& PC Hinge Materials Testing and AR Laser Diode Coating

Jorge Eduardo Sanchez 97307451

Prof. Ho-Chiao Chuang, Ph.D.

ABSTRACT

Project Name:

PC Hinge Materials Testing and AR Laser Diode Coating Mechanical Engineering Department Degree: Bachelor in Science Advisor: Prof. Ho-Chiao Chuang

School: National Taipei University of Technology Graduation Time: June 2012 Student Name: Jorge Sanchez

Keywords: Hinge, Youngs modulus, Poisson ratio, material properties, Boson, Bose-Einstein Condensate, Reflectivity.

The focus of this independent study research is divided into two. The first was done in National Taipei University of Technology, Mechanical Engineering Department under the guidance of Prof. Ho-Chiao Chuang, while the second was done in joint research with Institute of Atomic and Molecular Sciences, Academia Sinica from Taiwan under the guidance of Prof. Ho-Chiao Chuang and Dr. Ming-Shien Chang, Ph.D. In response that new generation computers are gradually reducing their size, the diameter of the structures of the hinges used by NB computers must also follow, but the hinge strength may also become smaller due to the reduction of diameter, and result in the phenomenon of insufficient strength. In addition, the disk-type spring that is source of the torque may also be insufficient due to the narrowing of the structure. Therefore it is necessary to direct a structural analysis of the hinge for the existing laptops, so that we can identify the stress concentration point. The stress concentration point is usually the point where material damage behavior is encountered the easiest, and if we can find the point where breaking occurs most often, we can improve the design of the existing structure to enhance the strength of the hinge structure. Second, the structure of the hinge is too complicated, the traditional mechanics of materials analysis methods and formulas are no longer suitable for analysis of a wide arrange of hinge design. In recent years, finite element analysis methods have been widely applied in various fields, such as: electronics, machinery, aviation, and so on. Therefore, one of this independent study projects focus is to test hinge materials, acquired from cooperate manufacturers, by means of tensile testing, and then obtain the materials
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special properties, such as: Youngs modulus, Poisson ratio, yield strength, tensile strength and so on. The experimental results may be entered into the subsequent finite element analysis software; the objective is to enter the materials real parameters, to make the structural analysis simulation more realistic. The 2nd focus of this independent study is to help in the further research of the Bose-Einstein condensate. This is a state of matter of a dilute gas weakly interacting bosons (subatomic particles that obey the Bose-Einstein statistics), confined in an external potential and cooled down to temperatures very near absolute zero (0 K or -273.15 C). Under these conditions, a large number of bosons occupy the lowest quantum state of the external potential, at which point quantum effects become apparent at macroscopic scale. This state of matter was predicted by Satyendra Nath Bose and Albert Einstein in 1924~1925. Then, 70 years later, the 1st gaseous condensate was produced by Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman in 1995 at the University of Colorado (Boulder) NIST-JILA lab, and because of this, along with Wolfgang Ketterle of MIT, they received the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics. We designed and have constructed a vacuum chamber, where Anti Reflecting Coating will be applied to laser diodes, in order to reduce the reflectivity of the laser diodes surface to make effective the injection lock. This creates a desired wavelength of light inside a lasers pumping medium, and may reduce surface reflection coefficient to less than 0.1%. We expect to obtain certain desired working properties after this process, which will allow us to continue our project. We hope that through our research we can find significant applications to this theory.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost I would like to thank God. I would never have done this study without the faith I have in you, the Almighty. I would like to thank my parents, Gloria Iveth Sanchez and Juan Carlos Bonilla, my sisters Joanna Iveth Bonilla, Karla Ines Bonilla, and Kelly Gabriela Bonilla; and my entire family for their love, support, patience and understanding during my 5 years of studying abroad. I owe my deepest gratitude to my advisor, Professor Ho-Chiao Chuang, Ph.D., for letting me carry out this study. Without his support and comprehension, this study would have never been carried out. Special thanks to Institute of Atomic and Molecular Sciences, Academia Sinica Dr. Ming-Shien Chang, for without him, I would not be able to understand and put into practice some of the principles presented in this thesis. I am indebted to many friends and classmates for the invaluable support during my studies in this country and in this University. A special mention to my beloved friends Christian Reyes, Francisco Garcia, Jose Pagoada and Olvin Castillo; to my classmates , , for helping me during my tough times; my senior and my junior , for thanks to them I was able to work and present results during the course of this research; and everyone else involved at the Department of Mechanical Engineering at National Taipei University of Technology.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT... 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS 5 LIST OF TABLES... 7 LIST OF FIGURES. 8 CHAPTER 1: Introduction.. 10 1.1 Motivation and Background. 10 1.2 Research Objective... 11 1.3 Methodology 13 1.4 Organization of the Thesis 13 CHAPTER 2: Basic Principles 14 2.1 Tensile Testing.. 14 2.1.1 Youngs Modulus.. 14 2.1.2 Yield Strength and Yield Point.....15 2.1.3 Ultimate Tensile Strength and Breaking Strength 16 2.1.4 Poissons Ratio. 16 2.1.5 Strain Gauge Basic Principles.. 16 2.2 Hardness Test Basic Principles. 18 2.2.1 Brinell Scale BHN. 18 2.2.2 Rockwell Scale HR... 19 2.2.3Vickers Hardness Test HV. 21 2.3 AR Coating... 22 2.3.1 Bose-Einstein Condensate. 22 2.3.2 AR Coating Basic Principles. 25 2.3.3 Laser Diode Basic Principles.... 28 2.3.4 Quartz Microbalance System 29 2.3.5 Vacuum Chamber System. 38 CHAPTER 3: Tensile Testing in depth... 41 3.1 Experiments Purpose and Principles... 41 3.2 Experiments Equipment.. 41 3.2.1 Universal Testing Machine... 41 3.2.2 Strain Measurement Equipment.... 43
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3.2.3 Strain Gauge.. 45 3.2.4 Specimen Measurements.. 47 3.3 Experiment Procedure.. 47 3.4 Results.. 54 3.4.1 SUM 23. 55 3.4.2 SUM 43. 67 CHAPTER 4: AR Coating in depth. 77 4.1 Experiments Purpose and Principles........... 77 4.2 Experiments Equipment.. 78 4.2.1 Vacuum Chamber. 78 4.2.2 Quartz Microbalance. 82 4.2.3 Turbo Pump.. 85 4.2.3 Multimeter 88 4.3 Experiment Procedure.. 89 4.4 Results.. 91 CHAPTER 5: Conclusions and Recommendations. 93 5.1 Conclusions... 93 5.2 Recommendations. 93 REFERENCES 94

LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1 Rockwell Hardness Test Scale....................................................... 20 Table 2-2 Z-Ratios for Different Materials..................................... 33 Table 2-3 Classifications of Vacuum.. 39 Table 3-1 Chun Yen Testing Machine Specs.. 42 Table 3-2 Vishay Micro-Measurements Model P3 Strain Indicator and Recorder Specs.. 44 Table 3-3 Specifications for Round Bar.. 47 Table 3-4 Specifications for Strain Gauge.. 48 Table 3-5 Mechanical Properties of SUM 23 Untreated. 55 Table 3-6 Mechanical Properties of SUM 23 Nickel.. 58 Table 3-7 Mechanical Properties of SUM23 Black Surface Material 63 Table 3-8 Mechanical Properties of SUM 43 Untreated. 67 Table 3-9 Mechanical Properties of SUM 43 Nickel.. 70 Table 3-10 Mechanical Properties of SUM 43 Black Surface Material.. 73 Table 4-1 Inficon SQM-160 Rate/Thickness Monitor Specs.. 83 Table 4-2 Pfeiffer TCP 015 Electronic Drive Specs... 85 Table 4-3 Granville Phillips 375 Convectron Vacuum Pressure Controller Specs 87 Table 4-4 Keithley Model 2000 6-1/2-Digit Digital Multimeter Specs.. 88

LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 1-1 Notebook Computer Hinge 11 Fig. 1-2 Basic Structure of Laser. 11 Fig. 1-3 Comparison between LED and Laser Diode. 12 Fig. 1-4 External Cavity Design. 12 Fig. 2-1 Stress-Strain Curve 14 Fig. 2-2 Stress-Strain Curve Comparison on Metals.. 15 Fig. 2-3 Basic Structure of Strain Gauge 17 Fig. 2-4 Strain Gauge Attached to Wheatstone Bridge... 18 Fig. 2-5 Brinell Indentation 18 Fig. 2-6 Brinell Hardness Tester 18 Fig. 2-7 Rockwell Indentation 19 Fig. 2-8 Rockwell Hardness Tester. 19 Fig. 2-9 Vickers Indentation 22 Fig. 2-10 Vickers Hardness Tester.. 22 Fig. 2-11 Bose-Einstein Condensate at different scales. 23 Fig. 2-12 Super Conductor.. 24 Fig. 2-13 Simple Model for Light in Glass Medium.. 25 Fig. 2-14 Simple Model for Light in Glass Medium after AR Coating. 26 Fig. 2-15 Light Passing through AR Coating and Glass. 27 Fig. 2-16 Lens without and with AR Coating..27 Fig. 2-17 Laser Diode. 28 Fig. 2-18 Tunable Laser Basic Configuration. 28 Fig. 2-19 Light Spectrum. 29 Fig. 2-20 Front and Back Panel of SQM-160.. 29 Fig. 2-21 QCM Crystals.. 31 Fig. 2-22 SQM-160 Oscillator. 31 Fig. 2-23 Oscillator Circuit.. 32 Fig. 2-24 Vacuum Evaporation System.. 39 Fig. 2-25 Turbo Pump. 39 Fig. 2-26 Control and Measurement Equipment 40 Fig. 2-27 Complete System. 40 Fig. 3-1 Universal Testing Machine 41 Fig. 3-2 Diagram for System Connections.. 42 Fig. 3-3 Input Connections for Strain Gauge...43 Fig. 3-4 Vishay Micro-Measurements Model P3 Strain Indicator and Recorder 43 Fig. 3-5 Inner Connections. 45 Fig. 3-6 Tensile Specimen... 47 Fig. 3-7 Actual Tensile Specimen47 Fig. 3-8 Other Materials Used. 48 Fig. 3-9 Specimen-Strain Gauge Process........ 49 Fig. 3-10 Specimen-Tensile Testing Process. 53
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Fig. 3-11 SUM 23 Untreated Material. 55 Fig. 3-12 Stress-Strain Diagrams for #7 and #10 Round Bar.. 56 Fig. 3-13 Cut-Off Area of #7 and #10 Round Bar. 57 Fig. 3-14 SUM 23 Nickel Material.. 58 Fig. 3-15 Stress-Strain Diagrams for #1, #2, #3 and #4 Round Bar60 Fig. 3-16 Cut-Off Area of #1, #2, #3 and #4 Round Bar. 62 Fig. 3-17 SUM 23 Black Surface Material.. 63 Fig. 3-18 Stress-Strain Diagrams for #1, #2 and #3 Round Bar.. 65 Fig. 3-19 Cut-Off Area of #1, #2 and #3 Round Bar.. 66 Fig. 3-20 SUM 43 Untreated Material.67 Fig. 3-21 Stress-Strain Diagrams for #1 and #5 Round Bar 68 Fig. 3-22 Cut-Off Area of #1 and #5 Round Bar. 69 Fig. 3-23 SUM 43 Nickel Material.. 70 Fig. 3-24 Stress-Strain Diagrams for #4 and #5 Round Bar 71 Fig. 3-25 Cut-Off Area of #4 and #5 Round Bar. 72 Fig. 3-26 SUM 43 Black Surface Material. 73 Fig. 3-27 Stress-Strain Diagrams for #3 and #5 Round Bar 74 Fig. 3-28 Cut-Off Area of #3 and #5 Round Bar 75 Fig. 4-1 BEC Apparatus.. 77 Fig. 4-2 Vacuum Chamber Main Body... 78 Fig. 4-3 Thermocouple.79 Fig. 4-4 Filament Boat Clamp Design 79 Fig. 4-5 Cover Assembly 80 Fig. 4-6 Upper Cover Inner Assembly 80 Fig. 4-7 Diagram of Upper Cover Connections.. 81 Fig. 4-8 Feed Through Diagram.. 81 Fig. 4-9 Fully Assembled Chamber. 82 Fig. 4-10 Inficon SQM-160. 82 Fig. 4-11 Sigma Instruments Remote Oscillator. 84 Fig. 4-12 SQM-160 Connections Diagram.. 84 Fig. 4-13 Pfeiffer TCP 015 Electronic Drive.. 85 Fig. 4-14 Connections Diagram for Pfeiffer TCP 015.... 86 Fig. 4-15 Granville Phillips 375 Convectron.. 86 Fig. 4-16 Dimensions of Convectron.. 87 Fig. 4-17 Keithley Model 2000 6-1/2-Digit Digital Multimeter. 88 Fig. 4-18 Checking for Leaks Using Alcohol. 89 Fig. 4-19 Convectron Attached to System.. 89 Fig. 4-20 Multimeter Connections.. 90 Fig. 4-21 Simulation Mode.. 90 Fig. 4-22 AR Coating Comparison for Laser Diodes.. 91 Fig. 4-23 Before AR Coating.. 92 Fig. 4-24 After AR Coating. 92

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Motivation and Background
In response that new generation computers are gradually reducing their size, the diameter of the structures of the hinges used by NB computers must also follow, but the hinge strength may also become smaller due to the reduction of diameter, and result in the phenomenon of insufficient strength. In addition, the disk-type spring that is source of the torque may also be insufficient due to the narrowing of the structure. Therefore it is necessary to direct a structural analysis of the hinge for the existing laptops, so that we can identify the stress concentration point. The stress concentration point is usually the point where material damage behavior is encountered the easiest, and if we can find the point where breaking occurs most often, we can improve the design of the existing structure to enhance the strength of the hinge structure. Second, the structure of the hinge is too complicated, the traditional mechanics of materials analysis methods and formulas are no longer suitable for analysis of a wide arrange of hinge design. In recent years, finite element analysis methods have been widely applied in various fields, such as: electronics, machinery, aviation, and so on. Therefore, to meet the need of the industry, and with the purpose of reducing design time, how to design a notebook computer hinge without compromising mechanical stability and materials hardness, which will operate equally under equal conditions. In other words, be able to meet the needs of the size decreasing NB computers market, as the needs for this kind of accessories will increase in the near future. If we take into consideration the traditional ways of design, we seek to reduce the costs of use of machinery and molding by applying Finite Element Analysis methods to our study, and also increase the flexibility of designing methods. The second project was brought in by Prof. Chuang, and it is to help in the further research of the Bose-Einstein condensate. This is a state of matter of a dilute gas weakly interacting bosons (subatomic particles that obey the Bose-Einstein statistics), confined in an external potential and cooled down to temperatures very near absolute zero (0 K or -273.15 C). Under these conditions, a large number of bosons occupy the lowest quantum state of the external potential, at which point quantum effects become apparent at macroscopic scale. This state of matter was predicted by Satyendra Nath Bose and Albert Einstein in 1924~1925. Then, 70 years later, the 1st gaseous condensate was produced by Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman in 1995 at the University of Colorado (Boulder) NIST-JILA lab, and because of this, along with Wolfgang Ketterle of MIT; they received the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics.

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We wish to investigate the properties of Anti Reflecting Coating on laser diodes. Hopefully we will be able to achieve the desired effect of reducing the surface reflection coefficient and find applications for it.

1.2 Research Objective

We wish to analyze the normal composition of the notebook computers hinge, at which point in the assembly is clearly the weakest, and at this time in the assembly the strength and durability are influenced. The main point is to see if we can affect the normal operation and work life. The objective of this thesis is to present the results of the material properties under tensile testing, find the mechanical properties, and after using finite element analysis determine what material is the best for our purposes.

Fig. 1-1 Notebook Computer Hinge For our second research, we wish to produce and analyze laser diodes with anti-reflective coating and test its properties and applications. When semi-conductor laser has been submitted to current, it will produce resonance inside it, and light will be stimulated to come out. Please refer to figure 1-2 for the basic structure of a laser.

1. Gain Medium 2. Laser Pumping Energy 3. High Reflector 4. Output Coupler 5. Laser Beam Fig. 1-2 Basic Structure of a Laser
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But when the laser diode generates light, but the laser diode cant produce light on itself, it must wait for the current to be higher than certain value, which is called the critical current. Until the light goes over this threshold, then it is considered laser light, if not it is just considered as a common LED light source. Please refer to figure 1-3.

Fig. 1-3 Comparison between LED and Laser Diode

As we can see from figure 1-3, all of the light that goes over the critical current is laser light, and so the external cavity semi-conductor laser that we built needs Anti-Reflective Coating, because the method we want to use needs an external cavity laser that has been covered with AR Coating and a Diffraction Grating. We use this configuration first by shooting the laser to the grating and this will be shot back to the laser, creating the external resonance cavity, which is shown in figure 1-4.

Fig. 1-4 External Cavity Design

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Two configurations are shown, the Littrow Configuration and the Littman-Metcalf Configuration. The Littrow configuration contains a collimating lens and a diffraction grating as the end mirror. The first order diffracted beam provides optical feedback to the laser diode which has AR Coating. The emission wavelength can be turned by rotating the diffraction grating. A disadvantage is that it also changes the direction of the output beam. In the Littman-Metcalf configuration the grating orientation is fixed, and an additional mirror is used to reflect the first order beam back to the laser diode. The wavelength can be turned by rotating that mirror. This configuration offers a fixed direction of the output beam and also tends to exhibit smaller line width, as the wavelength selectivity is stronger. A disadvantage is that zero order reflection of the beam reflected by the tuning mirror is lost, so that the output power is less than that of a Littrow laser.

1.3 Methodology
The aim of this research is to find the mechanical properties of materials after being subjected to tensile testing through finite element analysis observations, and determine what material is best for our purposes, taking into consideration the strength and durability of the material, among other properties; to find use and applications for the AR coated laser diodes to further improve the grasp of the Bose-Einstein condensation working principles.

1.4 Organization of the Thesis

The research paper includes five chapters. 1. Chapter 1 explains the motivation, background, objective and methodology of this study. 2. Chapter 2 explains the working principles and basic knowledge needed to understand this study. 3. Chapter 3 explains the tensile testing in detail, steps, methods and results. 4. Chapter 4 explains the AR coating in detail, steps, methods and results. 5. Chapter 5 is the conclusions taken from the results shown in chapter 3 and 4 and recommendations done after arranging and critical thinking.

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Chapter 2: BASICS THEORIES

2.1 Tensile Testing
After a specimen is tested with the use of tensile testing, we can get the Stress-Strain Curve using the relation between tension and displacement. Typical curves are shown in Fig. 2-1.

(a) Ductile materials Fig. 2-1 Stress-Strain Curve

(b) Brittle materials

The curve is unique for each material and is found by recording the amount of deformation at distinct intervals of tensile or compressive loads. Thanks to the use of the Stress-Strain curve, we can get very useful information, such as:

2.1.1 Youngs Modulus (E)

As shown in Fig. 2-1, as long as the external load is not greater than the Proportional Limit, the Stress () and Strain () remain as a linear relation, fulfilling Hookes Law: = E The slope is the constant factor, the inverse of the modulus of elasticity E, also called Youngs modulus. When the external load goes over the proportional limit, the stress-strain relationship doesnt follow the linear relation anymore, but the deformation remains flexible. When the load is released, the deformation is completely eliminated, and the specimen goes back to its original state. This is called
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Elastic Deformation. When the external load goes over the Elastic limit, only then does the specimen presents Plastic Deformation. This type of deformation which is irreversible, even when the load is removed, comes after the material does under elastic deformation, so this means the object will first come part way to its original shape. Common metals and ceramics have roughly the same elastic limits.

2.1.2 Yield Strength and Yield Point

Some materials display very evident yield phenomena, while some materials dont, as shown in Fig. 2-2. After we exceed the elastic limit, if we continue to exert load, when we arrive to a certain value which differs under different materials and external conditions, there is sudden decrease in stress, and this is called the Yield Strength, and can be defined as the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically, using the equation:

yield =
Where P is the tension force and Ao is the original cut-off area. The stress remain at a certain value after the decrease, but the strain increases, this phenomena can be easily appreciated when studying the behavior of common Carbon Steel, Fig.2-2 (a), but most metals (like Aluminum, Copper, or High Steel Carbon) dont display this kind of behavior, as shown in Fig. 2-2 (b). Arriving to this point is very difficult, and the most commonly used method for this is to add a 0.2% or 0.002 offset yield strength to the curve. This point is held constant on the strain axis of the curve, and from the 0.002 position, we draw a straight line parallel to the linear relationship line, the point at where this line and the stress-strain curve intercept is the point we take as the 0.2% offset yield strength.

(a)Evident

(b) Non-evident

Fig.2-2 Stress-Strain Curve Comparison on Metals

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2.1.3 Ultimate Tensile Strength and Breaking Strength

After materials undergo yield, they keep lending strength, and hardening phenomena occurs (work hardening), on the material and the external load increases. When it has reached the highest point, this is called the Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS), as shown in Fig.2-1. The UTS is defined as:

UTS =
Where Pmax is the load at the materials ultimate tensile strength point, and Ao is the original cut-off area. For brittle materials, the ultimate tensile strength is the most important mechanical property; for ductile materials, the ultimate tensile strength is not commonly used for industrial and designing purposes, because upon arriving to this value, the material already has forgone great plastic deformation. After the specimen goes through UTS, there will be necking phenomena, which is a mode of tensile deformation where relatively large amounts of strain localize disproportionately in a small region of the material. It results from instability during tensile deformation when a materials cross -sectional area decreases by a greater proportion than the material strain hardens. The specimen continues to elongate until it finally breaks, and the load at this point is called Breaking Strength. The breaking strength is defined as the greatest stress in tension that a material is capable of withstanding without rupture:

Where Pf is the load at the materials breaking strength point and Ao is the original cut-off area.

2.1.4 Poissons Ratio ()

For elastic deformation, when materials are compressed in one direction, they tend to expand in the other two directions perpendicular to the direction of compression. This is called the Poissons Effect. The Poison Ratio is a measure of the Poissons effect. It is the ratio of the fraction of expansion divided by the fraction of compression for small values of these changes:

=-

2.1.5 Strain Gauge Basic Principles

The strain gauge is a device used to measure the strain of an object. Its an elongated metal resistor, which is attached to the specimen being measured, and when the specimen is under strain and starts to deform, the strain gauge will have a change in the resistance. With the change in value we can calculate the elements strain or elastic modulus and the Poissons ratio. It takes advantage of the physical property of electrical conductance and its dependence on the conductors geometry. When the electrical conductor (the specimen being tested) is stretched within the limits of elasticity such that it does not break or deform plastically, it will become narrower and longer,
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which increases the electrical resistance through-out. From the measured resistance of the strain gauge, the amount of stress may be inferred, by using the relations: R= Where R is the original resistance value, is the electrical resistivity, l o is the original length of the conductor, and Ao is the original cross sectional area of the conductor. If after the application of tension the change in length is l, let the length of the specimen be l = l + l o, and the tension is the same through-out. So

And the resistance is

The Gauge Factor is the ratio of relative change in electrical resistance to the mechanical strain, in other words, it is the relative change in length. It is defined as

The strain gauge was invented in 1938 by Edward E. Simmons and Arthur C. Ruge, and the most common type consists of an insulating flexible backing which supports a metallic foil usually made of a brass-nickel alloy. It is attached to the specimen by a suitable adhesive. As the object is deformed, the foil also deforms, and this causes the electrical resistance to change. Then this is usually measured using a Wheatstone bridge, shown below, and is related to the strain by the Gauge Factor.

Fig.2-3 Basic Structure of Strain Gauge

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Fig. 2-4 Strain gauge attached to Wheatstone bridge

2.2 Hardness Testing Basic Principles

2.2.1 Brinell Scale BHN
The Brinell Scale characterizes the indentation hardness of materials through the scale of penetration of an indenter, loaded on a material specimen. The typical test uses a 10mm diameter steel ball as indenter (usually of value equal to BHN450) with a 29kN force. For softer materials, smaller force is used. The indentation is measured and BHN is calculated using the relation

BHN =

Where F is the applied force usually within the range of 100, 250, 500, 750, 1000, 1500, 2000, 2500 and 3000 kgf; D is the diameter of indenter usually within the range of 5mm or 10mm 0.005 margin; and d is the diameter of indentation, usually around 2mm. Its units are of Kg/mm, but are not normally written. First proposed by Swedish engineer Johan August Brinell in 1900, it was the first widely used and standardized hardness test in engineering and metallurgy, although the large size of indentation and possible damage to specimen limits its usefulness.

Fig. 2-5 Brinell Indentation

Fig.2-6 Brinell Hardness Tester

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2.2.2 Rockwell Scale HR

The Rockwell scale is a hardness scale based on the indentation hardness of a material. The Rockwell test determines the hardness by measuring the depth of penetration of an indenter under a large load compared to the penetration made by a preload. The indenter is forced into the specimen under a preliminary load. When equilibrium is reached, a measuring device follows the movements of the indenter and responds to changes in depth of penetration of the indenter. While the preload is still being applied, additional major load is applied resulting in increased penetration. When equilibrium is reached again, the major load is removed but the preload is maintained. Removing the major load allows partial recovery, and reduces the depth of penetration. The permanent increase in depth of penetration, resulting from the application and removal of the major load is used to calculate the Rockwell number, using the relation HR = E e Where E is a constant depending on the form of the indenter: 100 units for diamond indenter and 130 units for steel ball indenter; e is the permanent increase in depth of penetration due to the major load measured in units of 0.002mm.

Fig. 2-7 Rockwell Indentation When testing materials, indentation hardness is related linearly to the tensile strength. The important relation permits economically important nondestructive testing of bulk metal deliveries with lightweight equipment like the Rockwell tester shown below in figure 2-7.

Fig. 2-8 Rockwell Hardness Tester

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There are different scales, denoted by a single letter, that use different loads or different indenters. The result is a dimensionless number denoted as HR X, where X will be the letter denoting the scale, as shown below in table 2-1.

Table 2-1 Rockwell Hardness Test Scale Differential depth hardness measurement was first conceived in 1908 by Viennese professor Paul Ludwik. It eliminated the errors associated with the mechanical imperfections of the system, such as backlash and surface imperfections in the specimen. Rockwell testing has an advantage over Brinell testing because the latter was slow; its not useful on fully hardened steel and left too large an impression to be considered nondestructive. The tester was co-invented by Hugh M. Rockwell and Stanley P. Rockwell. The requirement for this tester was to quickly determine the effects of heat treatment on steel bearing races.
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2.2.3 Vickers Hardness Test HV

This is a type of microindentation hardness test, where a diamond indenter of specific geometry is impressed into the surface of the test specimen using a known applied force ranging from 10 to 1000 grams. This type of tests usually has forces of 2N and produce indentations of about 50m. They can be used to observe changes in hardness on the microscopic scale. It is difficult to standardize the microhardness measurements, because it has been found that the microhardness of almost any material is higher than its macrohardness. The values also vary with load and work-hardening effects of materials. The Vickers test is often easier to use than other hardness tests because the required calculations are independent of the size of the indenter and the indenter can be used for all materials. It can be used for all metals and has one of the widest scales among hardness tests. The unit of the Vickers test is denoted as HV and can be converted to units of Pascal (Pa), but it is not a measurement of pressure. The hardness number is determined by the load over the surface area of the indentation and not the area normal to the force. A square-based pyramid shaped diamond is use as the indenter. It has been established that the ideal size of a Brinell impression was 3/8 of the ball diameter. As two tangents to the circle at the ends of a chord 3d/8 long intersect at 1360.5, it was decided to use this as the angle of the indenter, giving an angle to the horizontal plane of 22 on each side. The HV number is determined by the ratio F/A where F is the force applied to the diamond in kgf and A is the surface area of the resulting indentation in mm. A can be determined by the relation

A=
Where A is the surface area of indentation and d is the average length diagonal left by the indenter. This can be approximated as

A=
Then the Vickers Number is

HV =

Vickers hardness number is reported as xxxHVyy or xxxHVyy/zz (if duration of applied force differs from 10s to 15s), where xxx are replaced by the hardness number, yy is the load in kg and zz indicates loading time. The values are generally independent of test force. The test was developed in 1921 by Robert L. Smith and George E. Sandland at Vickers Ltd. as an alternative to Brinell method to measure the hardness of materials.

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Fig. 2-9 Vickers Indentation

Fig. 2-10 Vickers Hardness Tester

2.3 AR Coating
2.3.1 Bose-Einstein Condensate
The Bose-Einstein Condensate, or BEC, is a state of matter of a dilute gas of bosons cooled to temperatures very near absolute zero, around 0K or -273.15C. Under such conditions a large fraction of the bosons occupy the lowest quantum state where the quantum effects become apparent on a macroscopic scale. This gave birth to the Bose-Einstein Statistics, which are the rules that govern the behavior at this state. It is one of the two possible ways in which a collection of indistinguishable particles may occupy a set of available discrete energy states. The aggregation of particles in the same state accounts for the cohesive streaming of laser light and the frictionless creeping of superfluid helium (an application discussed later). Bose and Einstein recognized that a collection of identical and indistinguishable particles can be distributed this way. This theory applies only to those particles not limited to single occupancy of the same state; particles that do not obey the Pauli Exclusion Principle restrictions. Such particles are the Bosons, named after the statistics that correctly describe their behavior. This phenomenon was first predicted by Satyendra Nath Bose around 1924, when he considered how groups of photons behave. He then asked Albert Einstein for help publishing his discoveries, to which Einstein agreed and gave follow up supporting these findings. The resulting efforts became the concept of a Bose gas, governed by the Bose-Einstein Statistics, described above. Einstein demonstrated that cooling bosonic atoms to a very low temperature would cause them to condense into the lowest accessible quantum state, resulting in a new form of matter. The first gaseous condensate we produced by Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman at the University of Colorado at Boulder NIST JILA lab, sung a gas of rubidium atoms cooled to 170 nK, which earned them the 2001 Nobel Prize in physics, together with Wolfgang Ketterle from MIT. The transition to BEC occurs below a critical temperature which for a uniform three dimensional gas consisting of non-interacting particles with no apparent internal degrees of freedom is given by:
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Tc =

( )

3.3125

Where Tc is the critical temperature, n is the particle density, m is the mass per boson, h is the reduced Planck constant, k is the Boltzmann constant and is the Riemann zeta function. There are two classes of elementary particles defined by whether their quantum spin is a nonnegative integer or an odd half integer. A Bose-Einstein Condensate is shown below in figure 2-11.

Fig. 2-11 Bose Einstein Condensate at different scales. Bosons are the particles whose quantum spin is a nonnegative integer (s = 0, 1, 2, etc.). Examples of bosons include fundamental particles (Higgs Boson, Photons, W and Z Bosons, Gluons, Gravitons, etc.); composite particles (Mesons, Hadrons, Nuclei and Atoms of Carbon-12 and Helium-4); and quasi-particles. Bosons are considered force carrier particles. The Bosons differ from Fermions in that there is no limit to the number that can occupy the same quantum state. This is called the Pauli Exclusion Principle. The Pauli Exclusion Principle says that no two identical fermions may occupy the same quantum state simultaneously; in other words this means that the total wave function for two identical fermions is anti-symmetric with respect to exchange of the particles. This means that no two electrons in a single atom can have the same four quantum numbers.

Fermion is any particle characterized by Fermi-Dirac Statistics and follows the Pauli Exclusion Principle described above. Quarks, Leptons and composite particles (Hadrons, Nuclei and Atoms of Carbon-13 and Helium-3) made of an odd number of these, are considered Fermions. It can be an elementary particle, such as the electron or a composite particle, such as the protons. Following the Pauli
23

Exclusion Principle, only one fermion can occupy a particular quantum state at any given time. If multiple fermions have the same spatial probability distribution, then at least one property of each fermion must be different. Fermions are usually associated with matter, because composite fermions are key building blocks of matter (neutrons and protons). Fermions behavior by the Fermi-Dirac Statistics, which describes the energies of single particles in a system comprising of many identical particles. It applies to identical particles with half-odd integer spin in a system of thermal equilibrium. The particles in the system are assumed to have negligible mutual interaction. This allows the many-particle system to be described in terms of single-particle energy states. The result is the Fermi-Dirac distribution of particles over these states and includes the condition that no two particles can occupy the same state which has considerable effect on the properties of the system. In quantum mechanics, the position of an object is uncertain. An object has a definite probability of being at any given point in space. This probability is encoded in the wave function, mentioned earlier. If one concentrates a large number of identical bosons in a small region, then it is possible for their wave functions to overlap so much that the bosons lose their identity. When this happens, thats a Bose-Einstein Condensate. It is only possible at very low temperatures, because at high temperatures the individual bosons have small wave functions and move rapidly, which causes them to fly apart. For now applications are still restricted, because there are still some setbacks regarding BECs. They are extremely fragile; they are being produced in small quantities, with just a few million atoms at a time; and finally they can only be made from certain types of atoms. Some examples are the atom laser Ketterle, in which a conventional light lase emits a beam of coherent photons, this means they are all in phase and can be concentrated to an extremely small, bright spot. BECs can slow down light as demonstrated by Prof. Lene Hau, Ph.D. in 2001, by the use of a superfluid [7]. These manipulations could develop into new types of telecommunications technology, optical storage and quantum computing. BECs are related to super-fluidity and super-conductivity. Super-fluidity is the state of matter in which the behavior is that of a fluid with zero viscosity. It was discovered in liquid helium, but now it has applications in astrophysics, high-energy physics and theories of quantum gravity. Super-conductivity is a phenomenon of exactly zero electrical resistance and expulsion of magnetic fields occurring in certain materials when cooled below a characteristic critical temperature. A super-conductor is shown below in figure 2-12.

Fig.2-12 Super Conductor

24

2.3.2 AR Coating Basic Principles

Anti-reflective (AR) coating is a type of optical coating applied to the surface of lenses and other optical devices (in our case, we planned to apply it to a laser diode) to reduce reflection. This improves the efficiency of the system since less light is lost. The primary benefit is the elimination of the reflection itself. When light the medium (glass) it will produce reflection, if 100% of the light comes from the air and enters the glass, because theres a difference between the index of refraction, some of the light will go out, and when the light is coming out of the glass into the air, once again because of the difference between index of refraction, some of the light wont be able to pass through the medium. When the light makes the first trip into the glass, there was a loss of about 4% in the reflection, and when the light makes the trip back outside, there was another loss of about 4%, so when we assume that 100% of the light interacts with the medium, actually theres just about 92% acting (we neglect the light absorbed by the glass, around 0.5%). To illustrate this idea, please refer to figure 2-13.

Fig. 2-13 Simple Model for Light in Glass Medium When we apply the AR Coating, the light that enters will only have a loss of about 0.5% and when making the trip back outside again only 0.5% of light is loss, so we get the result of increasing the light passing through up to 99% (again neglecting the light absorbed by the glass, around 0.5%). To illustrate this idea, please refer to figure 2-14.

25

Fig. 2-14 Simple Model for Light in Glass Medium after AR Coating The AR Coating can reduce reflection of incoming light. In the case that light hits perpendicular to the surface of the medium, the intensity of the reflection can be calculated using the Reflection Coefficient:

Where n0 and ns are the refractive indices of the first and second media, respectively. The value of R varies from 0 (no reflection) to 1 (all light reflected) and is usually quoted as a percentage. Complementary to R is the transmission coefficient or Transmittance. If absorption and scattering are neglected, then the value of Transmittance is always 1-R. then if a beam of light with intensity I is incident on the surface, a beam of intensity RI is reflected and a beam with intensity TI is transmitted to the medium. The optimal value is called the Optimal Index of Refraction, and is described as:

For glass with ns around 1.5 in air (n0 around 1.0), then the optimum refractive index will be n1 = 1.225.

To reduce the refraction, in this case we now mean the one that is produced inside the chamber of the Laser diode; the easiest way is to apply a low reflectivity AR coating on the surface of the laser. To measure the appropriate thickness of the coating layer, we can use the equations described above. By applying a coat exactly thickness film, we can assure that a certain wavelength is transmitted. The
26

reflected waves from the back of the glass medium will be half a wavelength out of phase. So they interfere destructively. Because all reflected waves are interfered, the maximum amount of light passes through the coating. Please refer to figure 2-15 to illustrate this idea.

Fig. 2-15 Light Passing through AR Coat and Glass The most common process to attain this final product is by vacuum deposition. For the best coating results, we need to lower the pressure inside the vacuum system to torr.

Fig. 2-16 Lens without (Top) and With (Bottom) AR Coating

27

2.3.3 Laser Diode Basic Principles

A laser diode is a laser whose active medium is a semiconductor similar to that found in light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Please refer to figure 2-17. The most common type of laser diode is formed from a p-n junction and powered by injected electric current.

Fig. 2-17 Laser Diode Laser diodes are formed by doping a very thin layer on the surface of a crystal wafer. The crystal is doped to produce the n-type region and a p-type region, one above the other. By referring to figure 1-2 we can see the basic structure of a working laser. When the laser diode has a current passing through it, the light will get excited inside its gain medium, and then will start to resonate, this process is called pumping. The current exceeds the critical current and then it comes out as laser light. Please refer to figure 1-3. Since we use an external cavity laser, we need to apply the AR coating to the diode and adjust a diffraction grating. The laser light comes out the diode and bounces on the grating, making the resonance externally, and this becomes the cavity as shown in figure 2-18.

Fig. 2-18 Tunable Laser Basic Configuration

28

The most important feature of the external cavity laser is that we can adjust the wavelength easily just by changing the diffraction gratings angle and in the end this is the output wavelength of the laser. For different wavelengths, there will be different levels of visible light, as shown in figure 2-19.

Fig. 2-19 Light Spectrum

2.3.4 Quartz Microbalance System

A Quartz Crystal Microbalance is an instrument that measures a mass per unit area by measuring the change in frequency of a quartz crystal resonator. The resonance is disturbed by the addition or removal of a small mass due to oxide growth/decay or film deposition (which is the case in our study) at the surface of the acoustic resonator. The QCM can be used under vacuum, in gas phase and more recently in liquid environments. It is useful for monitoring the rate of deposition in thin film deposition systems under vacuum. Frequency measurements are easily made with high precision. For our research we used the Sigma Instruments SQM-160 Rate/Thickness Monitor, shown in figure 2-20.

Fig. 2-20 Front and Back Panels of SQM-160

29

The microbalance uses Quartz as the resonator. Quartz is one member of the family of crystals that experience the Piezoelectric Effect. Piezoelectricity is the charge that accumulates in certain solid materials in response to applied mechanical stress. It means electricity resulting from pressure. It was discovered in 1880 by Jacques and Pierre Curie. It is understood as the linear electromechanical interaction between the mechanical and the electrical state in crystalline materials with no inversion symmetry. It is a reversible process in that materials exhibiting direct piezoelectricity also exhibit the reverse. This means that the internal generation of electrical resulting from applied mechanical force and vice versa. By using the piezoelectric effect we can probe as an acoustic resonance by electrical means. Applying alternating current to the quartz crystal induces oscillations. This creates a shear wave. We can use these qualities to determine the resonance frequency at high accuracy. The frequency of oscillation of the crystal is partially dependent in the thickness of the crystal. During normal operation all the variables are held constant, so a change in thickness correlates directly to a change in frequency. As mass is deposited or etched away, the thickness increases or decreases and so the frequency of oscillation changes accordingly. With some simplifying assumptions, the frequency change can be quantified and correlated precisely to the mass change using the Sauerbreys Equation. Developed by G. Sauerbrey in 1959, it is a method for correlating changes in the oscillation frequency of a piezoelectric crystal with the mass deposited on it. It is defined as below:

Where f0 is the Resonant frequency, f is the Frequency change, m is the mass change, A is the piezoelectrically active area of the crystal, q is the Density of quartz (2.648 g/cm) and q is the Shear modulus of quarts(2.947x g/cm.s) Because the film is treated as an extension of thickness, Sauerbreys equation only applies to systems in which the following 3 conditions are met: Deposited mass must be rigid Deposited mass must be distributed evenly The frequency change <0.02

If the change is greater than 2%, the Z-match method must be used to determine the change in mass. It is defined as:

Where fL is the frequency of the loaded crystal, fU is the resonant frequency, Nq is the frequency constant (1.668x Hz.), m is the mass change, A is the piezoelectrically active area of the crystal,
30

is the density of quartz, Z is the method constant quarts and f is the shear modulus of film.
q

f is

the density of film, q Is the shear modulus of

The Sauerbrey equation cannot be applied to systems under liquid medium. The crystals are seed crystals plated with gold on both top and bottom for applications. A crystal is shown in figure 2-21. The QCM consists of a thin piezoelectric plate with electrodes evaporated on both sides. Due to the piezoelectric effect, AC voltage across the electrodes induces a shear deformation and vice versa. The electromechanical coupling provides a simple way to detect an acoustic resonance by electrical means. The Z, also called Z-factor is a constant value for different materials, and it is shown together with the density of different materials in table 2-2 below.

Fig. 2-21 QCM Crystals The Oscillator of the SQM-160 is shown in figure 2-22 and the equivalent circuit for the Resonant Oscillator is shown in figure 2-23.

Fig. 2-22 SQM-160 Oscillator

31

Fig. 2-23 Oscillator Circuit

32

Table 2-2 Z-Ratios for Different Materials

Table 2-2 Continued

33

Table 2-2 Continued

34

Table 2-2 Continued

35

Table 2-2 Continued

36

Table 2-2 Continued

37

Table 2-2 Continued

2.3.5 Vacuum Chamber System

Vacuum Evaporation is the process of depositing thin films of materials onto surfaces. The technique consists of pumping a vacuum chamber to pressures of less than torr and heating a material to produce a flux of vapor in order to deposit the material onto a surface. The material to be vaporized is typically heated until its vapor pressure is high enough to produce a flux several Angstrom per second by using an electrically resistive heater or bombardment by a high voltage beam. The process was invented by Henri Nestle in 1886 for food industry. In here the system has been pumped to a vacuum of Torr. When a high current is passed through the filament boat, the filament boat is heated over the desired metal evaporation temperature, and so evaporation starts. When the evaporation process is finished and the metal cools down, crystals condensate in the surface of the wafer. From the weight of the evaporated material, the distance between the filament boat and the wafer, we are able to calculate the deposition thickness, and we can also use the mass detector follower like the Quartz crystal resonator microbalance system. In the process of evaporation, we usually use a board in between the filament boat and the wafer. This is because before we arrive to the desired evaporation temperature, there will be some impurities that will be vaporized in the controlled environment, so we first use a small current and the board in between to get rid of those impurities and this raises the purity of the deposition material.

38

A vacuum evaporation system is shown in figure 2-24.

Fig. 2-24 Vacuum Evaporation System

Rough Vacuum Medium Vacuum High Vacuum Ultra-High Vacuum

760 ~ 1 torr 1~ torr ~ torr Lower than torr

Table 2-3 Classification of Vacuum For our study, we need to use a Turbo Pump. A regular turbo pump is shown in figure 2-25.

Fig. 2-25 Turbo Pump For our research we used the Pfeiffer TCP 015 Electronic Drive Unit and Granville Phillips 375 Convectron, shown below in figure 2-26.
39

Fig. 2-26 Control and Measurement Equipment The electronic drive controls the turbo pump and the Convectron measures the pressure inside our chamber. The turbo pump is a type of vacuum pump used to maintain high vacuum. Most turbo pumps are centrifugal. When we start the pumping, we need to use a mechanical pump so as to decrease the pressure inside the system from constant atmospheric pressure to torr, and then the use dispersion pump to continue the vacuum until we get to the desired pressure. We need to notice though, when we start the dispersion pump, we cant turn off the mechanical pump, and they both need to run together. If we need to turn off the pumping, we first turn off the dispersion pump, wait for it to completely stop and then turn off the mechanical pump. Our completely assembled system is shown in figure 2-27 below.

Fig. 2-27 Complete System

40

Chapter 3: TENSILE TESTING IN DEPTH

3.1 Experiments Purpose and Principles
By means of Universal testing machine and Strain gauges we were able to observe, discuss and analyze the phenomena created when a specimen of certain material is manipulated under an external load, and determine the stress, strain and deformation values; later we can use the graphing methods of stress-strain diagram to describe it. The main point of this experiment is that after the tensile specimen is tested, use computer analysis and the actual strain data and after statistical adjustment make the final results report. (Tensile testing experiment is in accordance with ASTM E8)

3.2 Experiments Equipment

3.2.1 Universal Testing Machine
For the materials testing experiment part of this research we use a Universal Testing Machine, as shown in figure 3.1. The maximum load it can apply is 100 Ton. After the test specimen is secured on the device, with the use of instrumentation the load exerted and the effects of this become apparent on the specimen, and even the smallest of changes can be recorded. For our research we used the Chun Yen Testing Machines Co., Ltd. 100 Ton Micro Computer Universal Tensile Tester.

Fig. 3.1 Universal Testing Machine

41

Table 3.1 shows the specifications for this machine. Max Capacity Accuracy Tension (mm): Max. Space Grip for Rod Ram Stroke Effective Column Interval Crosshead Speed Testing Speed Volume of Machine Volume of Control Panel Weight Power Computer OS Screen 100 Ton 1% 1150mm 20-70mm 250mm 940mm 300mm/min 0-50mm/min 170010003350mm(LWH) 10008001500mm(LWH) 8000kg 3220V 20A AMD K6-2-350 Windows XP 15 CRT Table 3-1 Chun Yen Testing Machine Specs Table

The connections diagram is shown in figure 3-2.

Fig. 3-2 Diagram for System Connections

42

When the test specimen is placed, when the external force is applied, the Load Cell can measure the size of the applied force and the Encoder measures the expansion rate of change. The Local Controller receives all the information from the 2 units, after arranging the results, they are displayed in the computer and they can be afterwards submitted for more complex analysis, such as Finite Element Analysis, and we can get the Stress-Strain Diagram.

3.2.2 Strain Measurement Equipment

The equipment used in our research provides a four-channel measurement; that means we can use up to 4 strain gauges at a time to do our measurements, and provides 3 different bridge arrangements, as shown in figure 3-3.

(a)

(b) Fig. 3-3 Input Connections for Strain Indicator

(c)

Figure 3-3 (a) is the Quarter Bridge, (b) is the Half Bridge and (c) is the Full Bridge and Transducers. For our study we used the Quarter Bridge, and use the Strain Gauge values to decide the position of the connecting wires. The Strain indicator is shown in figure 3-4.

Fig. 3-4 Vishay Micro-Measurements Model P3 Strain Indicator and Recorder

43

Input Connections

Tool Free eccentric lever release 4-channel input Wire diameter:16-28AWG

Bridge Configurations

Quarter-, Half- and Full Bridge Bridge Impedance: 60-2000

Display Data Conversion Measurement Range / Resolution

128 * 64 pixel FSTN positive, gray LCD A/D Converter ,filter Strain Range: 15.5mV/V Resolution: 0.0005mV/V

Measurement Accuracy Gage Factor Control Balance Control Bridge Excitation Communication Interface Data Storage Shunt Calibration

0.1% of reading 3 counts 0.500-9.900 Software, either manual or automatic 1.5VDC nominal USB. Cable Included Removable Media Card Across bridge completion resistors, controlled by software. When Gage Factor=2.00, 120,3501000

Analog Output

Value: 0 to 2.5V max Ranges: 320 , 3200 , 32000 Error: 0.5% output voltage +5mV Max Error: 1.4% output voltage + 20mV Update rate: 480 samples/sec Output Load: 2000

Power

Battery: Two Alkaline "D" cells Battery life: 400 hours typ. USB: 5V 100mA Temperature: 0-50 Humidity: Up to 90%. Non-condensing

Operational Environment

Case Size and Weight

Aluminum Alloy 228152152(mm), 2.0(kg)

Table 3-2 Vishay Micro-Measurements Model P3 Strain Indicator and Recorder Specs
44

3.2.3 Strain Gauge

The strain gauges main basic principle is to use a resistances characteristics to measure the strain. The inside connections of the strain indicator are shown in figure 3-5.

Fig. 3-5 Inner Connections As shown above, this is a quarter-bridge connection. We connect equal-length 3 wires to the 2 connections allowed by the strain gauge; wire 1 and 3 can be used to cancel out the effects of temperature to the resistance, and because of the addition of wires 1 and 3, wire 2 can directly measure the experiment results from the strain gauge and therefore the strain developed, with no influence of temperature. If there were no two measuring leads, then the relations will be: R 4 =R g +2R L Where Rg is the Strain Gauge Value and RL is the wire resistance, then

R g R g / R g R 4 R 4 R g = = & = (1- L) R 4 R g 2 RL 1 2 RL / R g R4 Rg
Where L is the Signal Loss Factor, and so

L=

2 RL / R g 1 2 RL / R g

2R L Rg

if

2R L <<1 Rg

45

(Actual Value R g =120 R L =0.8

2R L is always much smaller than 1) Rg

R 4 =R g +2R L R 2 =R 3 =rR g R 1 =R g R2 R3 =0

V 0 =V

R4 R1 r ( ), 2 R4 R1 (1 r )

The first term describes loss attenuation effects; second term describes loss of balancing capabilities effects.

V 0 =V

Rg R g R g 2RL r [( ) T ] ) T -( ) T + ( ) + ( 2 R g 2 RL R g 2 RL R g 2 RL Rg (1 r )

The first term describes loss attenuation effects and loss of balancing capabilities effects; the second, third, and fourth terms describe the temperature effects on the wire. For the three-wire method, we have:

L=

RL / R g 1 RL / R g

RL Rg

if

RL <<1 Rg

V 0 =V

R g R g R g RL RL r ( ) ( ) T ] [ + + ( ) ( ) ( ) T T T R g 2 RL R g 2 RL R g RL R g RL (1 r ) 2 R g RL
V 0 = V

R g r ( ) (1 r ) 2 R g RL

In the last four terms inside parenthesis, we can see the effects of temperature being cancelled out, and the effect on first term is not great, so this is the reason why in our research we use three wires.

46

3.2.4 Specimen Measurements

The tensile specimens used in this research are compliant of ASTM E8 Tensile parameters, as shown in figure 3-6.

Fig. 3-6 Tensile Specimen Diameter D(mm) Gauge Length G(mm) Smallest Arc Radius R(mm) Bar 12.5 0.2 62.5 0.1 >10 >75 ~ 145 Shortest Area A(mm) Total Length L(mm) Clamping Clamping Area Length B(mm) ~ 35 Area Diameter C(mm) 20

Table 3-3 Specifications for Round Bar

3.3 Experiment Procedure

1. Attaching the Strain Gauge to the Tensile Specimen (1) Prepare 1 ASTM E8 compliant tensile specimen round bar, as shown in figure 3-7. (2) Prepare Strain Gauge, as those described in table 3-4. (3) Prepare other consumables and adhesive agent, such as epoxy adhesive cyanoacrylate adhesive, as shown in figure 3-8. or

47

Fig. 3-7 Actual Tensile Specimen

Fig. 3-8 Other Materials Used (Such as: Alcohol, gauze, transparent tape, adhesive) Gage Type: EA-06-120LZ-120/E Resistance in ohms at 24C: 120.00.3% Gage Factor at 24C: 2.0750.5% Transverse Sensitivity at 24C: (+0.70.2)% Table 3-4 Specifications for Strain Gauge 2. Attaching Strain Gauge As shown in following figures, we shall explain the attachment of the strain gauge. (1) Use sand paper and a rasp to clean thoroughly the surface where the strain gauge will be attached to.

48

(a) (2) Use alcohol to wash the surface where the strain gauge will be attached, and use gauze to rub it off.

(b) (3) Find a clean surface and clean it with alcohol and gauze.

(c) (4) Place the strain gauge in the clean surface. Use a piece of transparent tape on top of the strain gauge, after securely placed; rip it off the surface carefully.

49

(d) (5) Use a piece of white paper to mark the place where the strain gauge will be attached, and in this way we can make sure that the strain gauge will be placed as horizontally and vertically correct as possible.

(e) (6) In the place where we had our mark, place the strain gauge.

(f) (7) Carefully lift one side of the tape, and apply some of the adhesive agent to both the strain gauge and specimens surface.

(g)
50

(8) We need to make sure that the gauge and the specimen will be firmly attached, so we gently apply pressure with our thumb.

(h) (9) After the adhesive is fully dry, we can carefully rip off the tape.

(i) (10) We need to do the whole process twice, one for the horizontally placed strain gauge, and one for the vertically placed strain gauge.

51

(j) (11) We now proceed to solder the wires to the strain gauge.

(k) (12) After soldering, we use a Volt Multimeter to measure that there is no contact between wires. If there is none, then the specimen is ready for testing.

(l) (13) We now need to measure a 5cm distance and mark it, to check and compare the elongation before and after the tensile testing.

(m)
52

Fig. 3-9 Specimen-Strain Gauge Process 3. Tensile Test (1) Enter the computer application that controls the tensile testing machine. (2) Turn on the tensile testing machine main switch. (3) Adjust the hydraulic pump to go back to its original position. (4) Bring the lowering motor down to a distance enough so as to attach the tensile specimen to the system, open the clamps and secure the specimen.

(a) (5) Connect all the necessary wires to the strain indicator equipment.

53

(b) (6) Start the ascending motor and wait for the expansion.

(c) Fig. 3-10 Specimen-Tensile Testing Process 4. Start the Test (1) Enter the software application and enter some variables needed for the experiment in the specific screen. (2) Go back to the main screen and press the [] (measure) button to start the test and auto recording in the software. (3) After the specimen breaks, the mechanical device will automatically stop and ask the user to enter the total displacement. We take out the specimen from the testing machine and adjust the machines position back to its original position. (4) Save the results information. (5) Record the results from the strain indicator.

3.4 Results
From this experiment we can get the Poissons Ratio, Youngs Modulus, and Yield Strength, etc. and because of the slippage phenomenon in the clamp at the moment of the test, then the Elastic Limit will display some yield phenomena. So omit any undesirable results, we just take the Yield portion of the results as reference. In the process of the experiment, the most important part to attend to is the attaching of the strain gauge, because the gauges purpose is to measure the strain developed during the test, and this strain might be very small. If the gauges angle change during the test, i.e., is not well attached, this will affect the accuracy of the measurements of Poissons ratio and Youngs modulus.

54

The materials provided by the manufacturer are SUM 23 and SUM 43 steel round bars, and these two types of materials have been through different heat treatment processes, so they can be sub-divided further into untreated material, heat-treated material and black surface heat treated material; for the two materials with heat treatment, the treatment process and finished are different. In the end, we only have the mechanical properties that were calculated after our research of these materials. All of the specifications are identical to those shown in figure 3-6.

3.4.1 SUM 23

Fig. 3-11 SUM 23 Untreated Material Number Hardness(HRB) Yield Stress (MPa) Tensile Strength (MPa) Poissons Ratio Youngs Modulus (GPa) Cut-off Area Shrinking (%) Elongation (%) 7 74 448 544 0.29 203 42 11.25 10 75 440 560 0.27 210 41 10.11

Table 3-5 Mechanical Properties of SUM 23 Untreated

55

Stress-Strain Diagram

(a)

(b)
56

Fig. 3-12 Stress-Strain Diagrams for (a) #7 Round Bar and (b) #10 Round Bar Cut-Off Area

(a)

(b) Fig. 3-13 Cut-Off Area of (a) #7 Round Bar and (b) #10 Round Bar

57

SUM 23 Nickel Round Bar

Fig. 3-14 SUM 23 Nickel Material Number Hardness(HRB) Yield Stress (MPa) Tensile Strength (MPa) Poissons Ratio Youngs Modulus (GPa) Cut-off Area Shrinking (%) Elongation (%) 1 48 370 455 0.28 243 8.03 5.66 2 50 370 451 0.46 303 8.03 6.5 3 49 380 450 0.29 246 7.26 6.02 4 48 400 450 0.26 206 6.01 6.47

Table 3-6 Mechanical Properties of SUM 23 Nickel

58

Stress-Strain Diagram

(a)

59

(b)

(c)

(d)
60

Fig. 3-15 Stress-Strain Diagrams for (a) #1 Round Bar, (b) #2 Round Bar, (c) #3 Round Bar and (d) #4 Round Bar Cut-Off Area

(a)

(b)

61

(c)

(d) Fig. 3-16 Cut-Off Area of (a) #1 Round Bar, (b) #2 Round Bar, (c) #3 Round Bar and (d) #4 Round Bar

62

SUM 23 Black Surface Round Bar

Fig. 3-17 SUM 23 Black Surface Material Number Hardness(HRB) Yield Stress (MPa) Tensile Strength (MPa) Poissons Ratio Youngs Modulus (GPa) Cut-off Area Shrinking (%) Elongation (%) 1 51 378 467 0.3 215 9.86 7.48 2 50 371 465 0.16 266 9.4 8.05 3 51 369 464 0.4 266 8.48 7.61

Table 3-7 Mechanical Properties of SUM 23 Black Surface Material

63

Stress-Strain Diagram

(a)

(b)
64

(c) Fig. 3-18 Stress-Strain Diagrams for (a) #1 Round Bar, #2 Round Bar and (c) #3 Round Bar Cut-Off Surface

(a)
65

(b)

(c) Fig. 3-19 Cut-Off Surface of (a) #1 Round Bar, #2 Round Bar and (c) #3 Round Bar

66

3.4.2 SUM 43

Fig. 3-20 Untreated SUM 43 Untreated Material

Number Hardness(HRB) Yield Stress (MPa) Tensile Strength (MPa) Poissons Ratio Youngs Modulus (GPa) Cut-off Area Shrinking (%) Elongation (%)

1 76 572 743 0.27 200 33.8 8.57

5 75 594 785 0.29 202 29.44 8.94

Table 3-8 Mechanical Properties of SUM 43 Untreated

67

Stress-Strain Diagrams

(a)

(b) Fig. 3-21 Stress-Strain Diagrams for SUM 43 (a) #1 Round Bar and (b) #5 Round Bar
68

Cut-Off Area

(a)

(b) Fig. 3-22 Cut-Off Area of SUM 43 (a) #1 Round Bar and (b) #5 Round Bar

69

SUM 43 Nickel Round Bar

Fig. 3-23 SUM 43 Nickel Material

Number Hardness(HRB) Yield Stress (MPa) Tensile Strength (MPa) Poissons Ratio Youngs Modulus (GPa) Cut-off Area Shrinking (%) Elongation (%)

4 51 1580 1639 0.3 194 16.97 3.76

5 50 1544 1625 0.28 201 13.7% 2.65%

Table 3-9 Mechanical Properties of SUM 43 Nickel

70

Stress-Strain Diagrams

(a)

(b) Fig. 3-24 Stress-Strain Diagrams for (a) #4 Round Bar and (b) #5 Round Bar

71

Cut-Off Area

(a)

(b) Fig. 3-25 Cut-Off Area of (a) #4 Round Bar and (b) #5 Round Bar

72

SUM 43 Black Surface Material

Fig. 3-26 SUM 43 Black Surface Material

Number Hardness(HRB) Yield Stress (MPa) Tensile Strength (MPa) Poissons Ratio Youngs Modulus (GPa) Cut-off Area Shrinking (%) Elongation (%)

3 56 1416 1591 0.29 200 13.9 2.4

5 56 1361 1402 0.31 202 12.4 2.4

Table 3-10 Mechanical Properties of SUM 43 Black Surface Material

73

Stress-Strain Diagrams

1800 1600 1400 1200

(MPa)

1000 800 600 400 200 0 -200 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

(%)

(a)

1600 1400 1200 1000

(MPa)

800 600 400 200 0 -200 0 2 4 6 8 10

(%)

(b) Fig. 3-27 Stress-Strain Diagrams for (a) #3 Round Bar and (b) #5 Round Bar (Note: These curves were formulated using Visual Solutions Inc. VisSim Software)
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Cut-Off Area

(a)

(b) Fig. 3-28 Cut-Off Area of (a) #3 Round Bar and (b) #5 Round Bar

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The force value (N) was retrieved from the Universal Testing Machine. The Poissons Ratio () is calculated as: = , the values for the Poissons Ratio are in average around 0.297.

The Youngs Modulus (E) is calculated as: E= Where: Stress = , Cross-sectional Area = , where D is the Diameter.

The value for D was in average around 12.58 mm. The values shown by the computer, because there is Slippage phenomena between the Clamp and the specimen will not be taken into consideration for the elongation, strain and Youngs modulus, and we will refer to the values that we have meticulously calculated.

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Chapter 4: AR COATING IN DEPTH

4.1 Experiments Purpose and Principles
By means of a vacuum chamber and several other instruments we intend to apply Anti-Reflective Coating using deposition process to a laser diode and in this way reduce its refraction, so as to make it lose less light in the process of amplification and we can control certain wavelengths we want produced for certain desired applications, in our case we are attempting to re-create a Bose-Einstein Condensate. An optimal BEC apparatus is shown in figure 4-1.

Fig. 4-1 BEC Apparatus The main point of this experiment is to build a vacuum chamber system, attach all the instrumentation needed (Vacuum pump, deposition meter, and voltmeter) and use it to apply AR coating to a laser diode. After we have accomplished the AR coating, other team will be in charge of designing the BEC apparatus and use the results of our research.

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4.2 Experiments Equipment

4.2.1 Vacuum Chamber
For this research we designed a vacuum chamber whose main body is shown in figure 4-2. Its dimensions are: Width: 240 mm Length: 240 mm Height: 200 mm Outer Diameter: 4 in Inner Diameter: 1.5 in

A B

C Fig. 4-2 Vacuum Chamber Main Body The chamber is made up of 6 pass ways; pass way A is the connection with the Laser Deposition Equipment, pass way B is the connection with the Turbo Pump, and pass way C is for the connection with the Deposition Source.
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Pass way C is for the deposition source, as mentioned above. This is a system where a thermal resistance is heated by passing a high current through it, which heats up a filament boat (made of tungsten) where the material to be evaporated is place. We control the temperature as such that the material will evaporate and the heat will not cause the filament boat to crack. Because P = I * R, (where P is power, I is current and R is resistance), to avoid the current to flow where it is not desired, we decided that the material for the Thermocouple shown in figure 4-3 should be Copper, 6.3 mm. We choose it that way because Copper has very good heat dissipation characteristics and the resistance value is low. It can reduce the value of the current enough to make the thermocouple to create heat.

Fig. 4-3 Thermocouple To the thermocouple we attach the tungsten filament boat. We need to take notice of materials to be used in this design, because when using high current, the tungsten filament boar will heat up and so the material must be able to keep up with the heating potential of tungsten, and has a low coefficient of heat dissipation, to avoid the tungsten to fail when heating up, and therefore not evaporating. Considering all this, we decide to use Stainless Steel. Because this clamp will be assembled inside the chamber, after many revisions, it was determined it will have the shape shown in figure 4-4.

Fig. 4-4 Filament Boat Clamp Design

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For the tungsten filament boat we bought the product from a distributor. The dimensions are: Length: 100 mm Width: 10 mm Height: 1 mm Our thermocouple is 1.5 in., but the pass way C is 4 in., so we need to attach a Flange that connects 1.5in. to 4in. Because these specifications are quite difficult to achieve by Milling, we had to use electrical wire cutting. For the laser clamping system, where the laser that is going to be AR coated will be placed, will be connected to pass way A. the assembly is shown in figure 4-5 below.

Fig. 4-5 Cover Assembly For this design we used an O-ring instead of a gasket, so as to save time. The design of the assembly where the laser will be placed is shown in figure 4-6. F D

Fig. 4-6 Upper Cover Inner Assembly

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Point D is the plate in the assembly where the laser diode will be fixed. Because of the easy processing, we decide to use Aluminum, and it is screwed to the top cover. Point E is the connection for the Quartz crystal resonator, and it is designed in the same as point F, in this way the results of the quartz microbalance system will be more accurate in real time. Point F is the final resting place for the laser diode. We use a Thor Labs Base, with dimensions of 9mm and 5.6mm, for two different size laser diodes. It just needs to be plugged in, for easy installation. From figure 4-6, we know that the system needs signal system connections, and because of the change in temperature inside the chamber, this could affect the functioning of the quartz microbalance, so we also need to install water tubes for cooling. This is shown in figure 4-7 below.

Fig. 4-7 Diagram of Upper Cover Connections In figure 4-8 we show the Feed through connections and their functions.

Fig. 4-8 Feed through Diagram

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1. 2. 3. 4.

SQM-160 wire SQM-160 (G) K-Type-1 K-Type-2

5. 6. 7. 8.

Laser Connection 1 (Vin) Laser Connection 2 (G) Laser Connection 3 (PD) Not In Use

The fully assembled chamber is shown in figure 4-9.

Fig. 4-9 Fully Assembled Chamber

4.2.2 Quartz Crystal Microbalance

For measuring the deposition on our target for coating we used the Inficon SQM-160 Rate/Thickness Monitor. It is an easy to use instrument for measuring many types of thin-film coatings, as shown in figure 4-10.

(a) Front Panel

(b) Back Panel Fig. 4-10 Inficon SQM-160

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Table 4-1 shows the technical specifications for this equipment. Number of sensors Sensor Frequency Range Reference Frequency Accuracy Thickness Display Resolution Thickness Resolution Density of Stored Films Tooling Z-Factor Final Thickness Measurement Period Simulation Mode Frequency Mode Rate Resolution Dual Crystal Etch Mode Crystal Tooling Crystal Fail Min / Max Power Operation Environment 2 Standard, 4 additional optional 4.0 MHz ~ 6.0 MHz .002% 1 0.15 (Std.), 0.037 (Hi Res) 0.5-99.99 gm./cc 10-399% 0.10-10.00 0.000-99.99k .15 to 2 sec Yes Yes 0.1/.1 /s Yes Yes 10-399% 4.0 to 6.0 MHz / 4.1 to 6.1 MHz 100-120 / 200-240~10% nominal, 20W 0C ~ 50C 0 ~ 80% RH non-condensing 0 ~ 2000 meters Class 1 Equipment Pollution Degree 2 Rack Dimensions Weight 88.5mm x 212.7mm x 196.9mm 2.7 kg Table 4-1 Inficon SQM-160 Rate/Thickness Monitor Specs

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To the SQM-160 we need to connect an Oscillator. We use the Sigma Instruments Remote Oscillator Ser. No. 2 268 as shown in figure 4-11.

Fig. 4-11 Sigma Instruments Remote Oscillator

The connections diagram is shown in figure 4-12.

Fig. 4-12 SQM-160 Connections Diagram

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4.2.3 Turbo Pump

For our experiments we used the Pfeiffer TCP 015 Electronic Drive Unit, shown below in figure 4-13. Table 4-2 shows the technical specifications for this equipment.

(a) Front Panel

(b) Back Panel

Fig. 4-13 Pfeiffer TCP 015 Electronic Drive

Connection Voltage Mains Frequency Start-up Current Nominal Frequency Rotation Speed Analog Output Current Rotation Speed Switchpoint Works Setting Permissible Ambient Temperature Dimensions, Front Panel Insertion Length Weight

(100V) 90-112 50/60 Hz 2.2 A 1500 Hz 10V = 1500Hz 2% 10 V = 2.5 A 5% 750 Hz 8 min 0C ~ 40C 128.5mm x 106.3mm 227mm 2.7 Kg Table 4-2 Pfeiffer TCP 015 Electronic Drive Specs

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The connections diagram is shown in figure 4-14.

Fig. 4-14Connections Diagram for Pfeiffer TCP 015 To measure the pressure inside the chamber, we use the Granville Phillips 375 Convectron Vacuum Pressure Controller, shown in figure 4-15.

(a) Front Panel

(b) Back Panel

Fig. 4-15 Granville Phillips 375 Convectron

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Its dimensions are shown in figure 4-16.

Fig. 4-16 Dimensions of Convectron Table 4-3 shows the technical specifications for this equipment.

Table 4-3 Granville Phillips 375 Convectron Vacuum Pressure Controller Specs
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4.2.4 Multimeter
For our experiment we used the Keithley 2000 Digital Multimeter, as shown in figure 4-17.

(a) Front Panel

(b) Back Panel

Fig. 4-17 Keithley Model 2000 6-1/2-Digit Digital Multimeter Its technical specifications are shown in table 4-4.

Table 4-4 Keithley Model 2000 6-1/2-Digit Digital Multimeter Specs

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4.3 Experiment Procedure

1. Connecting together the equipment and the chamber (1) We first connect the resonator to the thickness monitor, and connect the other side to the chamber. (2) We now connect the flexible tubes to the turbo pump on one side and to the chamber on the other. (3) We need to check that tubes are tightly connected, to avoid any leaks in the vacuum pumping process which will not allow us to get to our goal of Torr. As shown in figure 4-18. (4) Connect the convectron to the system as shown in figure 4-19.

Fig. 4-18 checking for leaks using alcohol.

Fig. 4-19 Convectron attached to System

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(5) Attach the clamps of the Multimeter to the bottom of the chamber as shown in figure 4-20. (6) Place the Quartz crystal in place. (7) Close tight vacuum chamber. (8) Connect all electrical appliances to power source.

Fig. 4-20 Multimeter Connections 2. Starting up the System (1) We turn on all the devices as such. Check all systems are ready to function. Reset all values that might be left over from previous tests. (2) Start the thickness monitor and set all values for this experiment. In our case, we got to testing the system, but not actual coating. So we used the simulation mode of the thickness monitor, as shown in figure 4-21.

Fig. 4-21 Simulation Mode

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(3) Start the turbo pump. Make sure the lid on the vacuum chamber is tightly closed. (4) Start convectron and record initial pressure. (5) Start Multimeter and record initial current. 3. Coating Process (1) If we have the deposition material inside the filament boat, the power source for the high current must be started as well. (2) Record all initial values for thickness, current, pressure. (3) For an ideal experiment, we need a thickness of around 101 nm, a pressure of a current of 300 A. Torr, and

4.4 Results
From previous experiments we have shown that we can turn a LED into a laser by means of AR Coating. In figure 4-22 shown below, we can compare the actual results of a Diode before and after AR coating. From the blue line we can see that when the diode is at a current of 15mA, its light will change from LED to laser, and if we look at the red line, its critical current is around 30 to 35 mA.

Fig. 4-22 AR Coating Comparison for Laser Diodes This means that the light emitted is not as strong as if the diode had been coated, because inside the chamber there must be some excitation first, so the reflectivity of both sides inside the diode must be high. So because of the coating in one of the sides, we have opened a door, and let the light come out, so the critical current is risen as such and will be higher value than that of before the coating.

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In the following figures we can see the difference between before and after coating in a material. The thickness is around 101.6 nm for this material.

Fig. 4-23 Before Coating

Fig. 4-24 After Coating

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Chapter 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Conclusions

For the first part of this independent study, taking into consideration the data that came out of our research and that sent by the provider, we can say: 1. SUM 23 after heat treatment, will unexpectedly develop cracking in the middle of the tensile testing process, and suddenly break. 2. Its possible that in the process of heat treatment to the SUM 23 material, the treatment was not uniform, and this will create a pre-loaded moment force on one side that pushes on the other side of the specimen, resulting in material deformation. 3. In the process of attaching the strain gauges to the materials, it is very easy to make errors, due to poor adhesion or sudden removal in the tensile testing process. For our second part of the independent study, the following can be made: 1. At the beginning of this independent study we had no idea what Bose-Einstein Condensate was, or what was its purpose. After much literature, we finally comprehended the basic principles to put into practice for our research. 2. Our systems basic working principles and equipments complexity are a little difficult to grasp, but hopefully we were able to understand enough of it. 3. Theoretically, from relation between the power and current we can know the advantages and disadvantages of AR Coating. 4. We were able to assemble the system and run test on its functions. Even though we were able to do this, there is still much more work left to do with this system.

5.2 Recommendations
For the Tensile Testing, the following can be said: 1. Ask the provider to check on the process of heat treatment on the SUM 23 material, and give them the information we have gathered through our test so they can correct for the mechanical properties found, if any change is needed. 2. To avoid the problem of the inaccuracy of the poor adhesion of strain gauges, we can attach multiple strain gauges to the same one specimen, so as to correlate data and improve our results. For the AR Coating, the following can be said: 1. We need to make sure that there are no physical defects on the main body of the chamber, so as to achieve maximum efficiency in the vacuum process. If there was, then the vacuum will arrive to certain point, and then start to decrease. 2. It would be preferable to add some sort of visual aid that will allow the user to check the inside of the chamber without actually opening it. This will help us determine at what times we should manipulate the current to better evaporate the substrate.
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REFERENCES
[1] A. L. Window, Strain Gauge Technology, Elsevier Applied Science, London and New York, 2nd Edition, 1992. [2] C.C. Perry and H.R. Lissner, Strain Gauge Primer, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1955 [3] James W. Dally, William F. Riley, McGraw-Hill, 1978 [4] University of Colorado, Boulder, BEC - What is it and where did the idea come from? http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/bec/what_is_it.html [5] Ultraslow Light & Bose-Einstein Condensates: Two-way Control with Coherent Light & Atom Fields, Harvard Hau Lab, Dr. Lene Vestergaard Hau, Optics & Photonics News 16, 1995 [6] The Art of Taming Light: Ultra-slow and Stopped Light, Harvard Hau Lab, Dr. Lene Vestergaard Hau, Europhysics News, 2004 [7] Nonlinear Optics: Shocking Superfluids, Harvard Hau Lab, Dr. Lene Vestergaard Hau, Nature Physics, 2007 [8] Model P3 Strain Indicator and Recorder Instruction Manual, Vishay Micro-Measurements, 2005 [9] Granville-Phillips Series 375 Convectron Vacuum Gauge Controller Instruction Manual, Brooks Automation, 2008 [10] Effect of Film Thickness on the Validity of the Sauerbrey Equation for Hydrated Polyelectrolyte Films, Vogt, Lin, Wu, White, 2004 [11] Quartz Crystal Microbalance Study of DNA Immobilization and Hybridization for DNA Sensor Development, Chang, Zhao, 2008 [12] Installation of Strain Gages with SR-4 Precoat/Adhesive, Vishay Micro-Measurements, 2005 [13] Strain Gauge Measurement A Tutorial, National Instruments, 1998 [14] Correlation between Vickers Hardness Number and Yield Stress of Cold-Formed Products, Yavuz, Tekkaya. [15] https://en.wikipedia.org

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