salary structure should be appropriate and reasonable. It must be equal and competitive to those in the same industry in the same domain.

Company Policies and administrative policies - The company policies should not be too rigid. They should be fair and clear. It should include flexible working hours, dress code, breaks, vacation, etc.

Fringe benefits - The employees should be offered health care plans benefits for the family members, employee help programmers, etc.

Physical Working conditions - The working conditions should be safe, clean and hygienic. The work equipments should be updated and well-maintained.

Status - The employees status within the organization should be familiar and retained. Interpersonal relations - The relationship of the employees with his peers, superiors and subordinates should be appropriate and acceptable. There should be no conflict or humiliation element present.

Job Security - The organization must provide job security to the employees. Motivational factorsAccording to Herzberg, the hygiene factors cannot be regarded as motivators. The motivational factors yield positive satisfaction. These factors are inherent to work. These
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factors motivate the employees for a superior performance. These factors are called satisfiers. These are factors involved in performing the job. Employees find these factors intrinsically rewarding. The motivators symbolized the psychological needs that were perceived as an additional benefit. Motivational factors include.

Recognition - The employees should be praised and recognized for their accomplishments by the managers.

Sense of achievement - The employees must have a sense of achievement. This depends on the job. There must be a fruit of some sort in the job.

Growth and promotional opportunities - There must be growth and advancement opportunities in an organization to motivate the employees to perform well.

Responsibility - The employees must hold themselves responsible for the work. The managers should give them ownership of the work. They should minimize control but retain accountability.

Meaningfulness of the work - The work itself should be meaningful, interesting and challenging for the employee to perform and to get motivated.

ERG Theory
The ERG theory, a model of human motivation developed 1969 by Clayton Alderfer, extended and simplified Maslow's Hierarchy using a relatively smaller set of needs. The ERG theory attempts to answer the question, what motivates a person to act? and assumes that all human activities are motivated by need. The ERG theory consolidated Maslows five need categories into three levels of need; Existence, Relatedness, and Growth. Each category is described as follows. 1. Existence Needs: include all material and physiological desires (e.g., food, water, air, clothing, safety, physical love and affection). 2. Relatedness Needs: encompass relationships with significant others (e.g., to be recognized and feel secure as part of a group or family)

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3. Growth Needs: impel a person to make creative or productive effects on himself and the environment (e.g., to progress toward ones ideal self)The concepts of existence, relatedness, and growth needs are separate and distinct categories. The concept of prioritizing needs is based on a continuum in terms of their concreteness. Existence needs are the most concrete, and easiest to verify. Relatedness needs are less concrete than existence needs, which depend on a relationship between two or more people. Finally, growth needs are the least concrete in that their specific objectives depend on the uniqueness of each person. Three relationships among different categories, satisfaction-progression, frustration-regression, and satisfaction strengthening, are identified in ERG theory. Satisfaction-progression stands for moving up to higher-level needs based on satisfied needs. Frustration-regression is when a person moves backward from current unsatisfied needs to lower-level needs. The idea of satisfaction strengthening represents strengthening a current level of satisfied needs iteratively. Satisfaction-progression plays an important part in Maslows original concept of a need hierarchy (but not in the ERG theory). In ERG theory, the movement upward from relatedness satisfaction to growth desires does not presume satisfaction of existence needs. However, the movement from existence satisfaction to relatedness desires is necessary according to Maslows theory (i.e., individuals move up the hierarchy as a result of satisfying lower order needs. Frustration-regression identifies ones motivation in explaining fundamental desires. Frustration-regression suggests that an already satisfied need can become active when a higher need cannot be satisfied. Thus, if a person is continually frustrated in his/her attempts to satisfy growth, relatedness needs can resurface as key motivators. Satisfaction-strengthening indicates that an already satisfied need can maintain satisfaction or strengthen lower level needs iteratively when it fails to gratify high-level needs. For instance, imagine that there will be three different parties on Saturday night; however, you can only go based on the several

Party 1 (Existence Needs): The hosts are excellent cooks and take pride in serving guests well;

Needs): There may be some chips and soda, but the hosts and other partygoers are easygoing

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Cognitive Evaluation Theory:

A theory dealing with the effect of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. It assumes that intrinsically motivated behaviour is affected by a person's innate need to feel competent and self-determining in dealing with the environment. The theory asserts that there are two main ways extrinsic rewards affect intrinsic motivation. First, the reward may have a controlling affect by being perceived as the primary reason for participating in an activity. Secondly, a reward may have an informational aspect, which affects the recipient's opinion of his or her own competence. Most rewards have a controlling aspect and an informational aspect. The combined effects may either increase or decrease an individual's intrinsic motivation. Rewards that have mainly a controlling aspect tend to decrease intrinsic motivation.

McClelland's Theory
In the early 1940s, Abraham Maslow created his theory of needs. This identified the basic needs that human beings have, in order of their importance physiological needs; safety needs; and the needs for belonging, self-esteem and "self-actualization". Then, in the early 1960s, David McClelland built on this work by identifying three motivators that we all have. According to McClelland, these motivators are learned (which is why this theory is sometimes called the Learned Needs Theory). McClelland says that, regardless of our gender, culture, or age, we all have three motivating drivers, and one of these will be our dominant motivating driver. This dominant motivator is largely dependent on our culture and life experiences. The three motivators are achievement, affiliation, and power. People will have different characteristics depending on their dominant motivator. These characteristics are as follows:

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Dominant Motivator Achievement

Characteristics of This Person

Has a strong need to set and accomplish challenging goals.

Takes calculated risks to accomplish their goals.

Likes to receive regular feedback on their progress and achievements.

Often likes to work alone. Wants to belong to the group.

Affiliation

Wants to be liked, and will often go along with whatever the rest of the group wants to do.

Favors collaboration over competition. Doesn't like high risk or uncertainty. Wants to control and influence others.

Power

Likes to win arguments.

Enjoys competition and winning. Enjoys status and recognition.

Achievement People motivated by achievement need challenging, but not impossible, projects. They thrive on overcoming difficult problems or situations, so make sure you keep them engaged this way. People motivated by achievement work very effectively either alone or with other high achievers. When providing feedback, give achievers a fair and balanced appraisal. They want to know what they're doing right and wrong so that they can improve.
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Affiliation People motivated by affiliation work best in a group environment, so try to integrate them with a team (versus working alone) whenever possible. They also don't like uncertainty and risk. Therefore, when assigning projects or tasks, save the risky ones for other people. When providing feedback to these people, be personal. It's still important to give balanced feedback, but if you start your appraisal by emphasizing their good working relationship and your trust in them, they'll likely be more open to what you say. Remember that these people often don't want to stand out, so it might be best to praise them in private rather than in front of others. Power Those with a high need for power work best when they're in charge. Because they enjoy competition, they do well with goal-oriented projects or tasks. They may also be very effective in negotiations or in situations in which another party must be convinced of an idea or goal. When providing feedback, be direct with these team members. And keep them motivated by helping them further their

Goal-setting theory:
Refers to the effects of setting goals on subsequent performance. Researcher Edwin Locke found that individuals who set specific, difficult goals performed better than those who set general, easy goals. Locke proposed five basic principles of goal-setting: clarity, challenge, commitment, feedback, and task complexity

Five Principles of Goal Setting To motivate, goals must have: 1. Clarity. 2. Challenge. 3. Commitment.
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4. Feedback. 5. Task complexity. Let's look at each of these in detail. 1. Clarity Clear goals are measurable and unambiguous. When a goal is clear and specific, with a definite time set for completion, there is less misunderstanding about what behaviors will be rewarded. You know what's expected, and you can use the specific result as a source of motivation. When a goal is vague or when it's expressed as a general instruction, like "Take initiative" it has limited motivational value. To improve your or your team's performance, set clear goals that use specific and measurable standards. "Reduce job turnover by 15%" or "Respond to employee suggestions within 48 hours" are examples of clear goals. When you use the SMART acronym to help you set goals, you ensure the clarity of the goal by making it Specific, Measurable and Time-bound. 2. Challenge One of the most important characteristics of goals is the level of challenge. People are often motivated by achievement, and they'll judge a goal based on the significance of the anticipated accomplishment. When you know that what you do will be well received, there's a natural motivation to do a good job. Rewards typically increase for more difficult goals. If you believe you'll be well compensated or otherwise rewarded for achieving a challenging goal, that will boost your enthusiasm and your drive to get it done. Setting SMART goals that are Relevant links them closely to the rewards given for achieving challenging goals. Relevant goals will further the aims of your organization, and these are the kinds of goals that most employers will be happy to reward. When setting goals, make each goal a challenge. If an assignment is easy and not viewed as very important and if you or your employee doesn't expect the accomplishment to be significant then the effort may not be impressive. 3. Commitment Goals must be understood and agreed upon if they are to be effective. Employees are more likely to "buy into" a goal if they feel they were part of creating that goal. The notion of
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participative management rests on this idea of involving employees in setting goals and making decisions. One version of SMART for use when you are working with someone else to set their goals has A and R stand for Agreed and Realistic instead of Attainable and Relevant. Agreed goals lead to commitment. This doesn't mean that every goal has to be negotiated with and approved by employees. It does mean that goals should be consistent and in line with previous expectations and organizational concerns. As long as the employee believes that the goal is consistent with the goals of the company, and believes the person assigning the goal is credible, then the commitment should be there. Interestingly, goal commitment and difficulty often work together. The harder the goal, the more commitment is required. If you have an easy goal, you don't need a lot of motivation to get it done. When you're working on a difficult assignment, you will likely encounter challenges that require a deeper source of inspiration and incentive. As you use goal setting in your workplace, make an appropriate effort to include people in their own goal setting. Encourage employees to develop their own goals, and keep them informed about what's happening elsewhere in the organization. This way, they can be sure that their goals are consistent with the overall vision and purpose that the company seeks.

4. Feedback In addition to selecting the right type of goal, an effective goal program must also include. Feedback provides opportunities to clarify expectations, adjust goal difficulty, and gain recognition. It's important to provide benchmark opportunities or targets, so individuals can determine for themselves how they're doing. These regular progress reports, which measure specific success along the way, are particularly important where it's going to take a long time to reach a goal. In these cases, break down the goals into smaller chunks, and link feedback to these intermediate milestones. SMART goals are Measurable, and this ensures that clear feedback can be provided. With all your goal setting efforts, make sure that you build in time for providing formal feedback. Certainly, informal check-ins are important, and they provide a means of giving regular encouragement and recognition. However, taking the time to sit down and discuss goal
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performance is a necessary factor in long-term performance improvement. See our article on Delegation for more on this.

5. Task Complexity The last factor in goal setting theory introduces two more requirements for success. For goals or assignments that are highly complex, take special care to ensure that the work doesn't become too overwhelming. People who work in complicated and demanding roles probably have a high level of motivation already. However, they can often push themselves too hard if measures aren't built into the goal expectations to account for the complexity of the task. It's therefore important to do the following:

Give the person sufficient time to meet the goal or improve performance. Provide enough time for the person to practice or learn what is expected and required for success. The whole point of goal setting is to facilitate success. Therefore, you want to make sure that the conditions surrounding the goals don't frustrate or inhibit people from accomplishing their objectives. This reinforces the "Attainable" part of SMART.

Equity theory:
Is a theory that attempts to explain relational satisfaction in terms of perceptions of fair/unfair distributions of resources within interpersonal relationships. Considered one of the justice theories, equity theory was first developed in 1963 by John Stacey Adams, a workplace and behavioral psychologist, who asserted that employees seek to maintain equity between the inputs that they bring to a job and the outcomes that they receive from it against the perceived inputs and outcomes of others (Adams, 1965). The belief is that people value fair treatment which causes them to be motivated to keep the fairness maintained within the relationships of their co-workers and the organization. The structure of equity in the workplace is based on the ratio of inputs to outcomes. Inputs are the contributions made by the employee for the organization This can be illustrated by the following equation:

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Inputs and outcomes Inputs Inputs are defined as each participants contributions to the relational exchange and are viewed as entitling him/her to rewards or costs. The inputs that a participant contributes to a relationship can be either assets entitling him/her to rewards or liabilities - entitling him/her to costs. The entitlement to rewards or costs ascribed to each input vary depending on the relational setting. In industrial settings, assets such as capital and manual labor are seen as "relevant inputs" inputs that legitimately entitle the contributor to rewards. In social settings, assets such as physical beauty and kindness are generally seen as assets entitling the possessor to social rewards. Individual traits such as boorishness and cruelty are seen as liabilities entitling the possessor to cost. Inputs typically include any of the following:

Time Effort Loyalty Hard Work Commitment Ability Adaptability Flexibility Tolerance Determination Enthusiasm Personal sacrifice Trust in superiors Support from co-workers and colleagues Skill

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Outcomes Outputs are defined as the positive and negative consequences that an individual perceives a participant has incurred as a consequence of his/her relationship with another. When the ratio of inputs to outcomes is close, than the employee should have much satisfaction with their job. Outputs can be both tangible and intangible. Typical outcomes include any of the following:

Job security Salary Employee benefit Expenses Recognition Reputation Responsibility Sense of achievement Praise Thanks Stimuli

Expectancy Theory of Motivation

Is one of the process theories. I see this theory as a model of behavioral choice, that is, as an explanation of why individuals choose one behavioral option over others. In doing so, it explains the behavioral direction process. It does not attempt to explain what motivates individuals, but rather how they make decisions to achieve the end they value. What follows is a brief summary of this model. EXPECTANCY THEORY COMPONENTS Expectancy theory is comprised of three components: Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valance

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Key elements The Expectancy Theory of Motivation explains the behavioral process of why individuals choose one behavioral option over another. It also explains how they make decisions to achieve the end they value. Vroom introduces three variables within the expectancy theory which are valence (V), expectancy (E) and instrumentality (I). The three elements are important behind choosing one element over another because they are clearly defined: effort-performance expectancy (E>P expectancy), performance-outcome expectancy (P>O expectancy). Three components of Expectancy theory: Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valence 1. Expectancy: Effort Performance (EP) 2. Instrumentality: Performance Outcome (PO) 3. Valence- V(R) Expectancy: Effort Performance (EP) Expectancy is the belief that one's effort (E) will result in attainment of desired performance (P) goals. Usually based on an individual's past experience, self-confidence and the perceived difficulty of the performance standard or goal. Factors associated with the individual's Expectancy perception are self efficacy, goal difficulty, and control. Self efficacy is the persons belief about their ability to successfully perform a particular behavior. Goal difficulty happens when goals are set too high or performance expectations that are made too difficult are most likely to lead to low expectancy . Control is one's perceived control over performance. In order for expectancy to be high, individuals must believe that they have some degree of control over the expected outcome.

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Instrumentality: Performance Outcome (PO) Instrumentality is the belief that a person will receive a reward if the performance expectation is met. This reward may come in the form of a pay increase, promotion, recognition or sense of accomplishment. Instrumentality is low when the reward is the same for all performances given. Factors associated with the individual's instrumentality for outcomes are trust, control and policies. If individuals trust their superiors, they are more likely to believe their leaders promises. When there is a lack of trust in leadership, people often attempt to control the reward system. When individuals believe they have some kind of control over how, when, and why rewards are distributed, Instrumentality tends to increase. Formalized written policies impact the individuals' instrumentality perceptions. Instrumentality is increased when formalized policies associates rewards to performance. Valence- V(R) Valence the value the individual places on the rewards based on their needs, goals, values and Sources of Motivation. Factors associated with the individual's valence for outcomes are values, needs, goals, preferences and Sources of Motivation Strength of an individuals preference for a particular outcome. The valence refers the value the individual personally places on the rewards. -1 0 +1 -1= avoiding the outcome 0= indifferent to the outcome +1=welcomes the outcome In order for the valence to be positive, the person must prefer attaining the outcome to not attaining it. Expectancy Theory of motivation can help managers understand how individuals make decisions regarding various behavioral alternatives. The model below shows the direction of motivation, when behavior is energized: Motivational Force (MF) = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence When deciding among behavioral options, individuals select the option with the greatest amount of motivational force (MF). Expectancy and instrumentality are attitudes (cognitions) that represent an individual's perception of the likelihood that effort will lead to performance
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that will lead to the desired outcomes. These perceptions represent the individuals subjective reality, and may or may not bear close resemblance to actual probabilities. These perceptions are tempered by the individual's experiences (learning theory), observations of others (social learning theory), and self-perceptions. Valence is rooted in an individuals value system.

One example of how this theory can be applied is related to evaluating an employees job performance. Ones performance is a function of the multiplicative relationship between ones motivation and ability [P=f (M*A)] Motivation can be expressed as [M=f (V*E)] or as a function of valence times expectancy. In laymans terms, this is how much someone is invested in something along with how probable or achievable the individual believes the goal is.

Reinforcement Theory:
Behaviorist B.F. Skinner derived the Reinforcement Theory, one of the oldest theories of motivation as way to explain behavior and why we do what we do. The theory may also be known as behaviorism or operant conditioning which is still commonly taught in psychology today. The theory states that "an individuals behavior is a function of its consequences." (Management Study Guide 2013) The science of psychology that is often associated with current era maybe considered inadmissible to those that follow Skinners beliefs. As psychology has frequently been associated with the human mind and the evolution of cognitive awareness, Skinner looked to move in a different direction. By applying his thoughts on adjusting motivation through various stimuli, industries such as business, government, education, prisons, and mental institutions can gain a broader understanding of human behavior. "In understanding why any organism behaves the way it does, Skinner saw no place for dwelling on a persons intentions or goals. For him, it was outward behavior and its environment that mattered. His most important contribution to psychological science was the concept of reinforcement, formalized in his principles of operant conditioning (in contrast to Ivan Pavlovs principles of classical conditioning, which along with J.B. Watsons extreme environmentalism strongly influenced his own thinking). Reinforcement theory has been used in many areas of study including animal training, raising children, and motivating employees in the workplace. Reinforcement theories focus on
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observable behavior rather than personal states, like needs theories do. Reinforcement theory focuses on the environmental factors that contribute to shaping behavior. Simply put, reinforcement theory claims that stimuli are used to shape behaviors. There are four primary approaches to reinforcement theory: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, extinction, and punishment, which will be covered in a later paragraph. Reinforcement theory, which is a form of operant conditioning, includes several components; by analyzing its steps, the Law of Effect and the possible approaches to achieve desired results we can understand the value of the theory through its application within the workplace. Types of Reinforcement According to Huitt & Hummel (1997), four methods are employed in operant conditioning: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment. The table below is derived from the table created by Huitt & Hummel (1997) .

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positive and nagetive reinforcement:

Positive reinforcement: the adding of an appetitive stimulus to increase a certain behavior or response. Example: Father gives candy to his daughter when she picks up her toys. If the frequency of picking up the toys increases or stays the same, the candy is a positive reinforcer.

Positive punishment: the adding of an aversive stimulus to decrease a certain behavior or response. Example: Mother yells at a child when running into the street. If the child stops running into the street the yelling is positive punishment.

Negative reinforcement: the taking away of an aversive stimulus to increase certain behavior or response. Example: Putting ointment on a bug bite to soothe an itch. If using ointment on bug bites increases, the removal of an itch is a negative reinforcer.

Negative punishment (omission training): the taking away of an appetitive stimulus to decrease a certain behavior. Example: A teenager comes home an hour after curfew and the parents take away the teen's cell phone for two days. If the frequency of coming home after curfew decreases, the removal of the phone is negative punishment.

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Criticism:
1. Herzberg Theory of Motivation:
The procedure that Herzberg used is limited by its methodology. When things are going well, people tend to credit themselves. Contrarily they blame future on the extrinsic environment. The reliability of this methodology is questioned. Raters make to interpretations so they may contaminate the findings by interpreting one response in one manner while treating a similar response differently. No overall measure of satisfaction was utilized as a person may dislike a part of a job yet still think the job is acceptable overall. He assumes that a relationship between satisfaction and productivity, but the research methodology he used looked only at satisfaction and not at productivity. Other Criticism: May be method-bound by self-serving bias Some individual differences, like desire for pay, rejected as a motivator. Also, not everyone wants an enriched job. The focus of the approach is the individual job and only limited consideration is given to the wider context in which the job is carried out, particularly social groupings.

2. Maslows Hierarchy of Need Theory :

Researchers have proved that there is lack of hierarchical structure of needs as suggested by Maslow. Some people may have deprived of lower level needs but strive for self actualization. There is lack of direct cause and effect relationship between need and behavior. Sometimes peoples are not aware of their own needs. Measurement of satisfaction of needs is not possible.

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3. Alderfer's ERG Theory

Negative Crticism: Alderfer's ERG Theory is problematic to use as it tends to approach a set of experimental generalities. The theory is difficult to test with our current tools and research methods. Doesn't provide a motivational value for each motivator.

Positive Criticism: 1) The ERG theory is more consistent with our knowledge of in dividable differences among people. Variables such as education, family background and cultural environment can alter the importance or driving force that a group of needs holds for a particular individual. The evidence demonstrates that people in other cultures rank the need categories differently, for instance, demonstrates that people in other cultures rank the need categories differently, for instance, natives of Spain and Japan place social needs before their psychological requirements. This would be consistent with the ERG theory. The ERG theory, therefore, represents a more valid version of need hierarchy. 2) Although there is some evidence to counter the theory's predictive value, most contemporary analysis of work motivation tends to support Alderfer's theory over Maslow's and Herzberg's. Overall, the ERG theory seems to take some of the strong points of the earlier content theories, but is less restrictive and limiting.

4. Criticism of Theory x and theory Y: Theories X and Y seem to represent unrealistic extremes. Most employees (including
managers) fall somewhere in between these poles. Recent studies have questioned the rigidity of the model, yet McGregor's X-Y Theories remain guiding principles to the management to evolve processes which help in organizational development.

Theory X advantages is that workers may be lazy and they may need tough supervision.
Coddling a spoiled child may not work.

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Theory Y managers are obviously the easiest to handle. Since their style of directing is
encouraging, it only becomes a problem when its noticeably disingenuous or ineffective with the team as a whole. Much more difficult to receive, from a feedback perspective, is a strictly Theory X approach.

Theory Y emphasizes creating opportunities, removing obstacles, providing guidance

and encouraging growth. By using these tools, the management can integrate individual goals of employees with those of the Organization.

It is not recommended to pigeon-hole people in the Theory X box or the Theory Y box.
Researches have shown that what needs to be done is to fit people with the most appropriate jobs for them. If someone likes the job he is doing then he will perform well irrespective of the assumptions you make about him. You cannot and should not apply one set of assumptions to fit all situations. Again, the focus should be on individual differences and needs. There are groups of workers who would like to be directed and who are not keen on taking responsibility. Such workers would perform better under autocratic managers.

5. McCellands Acquired Needs Theory:

McClelland proposed that an individuals particular needs are obtained over time as a result of life experiences (Wood et al. p. 146). Most of these needs fall into three general categories of needs which can be class as need for achievement, affiliation or power. The strengths of the McClellands acquired needs theory is that it provides a clear picture for the organization and the managers to know which type of job are suitable for the employees and which types of people that can make the organizations more successful. Apart from that, the strength of McClellands acquired need theory is that it provides an understanding for the managers on how to deal with different types of employees. As we all know, there are three general categories in the McClellands acquired need theory. The manager can actually put the employees to different types of work according to these categories.
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Furthermore, a major problem with afflictive manager is that due to the concern of the well being of the subordinates, he is willing to make exceptions to the companys rule in responding to his employees need in which this action violate one of the bureaucracys first principles, fairness.

6. Equity Theory:
Positive: To date, research that has specifically tested the validity of Adamss equity theory has been fairly supportive. Negative: It only works in the short-term. Employees who perceive themselves as being in an inequitable situation will seek to reduce the inequity either by distorting inputs and/or outcomes in their own minds by directly altering inputs and/or outputs, or by leaving the organization. An employee who believes he is overcompensated may increase his effort. However he may also adjust the values that he ascribes to his own personal inputs. It may be that he or she internalizes a sense of superiority and actually decrease his efforts. Critics argue that a number of demographic and psychological variables affect peoples perceptions of equality. In other words, what a manager feel is equal may be considered unfair by his employees.

7. Criticism of Expectancy Theory:

The strength of expectancy theory is that it is practical, simple, easy to apply and most important is that the theory works also stated that human behavior, expectancy theory explains, is a function of two factors which is the perceived value of the reward that certain behavior yield and the expectation in the doer that certain behavior actually

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yield that reward. Expectancy theory can be translated into five simple steps that can help managers motivate their employees. The five steps include define the expectation, make the work valuable, make the work doable, give regular feedback and reward employees when they meet the expectation. In fact, manager would find these steps very helpful and that manager who practices and follows these steps would be able to motivate the employees. Research evidence so far has not supported the expectancy theory. It is a very complicated theory. In many work situations individuals do not have choices. It is difficult to find out how much value is attributed to various outcomes. It reduces motivation to a logical analysis of value and expectation.

8. Goal-setting Theory:
Positive criticism: By understanding goal setting theory, you can effectively apply the principles to goals that you or your team members set. Locke and Latham's research confirms the usefulness of SMART goal setting, and their theory continues to influence the way we measure performance today. Negative Criticism: There are still some limitations to motivation and goal-setting theory. For example, they say that the goals of the organization are not always the same as the goals of the individual. Perhaps the company's goal is to get workers trained in new safety protocols. However, the manager's bonus depends upon the company's financial performance, not the employee's grasping of the safety procedures. Therefore, the manager may not be motivated to take employees away from their tasks to complete the training. Another limitation is that learning goals do not always foster interest, and interest goals do not always facilitate learning. There also is the problem that individuals are more tempted to take risky actions in pursuit of their goals, which could potentially lead to failure rather than success.

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9. Reinforcement Theory:
Strengths Provides clues to motivation. Unlike Needs Theory of motivation which focused on internal needs, Reinforcement Theory is based on external conditions. Within the workplace, organizational management theorists look to the environment to explain and control people's behavior. Because of this, it may be easier to motivate a group of workers through external factors such as pay raise, promotion, etc. Keeps employees involved. Installing a schedule of reinforcement, such as a variable interval schedule will keep employees on their toes. The employee does not know exactly when a test or performance review is coming, so they cannot afford to work poorly on a given task (Redmond, 2010). Easily applied in organization. Reinforcement Theory deals with learned behaviors, therefore it is easy to apply to organizational management. Upon joining a company, workers deal with certain stimuli, responses, and their consequences. Because the behaviors are rewarded or punished, it can be easy to encourage or change workers' responses by manipulating the stimuli (Operant Conditioning, 2006).

Weaknesses Disregards internal motivation. The reinforcement theory only considers behavior and consequences without considering processes of internal motivation or individual differences Difficult to identify rewards/punishments. One main weakness in dealing with Reinforcement Theory is the difficulty to identify rewards or punishments.Each human being is different and unique, and Reinforcement Theory has to take this into account. A reward that works for one person may not work for someone else. For example, one person may be lacking self-confidence, so higher praise from a manager may act as a reward. If only a raise in pay were the reward in this situation, the lack of self-confidence would still be evident and an increase in productivity would not be present.

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Hard to apply to complicated forms of behavior. It is not equally reliable in all situations. Using it to impact behaviors involved in complicated task work can be problematic. It is easier to reinforce behavior that applies to a simple task because positive and negative behaviors are easier to keep track of and modify. Imposes on freewill. The control and manipulation of rewards in order to change behavior is considered unethical by some.

Affectivity often expires. Even when an acceptable reward or punishment is met, they often become less meaningful over time. The reward of praise seen above, for instance, becomes much less desirable after the person receives a boost in self-confidence. Now, the manager may have to move on to another reward to keep the motivation fresh.

Can be complicated. The punishment aspect of Reinforcement Theory can be difficult to apply well. For punishment to be effective, a few guidelines may be required:

1. The punishment should be immediate. 2. The punishment should be intense. 3. The punishment should be unavoidable. 4. The punishment should be consistent The last guideline - the punishment should be consistent - may be the most important. If the punishment is not consistent, the employee will not associate his or her error with the punishment. When there is consistency, the employee will try to avoid the punishment by fixing their error and proceeding in the fashion the manager would like.

Contrast:
Content theories focus on factors within the individual that lead to motivation. The process theories focus on the dynamics of motivation & how the motivation process takes place Maslow and Herzberg Theory of Motivation:

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1. Meaning : Maslow's theory is based on the concept of human needs and their satisfaction. Hertzberg's theory is based on the use of motivators which include achievement, recognition and opportunity for growth 2. Basis of Theory: Maslow's theory is based on the hierarchy of human needs. He identified five sets of human needs (on priority basis) and their satisfaction in motivating employees. Hertzberg refers to hygiene factors and motivating factors in his theory. Hygiene factors are dissatisfies while motivating factors motivate subordinates. Hierarchical arrangement of needs is not given. 3. Nature of Theory: Maslow's theory is rather simple and descriptive. The theory is based long experience about human needs. Hertzberg's theory is more prescriptive. It suggests the motivating factors which can be used effectively. This theory is based on actual information collected by Hertzberg by interviewing 200 engineers and accountants. 4. Applicability of Theory: Maslow's theory is most popular and widely cited theory of motivation and has wide applicability. It is mostly applicable to poor and developing countries where money is still a big motivating factor. Herzberg's theory is an extension of Maslow's theory of motivation. Its applicability is narrow. It is applicable to rich and developed countries where money is less important motivating factor. 5. Descriptive or Prescriptive:
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Maslow's theory or model is descriptive in nature. Herzberg's theory or model is prescriptive in nature. 6. Motivators: According to Maslow's model, any need can act as motivator provided it is not satisfied or relatively less satisfied. In the dual factor model of Hertzberg, hygiene factors (lower level needs) do not act as motivators. Only the higher order needs (achievement, recognition, challenging work) act as motivators.

Maslow and Alderfers ERG Theory:

Alderfer does not disagree with Maslow's hierarchy of needs completely. He suggests that as more concrete needs are satisfied, less concrete need become more important. Instead of the five deeds that Maslow believes should be satisfied, Alderfer says there are only three important needs. Besides establishing only three, instead of Maslow's original five needs, the second Difference between Maslow and Alderfer is that Alderfer considered that people could move around the hierarchy meeting their needs. People do not start at the bottom and work their way up. People might be meeting their relatedness or social needs Whilst tired or hungry. They might meet their need for personal growth by studying alone, even though they feel lonely. Alderfer also argued that people could go backwards in meeting needs. If people are Frustrated in meeting their higher order needs - no recognition of their work, feeling unvalued, they may start meeting lower order needs even though these are already satisfied. People may eat too much, drink too much, concentrate on making money etc. to compensate themselves for not achieving the higher order needs. Similarities to Maslows Hierarchy:

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Studies have shown that the middle levels of Maslows Hierarchy have some overlap; Alderfer addressed this issue by reducing the number of levels to three. The ERG needs can be mapped to those of Maslows theory as follows: Existence: Physiological and safety needs. Relatedness: Social and external esteem needs. Growth: Self- actualization and internal esteem needs.

Like Maslows model, the ERG theory is hierarchical existence needs have priority over relatedness needs, which have priority over growth. Contrast of Expectancy and Equity Theory: When Adams equity theory Vrooms expectancy theory is compared, there are some similarities. First, both theories have a commonality in that it has to do with the individuals perception of what is going on in the inter-relationship with others of the group, instead of the actual reality concerning the situation. Second, when the inputs to the social situation change, the outputs, or results of the social situation, also change. However, expectancy theory had to do more with the expectations and rational responses wherein equity theory had to do more with rational and irrational behavior of the individual in the group and those results.

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