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Table of Contents
Structure Nucleus Endoplasmic Reticulum Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Golgi Body Lysosomes Plasma Membrane Centrioles Cell Walls Ribosomes Mitochondrion Drawing of Mitochondrion Chloroplast Drawing of Chloroplast Bibliography Page Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 16

The Cell Nucleus

The nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear envelope which consists of a double membrane. The envelope is made of proteins and lipids and is surrounded by the endoplasmic reticulum. The molecules are transported between the cytoplasm and the nucleus through the nuclear pores. The nuclear pores only allow certain materials in and out of the nucleus. The nucleus stores the cells hereditary information in long strands in the form of chromatin. This contains DNA which provides the genetic information required for the production of cell components and the reproduction of life. The nucleus is responsible for the control of the cells growth and reproduction. Another function of the nucleus is the replication of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). It also controls the expression of genes during the cell cycle.

Endoplasmic Reticulum
Endoplasmic reticulum accounts for approximately 50% of the total membrane surface in an animal cell. The endoplasmic reticulum is an arrangement of tubules and flattened sacs that serve various functions in the cell. Endoplasmic reticulum is found in both animal and plant cells. It is a very important site for the manufacture of many proteins and lipids. These are made for the purpose of exporting to other organelles. There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum: Rough endoplasmic reticulum Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

Rough endoplasmic reticulum is composed of convoluted flat sealed sacs that are continuous with the nuclear membrane. The endoplasmic reticulum is defined as rough because ribosomes are attached to its outer surface. These ribosomes are called membrane bound and they are firmly attached to the surface in contact with the cytoplasm. Rough endoplasmic reticulum is occurs throughout the cell but its density is higher near the nucleus and the Golgi apparatus. Rough endoplasmic reticulum is in highest concentration in cells responsible for producing proteins (enzymes, amino acids). Ribosomes on the rough endoplasmic reticulum are responsible for the assembly of many proteins. The rough endoplasmic reticulum, working with membrane bound ribosomes, takes polypeptides and amino acids from the cytoplasm and continues protein assembly. Proteins are produced for the plasma membrane, Golgi apparatus, secretory vesicles, plant vacuoles, lysosomes and the endoplasmic reticulum itself. Some of the proteins are transferred into the lumen (space inside the endoplasmic reticulum) whilst others are processed within the rough endoplasmic reticulum membrane itself. In the lumen, some proteins have sugar groups added to them to form glycoproteins. Others have metal groups added to them. Four polypeptide chains come together in the rough endoplasmic reticulum to form haemoglobin. These proteins enter the channels of the rough endoplasmic reticulum where vesicles are created to leave.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is composed of a network of tubules separate from rough endoplasmic reticulum. It is evenly distributed throughout the cytoplasm. It is not studded with ribosomes hence it is called smooth endoplasmic reticulum. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is mainly concerned with the manufacture of lipids and carbohydrates. It sometimes plays a part in the metabolism of lipids and other associated products. It also produces the phospholipids and cholesterol used in membrane formation. It also serves as a transitional area for vesicles that transport products of endoplasmic reticulum to various destinations. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is also engaged in the production of steroids (testosterone and oestrogen) in the adrenal cortex and endocrine glands. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum acts as a storage organelle. It stores steroids and glycogen. It also stores ions in solution that the cell may need at a later time. In muscles the smooth ER assists in the contraction of muscle cells. In brain cells it synthesizes male and female hormones. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is also involved in detoxifying organic chemicals. It converts them to water soluble products which are safer. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is found in large amounts in liver cells where it detoxifies products of natural metabolism and ethanol from excess alcohol drinking.

The Golgi Apparatus

The Golgi apparatus is a pack of membrane bound vesicles which comprises of five to eight sacs called cisternae stacked in a bent, semicircular shape, which are linked into a single complex by tubular connections. The stack of larger vesicles is surrounded by smaller vesicles containing packaged macromolecules for transport to other organelles. The Golgi apparatus is usually located near the cell nucleus. The Golgi complex or Golgi apparatus is responsible for manufacturing, warehousing, and shipping the cells chemical products. It modifies proteins and lipids that have been built in the endoplasmic reticulum and prepares them for transport outside of the cell or to other locations in the cell. When the processing is complete, the products leave the Golgi apparatus in vesicles which transports it to its final destination. The products are secretions of proteins or glycoproteins that are part of the cell's function in the organism. Other products are returned to the endoplasmic reticulum or they undergo maturation to become lysosomes.

Lysosomes
A lysosome is a spherical specialized vesicle contained by a single membrane. A lysosome contains a wide variety of enzymes. Lysosomes are formed by the Golgi apparatus. They have a highly acidic pH. Lysosomes have two basic functions. They digest macromolecules. The lysosome releases its digestive enzymes and breaks down the macromolecule into smaller particles. The particles diffuse throughout the lysosome. The lysosome then distributes the particles throughout the cell where it is stored for later use. Lysosomes cause old cell organelles to self digest by the process of autolysis. The lysosome attaches itself to the old organelle and releases its enzymes. It digests the organelle and helps it to catalyze itself.

Plasma Membrane
The plasma membrane consists of both lipids and proteins in the form of a phospholipid bilayer. It is about 7 nm thick. The plasma membrane is responsible for separating the contents of the cell from their external environments. It also regulates the passage of substances in and out of the cell. The plasma membrane is partially permeable as it allows amino acids, glucose, fatty acids, glycerol and ions to pass through but it also exercises some control over the substances it lets in. It also acts as receptor sites for recognizing hormones, neurotransmitters and other chemicals, from inside and outside the cell. Phospholipids help keep the contents of the cell and the external environment distinct as the inner part of the phospholipid bilayer detests water. Therefore the hydrophilic phosphate heads of the phospholipid bilayer face outwards inside and outside the cell whereas the hydrophobic tails face inward. Most protein molecules float about in the bilayer. Channel proteins are involved in the transport of polar molecules through the phospholipid bilayer.

Centrioles
Centrioles are small hollow cylinders that occur in pairs in animal cells. Plant cells usually do not contain centrioles. Each centriole is made of nine bundles of microtubules arranged in a ring. They are usually found near the nucleus. The centrioles only appear during cell division; they are not visible when the cell is not dividing. Before each division the centrioles duplicate themselves and migrate to opposite poles of the spindle (where chromosomes line up). The spindle is made of microtubules using centrioles. These microtubules control separation of chromosomes by a sliding effect. Centrioles are needed to organize the centrosome in which they are embedded. In non-dividing cells, a centriole attaches to the inner side of the plasma membrane to form a basal body (cilia and flagella).

Cell walls
Cell walls are made primarily out of cellulose, the most abundant macromolecule on the earth. Cell walls are found only in plant cells. The cell wall surrounds the plasma membrane of plant cells. It provides high tensile strength and protection against mechanical and osmotic stress. The cell wall acts similarly to a skeleton in most animals. It gives the plant its shape and helps to hold up the plant against external influences. A cell wall is permeably. It contains small holes which allow substances to enter the cell. Cell walls are rigid and resistant to expansions. This is allows for the development of turgidity in the cell when water enters due to osmosis. Cell walls develop a coating of waxy cutin which protects from the risk of water loss and infections. Some cell walls are modified storage organs for hemicelluloses. Cellulose plays an integral role in metabolism as some of the proteins in the cell wall are enzymes for transport.

Ribosomes
All living cells contain ribosomes. Ribosomes are comprised of RNA and protein. They are tiny organelles about 20 nm in diameter. They are found in large numbers throughout the cytoplasm of cells. Ribosomes exist both suspended freely in the cytoplasm and bound to the endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes exist in higher density in cells that produce a lot of protein. Ribosomes are composed of two subunits: a large subunit and a small subunit. They are the site of protein synthesis. Free ribosomes generally make proteins that will function in the cytoplasm while bound ribosomes make proteins that are secreted from the cell or include in its membrane.

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Mitochondrion
All living cells contain mitochondria. Mitochondria are the power houses of cells. They convert energy into forms that can be used by the cell. They are the sites of cellular respiration which generates energy for cell activity. Mitochondria are rod-shaped organelles. A mitochondrion is bounded by a double membrane. Each of these membranes is a phospholipid bilayer with proteins embedded in it. The inner membrane has many folds called cristae while the outer layer is smooth. Each crista enhances the surface area of the mitochondrion to enhance the yield of cellular respiration. The mitochondria release energy from oxygen during respiration. The double membranes divide the mitochondrion into two distinct parts: the inter-membrane space and the mitochondrial matrix. Most of the steps of cellular respiration occur in the matrix because it has a high concentration of enzymes. Mitochondria are almost independent of the cell. They are only reliant on the cell to replicate and grow. They contain their own DNA and ribosomes and therefore can make their own proteins.

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DRAWING OF MITOCHONDRION

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Chloroplast
Chloroplasts are disk-shaped structures ranging from 5 to 10 micrometers in length. Chloroplasts are specialized organelles found in all higher plant cells. Chloroplasts are the food producers of the cell. They are only found in plant cells and some protists. Animal cells do not have chloroplasts. These organelles contain chlorophyll which is responsible for the plant's green color and its ability to absorb energy from sunlight. This energy is used to convert water and carbon dioxide into food by the biochemical process of photosynthesis. A byproduct of photosynthesis is oxygen which is needed for cellular respiration. Chloroplasts have a double outer membrane. Within the stroma are other membrane structures the thylakoids. Thylakoids appear in stacks called "grana" (singular is granum). The chemical reactions of photosynthesis occur within the stroma. This is where the plants food (sugars) is created. The granum has chlorophyll molecules on its surface. This is where sunlight is trapped. The lamella acts like the skeleton of the chloroplast. It keeps all of the grana safely away from each other and maximizes the efficiency of the chloroplast. Chloroplasts like mitochondria have their own DNA and ribosomes. They also play a part in metabolic reactions.

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DRAWING OF CHLOROPLAST

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DRAWING OF ANIMAL CELL

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