Lesson 2 :

An introduction to tensors
OUTLINE
1. Introduction
2. Vector algebra (recalls)
3. Tensor algebra
4. Scalar, vector, tensor functions
Appendix
Bibliography
1. INTRODUCTION
In (nonlinear) continuum mechanics, physical quantities can be described by :
o scalars (or real numbers) denoted by italic lightface letters like t, l, T, W, ...
measure of the quantity (eventually with negative sign) associated to a unity
Ex : time (s), length (m), temperature (C), energy (I), mass dens|ty (kg]m3),

1. INTRODUCTION
o vectors often designated by lowercase bold-face Latin letters such as x , v , f


Elsewhere, the notation is also employed

model physical quantities having both direction and length (or intensity)
represented by triplets of real numbers associated to basis vectors (of unit length)

Ex : position vectors (m), displacement (m), velocities (m]s) , forces (N),
o second-order tensors represented by uppercase bold-face Latin letters like F, E , T ,

also denoted

generalize scalars and vectors that can be interpreted as 0th-order and 1st-order tensors
may be thought as linear operators acting on vectors
represented by matrices associated to basis tensors (of unit length)
higher order tensors (3rd and 4th order) will also be considered

Ex : deformation (-), stress measures (N]m2), e|ast|c|ty of a mater|a| ,
stress tensor
Unit normal n
Stress vector t
t(n)=T . n linear relationship
IN SUMMARY
o Tensors of different orders (up to 4) are sufficient to describe all continuum mechanical
quantities
o They can either be defined as global variables for a whole body or local variables in every
point of the body :

Mass, resulting force acting on the body global
density, velocity, acceleration local

o Continuum mechanics brings into play :
Scalar-valued , vector-valued and tensor-valued functions
of scalar , vector and tensor variables
vector and tensor algebra
tensor analysis (gradient, derivation, integration)
2. Vector algebra (recalls)
Three-dimensional Euclidian space considered

Fixed set of three basis vectors called a Cartesian basis
such that
orthonormal system
Any vector is re presented uniquely by a linear combination of :
or With the three Cartesian components
( dot product)
2.1 Dot product :
The dot (scalar or inner) product is a positive-defined bilinear form
bilinear means linear in both arguments
with the geometrical meaning,
angle between u and v
norm (length) of u : (also denoted | u|)
u and v are perpendicular if
e is a unit vector if
2.2 Direct, index, explicit notations :
Direct (intrinsic) notation so far employs bold-face letters without referring to any basis :
convenient and concise to manipulate vectors and tensors
Index notation that only retains the generic component of a vector or tensor, previously
decomposed on a basis (of or ) :
useful for some (complicated) calculations
Explicit notation that enumerates all the components of a vector or tensor:
(2 or 3 components)
(4 or 9 components)
2.3 Summation convention :
If an index is repeated in the same term, a summation is implied over the range of this index
(unless stated otherwise)
(1) means
(2)
(3)
or
The summation symbol is left out !
This convention is adopted in the subsequent
An index that is summed over is called a dummy index and can be replaced by any other letter
without changing the value of the expression
In (1) and (2), i and m are dummy ranging from 1 to 3
and for ex, a
m
b
m
and a
r
b
r
have the same meaning

An index that is not summed over is a free index. In the same expression, an index is either
dummy or free
In (3), i is free and enumerates the (two) components of y

The index j is dummy ranging from 1 to 2
2.4 Delta operator :
Kronecker delta symbol
lL corresponds Lo Lhe componenLs of Lhe 2nd-order identity tensor I
For the (Cartesian) basis (orthonormal conditions)
Some related properties:
(summation convention !)
replacement operation of a free index ji
evolving the dot product,
component j of the vector x (projection)
and the norm
1. Meaning of the following expressions ?







2.5 Cross product and alternating symbol :
The vector product is bilinear and anticommutative (or skew)
If holds, u is parallel to v (they are linearly dependent)
Geometrical interpretation :
For the right-handed orthonormal basis,
How to express the cross product in terms of components ?
ermuLaLlon (alternating) symbol
even permutations of the indices
odd permutations of the indices
if there are repeated indices
thus, and,
componenLs of Lhe 3nd-order alternating tensor
1he nlne relaLlons for Lhe basls vecLors can be re-written as
by instance,
Coordinate expression for
explicitly,
also,
det is the determinant of the matrix
2. Check that
determinant of the matrix [A]
3. Starting from the classical (Lagrange) identity
show that
and deduce the relation
2.6 Triple scalar product :
iff : if and only if
for all
This product is trilinear
The vectors are linearly dependent iff their
triple scalar product vanishes !
Note that,
and
3. Tensor algebra
First definition of a second-order tensor :
A second order tensor A is a linear operator that associates a (given) vector x with a vector y
such as : y=Ax
linear" means
All 2nd-order tensors form a linear space of dimension 9, denoted Lin, with the operations
Ex:
2nd-order zero tensor O :
2nd-order identity tensor:
maps the vector x to the zero vector o
maps x to itself
Second (equivalent) definition :
A can be viewed equivalently as the representative factor of a bilinear form b
b is characterized by
linear in both arguments (bilinear)
More appropriate to introduce the deformation tensor (in solid mechanics)
Useful to extent the definition to higher order tensors by considering multilinear forms
3.1 Tensor product Gibbs (1881)
The projection of any vector x on a unit vector n is the simplest (non trivial) linear operation
direct notation
index notation
explicit notation
This operation of projection can be represented by a second order tensor denoted

The product is called tensor or dyadic product of two vectors : considered as the
generating operation of tensors
The tensor or dyadic product of the vectors a and b denoted is a second-order
tensor that assigns to any third vector x the following vector


It is viewed as the scalar product of x and b along the direction of a
Not to be confused with the dot or cross product !
As a tensor, it should satisfy the characteristic linearity property
Generally,
Ex: Replacing a , b by the basis vectors e
1
, e
2
clearly here,
Any second order tensor A may be expressed as a linear combination of the of nine dyads
formed by the Cartesian basis
form a basis of
also called a tensor space denoted
A
im
are the nine Cartesian components of A
Matrix [A] in the basis
In particular ,
With a
i
b
j
the components of the tensor (or dyad)
Explicitly,
The tensor product satisfies
5. Prove the remaining relations .
Index and explicit notation of the vector transformation also denoted
y=A.x
Thus, dummy index j
Explicitly,
4. Deduce that the components
Calculate
3.2 Composition of two second-order tensors
Given two linear transformations
The composition of g by f is a linear function g o f defined by
the circle o is often omitted
Composition of two tensor AB is another tensor C such that
In matrix form
classical mulLlpllcaLlon" of maLrlces
Ex:
Generally ,
3.3 Some particular tensors
Identity tensor I :
Because of one has called spectral decomposition of I
In matrix form,
Clearly,
Transpose of a tensor :
The unique transpose of A denoted by A
T
is such that
with the properties,
Symmetric tensor :
A tensor S is symmetric iff
Skew (antisymmetric) tensor :
A tensor W is skew iff
Any tensor T can be uniquely decomposed into a a symmetric and skew tensor :
also denoted
Dual ector of a ske tensor :
A unique vector a can always be associated to a skew tensor denoted W
a
as
Ex : in particular if x = e
1
and a = e
3
in this case,
and,
rotation of vector e
1
at right angle
3.4 Trace and scalar product
The trace of a tensor T is a scalar defined by
with the important properties,
homogeneity of degree 1
additivity
tr ( ) linear operator
6. Show that Tr I = 3
The sca|ar product : (or doub|e contract|on) of two tensors A and B is given by
sum over i and j !
Ex:
The norm of a tensor A is the nonnegative real number :
As vectors,
U and V are orthogonal if
U is a unit tensor if
Useful properties of the double contraction :
Deviatoric tensor :
Every tensor A can be decomposed into its spherical part and its deviatoric part
= definition of the deviator dev A
by construction the trace of dev A is always zero :
7. Prove that







and deduce that basis tensors are mutually orthogonal and unit tensors
8. Given the tensor





Show that
3.5 Determinant
The determinant of a tensor T is defined by the determinant of the matrix [T]
also denoted III
T
this scalar (real number) satisfies,
homogeneity of degree 3
recall,
3.6 Inverse, orthogonal tensors
If there exists a unique inverse of A, denoted A
-1
such as
The tensorA is said to be invertible
set of all invertible tensors
With the properties
A tensor Q is orthogonal if
or
This implies,
The norm of the two vectors and their relative
orientation are preserved
because
= rotation (Q is said to be proper)

= reflection (Q is said to be improper)
3.7 Change of basis
Let represent the old basis
The vector v can be decomposed such as
Relationship between the components v
i
and v
i
?
By introducing the (proper) orthogonal tensor such as
lL roLaLes" Lhe old basls Lo new one
Thus
with the geometrical meaning,
represent the new basis
In matrix form,
Ex: rotation of angle around e
3
The components of v are related by,
and similarly,
with
For the components of a tensor T
in the old basis (of Lin)
in the new basis (of Lin)
Applying the relations between the basis vectors e
j
and e
j
,
By identifying,
In matrix form,
Application : rotation of angle around e
1
The relation is given explicitly
Here,
After lengthy (!) calculations,
Consequently, vectors and tensors can also be characterized by the laws of change of their
components
Vector v :
Second-order tensor T :
(can be generalized to higher-
order Lensors )
Scalars are invariant
Ex:
3.8 Eigenvalues and eigenvectors of tensors
For a given tensor T, a vector v is said to be an eigenvector with an associated eigenvalue if
Tv=.
From linear algebra, the eigenvalues are the roots of the third-degree polynomial equation :
or explicitly,
(characteristic polynomial for T)
where ,T
II
and T
III
are the first and third principal invariant of T (the trace and the determinant
respectively)
is the second principal invariant of T
(also denoted sec (T) with the property : sec(T)=
2
sec(T) )
Every second-order tensor A satisfies its own characteristic equation
(Cayley-Hamilton theorem)
Proof :
Application : useful to derive certain intrinsic relations
Applying the linear tr (.) operator in both sides with the definition of T
II
simplifying,
Clearly, det(.) is a nonlinear operator and
det(T)=
3
det(T)
For a symmetric tensor S , it is possible to prove that there exits three real roots of the
characteristic equation
1
,
2
,
3
The three corresponding (real) eigenvectors n
1
, n
2
, n
3
are moreover mutually orthogonal
i = 1, 2, 3 no summation here !
and
can be used as an alternative Cartesian basis
In solids mechanics, symmetric tensors are often encountered such as stress or deformation
Lensors
A symmetric tensor S is positive definite if
Its eigenvalues are then all positive
Its principal invariants are also positive
The symmetric tensor S can be expressed in the form
= spectral decomposition of S
In matrix form,
where and
The three principal invariants are simply
9. Consider the symmetric tensor

















Show that its eigenvalues and associated (unit) eigenvectors are
Express [P] and check the relation
3.9 Higher order tensors (notions)
Generalization of the relation y=x
where the second order tensor A (with 32 components) maps the vector x into the vector y
A third order tensor T
can be used to linearly map
- a tensor A into the vector x as
- a vector x into the tensor A as
(also denoted )
may be expressed as
where T
ijk
are the 33 = 27 components
Linear mappings can be written as
although other index contractions could be defined as
The triadic product of the vectors a, b, c is a particular third order tensor denoted
satisfying
Ex : Alternating tensor
with,
In explicit form, thus
one obtains where
and the interpretation,
A fourth order tensor
is used in practice to map a second tensor A into a second order B
(also denoted )
may be expressed as
where T
ijkl
are the 34 = 81 components
In term of components, ones writes
The product of the vectors a, b, c, d is a particular fourth order tensor denoted
satisfying
The tensor product gives a fourth order tensor by
Three fourth order unit tensors can be introduced
with the important properties,
Ex : projection tensor
4. Scalar, vector, tensor functions
Functions of one scalar variable, such as time t :
scalar-valued functions y are
assigns to each element t of its domain D uniquely one element y of its range (or image)
Ex:
by extension, vector-valued and tensor valued functions are
such as
4.1 Derivatives
Their first derivative with respect to t , or rate of change, is given by
Because and the rules below
Usual rules of differentiation,
The derivation is a linear operation
4.2 Vector / scalar fields
Vector-valued function y of one vector variable x (point of R
3
)
with scalar-valued functions
In particular,
linear transformation
affine transformation
Scalar field
4.3 Other useful functions
Scalar-valued function of one tensor variable A
Ex : principal invariants of A :
linear function
nonlinear functions
Tensor-valued function B of one tensor variable A
Ex : linear function
fourth order (constant) tensor
4.4 Gradients or related operators
Gradient of a (smooth) scalar field F(x)
Gradient also denoted grad F or = vector !
Writing
is the derivative along the direction u = variation of F along u
(directional derivative)
Denoting,
Thus,
Ex :
Variation of F at (1,1,1) along the unit vector
10. Considering the quadratic form












show that
Gradient of a (smooth) vector field v(x)
Gradient also denoted = second-order tensor !
with
along e
1
,
For the component 11 of the tensor
Thus, and,
Ex:
(1) :
In index notation
(2) :
By extension, the gradient of a (smooth) tensor field A(x) is the third order tensor
with 27 components
11. Find the gradient of the vector field




h, g are constant vectors
Gradient of a (smooth) scalar-valued function (A), A second order tensor
Gradient of at A = second order tensor!
In index notation,
= scalar product
In particular
or
Gradient of a tensor-valued function B(A)
Gradient of B at A fourth order tensor
In index notation
In particular

used to derived incremental relations (laws)
between stress and strain tensors in mechanics
(nonlinear behavior)
or
Ex:
12. Prove that




Using the previous results and the expression of det in terms tr,
One finds after some calculations
Divergence of a vector v is the scalar
Rotational of a vector v is the vector
with
Explicitly,
Divergence of a second order tensor T is a vector
Explicitly,
Serves to establish the equilibrium law in mechanics
Some properLles for smooLh scalar, vecLor, Lensor flelds , u, v, A, B
4.5 Integral theorems
Given scalar, vector and tensor fields denoted
respectively , v and S
or
or
(Gauss) divergence theorem
By setting S=I and
or
4.6 Some rules for differential operators
4.7 Vector fields
When the components of a vector or tensor depend on the
coordinates we have a vector or tensor field. Es: a flow with velocity
v=v(x,y,,t!
, where s is a parameter alon" the tra#ectory (for instance, the arc len"th!.
$n a physical vector field, the operator s%ch as the diver"ence,
the c%rl and the "radient have a partic%lar meanin" connected
fl%xes and so%rces of some physical &%antities
'ssociated with any vector field a(x! are its tra#ectories, which are
the family of c%rves everywhere tan"ent to the local vector a
4.8 Gradient of a scalar
so:
$f is a scalar f%nction of the position
(for example the temperat%re in a vol%me!
and is a small displacement in the direction n, then
is the derivative in the n direction. (sin" )aylor*s theorem:
)h%s the "radient of can +e viewed as the rate of chan"e of
s%ch a scalar &%antity in the directions ni
,ince it represent the rate of chan"e in all the directions, the
"radient of a scalar is a vector (the "radient of a vector
is a tensor, etc..!.
4.9 Divergence of a vector field
-or any differentia+le varia+le a(x.,x/,x0!, we can write the diver"ence as:
We ta1e now a parallelepiped with one corner 2
at x.,x/,x0 and the dia"onally opposite one 3 at
(x.4dx., x/4dx/, x04dx0!.
)he o%tward %nit normal to the face thro%"h 3 parallel
to x. is e., whereas the one thro%"h 2 is 5e..
6n the first face:
6n the second face a=a(x.,2 ,3!.
)h%s, denotin" n the o%tward normal and d, the area dx/,dx0 of these
faces, the &%antity a varies from face to face, contri+%tin" to the s%rfaces
inte"ral and, which denotes the fl%x over the s%rface d,
,imilar terms can +e o+tained for the contri+%tion of the other two
faces (with a/7x/, a07x0! so that for the whole parallelepiped of
vol%me dV=dx.dx/dx0 we have:
We eval%ate the contri+%tion to the s%rface inte"ral as:
$f a is tho%"ht of as a fl%x, then and, is the net flux out of the volume.

A vector field whose divergence is zero is called SO!"O#DA
$f the fl%x field of a certain property is solenoidal, there is no "eneration of
that property within the field
which +ecome, for a
vol%me shrin1in" to ero:
4.$% a&lacian
$f a is a the "radient of a scalar f%nction, , its diver"ence is called
the a&lacian of
)he followin" is the 8aplace*s e&%ation :
' f%nction which satisfies this e&%ation is called a &otential function
)he 8aplacian represents the fl%x density of the "radient flow of a
f%nction.
Es.: $n electrostatics, the 8aplacian of the electrostatic potential
associated to a char"e distri+%tion is the char"e distri+%tion itself
Es/: the 8aplacian of the "ravitational potential is the mass
distri+%tion.
' f%nction which satisfies this e&%ation is called a &otential function
4.$$ 'url of a vector field
)he cross prod%ct of the na+la operator with a vector field a is the
c%rl of the vector field
$t is connected to the rotation of the field, as we will demonstrate
We ta1e an elementary rectan"le in the
plane normal to x. with one one corner
2 at x.,x/,x0 and the dia"onally opposite
one 3 at (x., x/4dx/, x04dx0! .
We want to calc%late the line inte"ral aro%nd
this elementary circ%it , a t ds , where t is
the tan"ent to the circ%it (the pro#ection of a
tan"ent to the circ%it!.
)he line thro%"h 2 parallel to x0 has tan"ent
5e0 , and the parallel side thro%"h 3 has
tan"ent e0 , and each has len"th dx0
)h%s, the fl%x on these faces contri+%ites to the inte"ral a t ds of:
,imilarly, on the two other sides, there is a contri+%tion :
)h%s, writin" d'=dx0dx/, we have
9:: the s%ffix . indicate that the line inte"ral has
+een comp%ted only on a plane parallel to x.

,imilarly, we can comp%te the other two components for line inte"ral
aro%nd rectan"les on a plane normal to x.

;oreover, we can reach the same res%lt +y considerin" an infinitesimal

trian"le 23<.

,ince the len"th of 23 is dx/=ds cos and 2< is dx0=ds sin, the area is

)he %nit tan"ents aro%nd the trian"le are :

e/,(=,5cos,sin!,5e0

'pproximatin" each part of the line inte"ral +y

the len"th of side m%ltiplied +y a t eval%ated
at its midpoint:
$f d' and ds tend to ero:
$f we consider now a fo%rth point S at (x.4dx,x/,x0! with 3<, a trian"le of
area d' and %nit normal n, the areas of the trian"les 23<, 2<,, 2,3 are:
)he line inte"ral aro%nd
3<, is the s%m of those
aro%nd 23<, 2<,, 2,3 since
23, 2<, 2, are traversed
ones in each direction and
cancel, leadin" to, for small
d':
$t is also possi+le to show that if any small c%rve in the plane with
normal n shrin1s on the point x, the limit of a t ds divided +y the area
is the pro#ection of c%rl a on the normal n
is called #((O)A)#O"A, since the circ%lation aro%nd any
infinitesimal c%rve vanishes
We now define the circulation of a vector &%antity a aro%nd a
closed c%rve >, as the inte"ral of a aro%nd > (where is the
tan"ent to >!:
)h%s, the c%rl correspond to the circ%lation of a aro%nd an
infinitesimal c%rve. ;oreover, a vector field a for which:
9:: if the inte"ral aro%nd any simple closed c%rve vanishes, the val%e of
the inte"ral from ' to : is independent of the path. $n fact, followin" two
different paths >., >/ from ' to : to form the closed c%rve >,
the total inte"ral vanishes +y hypothesis,
meanin" that the two inte"rals alon"
different paths are e&%al
4.$* Green+s theorem
Green's theorem relates a certain volume integral to an integral over the
bounding surface:

If we think of a as the flux of some physical property, the integral of a n

over the whole surface is the total flux out of a closed volume, which is
thus equal to the integral of a in the enclosed volume.
,%ppose that V is a vol%me with a closed s%rface , and a any vector
field defined in V and ,. ?efinin" the diver"ence, we have
demonstrated that, for infinitesimal vol%mes,

$f we s%m all of the infinitesimal vol%mes which constit%te V, we "et a

vol%me inte"ral on the left5hand5side.

't the ri"ht.5hand side, the contri+%tion of an d, , from the to%chin"

faces of two ad#acent elements of vol%me are e&%al in ma"nit%de +%t
opposide in si"n (the o%tward normal point in opposite directiion!

)h%s, s%mmin" %p the terms, only the terms on the o%ter s%rface ,
s%rvive, "ivin":
,to1es* theorem relates the s%rface inte"ral of a &%antity a with
the line inte"ral aro%nd the +o%ndin" c%rve of the s%rface.

$f , is the s%rface +o%nded +y >, we can divide this s%rface into a lar"e
n%m+er of small trian"les for each of which the e&. a+ove is tr%e

,%mmin" the ri"ht5hand sides we have the inte"ral over the whole s%rface

,%mmin" the left5hand sides, the contri+%tions from ad#acent sides of

trian"les will cancel (since they are traversed in opposite directions!,
leavin" only the contri+%tions from the +o%ndin" c%rve >, o+tainin":
4.$* Sto,es+ theorem
We have demonstrate that for an infinitesimal trian"%lar area the line
inte"ral of a n is e&%al to the pro#ection of the c%rl on the normal n
,to1es* theorem says that the total circ%lation of a alon" the +order of a
s%rface is e&%al to the c%rl of a over the normal of the s%rface
9:: 6ne conse&%ence of the form%la is that the field lines of an irrotational
vector field cannot +e closed conto%rs.
)he vector fields can +e cate"oried with respect to their properties

$<<6)')$69'8: for
instance, if a is the
"radient of a f%nction ,
it is certainly irrotational
(c%rl "rad =0 !

26)E9)$'8
(8aplacian==, it is the
"radient of a potential
f%nction!

>6;28E@ 8';E88'<
(a is ortho"onal to its
c%rl!

:E8)<';$ (the c%rl is

parallel to the ori"inal
vector!

,68E96$?'8 (for ex.,

the velocity of a flow of
water or oil is
solenoidal!
4.$- )he classification of vector fields
$f c%rl a ==, there exists a scalar f%nction s%ch that:
which is called the potential of a.
,ince c%rl a = = , ,to1es* theorem says that the circ%lation inte"ral
aro%nd any closed c%rve vanishes :
4.$4 #rrotational fields 4.$4 #rrotational vector fields
)h%s, the line inte"ral from the ori"in to 2 is independent of the path.
$f we define:
, we are th%s s%re that it is a definite scalar f%nction which depends only
on the position 2. $f we ta1e a near+y point, 3 (x.4dx.,x/,x0! we have:
$f we choose a line parallel to e. to "o from 2 to 3, we have t=e., and so
with =A<1. )h%s, in the limit
of dx.=, we have:
$f we repeat the same proced%re with 23 parallel to the other two axes
and esta+lishes that:
)h%s, an irrotational field is characteried +y one of the followin" properties:

>%rl a = =

9:: ,ince is in the direction of the normal to a family of s%rfaces

(x.,x/,x0! =constant, the irrotational of the vector field implies that
there is a family of s%rfaces everywhere normal to the tra#ectory of the
vector field
Solenoidal vector fields satisfies
;oreover, it is possi+le to
demonstrate that it can +e
represented dependin" on two scalar
f%nctions, and , in partic%lar:
Which can +e restated as:
Bere is a vector f%nction of position, which is not %ni&%e +%t m%st
+e irrotational
4.$. Solenoidal vector fields
which implies, for the Creen theorem :
$t may also +e demonstrated that, for any finite, contin%o%s vector
field which vanishes at infinty one can always find 0 scalar
f%nctions, , and (or a solenoidal
vector field ! s%ch that:
)his is called the /!0O)1 re&resentation