Court Decision

l (SII OInIon) OCTOII! TI!
M, 20l2
SyIInbus
OTI: Whoro If Is fonsIbIo, n syIInbus (hondnofo) wIII bo roIonsod, ns Is
boIng dono In connocfIon wIfh fhIs cnso, nf fho fImo fho oInIon Is Issuod.
Tho syIInbus consfIfufos no nrf of fho oInIon of fho Courf buf hns boon
ronrod by fho !oorfor of ocIsIons for fho convonIonco of fho rondor.
Soo Ini/eJ S/o/ee v. De/roi/ TinIer & LunIer Co., 200 !. S. 32l, 33?.
SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES
SyIInbus
SHI!IY CO!TY, A!AIAMA t. HO!I!, ATTO!IY
CII!A!, IT A!.
CI!TIO!A!I TO THI !ITI STATIS CO!!T OI AIIIA!S IO!
THI IST!ICT OI CO!!MIIA CI!C!IT
o. l296. Arguod Iobrunry 2?, 20l3ocIdod Juno 25, 20l3
Tho VofIng !Ighfs Acf of l965 wns onncfod fo nddross onfronchod rncInI
dIscrImInnfIon In vofIng, nn InsIdIous nnd orvnsIvo ovII whIch hnd
boon orofunfod In corfnIn nrfs of our counfry fhrough unromIffIng
nnd IngonIous dofInnco of fho ConsfIfufIon. Sou/l Corolino v. Ko/-
cenIocl, 383 !. S. 30l, 309. SocfIon 2 of fho Acf, whIch bnns nny
sfnndnrd, rncfIco, or rocoduro fhnf rosuIfs In n donInI or
nbrIdgomonf of fho rIghf of nny cIfIzon . . . fo vofo on nccounf of rnco
or coIor, 42 !. S. C. l9?3(n), nIIos nnfIonwIdo, Is ormnnonf, nnd
Is nof nf Issuo In fhIs cnso. Ofhor socfIons nIy onIy fo somo nrfs of
fho counfry. SocfIon 4 of fho Acf rovIdos fho covorngo formuIn, do-
fInIng fho covorod jurIsdIcfIons ns Sfnfos or oIIfIcnI subdIvIsIons
fhnf mnInfnInod fosfs or dovIcos ns roroquIsIfos fo vofIng, nnd hnd
Iow vofor rogIsfrnfIon or furnouf, In fho l960s nnd onrIy l9?0s.
l9?3b(b). In fhoso covorod jurIsdIcfIons, 5 of fho Acf rovIdos fhnf
no chnngo In vofIng rocoduros cnn fnko offocf unfII nrovod by
socIfIod fodornI nufhorIfIos In WnshIngfon, . C. l9?3c(n). Such
nrovnI Is known ns rocIonrnnco.
Tho covorngo formuIn nnd rocIonrnnco roquIromonf woro InIfInIIy
sof fo oxIro nffor fIvo yonrs, buf fho Acf hns boon ronufhorIzod sov-
ornI fImos. In 2006, fho Acf wns ronufhorIzod for nn nddIfIonnI 25
yonrs, buf fho covorngo formuIn wns nof chnngod. Covorngo sfIII
furnod on whofhor n jurIsdIcfIon hnd n vofIng fosf In fho l960s or
l9?0s, nnd hnd Iow vofor rogIsfrnfIon or furnouf nf fhnf fImo. Shorf-
Iy nffor fho 2006 ronufhorIznfIon, n Toxns ufIIIfy dIsfrIcf soughf fo
bnII ouf from fho Acf`s covorngo nnd, In fho nIfornnfIvo, chnIIongod
fho Acf`s consfIfufIonnIIfy. ThIs Courf rosoIvod fho chnIIongo on
sfnfufory grounds, buf oxrossod sorIous doubfs nbouf fho Acf`s con-

2 SHI!IY CO!TY t. HO!I!
SyIInbus
fInuod consfIfufIonnIIfy. Soo Aor/luee/ Aue/in Municipol I/il. Die/.
Ao. One v. HolJer, 55? !. S. l93.
IofIfIonor ShoIby Counfy, In fho covorod jurIsdIcfIon of AInbnmn,
suod fho Affornoy ConornI In IodornI IsfrIcf Courf In WnshIngfon,
. C., sookIng n docInrnfory judgmonf fhnf socfIons 4(b) nnd 5 nro fn-
cInIIy unconsfIfufIonnI, ns woII ns n ormnnonf InjuncfIon ngnInsf
fhoIr onforcomonf. Tho IsfrIcf Courf uhoId fho Acf, fIndIng fhnf
fho ovIdonco boforo Congross In 2006 wns suffIcIonf fo jusfIfy ronu-
fhorIzIng 5 nnd confInuIng 4(b)`s covorngo formuIn. Tho . C. CIr-
cuIf nffIrmod. Affor survoyIng fho ovIdonco In fho rocord, fhnf courf
nccofod Congross`s concIusIon fhnf 2 IIfIgnfIon romnInod Inndo-
qunfo In fho covorod jurIsdIcfIons fo rofocf fho rIghfs of mInorIfy
vofors, fhnf 5 wns fhoroforo sfIII nocossnry, nnd fhnf fho covorngo
formuIn confInuod fo nss consfIfufIonnI musfor.
HelJ: SocfIon 4 of fho VofIng !Ighfs Acf Is unconsfIfufIonnI; Ifs formuIn
cnn no Iongor bo usod ns n bnsIs for subjocfIng jurIsdIcfIons fo ro-
cIonrnnco. I. 925.
(n) In Aor/luee/ Aue/in, fhIs Courf nofod fhnf fho VofIng !Ighfs
Acf Imosos curronf burdons nnd musf bo jusfIfIod by curronf noods
nnd concIudod fhnf n donrfuro from fho fundnmonfnI rIncIIo of
oqunI sovoroIgnfy roquIros n showIng fhnf n sfnfufo`s dIsnrnfo goo-
grnhIc covorngo Is suffIcIonfIy roInfod fo fho robIom fhnf If fnrgofs.
55? !. S., nf 203. Thoso bnsIc rIncIIos guIdo rovIow of fho quosfIon
rosonfod horo. I. 9l?.
(l) Sfnfo IogIsInfIon mny nof confrnvono fodornI Inw. Sfnfos ro-
fnIn brond nufonomy, howovor, In sfrucfurIng fhoIr govornmonfs nnd
ursuIng IogIsInfIvo objocfIvos. Indood, fho Tonfh Amondmonf ro-
sorvos fo fho Sfnfos nII owors nof socIfIcnIIy grnnfod fo fho IodornI
Covornmonf, IncIudIng fho owor fo roguInfo oIocfIons. Gregor, v.
Aelcrof/, 50l !. S. 452, 46l462. Thoro Is nIso n fundnmonfnI rIn-
cIIo of oqunI sovoroIgnfy nmong fho Sfnfos, whIch Is hIghIy orfI-
nonf In nssossIng dIsnrnfo fronfmonf of Sfnfos. Aor/luee/ Aue/in,
eupro, nf 203.
Tho VofIng !Ighfs Acf shnrIy donrfs from fhoso bnsIc rIncIIos.
If roquIros Sfnfos fo bosooch fho IodornI Covornmonf for ormIssIon
fo ImIomonf Inws fhnf fhoy wouId ofhorwIso hnvo fho rIghf fo onncf
nnd oxocufo on fhoIr own. And dosIfo fho frndIfIon of oqunI sovor-
oIgnfy, fho Acf nIIos fo onIy nIno Sfnfos (nnd nddIfIonnI counfIos).
Thnf Is why, In l966, fhIs Courf doscrIbod fho Acf ns sfrIngonf nnd
ofonf, Ko/cenIocl, 383 !. S., nf 308, 3l5, 33?. Tho Courf nonofho-
Ioss uhoId fho Acf, concIudIng fhnf such nn uncommon oxorcIso of
congrossIonnI owor couId bo jusfIfIod by oxcofIonnI condIfIons.
1J., nf 334. I. 9l2.
(2) In l966, fhoso donrfuros woro jusfIfIod by fho bIIghf of rn-

3 CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
SyIInbus
cInI dIscrImInnfIon In vofIng fhnf hnd Infocfod fho oIocfornI rocoss
In nrfs of our counfry for nonrIy n confury, Ko/cenIocl, 383 !. S.,
nf 308. Af fho fImo, fho covorngo formuInfho monns of IInkIng fho
oxorcIso of fho unrocodonfod nufhorIfy wIfh fho robIom fhnf wnr-
rnnfod Ifmndo sonso. Tho Acf wns IImIfod fo nrons whoro Congross
found ovIdonco of ncfunI vofIng dIscrImInnfIon, nnd fho covorod ju-
rIsdIcfIons shnrod fwo chnrncforIsfIcs: fho uso of fosfs nnd dovIcos
for vofor rogIsfrnfIon, nnd n vofIng rnfo In fho l964 rosIdonfInI oIoc-
fIon nf Ionsf l2 oInfs boIow fho nnfIonnI nvorngo. 1J., nf 330. Tho
Courf oxInInod fhnf |f]osfs nnd dovIcos nro roIovnnf fo vofIng dIs-
crImInnfIon bocnuso of fhoIr Iong hIsfory ns n fooI for orofrnfIng
fho ovII; n Iow vofIng rnfo Is orfInonf for fho obvIous ronson fhnf
wIdosrond dIsonfrnnchIsomonf musf InovIfnbIy nffocf fho numbor of
ncfunI vofors. 1IiJ. Tho Courf fhoroforo concIudod fhnf fho covor-
ngo formuIn |wns] rnfIonnI In bofh rncfIco nnd fhoory. 1IiJ.
I. l2l3.
(3) onrIy 50 yonrs Infor, fhIngs hnvo chnngod drnmnfIcnIIy.
!nrgoIy bocnuso of fho VofIng !Ighfs Acf, |v]ofor furnouf nnd rogIs-
frnfIon rnfos In covorod jurIsdIcfIons now nronch nrIfy. IInfnnf-
Iy dIscrImInnfory ovnsIons of fodornI docroos nro rnro. And mInorIfy
cnndIdnfos hoId offIco nf unrocodonfod IovoIs. Aor/luee/ Aue/in,
eupro, nf 202. Tho fosfs nnd dovIcos fhnf bIockod bnIIof nccoss hnvo
boon forbIddon nnfIonwIdo for ovor 40 yonrs" Yof fho Acf hns nof
onsod 5`s rosfrIcfIons or nnrrowod fho scoo of 4`s covorngo formuIn
nIong fho wny. Insfond fhoso oxfrnordInnry nnd unrocodonfod fon-
furos hnvo boon ronufhorIzod ns If nofhIng hns chnngod, nnd fhoy
hnvo grown ovon sfrongor. Iocnuso 5 nIIos onIy fo fhoso jurIsdIc-
fIons sIngIod ouf by 4, fho Courf furns fo consIdor fhnf rovIsIon.
I. l3l?.
(b) SocfIon 4`s formuIn Is unconsfIfufIonnI In IIghf of curronf condI-
fIons. I. l?25.
(l) In l966, fho covorngo formuIn wns rnfIonnI In bofh rncfIco
nnd fhoory. Ko/cenIocl, eupro, nf 330. If Iookod fo cnuso (dIscrImI-
nnfory fosfs) nnd offocf (Iow vofor rogIsfrnfIon nnd furnouf), nnd fnI-
Iorod fho romody (rocIonrnnco) fo fhoso jurIsdIcfIons oxhIbIfIng bofh.
Iy 2009, howovor, fho covorngo formuIn rnIso|d] sorIous consfIfu-
fIonnI quosfIons. Aor/luee/ Aue/in, eupro, nf 204. Covorngo fodny
Is bnsod on docndos-oId dnfn nnd orndIcnfod rncfIcos. Tho formuIn
cnfuros Sfnfos by roforonco fo IIforncy fosfs nnd Iow vofor rogIsfrn-
fIon nnd furnouf In fho l960s nnd onrIy l9?0s. Iuf such fosfs hnvo
boon bnnnod for ovor 40 yonrs. And vofor rogIsfrnfIon nnd furnouf
numbors In covorod Sfnfos hnvo rIson drnmnfIcnIIy. In l965, fho
Sfnfos couId bo dIvIdod Info fhoso wIfh n roconf hIsfory of vofIng fosfs
nnd Iow vofor rogIsfrnfIon nnd furnouf nnd fhoso wIfhouf fhoso chnr-
does it work that way?

SyIInbus
ncforIsfIcs. Congross bnsod Ifs covorngo formuIn on fhnf dIsfIncfIon.
Todny fho nfIon Is no Iongor dIvIdod nIong fhoso IInos, yof fho Vof-
Ing !Ighfs Acf confInuos fo fronf If ns If If woro. I. l?l8.
(2) Tho Covornmonf nffomfs fo dofond fho formuIn on grounds
fhnf If Is rovorso-ongInoorodCongross IdonfIfIod fho jurIsdIcfIons
fo bo covorod nnd /len cnmo u wIfh crIforIn fo doscrIbo fhom. Ko/-
cenIocl dId nof snncfIon such nn nronch, ronsonIng Insfond fhnf
fho covorngo formuIn wns rnfIonnI bocnuso fho formuIn . . . wns roIo-
vnnf fo fho robIom. 383 !. S., nf 329, 330. Tho Covornmonf hns n
fnIIbnck nrgumonfbocnuso fho formuIn wns roIovnnf In l965, Ifs
confInuod uso Is ormIssIbIo so Iong ns nny dIscrImInnfIon romnIns In
fho Sfnfos IdonfIfIod In l965. Iuf fhIs doos nof Iook fo curronf oIIf-
IcnI condIfIons, Aor/luee/ Aue/in, eupro, nf 203, Insfond roIyIng on n
comnrIson bofwoon fho Sfnfos In l965. Iuf hIsfory dId nof ond In
l965. In nssossIng fho curronf nood| ] for n rocIonrnnco sysfom
fronfIng Sfnfos dIfforonfIy from ono nnofhor fodny, hIsfory sInco l965
cnnnof bo Ignorod. Tho IIffoonfh Amondmonf Is nof dosIgnod fo un-
Ish for fho nsf; Ifs uroso Is fo onsuro n boffor fufuro. To sorvo
fhnf uroso, CongrossIf If Is fo dIvIdo fho Sfnfosmusf IdonfIfy
fhoso jurIsdIcfIons fo bo sIngIod ouf on n bnsIs fhnf mnkos sonso In
IIghf of curronf condIfIons. I. l82l.
(3) !osondonfs nIso roIy honvIIy on dnfn from fho rocord com-
IIod by Congross boforo ronufhorIzIng fho Acf. !ognrdIoss of how
ono Iooks nf fhnf rocord, no ono cnn fnIrIy sny fhnf If shows nnyfhIng
nronchIng fho orvnsIvo, fIngrnnf, wIdosrond, nnd rnmnnf
dIscrImInnfIon fhnf cIonrIy dIsfInguIshod fho covorod jurIsdIcfIons
from fho rosf of fho nfIon In l965. Ko/cenIocl, eupro, nf 308, 3l5,
33l. Iuf n moro fundnmonfnI robIom romnIns: Congross dId nof uso
fhnf rocord fo fnshIon n covorngo formuIn groundod In curronf condI-
fIons. If Insfond ro-onncfod n formuIn bnsod on 40-yonr-oId fncfs hnv-
Ing no IogIcnI roInfIon fo fho rosonf dny. I. 2l22.
6?9 I. 3d 848, rovorsod.
!OII!TS, C. J., doIIvorod fho oInIon of fho Courf, In whIch SCA!IA,
KIIY, THOMAS, nnd A!ITO, JJ., joInod. THOMAS, J., fIIod n concur-
rIng oInIon. CISI!!C, J., fIIod n dIssonfIng oInIon, In whIch I!IYI!,
SOTOMAYO!, nnd KACA, JJ., joInod.

_________________

_________________

l CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
OInIon of fho Courf
OTICI: ThIs oInIon Is subjocf fo formnI rovIsIon boforo ubIIcnfIon In fho
roIImInnry rInf of fho !nIfod Sfnfos !oorfs. !ondors nro roquosfod fo
nofIfy fho !oorfor of ocIsIons, Suromo Courf of fho !nIfod Sfnfos, Wnsh-
Ingfon, . C. 20543, of nny fyogrnhIcnI or ofhor formnI orrors, In ordor
fhnf corrocfIons mny bo mndo boforo fho roIImInnry rInf goos fo ross.
o. l296
SHI!IY CO!TY, A!AIAMA, IITITIOI! t. I!IC
H. HO!I!, J!., ATTO!IY CII!A!, IT A!.
O W!IT OI CI!TIO!A!I TO THI !ITI STATIS CO!!T OI
AIIIA!S IO! THI IST!ICT OI CO!!MIIA CI!C!IT
|Juno 25, 20l3]
CHIII J!STICI !OII!TS doIIvorod fho oInIon of fho
Courf.
Tho VofIng !Ighfs Acf of l965 omIoyod oxfrnordInnry
monsuros fo nddross nn oxfrnordInnry robIom. SocfIon 5
of fho Acf roquIrod Sfnfos fo obfnIn fodornI ormIssIon
boforo onncfIng nny Inw roInfod fo vofIngn drnsfIc donr-
furo from bnsIc rIncIIos of fodornIIsm. And 4 of fho Acf
nIIod fhnf roquIromonf onIy fo somo Sfnfosnn oqunIIy
drnmnfIc donrfuro from fho rIncIIo fhnf nII Sfnfos
onjoy oqunI sovoroIgnfy. ThIs wns sfrong modIcIno, buf
Congross doformInod If wns noodod fo nddross onfronchod
rncInI dIscrImInnfIon In vofIng, nn InsIdIous nnd orvn-
sIvo ovII whIch hnd boon orofunfod In corfnIn nrfs of
our counfry fhrough unromIffIng nnd IngonIous dofInnco
of fho ConsfIfufIon. Sou/l Corolino v. Ko/cenIocl,
383 !. S. 30l, 309 (l966). As wo oxInInod In uhoIdIng
fho Inw, oxcofIonnI condIfIons cnn jusfIfy IogIsInfIvo
monsuros nof ofhorwIso nrorInfo. 1J., nf 334. !ofIocf-
Ing fho unrocodonfod nnfuro of fhoso monsuros, fhoy
woro schoduIod fo oxIro nffor fIvo yonrs. Soo VofIng
!Ighfs Acf of l965, 4(n), ?9 Sfnf. 438.

OInIon of fho Courf
onrIy 50 yonrs Infor, fhoy nro sfIII In offocf; Indood,
fhoy hnvo boon mndo moro sfrIngonf, nnd nro now schod-
uIod fo Insf unfII 203l. Thoro Is no donyIng, howovor, fhnf
fho condIfIons fhnf orIgInnIIy jusfIfIod fhoso monsuros no
Iongor chnrncforIzo vofIng In fho covorod jurIsdIcfIons. Iy
2009, fho rncInI gn In vofor rogIsfrnfIon nnd furnouf
|wns] Iowor In fho Sfnfos orIgInnIIy covorod by 5 fhnn If
|wns] nnfIonwIdo. Aor/luee/ Aue/in Municipol I/il. Die/.
Ao. One v. HolJer, 55? !. S. l93, 203204 (2009). SInco
fhnf fImo, Consus Iuronu dnfn IndIcnfo fhnf AfrIcnn-
AmorIcnn vofor furnouf hns como fo oxcood whIfo vofor
furnouf In fIvo of fho sIx Sfnfos orIgInnIIy covorod by 5,
wIfh n gn In fho sIxfh Sfnfo of Ioss fhnn ono hnIf of ono
orconf. Soo of. of Commorco, Consus Iuronu, !o-
orfod VofIng nnd !ogIsfrnfIon, by Sox, !nco nnd HIs-
nnIc OrIgIn, for Sfnfos (ov. 20l2) (TnbIo 4b).
Af fho snmo fImo, vofIng dIscrImInnfIon sfIII oxIsfs; no
ono doubfs fhnf. Tho quosfIon Is whofhor fho Acf`s ox-
frnordInnry monsuros, IncIudIng Ifs dIsnrnfo fronfmonf of
fho Sfnfos, confInuo fo snfIsfy consfIfufIonnI roquIromonfs.
As wo uf If n shorf fImo ngo, fho Acf Imosos curronf
burdons nnd musf bo jusfIfIod by curronf noods. Aor/l-
uee/ Aue/in, 55? !. S., nf 203.
I
A
Tho IIffoonfh Amondmonf wns rnfIfIod In l8?0, In fho
wnko of fho CIvII Wnr. If rovIdos fhnf |f]ho rIghf of
cIfIzons of fho !nIfod Sfnfos fo vofo shnII nof bo donIod or
nbrIdgod by fho !nIfod Sfnfos or by nny Sfnfo on nccounf
of rnco, coIor, or rovIous condIfIon of sorvIfudo, nnd If
gIvos Congross fho owor fo onforco fhIs nrfIcIo by nro-
rInfo IogIsInfIon.
Tho fIrsf confury of congrossIonnI onforcomonf of fho
Amondmonf, howovor, cnn onIy bo rognrdod ns n fnIIuro.
1J., nf l9?. In fho l890s, AInbnmn, CoorgIn, !ouIsInnn,

3 CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
OInIon of fho Courf
MIssIssII, orfh CnroIInn, Soufh CnroIInn, nnd VIrgInIn
bognn fo onncf IIforncy fosfs for vofor rogIsfrnfIon nnd
fo omIoy ofhor mofhods dosIgnod fo rovonf AfrIcnn-
AmorIcnns from vofIng. Ko/cenIocl, 383 !. S., nf 3l0.
Congross nssod sfnfufos oufInwIng somo of fhoso rncfIcos
nnd fncIIIfnfIng IIfIgnfIon ngnInsf fhom, buf IIfIgnfIon
romnInod sIow nnd oxonsIvo, nnd fho Sfnfos cnmo u wIfh
now wnys fo dIscrImInnfo ns soon ns oxIsfIng onos woro
sfruck down. Vofor rogIsfrnfIon of AfrIcnn-AmorIcnns
bnroIy Imrovod. 1J., nf 3l33l4.
InsIrod fo ncfIon by fho cIvII rIghfs movomonf, Con-
gross rosondod In l965 wIfh fho VofIng !Ighfs Acf.
SocfIon 2 wns onncfod fo forbId, In nII 50 Sfnfos, nny
sfnndnrd, rncfIco, or rocoduro . . . Imosod or nIIod
. . . fo dony or nbrIdgo fho rIghf of nny cIfIzon of fho !nIfod
Sfnfos fo vofo on nccounf of rnco or coIor. ?9 Sfnf. 43?.
Tho curronf vorsIon forbIds nny sfnndnrd, rncfIco, or
rocoduro fhnf rosuIfs In n donInI or nbrIdgomonf of fho
rIghf of nny cIfIzon of fho !nIfod Sfnfos fo vofo on nccounf
of rnco or coIor. 42 !. S. C. l9?3(n). Iofh fho IodornI
Covornmonf nnd IndIvIdunIs hnvo suod fo onforco 2, soo,
e.g., Jolneon v. De GronJ,, 5l2 !. S. 99? (l994), nnd
InjuncfIvo roIIof Is nvnIInbIo In nrorInfo cnsos fo bIock
vofIng Inws from goIng Info offocf, soo 42 !. S. C.
l9?3j(d). SocfIon 2 Is ormnnonf, nIIos nnfIonwIdo,
nnd Is nof nf Issuo In fhIs cnso.
Ofhor socfIons fnrgofod onIy somo nrfs of fho counfry.
Af fho fImo of fho Acf`s nssngo, fhoso covorod jurIsdIc-
fIons woro fhoso Sfnfos or oIIfIcnI subdIvIsIons fhnf hnd
mnInfnInod n fosf or dovIco ns n roroquIsIfo fo vofIng ns
of ovombor l, l964, nnd hnd Ioss fhnn 50 orconf vofor
rogIsfrnfIon or furnouf In fho l964 IrosIdonfInI oIocfIon.
4(b), ?9 Sfnf. 438. Such fosfs or dovIcos IncIudod IIforncy
nnd knowIodgo fosfs, good mornI chnrncfor roquIromonfs,
fho nood for vouchors from rogIsforod vofors, nnd fho IIko.
4(c), iJ., nf 438439. A covorod jurIsdIcfIon couId bnII

OInIon of fho Courf
ouf of covorngo If If hnd nof usod n fosf or dovIco In fho
rocodIng fIvo yonrs for fho uroso or wIfh fho offocf of
donyIng or nbrIdgIng fho rIghf fo vofo on nccounf of rnco or
coIor. 4(n), iJ., nf 438. In l965, fho covorod Sfnfos
IncIudod AInbnmn, CoorgIn, !ouIsInnn, MIssIssII, Soufh
CnroIInn, nnd VIrgInIn. Tho nddIfIonnI covorod subdIvI-
sIons IncIudod 39 counfIos In orfh CnroIInn nnd ono In
ArIzonn. Soo 28 CI! f. 5l, A. (20l2).
In fhoso jurIsdIcfIons, 4 of fho Acf bnnnod nII such fosfs
or dovIcos. 4(n), ?9 Sfnf. 438. SocfIon 5 rovIdod fhnf no
chnngo In vofIng rocoduros couId fnko offocf unfII If wns
nrovod by fodornI nufhorIfIos In WnshIngfon, . C.
oIfhor fho Affornoy ConornI or n courf of fhroo judgos. 1J.,
nf 439. A jurIsdIcfIon couId obfnIn such rocIonrnnco
onIy by rovIng fhnf fho chnngo hnd noIfhor fho uroso
|nor] fho offocf of donyIng or nbrIdgIng fho rIghf fo vofo on
nccounf of rnco or coIor. 1IiJ.
SocfIons 4 nnd 5 woro Infondod fo bo fomornry; fhoy
woro sof fo oxIro nffor fIvo yonrs. Soo 4(n), iJ., nf 438;
Aor/luee/ Aue/in, eupro, nf l99. In Sou/l Corolino v.
Ko/cenIocl, wo uhoId fho l965 Acf ngnInsf consfIfufIonnI
chnIIongo, oxInInIng fhnf If wns jusfIfIod fo nddross vof-
Ing dIscrImInnfIon whoro If orsIsfs on n orvnsIvo scnIo.
383 !. S., nf 308.
In l9?0, Congross ronufhorIzod fho Acf for nnofhor fIvo
yonrs, nnd oxfondod fho covorngo formuIn In 4(b) fo jurIs-
dIcfIons fhnf hnd n vofIng fosf nnd Ioss fhnn 50 orconf
vofor rogIsfrnfIon or furnouf ns of l968. VofIng !Ighfs Acf
Amondmonfs of l9?0, 34, 84 Sfnf. 3l5. Thnf swof In
sovornI counfIos In CnIIfornIn, ow HnmshIro, nnd ow
York. Soo 28 CI! f. 5l, A. Congross nIso oxfondod
fho bnn In 4(n) on fosfs nnd dovIcos nnfIonwIdo. 6, 84
Sfnf. 3l5.
In l9?5, Congross ronufhorIzod fho Acf for sovon moro
yonrs, nnd oxfondod Ifs covorngo fo jurIsdIcfIons fhnf hnd
n vofIng fosf nnd Ioss fhnn 50 orconf vofor rogIsfrnfIon or

5 CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
OInIon of fho Courf
furnouf ns of l9?2. VofIng !Ighfs Acf Amondmonfs of
l9?5, l0l, 202, 89 Sfnf. 400, 40l. Congross nIso nmond-
od fho dofInIfIon of fosf or dovIco fo IncIudo fho rncfIco
of rovIdIng IngIIsh-onIy vofIng mnforInIs In Incos whoro
ovor fIvo orconf of vofIng-ngo cIfIzons soko n sIngIo
Inngungo ofhor fhnn IngIIsh. 203, iJ., nf 40l402. As n
rosuIf of fhoso nmondmonfs, fho Sfnfos of AInskn, ArIzonn,
nnd Toxns, ns woII ns sovornI counfIos In CnIIfornIn, IIor-
Idn, MIchIgnn, ow York, orfh CnroIInn, nnd Soufh n-
kofn, bocnmo covorod jurIsdIcfIons. Soo 28 CI! f. 5l, A.
Congross corrosondIngIy nmondod socfIons 2 nnd 5 fo
forbId vofIng dIscrImInnfIon on fho bnsIs of momborshI In
n Inngungo mInorIfy grou, In nddIfIon fo dIscrImInnfIon
on fho bnsIs of rnco or coIor. 203, 206, 89 Sfnf. 40l, 402.
IInnIIy, Congross mndo fho nnfIonwIdo bnn on fosfs nnd
dovIcos ormnnonf. l02, iJ., nf 400.
In l982, Congross ronufhorIzod fho Acf for 25 yonrs, buf
dId nof nIfor Ifs covorngo formuIn. Soo VofIng !Ighfs Acf
Amondmonfs, 96 Sfnf. l3l. Congross dId, howovor, nmond
fho bnIIouf rovIsIons, nIIowIng oIIfIcnI subdIvIsIons of
covorod jurIsdIcfIons fo bnII ouf. Among ofhor roroquI-
sIfos for bnIIouf, jurIsdIcfIons nnd fhoIr subdIvIsIons musf
nof hnvo usod n forbIddon fosf or dovIco, fnIIod fo rocoIvo
rocIonrnnco, or Iosf n 2 suIf, In fho fon yonrs rIor fo
sookIng bnIIouf. 2, iJ., nf l3ll33.
Wo uhoId onch of fhoso ronufhorIznfIons ngnInsf con-
sfIfufIonnI chnIIongo. Soo Georgio v. Ini/eJ S/o/ee, 4ll
!. S. 526 (l9?3); Ci/, of Ione v. Ini/eJ S/o/ee, 446 !. S.
l56 (l980); Lopec v. Mon/ere, Coun/,, 525 !. S. 266
(l999).
In 2006, Congross ngnIn ronufhorIzod fho VofIng !Ighfs
Acf for 25 yonrs, ngnIn wIfhouf chnngo fo Ifs covorngo
formuIn. InnnIo !ou Hnmor, !osn Inrks, nnd Coroffn
Scoff KIng VofIng !Ighfs Acf !onufhorIznfIon nnd Amond-
monfs Acf, l20 Sfnf. 5??. Congross nIso nmondod 5 fo
rohIbIf moro conducf fhnn boforo. 5, iJ., nf 580

OInIon of fho Courf
58l; soo Ieno v. Boeeier Poriel Sclool BJ., 528 !. S. 320,
34l (2000) (Boeeier 11); Georgio v. Aelcrof/, 539 !. S. 46l,
4?9 (2003). SocfIon 5 now forbIds vofIng chnngos wIfh
nny dIscrImInnfory uroso ns woII ns vofIng chnngos
fhnf dImInIsh fho nbIIIfy of cIfIzons, on nccounf of rnco,
coIor, or Inngungo mInorIfy sfnfus, fo oIocf fhoIr roforrod
cnndIdnfos of choIco. 42 !. S. C. l9?3c(b)(d).
ShorfIy nffor fhIs ronufhorIznfIon, n Toxns ufIIIfy dIsfrIcf
broughf suIf, sookIng fo bnII ouf from fho Acf`s covor-
ngo nnd, In fho nIfornnfIvo, chnIIongIng fho Acf`s consfIfu-
fIonnIIfy. Soo Aor/luee/ Aue/in, 55? !. S., nf 20020l. A
fhroo-judgo IsfrIcf Courf oxInInod fhnf onIy n Sfnfo or
oIIfIcnI subdIvIsIon wns oIIgIbIo fo sook bnIIouf undor fho
sfnfufo, nnd concIudod fhnf fho ufIIIfy dIsfrIcf wns nof n
oIIfIcnI subdIvIsIon, n form fhnf oncomnssod onIy coun-
fIos, nrIshos, nnd vofor-rogIsforIng subunIfs. Aor/luee/
Aue/in Municipol I/il. Die/. Ao. One v. Mu/oee,, 5?3
I. Su. 2d 22l, 232 (C 2008). Tho IsfrIcf Courf nIso
rojocfod fho consfIfufIonnI chnIIongo. 1J., nf 283.
Wo rovorsod. Wo oxInInod fhnf 'normnIIy fho Courf
wIII nof docIdo n consfIfufIonnI quosfIon If fhoro Is somo
ofhor ground uon whIch fo dIsoso of fho cnso.` Aor/l-
uee/ Aue/in, eupro, nf 205 (quofIng 1econIio Coun/, v.
McMillon, 466 !. S. 48, 5l (l984) (per curion)). ConcIud-
Ing fhnf undorIyIng consfIfufIonnI concorns, nmong ofhor
fhIngs, comoI|Iod] n brondor rondIng of fho bnIIouf rovI-
sIon, wo consfruod fho sfnfufo fo nIIow fho ufIIIfy dIsfrIcf
fo sook bnIIouf. Aor/luee/ Aue/in, 55? !. S., nf 20?. In
doIng so wo oxrossod sorIous doubfs nbouf fho Acf`s con-
fInuod consfIfufIonnIIfy.
Wo oxInInod fhnf 5 Imosos subsfnnfInI fodornIIsm
cosfs nnd dIfforonfInfos bofwoon fho Sfnfos, dosIfo our hIs-
forIc frndIfIon fhnf nII fho Sfnfos onjoy oqunI sovoroIgnfy.
1J., nf 202, 203 (InfornnI quofnfIon mnrks omIffod).
Wo nIso nofod fhnf |f]hIngs hnvo chnngod In fho Soufh.
Vofor furnouf nnd rogIsfrnfIon rnfos now nronch nrIfy.

? CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
OInIon of fho Courf
IInfnnfIy dIscrImInnfory ovnsIons of fodornI docroos nro
rnro. And mInorIfy cnndIdnfos hoId offIco nf unroco-
donfod IovoIs. 1J., nf 202. IInnIIy, wo quosfIonod whofhor
fho robIoms fhnf 5 monnf fo nddross woro sfIII concon-
frnfod In fho jurIsdIcfIons sIngIod ouf for rocIonrnnco.
1J., nf 203.
IIghf Mombors of fho Courf subscrIbod fo fhoso vIows,
nnd fho romnInIng Mombor wouId hnvo hoId fho Acf un-
consfIfufIonnI. !IfImnfoIy, howovor, fho Courf`s consfruc-
fIon of fho bnIIouf rovIsIon Ioff fho consfIfufIonnI Issuos
for nnofhor dny.
I
ShoIby Counfy Is Iocnfod In AInbnmn, n covorod jurIsdIc-
fIon. If hns nof soughf bnIIouf, ns fho Affornoy ConornI
hns roconfIy objocfod fo vofIng chnngos roosod from
wIfhIn fho counfy. Soo A. 8?n92n. Insfond, In 20l0,
fho counfy suod fho Affornoy ConornI In IodornI IsfrIcf
Courf In WnshIngfon, . C., sookIng n docInrnfory judg-
monf fhnf socfIons 4(b) nnd 5 of fho VofIng !Ighfs Acf nro
fncInIIy unconsfIfufIonnI, ns woII ns n ormnnonf Injunc-
fIon ngnInsf fhoIr onforcomonf. Tho IsfrIcf Courf ruIod
ngnInsf fho counfy nnd uhoId fho Acf. 8ll I. Su. 2d
424, 508 (20ll). Tho courf found fhnf fho ovIdonco boforo
Congross In 2006 wns suffIcIonf fo jusfIfy ronufhorIzIng 5
nnd confInuIng fho 4(b) covorngo formuIn.
Tho Courf of AonIs for fho . C. CIrcuIf nffIrmod. In
nssossIng 5, fho . C. CIrcuIf consIdorod sIx rImnry
cnfogorIos of ovIdonco: Affornoy ConornI objocfIons fo
vofIng chnngos, Affornoy ConornI roquosfs for moro In-
formnfIon rognrdIng vofIng chnngos, succossfuI 2 suIfs In
covorod jurIsdIcfIons, fho dIsnfchIng of fodornI obsorvors
fo monIfor oIocfIons In covorod jurIsdIcfIons, 5 rocIonr-
nnco suIfs InvoIvIng covorod jurIsdIcfIons, nnd fho dofor-
ronf offocf of 5. Soo 6?9 I. 3d 848, 862863 (20l2). Affor
oxfonsIvo nnnIysIs of fho rocord, fho courf nccofod Con-

OInIon of fho Courf
gross`s concIusIon fhnf 2 IIfIgnfIon romnInod Inndoqunfo
In fho covorod jurIsdIcfIons fo rofocf fho rIghfs of mInorI-
fy vofors, nnd fhnf 5 wns fhoroforo sfIII nocossnry. 1J.,
nf 8?3.
TurnIng fo 4, fho . C. CIrcuIf nofod fhnf fho ovIdonco
for sIngIIng ouf fho covorod jurIsdIcfIons wns Ioss robusf
nnd fhnf fho Issuo rosonfod n cIoso quosfIon. 1J., nf
8?9. Iuf fho courf Iookod fo dnfn comnrIng fho numbor
of succossfuI 2 suIfs In fho dIfforonf nrfs of fho counfry.
CouIIng fhnf ovIdonco wIfh fho doforronf offocf of 5, fho
courf concIudod fhnf fho sfnfufo confInuod fo sIngIo ouf
fho jurIsdIcfIons In whIch dIscrImInnfIon Is conconfrnfod,
nnd fhus hoId fhnf fho covorngo formuIn nssod consfIfu-
fIonnI musfor. 1J., nf 883.
Judgo WIIIInms dIssonfod. Ho found no osIfIvo cor-
roInfIon bofwoon IncIusIon In 4(b)`s covorngo formuIn nnd
Iow bInck rogIsfrnfIon or furnouf. 1J., nf 89l. !nfhor,
fo fho oxfonf fhoro wns nny corroInfIon, If ncfunIIy wonf
fho ofhor wny: condomnnfIon undor 4(b) Is n mnrkor of
ligler bInck rogIsfrnfIon nnd furnouf. 1IiJ. (omhnsIs
nddod). Judgo WIIIInms nIso found fhnf |c]ovorod jurIs-
dIcfIons hnvo for nore bInck offIcohoIdors ns n roorfIon
of fho bInck ouInfIon fhnn do uncovorod onos. 1J., nf
892. As fo fho ovIdonco of succossfuI 2 suIfs, Judgo WII-
IInms dIsnggrognfod fho roorfod cnsos by Sfnfo, nnd
concIudod fhnf |f]ho fIvo worsf uncovorod jurIsdIcfIons . . .
hnvo worso rocords fhnn oIghf of fho covorod jurIsdIc-
fIons. 1J., nf 89?. Ho nIso nofod fhnf fwo covorod jurIs-
dIcfIonsArIzonn nnd AInsknhnd nof hnd nny succossfuI
roorfod 2 suIf broughf ngnInsf fhom durIng fho onfIro 24
yonrs covorod by fho dnfn. 1IiJ. Judgo WIIIInms wouId
hnvo hoId fho covorngo formuIn of 4(b) IrrnfIonnI nnd
unconsfIfufIonnI. 1J., nf 885.
Wo grnnfod corfIornrI. 568 !. S. ___ (20l2).

9 CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
OInIon of fho Courf
II
In Aor/luee/ Aue/in, wo sfnfod fhnf fho Acf Imosos
curronf burdons nnd musf bo jusfIfIod by curronf noods.
55? !. S., nf 203. And wo concIudod fhnf n donrfuro
from fho fundnmonfnI rIncIIo of oqunI sovoroIgnfy ro-
quIros n showIng fhnf n sfnfufo`s dIsnrnfo googrnhIc
covorngo Is suffIcIonfIy roInfod fo fho robIom fhnf If
fnrgofs. 1IiJ. Thoso bnsIc rIncIIos guIdo our rovIow of
fho quosfIon boforo us.
l
A
Tho ConsfIfufIon nnd Inws of fho !nIfod Sfnfos nro fho
suromo !nw of fho !nnd. !. S. Consf., Arf. VI, cI. 2.
Sfnfo IogIsInfIon mny nof confrnvono fodornI Inw. Tho
IodornI Covornmonf doos nof, howovor, hnvo n gonornI
rIghf fo rovIow nnd vofo sfnfo onncfmonfs boforo fhoy go
Info offocf. A roosnI fo grnnf such nufhorIfy fo nogn-
fIvo sfnfo Inws wns consIdorod nf fho ConsfIfufIonnI
ConvonfIon, buf rojocfod In fnvor of nIIowIng sfnfo Inws fo
fnko offocf, subjocf fo Infor chnIIongo undor fho Suromncy
CInuso. Soo l !ocords of fho IodornI ConvonfIon of l?8?,
. 2l, l64l68 (M. Inrrnnd od. l9ll); 2 iJ., nf 2?29,
390392.
OufsIdo fho sfrIcfuros of fho Suromncy CInuso, Sfnfos
rofnIn brond nufonomy In sfrucfurIng fhoIr govornmonfs
nnd ursuIng IogIsInfIvo objocfIvos. Indood, fho ConsfIfu-
fIon rovIdos fhnf nII owors nof socIfIcnIIy grnnfod fo fho
IodornI Covornmonf nro rosorvod fo fho Sfnfos or cIfIzons.
Amdf. l0. ThIs nIIocnfIon of owors In our fodornI sysfom
rosorvos fho InfogrIfy, dIgnIfy, nnd rosIdunI sovoroIgnfy
of fho Sfnfos. BonJ v. Ini/eJ S/o/ee, 564 !. S. ___, ___

l
Iofh fho Iourfoonfh nnd IIffoonfh Amondmonfs woro nf Issuo In
Aor/luee/ Aue/in, soo JurIs. Sfnfomonf I, nnd IrIof for IodornI AoI-
Ioo 2930, In Aor/luee/ Aue/in Municipol I/il. Die/. Ao. One v. HolJer,
O. T. 2008, o. 08322, nnd nccordIngIy Aor/luee/ Aue/in guIdos our
rovIow undor bofh Amondmonfs In fhIs cnso.

l0 SHI!IY CO!TY t. HO!I!
OInIon of fho Courf
(20ll) (sII o., nf 9). Iuf fho fodornI bnInnco Is nof jusf
nn ond In IfsoIf: !nfhor, fodornIIsm socuros fo cIfIzons fho
IIborfIos fhnf dorIvo from fho dIffusIon of sovoroIgn owor.
1IiJ. (InfornnI quofnfIon mnrks omIffod).
Moro socIfIcnIIy, 'fho Irnmors of fho ConsfIfufIon
Infondod fho Sfnfos fo koo for fhomsoIvos, ns rovIdod In
fho Tonfh Amondmonf, fho owor fo roguInfo oIocfIons.`
Gregor, v. Aelcrof/, 50l !. S. 452, 46l462 (l99l) (quof-
Ing Sugornon v. Dougoll, 4l3 !. S. 634, 64? (l9?3); somo
InfornnI quofnfIon mnrks omIffod). Of courso, fho IodornI
Covornmonf rofnIns sIgnIfIcnnf confroI ovor fodornI oIoc-
fIons. Ior Insfnnco, fho ConsfIfufIon nufhorIzos Congross
fo osfnbIIsh fho fImo nnd mnnnor for oIocfIng Sonnfors nnd
!orosonfnfIvos. Arf. I, 4, cI. l; soo nIso Aricono v. 1n/er
TriIol Council of Aric., 1nc., on/e, nf 46. Iuf Sfnfos hnvo
brond owors fo doformIno fho condIfIons undor whIch
fho rIghf of suffrngo mny bo oxorcIsod. Corring/on v.
Ioel, 380 !. S. 89, 9l (l965) (InfornnI quofnfIon mnrks
omIffod); soo nIso Aricono, on/e, nf l3l5. And |o]nch
Sfnfo hns fho owor fo roscrIbo fho qunIIfIcnfIons of Ifs
offIcors nnd fho mnnnor In whIch fhoy shnII bo choson.
Bo,J v. AeIroe/o ex rel. Tlo,er, l43 !. S. l35, l6l (l892).
rnwIng IInos for congrossIonnI dIsfrIcfs Is IIkowIso rI-
mnrIIy fho dufy nnd rosonsIbIIIfy of fho Sfnfo. Perr, v.
Perec, 565 !. S. ___, ___ (20l2) (per curion) (sII o., nf 3)
(InfornnI quofnfIon mnrks omIffod).
of onIy do Sfnfos rofnIn sovoroIgnfy undor fho ConsfI-
fufIon, fhoro Is nIso n fundnmonfnI rIncIIo of equol
sovoroIgnfy nmong fho Sfnfos. Aor/luee/ Aue/in, eupro,
nf 203 (cIfIng Ini/eJ S/o/ee v. Louieiono, 363 !. S. l, l6
(l960); Leeeee of PollorJ v. Hogon, 3 How. 2l2, 223 (l845);
nnd Texoe v. Wli/e, ? WnII. ?00, ?25?26 (l869); omhnsIs
nddod). Ovor n hundrod yonrs ngo, fhIs Courf oxInInod
fhnf our nfIon wns nnd Is n unIon of Sfnfos, oqunI In
owor, dIgnIfy nnd nufhorIfy. Co,le v. Sni/l, 22l !. S.
559, 56? (l9ll). Indood, fho consfIfufIonnI oqunIIfy of fho

ll CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
OInIon of fho Courf
Sfnfos Is ossonfInI fo fho hnrmonIous oornfIon of fho
schomo uon whIch fho !oubIIc wns orgnnIzod. 1J., nf
580. Co,le concornod fho ndmIssIon of now Sfnfos, nnd
Ko/cenIocl rojocfod fho nofIon fhnf fho rIncIIo oornfod
ns n Ior on dIfforonfInI fronfmonf oufsIdo fhnf confoxf.
383 !. S., nf 328329. Af fho snmo fImo, ns wo mndo cIonr
In Aor/luee/ Aue/in, fho fundnmonfnI rIncIIo of oqunI
sovoroIgnfy romnIns hIghIy orfInonf In nssossIng subso-
quonf dIsnrnfo fronfmonf of Sfnfos. 55? !. S., nf 203.
Tho VofIng !Ighfs Acf shnrIy donrfs from fhoso bnsIc
rIncIIos. If susonds oll chnngos fo sfnfo oIocfIon Inw
howovor InnocuousunfII fhoy hnvo boon rocIonrod
by fodornI nufhorIfIos In WnshIngfon, . C. 1J., nf 202.
Sfnfos musf bosooch fho IodornI Covornmonf for ormIs-
sIon fo ImIomonf Inws fhnf fhoy wouId ofhorwIso hnvo
fho rIghf fo onncf nnd oxocufo on fhoIr own, subjocf of
courso fo nny InjuncfIon In n 2 ncfIon. Tho Affornoy
ConornI hns 60 dnys fo objocf fo n rocIonrnnco roquosf,
Iongor If ho roquosfs moro InformnfIon. Soo 28 CI!
5l.9, 5l.3?. If n Sfnfo sooks rocIonrnnco from n fhroo-
judgo courf, fho rocoss cnn fnko yonrs.
And dosIfo fho frndIfIon of oqunI sovoroIgnfy, fho Acf
nIIos fo onIy nIno Sfnfos (nnd sovornI nddIfIonnI coun-
fIos). WhIIo ono Sfnfo wnIfs monfhs or yonrs nnd oxonds
funds fo ImIomonf n vnIIdIy onncfod Inw, Ifs noIghbor
cnn fyIcnIIy uf fho snmo Inw Info offocf ImmodInfoIy,
fhrough fho normnI IogIsInfIvo rocoss. Ivon If n noncov-
orod jurIsdIcfIon Is suod, fhoro nro Imorfnnf dIfforoncos
bofwoon fhoso rocoodIngs nnd rocIonrnnco rocoodIngs;
fho rocIonrnnco rocoodIng nof onIy swIfchos fho burdon
of roof fo fho suIIcnnf jurIsdIcfIon, buf nIso nIIos
subsfnnfIvo sfnndnrds quIfo dIfforonf from fhoso govorn-
Ing fho rosf of fho nnfIon. 6?9 I. 3d, nf 884 (WIIIInms, J.,
dIssonfIng) (cnso boIow).
AII fhIs oxInIns why, whon wo fIrsf uhoId fho Acf In
l966, wo doscrIbod If ns sfrIngonf nnd ofonf. Ko/cen-

OInIon of fho Courf
Iocl, 383 !. S., nf 308, 3l5, 33?. Wo rocognIzod fhnf If
mny hnvo boon nn uncommon oxorcIso of congrossIonnI
owor, buf concIudod fhnf IogIsInfIvo monsuros nof ofh-
orwIso nrorInfo couId bo jusfIfIod by oxcofIonnI con-
dIfIons. 1J., nf 334. Wo hnvo sInco nofod fhnf fho Acf
nufhorIzos fodornI InfrusIon Info sonsIfIvo nrons of sfnfo
nnd IocnI oIIcymnkIng, Lopec, 525 !. S., nf 282, nnd
rorosonfs nn oxfrnordInnry donrfuro from fho frndI-
fIonnI courso of roInfIons bofwoon fho Sfnfos nnd fho
IodornI Covornmonf, Preele, v. 1/ouol Coun/, Conn`n,
502 !. S. 49l, 50050l (l992). As wo roIfornfod In
Aor/luee/ Aue/in, fho Acf consfIfufos oxfrnordInnry
IogIsInfIon ofhorwIso unfnmIIInr fo our fodornI sysfom.
55? !. S., nf 2ll.
I
In l966, wo found fhoso donrfuros from fho bnsIc fon-
furos of our sysfom of govornmonf jusfIfIod. Tho bIIghf of
rncInI dIscrImInnfIon In vofIng hnd Infocfod fho oIocfornI
rocoss In nrfs of our counfry for nonrIy n confury.
Ko/cenIocl, 383 !. S., nf 308. SovornI Sfnfos hnd onncfod
n vnrIofy of roquIromonfs nnd fosfs socIfIcnIIy dosIgnod
fo rovonf AfrIcnn-AmorIcnns from vofIng. 1J., nf 3l0.
Cnso-by-cnso IIfIgnfIon hnd rovod Inndoqunfo fo rovonf
such rncInI dIscrImInnfIon In vofIng, In nrf bocnuso
Sfnfos moroIy swIfchod fo dIscrImInnfory dovIcos nof
covorod by fho fodornI docroos, onncfod dIffIcuIf now
fosfs, or sImIy dofIod nnd ovndod courf ordors. 1J., nf
3l4. ShorfIy boforo onncfmonf of fho VofIng !Ighfs Acf,
onIy l9.4 orconf of AfrIcnn-AmorIcnns of vofIng ngo woro
rogIsforod fo vofo In AInbnmn, onIy 3l.8 orconf In !ouIsI-
nnn, nnd onIy 6.4 orconf In MIssIssII. 1J., nf 3l3.
Thoso fIguros woro roughIy 50 orconfngo oInfs or moro
boIow fho fIguros for whIfos. 1IiJ.
In shorf, wo concIudod fhnf |u]ndor fho comuIsIon of
fhoso unIquo cIrcumsfnncos, Congross rosondod In n

l3 CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
OInIon of fho Courf
ormIssIbIy docIsIvo mnnnor. 1J., nf 334, 335. Wo nIso
nofod fhon nnd hnvo omhnsIzod sInco fhnf fhIs oxfrn-
ordInnry IogIsInfIon wns Infondod fo bo fomornry, sof fo
oxIro nffor fIvo yonrs. 1J., nf 333; Aor/luee/ Aue/in,
eupro, nf l99.
Af fho fImo, fho covorngo formuInfho monns of IInkIng
fho oxorcIso of fho unrocodonfod nufhorIfy wIfh fho
robIom fhnf wnrrnnfod Ifmndo sonso. Wo found fhnf
Congross choso fo IImIf Ifs nffonfIon fo fho googrnhIc
nrons whoro ImmodInfo ncfIon soomod nocossnry. Ko/-
cenIocl, 383 !. S., nf 328. Tho nrons whoro Congross
found ovIdonco of ncfunI vofIng dIscrImInnfIon shnrod
fwo chnrncforIsfIcs: fho uso of fosfs nnd dovIcos for vofor
rogIsfrnfIon, nnd n vofIng rnfo In fho l964 rosIdonfInI
oIocfIon nf Ionsf l2 oInfs boIow fho nnfIonnI nvorngo.
1J., nf 330. Wo oxInInod fhnf |f]osfs nnd dovIcos nro
roIovnnf fo vofIng dIscrImInnfIon bocnuso of fhoIr Iong
hIsfory ns n fooI for orofrnfIng fho ovII; n Iow vofIng rnfo
Is orfInonf for fho obvIous ronson fhnf wIdosrond dIson-
frnnchIsomonf musf InovIfnbIy nffocf fho numbor of ncfunI
vofors. 1IiJ. Wo fhoroforo concIudod fhnf fho covorngo
formuIn |wns] rnfIonnI In bofh rncfIco nnd fhoory. 1IiJ.
If nccurnfoIy rofIocfod fhoso jurIsdIcfIons unIquoIy chnrnc-
forIzod by vofIng dIscrImInnfIon on n orvnsIvo scnIo,
IInkIng covorngo fo fho dovIcos usod fo offocfunfo dIscrImI-
nnfIon nnd fo fho rosuIfIng dIsonfrnnchIsomonf. 1J., nf
308. Tho formuIn onsurod fhnf fho sfrIngonf romodIos
|woro] nImod nf nrons whoro vofIng dIscrImInnfIon hn|d]
boon mosf fIngrnnf. 1J., nf 3l5.
C
onrIy 50 yonrs Infor, fhIngs hnvo chnngod drnmnfI-
cnIIy. ShoIby Counfy confonds fhnf fho rocIonrnnco ro-
quIromonf, ovon wIfhouf rognrd fo Ifs dIsnrnfo covorngo,
Is now unconsfIfufIonnI. Ifs nrgumonfs hnvo n good donI
of forco. In fho covorod jurIsdIcfIons, |v]ofor furnouf nnd

OInIon of fho Courf
rogIsfrnfIon rnfos now nronch nrIfy. IInfnnfIy dIscrIm-
Innfory ovnsIons of fodornI docroos nro rnro. And mInorIfy
cnndIdnfos hoId offIco nf unrocodonfod IovoIs. Aor/luee/
Aue/in, 55? !. S., nf 202. Tho fosfs nnd dovIcos fhnf
bIockod nccoss fo fho bnIIof hnvo boon forbIddon nnfIon-
wIdo for ovor 40 yonrs. Soo 6, 84 Sfnf. 3l5; l02, 89 Sfnf.
400.
Thoso concIusIons nro nof ours nIono. Congross snId fho
snmo whon If ronufhorIzod fho Acf In 2006, wrIfIng fhnf
|s]IgnIfIcnnf rogross hns boon mndo In oIImInnfIng fIrsf
gonornfIon bnrrIors oxorIoncod by mInorIfy vofors, In-
cIudIng Incronsod numbors of rogIsforod mInorIfy vofors,
mInorIfy vofor furnouf, nnd mInorIfy rorosonfnfIon In
Congross, Sfnfo IogIsInfuros, nnd IocnI oIocfod offIcos.
2(b)(l), l20 Sfnf. 5??. Tho Houso !oorf oInbornfod fhnf
fho numbor of AfrIcnn-AmorIcnns who nro rogIsforod nnd
who furn ouf fo cnsf bnIIofs hns Incronsod sIgnIfIcnnfIy
ovor fho Insf 40 yonrs, nrfIcuInrIy sInco l982, nnd nofod
fhnf |I]n somo cIrcumsfnncos, mInorIfIos rogIsfor fo vofo
nnd cnsf bnIIofs nf IovoIs fhnf surnss fhoso of whIfo vof-
ors. H. !. !o. o. l094?8, . l2 (2006). Thnf !oorf
nIso oxInInod fhnf fhoro hnvo boon sIgnIfIcnnf Incronsos
In fho numbor of AfrIcnn-AmorIcnns sorvIng In oIocfod
offIcos; moro socIfIcnIIy, fhoro hns boon nroxImnfoIy
n l,000 orconf Incronso sInco l965 In fho numbor of
AfrIcnn-AmorIcnn oIocfod offIcInIs In fho sIx Sfnfos orIgI-
nnIIy covorod by fho VofIng !Ighfs Acf. 1J., nf l8.
Tho foIIowIng chnrf, comIIod from fho Sonnfo nnd
Houso !oorfs, comnros vofor rogIsfrnfIon numbors from
l965 fo fhoso from 2004 In fho sIx orIgInnIIy covorod
Sfnfos. Thoso nro fho numbors fhnf woro boforo Congross
whon If ronufhorIzod fho Acf In 2006:

l5 CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
OInIon of fho Courf
l965 2004
WhIfo IInck Cn WhIfo IInck Cn
AInbnmn 69.2 l9.3 49.9 ?3.8 ?2.9 0.9
CoorgIn 62.|6] 2?.4 35.2 63.5 64.2 -0.?
!ouIsInnn 80.5 3l.6 48.9 ?5.l ?l.l 4.0
MIssIssII 69.9 6.? 63.2 ?2.3 ?6.l -3.8
Soufh
CnroIInn
?5.? 3?.3 38.4 ?4.4 ?l.l 3.3
VIrgInIn 6l.l 38.3 22.8 68.2 5?.4 l0.8
Soo S. !o. o. l09295, . ll (2006); H. !. !o. o. l09
4?8, nf l2. Tho 2004 fIguros como from fho Consus Iu-
ronu. Consus Iuronu dnfn from fho mosf roconf oIocfIon
IndIcnfo fhnf AfrIcnn-AmorIcnn vofor furnouf oxcoodod
whIfo vofor furnouf In fIvo of fho sIx Sfnfos orIgInnIIy
covorod by 5, wIfh n gn In fho sIxfh Sfnfo of Ioss fhnn
ono hnIf of ono orconf. Soo of. of Commorco, Consus
Iuronu, !oorfod VofIng nnd !ogIsfrnfIon, by Sox, !nco
nnd HIsnnIc OrIgIn, for Sfnfos (TnbIo 4b). Tho rocIonr-
nnco sfnfIsfIcs nro nIso IIIumInnfIng. In fho fIrsf docndo
nffor onncfmonf of 5, fho Affornoy ConornI objocfod fo
l4.2 orconf of roosod vofIng chnngos. H. ! !o. o.
l094?8, nf 22. In fho Insf docndo boforo roonncfmonf, fho
Affornoy ConornI objocfod fo n moro 0.l6 orconf. S. !o.
o. l09295, nf l3.
Thoro Is no doubf fhnf fhoso Imrovomonfs nro In Inrgo
nrf Iecouee of fho VofIng !Ighfs Acf. Tho Acf hns rovod
ImmonsoIy succossfuI nf rodrossIng rncInI dIscrImInnfIon
nnd InfogrnfIng fho vofIng rocoss. Soo 2(b)(l), l20 Sfnf.
5??. urIng fho Iroodom Summor of l964, In IhIIndoI-
hIn, MIssIssII, fhroo mon woro murdorod whIIo work-
Ing In fho nron fo rogIsfor AfrIcnn-AmorIcnn vofors. Soo
Ini/eJ S/o/ee v. Price, 383 !. S. ?8?, ?90 (l966). On
IIoody Sundny In l965, In SoImn, AInbnmn, oIIco bonf

OInIon of fho Courf
nnd usod fonr gns ngnInsf hundrods mnrchIng In su-
orf of AfrIcnn-AmorIcnn onfrnnchIsomonf. Soo Aor/luee/
Aue/in, eupro, nf 220, n. 3 (THOMAS, J., concurrIng In
judgmonf In nrf nnd dIssonfIng In nrf). Todny bofh of
fhoso fowns nro govornod by AfrIcnn-AmorIcnn mnyors.
IrobIoms romnIn In fhoso Sfnfos nnd ofhors, buf fhoro Is
no donyIng fhnf, duo fo fho VofIng !Ighfs Acf, our nfIon
hns mndo gronf sfrIdos.
Yof fho Acf hns nof onsod fho rosfrIcfIons In 5 or nnr-
rowod fho scoo of fho covorngo formuIn In 4(b) nIong fho
wny. Thoso oxfrnordInnry nnd unrocodonfod fonfuros
woro ronufhorIzodns If nofhIng hnd chnngod. In fncf,
fho Acf`s unusunI romodIos hnvo grown ovon sfrongor.
Whon Congross ronufhorIzod fho Acf In 2006, If dId so for
nnofhor 25 yonrs on fo of fho rovIous 40n fnr cry from
fho InIfInI fIvo-yonr orIod. Soo 42 !. S. C. l9?3b(n)(8).
Congross nIso oxnndod fho rohIbIfIons In 5. Wo hnd
rovIousIy Inforrofod 5 fo rohIbIf onIy fhoso rodIsfrIcf-
Ing Inns fhnf wouId hnvo fho uroso or offocf of worson-
Ing fho osIfIon of mInorIfy grous. Soo Boeeier 11, 528
!. S., nf 324, 335336. In 2006, Congross nmondod 5
fo rohIbIf Inws fhnf couId hnvo fnvorod such grous buf
dId nof do so bocnuso of n dIscrImInnfory uroso, soo 42
!. S. C. l9?3c(c), ovon fhough wo hnd sfnfod fhnf such
brondonIng of 5 covorngo wouId oxncorbnfo fho subsfnn-
fInI fodornIIsm cosfs fhnf fho rocIonrnnco rocoduro
nIrondy oxncfs, orhns fo fho oxfonf of rnIsIng concorns
nbouf 5`s consfIfufIonnIIfy, Boeeier 11, eupro, nf 336
(cIfnfIon nnd InfornnI quofnfIon mnrks omIffod). In nddI-
fIon, Congross oxnndod 5 fo rohIbIf nny vofIng Inw
fhnf hns fho uroso of or wIII hnvo fho offocf of dImInIsh-
Ing fho nbIIIfy of nny cIfIzons of fho !nIfod Sfnfos, on
nccounf of rnco, coIor, or Inngungo mInorIfy sfnfus, fo
oIocf fhoIr roforrod cnndIdnfos of choIco. l9?3c(b). In
IIghf of fhoso fwo nmondmonfs, fho bnr fhnf covorod jurIs-
dIcfIons musf cIonr hns boon rnIsod ovon ns fho condIfIons

l? CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
OInIon of fho Courf
jusfIfyIng fhnf roquIromonf hnvo drnmnfIcnIIy Imrovod.
Wo hnvo nIso rovIousIy hIghIIghfod fho concorn fhnf
fho rocIonrnnco roquIromonfs In ono Sfnfo |mIghf]
bo unconsfIfufIonnI In nnofhor. Aor/luee/ Aue/in, 55?
!. S., nf 203; soo Georgio v. Aelcrof/, 539 !. S., nf 49l
(KIIY, J., concurrIng) (consIdornfIons of rnco fhnf
wouId doom n rodIsfrIcfIng Inn undor fho Iourfoonfh
Amondmonf or 2 |of fho VofIng !Ighfs Acf] soom fo bo
whnf snvo If undor 5). ofhIng hns hnonod sInco fo
nIIovInfo fhIs froubIIng concorn nbouf fho curronf nIIcn-
fIon of 5.
!osondonfs do nof dony fhnf fhoro hnvo boon Im-
rovomonfs on fho ground, buf nrguo fhnf much of fhIs
cnn bo nffrIbufod fo fho doforronf offocf of 5, whIch dIs-
sundos covorod jurIsdIcfIons from ongngIng In dIscrImInn-
fIon fhnf fhoy wouId rosumo shouId 5 bo sfruck down.
!ndor fhIs fhoory, howovor, 5 wouId bo offocfIvoIy Im-
muno from scrufIny; no mnffor how cIonn fho rocord
of covorod jurIsdIcfIons, fho nrgumonf couId nIwnys bo
mndo fhnf If wns doforronco fhnf nccounfod for fho good
bohnvIor.
Tho rovIsIons of 5 nIy onIy fo fhoso jurIsdIcfIons
sIngIod ouf by 4. Wo now consIdor whofhor fhnf covorngo
formuIn Is consfIfufIonnI In IIghf of curronf condIfIons.
III
A
Whon uhoIdIng fho consfIfufIonnIIfy of fho covorngo
formuIn In l966, wo concIudod fhnf If wns rnfIonnI In bofh
rncfIco nnd fhoory. Ko/cenIocl, 383 !. S., nf 330. Tho
formuIn Iookod fo cnuso (dIscrImInnfory fosfs) nnd of-
focf (Iow vofor rogIsfrnfIon nnd furnouf), nnd fnIIorod fho
romody (rocIonrnnco) fo fhoso jurIsdIcfIons oxhIbIfIng
bofh.
Iy 2009, howovor, wo concIudod fhnf fho covorngo
formuIn rnIso|d] sorIous consfIfufIonnI quosfIons. Aor/l-

OInIon of fho Courf
uee/ Aue/in, 55? !. S., nf 204. As wo oxInInod, n sfnf-
ufo`s curronf burdons musf bo jusfIfIod by curronf
noods, nnd nny dIsnrnfo googrnhIc covorngo musf bo
suffIcIonfIy roInfod fo fho robIom fhnf If fnrgofs. 1J., nf
203. Tho covorngo formuIn mof fhnf fosf In l965, buf no
Iongor doos so.
Covorngo fodny Is bnsod on docndos-oId dnfn nnd orndI-
cnfod rncfIcos. Tho formuIn cnfuros Sfnfos by roforonco
fo IIforncy fosfs nnd Iow vofor rogIsfrnfIon nnd furnouf In
fho l960s nnd onrIy l9?0s. Iuf such fosfs hnvo boon
bnnnod nnfIonwIdo for ovor 40 yonrs. 6, 84 Sfnf. 3l5;
l02, 89 Sfnf. 400. And vofor rogIsfrnfIon nnd furnouf
numbors In fho covorod Sfnfos hnvo rIson drnmnfIcnIIy In
fho yonrs sInco. H. !. !o. o. l094?8, nf l2. !ncInI
dIsnrIfy In fhoso numbors wns comoIIIng ovIdonco jusfI-
fyIng fho rocIonrnnco romody nnd fho covorngo formuIn.
Soo, e.g., Ko/cenIocl, eupro, nf 3l3, 329330. Thoro Is no
Iongor such n dIsnrIfy.
In l965, fho Sfnfos couId bo dIvIdod Info fwo grous:
fhoso wIfh n roconf hIsfory of vofIng fosfs nnd Iow vofor
rogIsfrnfIon nnd furnouf, nnd fhoso wIfhouf fhoso chnrnc-
forIsfIcs. Congross bnsod Ifs covorngo formuIn on fhnf
dIsfIncfIon. Todny fho nfIon Is no Iongor dIvIdod nIong
fhoso IInos, yof fho VofIng !Ighfs Acf confInuos fo fronf If
ns If If woro.
I
Tho Covornmonf`s dofonso of fho formuIn Is IImIfod.
IIrsf, fho Covornmonf confonds fhnf fho formuIn Is ro-
vorso-ongInoorod: Congross IdonfIfIod fho jurIsdIcfIons fo
bo covorod nnd /len cnmo u wIfh crIforIn fo doscrIbo
fhom. IrIof for IodornI !osondonf 4849. !ndor fhnf
ronsonIng, fhoro nood nof bo nny IogIcnI roInfIonshI bo-
fwoon fho crIforIn In fho formuIn nnd fho ronson for
covorngo; nII fhnf Is nocossnry Is fhnf fho formuIn hnon
fo cnfuro fho jurIsdIcfIons Congross wnnfod fo sIngIo ouf.

l9 CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
OInIon of fho Courf
Tho Covornmonf suggosfs fhnf Ko/cenIocl snncfIonod
such nn nronch, buf fho nnnIysIs In Ko/cenIocl wns
quIfo dIfforonf. Ko/cenIocl ronsonod fhnf fho covorngo
formuIn wns rnfIonnI bocnuso fho formuIn . . . wns roIo-
vnnf fo fho robIom: Tosfs nnd dovIcos nro roIovnnf fo
vofIng dIscrImInnfIon bocnuso of fhoIr Iong hIsfory ns n
fooI for orofrnfIng fho ovII; n Iow vofIng rnfo Is orfInonf
for fho obvIous ronson fhnf wIdosrond dIsonfrnnchIso-
monf musf InovIfnbIy nffocf fho numbor of ncfunI vofors.
383 !. S., nf 329, 330.
Horo, by confrnsf, fho Covornmonf`s rovorso-
ongInoorIng nrgumonf doos nof ovon nffomf fo domon-
sfrnfo fho confInuod roIovnnco of fho formuIn fo fho robIom
If fnrgofs. And In fho confoxf of n docIsIon ns sIgnIfIcnnf
ns fhIs onosubjocfIng n dIsfnvorod subsof of Sfnfos
fo oxfrnordInnry IogIsInfIon ofhorwIso unfnmIIInr fo our
fodornI sysfom, Aor/luee/ Aue/in, eupro, nf 2llfhnf
fnIIuro fo osfnbIIsh ovon roIovnnco Is fnfnI.
Tho Covornmonf fnIIs bnck fo fho nrgumonf fhnf bo-
cnuso fho formuIn wns roIovnnf In l965, Ifs confInuod uso
Is ormIssIbIo so Iong ns nny dIscrImInnfIon romnIns In fho
Sfnfos Congross IdonfIfIod bnck fhonrognrdIoss of how
fhnf dIscrImInnfIon comnros fo dIscrImInnfIon In Sfnfos
unburdonod by covorngo. IrIof for IodornI !osondonf
4950. ThIs nrgumonf doos nof Iook fo curronf oIIfIcnI
condIfIons, Aor/luee/ Aue/in, eupro, nf 203, buf Insfond
roIIos on n comnrIson bofwoon fho Sfnfos In l965. Thnf
comnrIson rofIocfod fho dIfforonf hIsforIos of fho orfh
nnd Soufh. If wns In fho Soufh fhnf sInvory wns uhoId by
Inw unfII uroofod by fho CIvII Wnr, fhnf fho roIgn of JIm
Crow donIod AfrIcnn-AmorIcnns fho mosf bnsIc froodoms,
nnd fhnf sfnfo nnd IocnI govornmonfs workod fIroIossIy fo
dIsonfrnnchIso cIfIzons on fho bnsIs of rnco. Tho Courf
Invokod fhnf hIsforyrIghfIy soIn susfnInIng fho dIs-
nrnfo covorngo of fho VofIng !Ighfs Acf In l966. Soo
Ko/cenIocl, eupro, nf 308 (Tho consfIfufIonnI rorIofy of

OInIon of fho Courf
fho VofIng !Ighfs Acf of l965 musf bo judgod wIfh rofor-
onco fo fho hIsforIcnI oxorIonco whIch If rofIocfs.).
Iuf hIsfory dId nof ond In l965. Iy fho fImo fho Acf
wns ronufhorIzod In 2006, fhoro hnd boon 40 moro yonrs of
If. In nssossIng fho curronf nood| ] for n rocIonrnnco
sysfom fhnf fronfs Sfnfos dIfforonfIy from ono nnofhor
fodny, fhnf hIsfory cnnnof bo Ignorod. urIng fhnf fImo,
InrgoIy bocnuso of fho VofIng !Ighfs Acf, vofIng fosfs woro
nboIIshod, dIsnrIfIos In vofor rogIsfrnfIon nnd furnouf
duo fo rnco woro ornsod, nnd AfrIcnn-AmorIcnns nffnInod
oIIfIcnI offIco In rocord numbors. And yof fho covorngo
formuIn fhnf Congross ronufhorIzod In 2006 Ignoros fhoso
dovoIomonfs, kooIng fho focus on docndos-oId dnfn roI-
ovnnf fo docndos-oId robIoms, rnfhor fhnn curronf dnfn
rofIocfIng curronf noods.
Tho IIffoonfh Amondmonf commnnds fhnf fho rIghf fo
vofo shnII nof bo donIod or nbrIdgod on nccounf of rnco or
coIor, nnd If gIvos Congross fho owor fo onforco fhnf
commnnd. Tho Amondmonf Is nof dosIgnod fo unIsh for
fho nsf; Ifs uroso Is fo onsuro n boffor fufuro. Soo Iice
v. Co,e/ono, 528 !. S. 495, 5l2 (2000) (ConsIsfonf wIfh
fho dosIgn of fho ConsfIfufIon, fho |IIffoonfh] Amondmonf
Is cnsf In fundnmonfnI forms, forms frnnscondIng fho
nrfIcuInr confrovorsy whIch wns fho ImmodInfo Imofus
for Ifs onncfmonf.). To sorvo fhnf uroso, CongrossIf If
Is fo dIvIdo fho Sfnfosmusf IdonfIfy fhoso jurIsdIcfIons fo
bo sIngIod ouf on n bnsIs fhnf mnkos sonso In IIghf of
curronf condIfIons. If cnnnof roIy sImIy on fho nsf. Wo
mndo fhnf cIonr In Aor/luee/ Aue/in, nnd wo mnko If cIonr
ngnIn fodny.
C
In dofondIng fho covorngo formuIn, fho Covornmonf, fho
Inforvonors, nnd fho dIssonf nIso roIy honvIIy on dnfn from
fho rocord fhnf fhoy cInIm jusfIfy dIsnrnfo covorngo.
Congross comIIod fhousnnds of ngos of ovIdonco boforo

2l CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
OInIon of fho Courf
ronufhorIzIng fho VofIng !Ighfs Acf. Tho courf boIow nnd
fho nrfIos hnvo dobnfod whnf fhnf rocord showsfhoy
hnvo gono bnck nnd forfh nbouf whofhor fo comnro cov-
orod fo noncovorod jurIsdIcfIons ns bIocks, how fo dIs-
nggrognfo fho dnfn Sfnfo by Sfnfo, how fo woIgh 2 cnsos
ns ovIdonco of ongoIng dIscrImInnfIon, nnd whofhor fo
consIdor ovIdonco nof boforo Congross, nmong ofhor Is-
suos. Comnro, e.g., 6?9 I. 3d, nf 8?3883 (cnso boIow),
wIfh iJ., nf 889902 (WIIIInms, J., dIssonfIng). !ognrdIoss
of how fo Iook nf fho rocord, howovor, no ono cnn fnIrIy sny
fhnf If shows nnyfhIng nronchIng fho orvnsIvo, fIn-
grnnf, wIdosrond, nnd rnmnnf dIscrImInnfIon fhnf
fncod Congross In l965, nnd fhnf cIonrIy dIsfInguIshod fho
covorod jurIsdIcfIons from fho rosf of fho nfIon nf fhnf
fImo. Ko/cenIocl, eupro, nf 308, 3l5, 33l; Aor/luee/
Aue/in, 55? !. S., nf 20l.
Iuf n moro fundnmonfnI robIom romnIns: Congross dId
nof uso fho rocord If comIIod fo shno n covorngo formuIn
groundod In curronf condIfIons. If Insfond roonncfod n
formuIn bnsod on 40-yonr-oId fncfs hnvIng no IogIcnI roIn-
fIon fo fho rosonf dny. Tho dIssonf roIIos on socond-
gonornfIon bnrrIors, whIch nro nof ImodImonfs fo fho
cnsfIng of bnIIofs, buf rnfhor oIocfornI nrrnngomonfs fhnf
nffocf fho woIghf of mInorIfy vofos. Thnf doos nof curo fho
robIom. VIowIng fho rocIonrnnco roquIromonfs ns fnr-
gofIng such offorfs sImIy hIghIIghfs fho IrrnfIonnIIfy of
confInuod roIInnco on fho 4 covorngo formuIn, whIch Is
bnsod on vofIng fosfs nnd nccoss fo fho bnIIof, nof vofo
dIIufIon. Wo cnnnof rofond fhnf wo nro rovIowIng nn
udnfod sfnfufo, or fry our hnnd nf udnfIng fho sfnfufo
oursoIvos, bnsod on fho now rocord comIIod by Congross.
Confrnry fo fho dIssonf`s confonfIon, soo poe/, nf 23, wo nro
nof IgnorIng fho rocord; wo nro sImIy rocognIzIng fhnf If
Inyod no roIo In shnIng fho sfnfufory formuIn boforo us
fodny.
Tho dIssonf nIso furns fo fho rocord fo nrguo fhnf, In

OInIon of fho Courf
IIghf of vofIng dIscrImInnfIon In ShoIby Counfy, fho counfy
cnnnof comInIn nbouf fho rovIsIons fhnf subjocf If fo
rocIonrnnco. Poe/, nf 2330. Iuf fhnf Is IIko snyIng fhnf
n drIvor uIIod ovor ursunnf fo n oIIcy of sfoIng nII
rodhonds cnnnof comInIn nbouf fhnf oIIcy, If If furns ouf
hIs IIconso hns oxIrod. ShoIby Counfy`s cInIm Is fhnf fho
covorngo formuIn horo Is unconsfIfufIonnI In nII Ifs nII-
cnfIons, bocnuso of how If soIocfs fho jurIsdIcfIons sub-
jocfod fo rocIonrnnco. Tho counfy wns soIocfod bnsod on
fhnf formuIn, nnd mny chnIIongo If In courf.

Tho dIssonf rocoods from n fInwod romIso. If quofos
fho fnmous sonfonco from McCullocl v. Mor,lonJ, 4
Whonf. 3l6, 42l (l8l9), wIfh fho foIIowIng omhnsIs: !of
fho ond bo IogIfImnfo, Iof If bo wIfhIn fho scoo of fho
consfIfufIon, nnd oll neone ulicl ore opproprio/e, ulicl
ore ploinl, oJop/eJ /o /lo/ enJ, whIch nro nof rohIbIfod,
buf consIsf wIfh fho Ioffor nnd sIrIf of fho consfIfufIon,
nro consfIfufIonnI. Poe/, nf 9 (omhnsIs In dIssonf). Iuf
fhIs cnso Is nbouf n nrf of fho sonfonco fhnf fho dIssonf
doos nof omhnsIzofho nrf fhnf nsks whofhor n IogIsIn-
fIvo monns Is consIsf|onf] wIfh fho Ioffor nnd sIrIf of fho
consfIfufIon. Tho dIssonf sfnfos fhnf |I]f cnnnof fonnbIy
bo mnInfnInod fhnf fhIs Is nn Issuo wIfh rognrd fo fho
VofIng !Ighfs Acf, poe/, nf 9, buf four yonrs ngo, In nn
oInIon joInod by fwo of fodny`s dIssonfors, fho Courf
oxrossIy sfnfod fhnf |f]ho Acf`s rocIonrnnco roquIro-
monf nnd Ifs covorngo formuIn rnIso sorIous consfIfufIonnI
quosfIons. Aor/luee/ Aue/in, eupro, nf 204. Tho dIssonf
doos nof oxInIn how fhoso sorIous consfIfufIonnI quos-
fIons bocnmo unfonnbIo In four shorf yonrs.
Tho dIssonf fronfs fho Acf ns If If woro jusf IIko nny
ofhor Ioco of IogIsInfIon, buf fhIs Courf hns mndo cIonr
from fho bogInnIng fhnf fho VofIng !Ighfs Acf Is fnr from
ordInnry. Af fho rIsk of roofIfIon, Ko/cenIocl IndIcnfod

23 CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
OInIon of fho Courf
fhnf fho Acf wns uncommon nnd nof ofhorwIso nro-
rInfo, buf wns jusfIfIod by oxcofIonnI nnd unIquo
condIfIons. 383 !. S., nf 334, 335. MuIfIIo docIsIons
sInco hnvo ronffIrmod fho Acf`s oxfrnordInnry nnfuro.
Soo, e.g., Aor/luee/ Aue/in, eupro, nf 2ll. Yof fho dIssonf
goos so fnr ns fo suggosf Insfond fhnf fho rocIonrnnco
roquIromonf nnd dIsnrnfo fronfmonf of fho Sfnfos shouId
bo uhoId Info fho fufuro unIoss fhoro |Is] no or nImosf no
ovIdonco of unconsfIfufIonnI ncfIon by Sfnfos. Poe/, nf 33.
In ofhor wnys ns woII, fho dIssonf nnnIyzos fho quos-
fIon rosonfod ns If our docIsIon In Aor/luee/ Aue/in novor
hnonod. Ior oxnmIo, fho dIssonf rofusos fo con-
sIdor fho rIncIIo of oqunI sovoroIgnfy, dosIfo Aor/luee/
Aue/in`s omhnsIs on Ifs sIgnIfIcnnco. Aor/luee/ Aue/in
nIso omhnsIzod fho drnmnfIc rogross sInco l965, 55?
!. S., nf 20l, buf fho dIssonf doscrIbos curronf IovoIs of
dIscrImInnfIon ns fIngrnnf, wIdosrond, nnd orvn-
sIvo, poe/, nf ?, l? (InfornnI quofnfIon mnrks omIffod).
osIfo fho fncf fhnf Aor/luee/ Aue/in roquIros nn Acf`s
dIsnrnfo googrnhIc covorngo fo bo suffIcIonfIy roInfod
fo Ifs fnrgofod robIoms, 55? !. S., nf 203, fho dIssonf
mnInfnIns fhnf nn Acf`s IImIfod covorngo ncfunIIy onsos
Congross`s burdons, nnd suggosfs fhnf n forfuIfous roIn-
fIonshI shouId suffIco. AIfhough Aor/luee/ Aue/in sfnfod
dofInIfIvoIy fhnf curronf burdons musf bo jusfIfIod by
curronf noods, iIiJ., fho dIssonf nrguos fhnf fho covorngo
formuIn cnn bo jusfIfIod by hIsfory, nnd fhnf fho roquIrod
showIng cnn bo wonkor on roonncfmonf fhnn whon fho Inw
wns fIrsf nssod.
Thoro Is no vnIId ronson fo InsuInfo fho covorngo for-
muIn from rovIow moroIy bocnuso If wns rovIousIy onncfod
40 yonrs ngo. If Congross hnd sfnrfod from scrnfch In
2006, If InInIy couId nof hnvo onncfod fho rosonf covor-
ngo formuIn. If wouId hnvo boon IrrnfIonnI for Congross fo
dIsfInguIsh bofwoon Sfnfos In such n fundnmonfnI wny
bnsod on 40-yonr-oId dnfn, whon fodny`s sfnfIsfIcs foII nn

OInIon of fho Courf
onfIroIy dIfforonf sfory. And If wouId hnvo boon IrrnfIonnI
fo bnso covorngo on fho uso of vofIng fosfs 40 yonrs ngo,
whon such fosfs hnvo boon IIIognI sInco fhnf fImo. Iuf
fhnf Is oxncfIy whnf Congross hns dono.
* * *
SfrIkIng down nn Acf of Congross Is fho grnvosf nnd
mosf doIIcnfo dufy fhnf fhIs Courf Is cnIIod on fo orform.
BloJge// v. HolJen, 2?5 !. S. l42, l48 (l92?) (HoImos, J.,
concurrIng). Wo do nof do so IIghfIy. Thnf Is why, In 2009,
wo fook cnro fo nvoId ruIIng on fho consfIfufIonnIIfy of
fho VofIng !Ighfs Acf whon nskod fo do so, nnd Insfond
rosoIvod fho cnso fhon boforo us on sfnfufory grounds. Iuf
In IssuIng fhnf docIsIon, wo oxrossod our brondor con-
corns nbouf fho consfIfufIonnIIfy of fho Acf. Congross
couId hnvo udnfod fho covorngo formuIn nf fhnf fImo, buf
dId nof do so. Ifs fnIIuro fo ncf Ionvos us fodny wIfh no
choIco buf fo docInro 4(b) unconsfIfufIonnI. Tho formuIn
In fhnf socfIon cnn no Iongor bo usod ns n bnsIs for subjocf-
Ing jurIsdIcfIons fo rocIonrnnco.
Our docIsIon In no wny nffocfs fho ormnnonf, nnfIon-
wIdo bnn on rncInI dIscrImInnfIon In vofIng found In 2.
Wo Issuo no hoIdIng on 5 IfsoIf, onIy on fho covorngo
formuIn. Congross mny drnff nnofhor formuIn bnsod on
curronf condIfIons. Such n formuIn Is nn InIfInI roroquI-
sIfo fo n doformInnfIon fhnf oxcofIonnI condIfIons sfIII
oxIsf jusfIfyIng such nn oxfrnordInnry donrfuro from fho
frndIfIonnI courso of roInfIons bofwoon fho Sfnfos nnd fho
IodornI Covornmonf. Preele,, 502 !. S., nf 50050l. Our
counfry hns chnngod, nnd whIIo nny rncInI dIscrImInnfIon
In vofIng Is foo much, Congross musf onsuro fhnf fho
IogIsInfIon If nssos fo romody fhnf robIom sonks fo
curronf condIfIons.
Tho judgmonf of fho Courf of AonIs Is rovorsod.
1/ ie eo orJereJ.

_________________

_________________

l CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
THOMAS, J., concurrIng
SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED
STATES
o. l296
|Juno 25, 20l3]
J!STICI THOMAS, concurrIng.
I joIn fho Courf`s oInIon In fuII buf wrIfo sonrnfoIy fo
oxInIn fhnf I wouId fInd 5 of fho VofIng !Ighfs Acf un-
consfIfufIonnI ns woII. Tho Courf`s oInIon sofs forfh fho
ronsons.
Tho VofIng !Ighfs Acf of l965 omIoyod oxfrnordInnry
monsuros fo nddross nn oxfrnordInnry robIom. An/e, nf
l. In fho fnco of unromIffIng nnd IngonIous dofInnco of
cIfIzons` consfIfufIonnIIy rofocfod rIghf fo vofo, 5 wns
nocossnry fo gIvo offocf fo fho IIffoonfh Amondmonf In
nrfIcuInr rogIons of fho counfry. Sou/l Corolino v. Ko/cen-
Iocl, 383 !. S. 30l, 309 (l966). Though 5`s rocIonr-
nnco roquIromonf rorosonfod n shnr|] donrf|uro] from
bnsIc rIncIIos of fodornIIsm nnd fho oqunI sovoroIgnfy
of fho Sfnfos, on/e, nf 9, ll, fho Courf uhoId fho monsuro
ngnInsf onrIy consfIfufIonnI chnIIongos bocnuso If wns
nocossnry nf fho fImo fo nddross vofIng dIscrImInnfIon
whoro If orsIsf|od] on n orvnsIvo scnIo. Ko/cenIocl,
eupro, nf 308.
Todny, our nfIon hns chnngod. |T]ho condIfIons fhnf
orIgInnIIy jusfIfIod |5] no Iongor chnrncforIzo vofIng In fho
covorod jurIsdIcfIons. An/e, nf 2. As fho Courf oxInIns:
'|V]ofor furnouf nnd rogIsfrnfIon rnfos now nronch
nrIfy. IInfnnfIy dIscrImInnfory ovnsIons of fodornI do-

croos nro rnro. And mInorIfy cnndIdnfos hoId offIco nf un-
rocodonfod IovoIs.` An/e, nf l3l4 (quofIng Aor/luee/
Aue/in Municipol I/il. Die/. Ao. One v. HolJer, 55? !. S.
l93, 202 (2009)).
In sIfo of fhoso Imrovomonfs, howovor, Congross
increoeeJ fho nIrondy sIgnIfIcnnf burdons of 5. IoIIowIng
Ifs roonncfmonf In 2006, fho VofIng !Ighfs Acf wns
nmondod fo rohIbIf moro conducf fhnn boforo. An/e,
nf 5. SocfIon 5 now forbIds vofIng chnngos wIfh 'nny dIs-
crImInnfory uroso` ns woII ns vofIng chnngos fhnf dImIn-
Ish fho nbIIIfy of cIfIzons, on nccounf of rnco, coIor, or
Inngungo mInorIfy sfnfus, 'fo oIocf fhoIr roforrod cnndI-
dnfos of choIco.` An/e, nf 6. WhIIo fho ro-2006 vorsIon of
fho Acf wonf woII boyond rofocfIon gunrnnfood undor fho
ConsfIfufIon, soo Ieno v. Boeeier Poriel Sclool BJ., 520
!. S. 4?l, 480482 (l99?), If now goos ovon furfhor.
If Is, fhus, quIfo fIffIng fhnf fho Courf roonfodIy oInfs
ouf fhnf fhIs IogIsInfIon Is oxfrnordInnry nnd unroco-
donfod nnd rocognIzos fho sIgnIfIcnnf consfIfufIonnI
robIoms cronfod by Congross` docIsIon fo rnIso fho bnr
fhnf covorod jurIsdIcfIons musf cIonr, ovon ns fho condI-
fIons jusfIfyIng fhnf roquIromonf hnvo drnmnfIcnIIy Im-
rovod. An/e, nf l6l?. Howovor ono nggrognfos fho
dnfn comIIod by Congross, If cnnnof jusfIfy fho consIdor-
nbIo burdons cronfod by 5. As fho Courf nfIy nofos:
|]o ono cnn fnIrIy sny fhnf |fho rocord] shows nnyfhIng
nronchIng fho 'orvnsIvo,` 'fIngrnnf,` 'wIdosrond,` nnd
'rnmnnf` dIscrImInnfIon fhnf fncod Congross In l965, nnd
fhnf cIonrIy dIsfInguIshod fho covorod jurIsdIcfIons from
fho rosf of fho nfIon nf fhnf fImo. An/e, nf 2l. Indood,
cIrcumsfnncos In fho covorod jurIsdIcfIons cnn no Iongor bo
chnrncforIzod ns oxcofIonnI or unIquo. Tho oxfonsIvo
nfforn of dIscrImInnfIon fhnf Iod fho Courf fo rovIousIy
uhoId 5 ns onforcIng fho IIffoonfh Amondmonf no Iongor
oxIsfs. Aor/luee/ Aue/in, eupro, nf 226 (THOMAS, J.,
concurrIng In judgmonf In nrf nnd dIssonfIng In nrf).

3 CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
SocfIon 5 Is, fhus, unconsfIfufIonnI.
WhIIo fho Courf cInIms fo Issuo no hoIdIng on 5 IfsoIf,
on/e, nf 24, Ifs own oInIon comoIIIngIy domonsfrnfos
fhnf Congross hns fnIIod fo jusfIfy 'curronf burdons` wIfh
n rocord domonsfrnfIng 'curronf noods.` Soo on/e, nf 9
(quofIng Aor/luee/ Aue/in, eupro, nf 203). Iy IonvIng fho
InovIfnbIo concIusIon unsfnfod, fho Courf noodIossIy ro-
Iongs fho domIso of fhnf rovIsIon. Ior fho ronsons sfnfod
In fho Courf`s oInIon, I wouId fInd 5 unconsfIfufIonnI.

_________________

_________________

l CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
CISI!!C, J., dIssonfIng
o. l296
|Juno 25, 20l3]
J!STICI CISI!!C, wIfh whom J!STICI I!IYI!,
J!STICI SOTOMAYO!, nnd J!STICI KACA joIn, dIssonfIng.
In fho Courf`s vIow, fho vory succoss of 5 of fho VofIng
!Ighfs Acf domnnds Ifs dormnncy. Congross wns of
nnofhor mInd. !ocognIzIng fhnf Inrgo rogross hns boon
mndo, Congross doformInod, bnsod on n voIumInous roc-
ord, fhnf fho scourgo of dIscrImInnfIon wns nof yof oxfIr-
nfod. Tho quosfIon fhIs cnso rosonfs Is who docIdos
whofhor, ns curronfIy oornfIvo, 5 romnIns jusfIfInbIo,
l
fhIs Courf, or n Congross chnrgod wIfh fho obIIgnfIon fo
onforco fho osf-CIvII Wnr Amondmonfs by nrorInfo
IogIsInfIon. WIfh ovorwhoImIng suorf In bofh Housos,
Congross concIudod fhnf, for fwo rImo ronsons, 5 shouId
confInuo In forco, unnbnfod. IIrsf, confInunnco wouId
fncIIIfnfo comIofIon of fho ImrossIvo gnIns fhus fnr
mndo; nnd socond, confInunnco wouId gunrd ngnInsf bnck-
sIIdIng. Thoso nssossmonfs woro woII wIfhIn Congross`
rovInco fo mnko nnd shouId oIIcIf fhIs Courf`s unsfInfIng
nrobnfIon.
I
|V]ofIng dIscrImInnfIon sfIII oxIsfs; no ono doubfs fhnf.

l
Tho Courf urorfs fo docInro unconsfIfufIonnI onIy fho covorngo
formuIn sof ouf In 4(b). Soo on/e, nf 24. Iuf wIfhouf fhnf formuIn, 5
Is ImmobIIIzod.
DISSENT
Text

An/e, nf 2. Iuf fho Courf fodny formInnfos fho romody
fhnf rovod fo bo bosf suIfod fo bIock fhnf dIscrImInnfIon.
Tho VofIng !Ighfs Acf of l965 (V!A) hns workod fo com-
bnf vofIng dIscrImInnfIon whoro ofhor romodIos hnd boon
frIod nnd fnIIod. InrfIcuInrIy offocfIvo Is fho V!A`s ro-
quIromonf of fodornI rocIonrnnco for nII chnngos fo vofIng
Inws In fho rogIons of fho counfry wIfh fho mosf nggrnvnfod
rocords of rnnk dIscrImInnfIon ngnInsf mInorIfy vofIng
rIghfs.
A confury nffor fho Iourfoonfh nnd IIffoonfh Amond-
monfs gunrnnfood cIfIzons fho rIghf fo vofo froo of dIs-
crImInnfIon on fho bnsIs of rnco, fho bIIghf of rncInI
dIscrImInnfIon In vofIng confInuod fo Infoc|f] fho
oIocfornI rocoss In nrfs of our counfry. Sou/l Corolino v.
Ko/cenIocl, 383 !. S. 30l, 308 (l966). InrIy nffomfs fo
coo wIfh fhIs vIIo InfocfIon rosombIod bnffIIng fho Hydrn.
Whonovor ono form of vofIng dIscrImInnfIon wns IdonfIfIod
nnd rohIbIfod, ofhors srnng u In Ifs Inco. ThIs Courf
roonfodIy oncounforod fho romnrknbIo vnrIofy nnd
orsIsfonco of Inws dIsonfrnnchIsIng mInorIfy cIfIzons.
1J., nf 3ll. To fnko jusf ono oxnmIo, fho Courf, In l92?,
hoId unconsfIfufIonnI n Toxns Inw bnrrIng bInck vofors
from nrfIcInfIng In rImnry oIocfIons, Aixon v. HernJon,
2?3 !. S. 536, 54l; In l944, fho Courf sfruck down n
roonncfod nnd sIIghfIy nIforod vorsIon of fho snmo Inw,
Sni/l v. Allurigl/, 32l !. S. 649, 658; nnd In l953, fho
Courf onco ngnIn confronfod nn nffomf by Toxns fo cIr-
cumvon|f] fho IIffoonfh Amondmonf by ndofIng yof
nnofhor vnrInnf of fho nII-whIfo rImnry, Terr, v. AJone,
345 !. S. 46l, 469.
urIng fhIs orn, fho Courf rocognIzod fhnf dIscrImInn-
fIon ngnInsf mInorIfy vofors wns n quInfossonfInIIy oIIfI-
cnI robIom roquIrIng n oIIfIcnI soIufIon. As JusfIco
HoImos oxInInod: If fho gronf mnss of fho whIfo ouIn-
fIon Infonds fo koo fho bIncks from vofIng, roIIof from
|fhnf] gronf oIIfIcnI wrong, If dono, ns nIIogod, by fho

3 CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
ooIo of n Sfnfo nnd fho Sfnfo IfsoIf, musf bo gIvon by
fhom or by fho IogIsInfIvo nnd oIIfIcnI donrfmonf of
fho govornmonf of fho !nIfod Sfnfos. Gilee v. Horrie, l89
!. S. 4?5, 488 (l903).
Congross Ionrnod from oxorIonco fhnf Inws fnrgofIng
nrfIcuInr oIocfornI rncfIcos or onnbIIng cnso-by-cnso
IIfIgnfIon woro Inndoqunfo fo fho fnsk. In fho CIvII !Ighfs
Acfs of l95?, l960, nnd l964, Congross nufhorIzod nnd
fhon oxnndod fho owor of fho Affornoy ConornI fo sook
InjuncfIons ngnInsf ubIIc nnd rIvnfo Inforforonco wIfh
fho rIghf fo vofo on rncInI grounds. Ko/cenIocl, 383
!. S., nf 3l3. Iuf cIrcumsfnncos roducod fho nmoIIornfIvo
ofonfInI of fhoso IogIsInfIvo Acfs:
VofIng suIfs nro unusunIIy onorous fo ronro, somo-
fImos roquIrIng ns mnny ns 6,000 mnn-hours sonf
combIng fhrough rogIsfrnfIon rocords In ronrnfIon
for frInI. !IfIgnfIon hns boon oxcoodIngIy sIow, In nrf
bocnuso of fho nmIo oorfunIfIos for doIny nffordod
vofIng offIcInIs nnd ofhors InvoIvod In fho rocood-
Ings. Ivon whon fnvornbIo docIsIons hnvo fInnIIy boon
obfnInod, somo of fho Sfnfos nffocfod hnvo moroIy
swIfchod fo dIscrImInnfory dovIcos nof covorod by fho
fodornI docroos or hnvo onncfod dIffIcuIf now fosfs do-
sIgnod fo roIong fho oxIsfIng dIsnrIfy bofwoon whIfo
nnd ogro rogIsfrnfIon. AIfornnfIvoIy, corfnIn IocnI of-
fIcInIs hnvo dofIod nnd ovndod courf ordors or hnvo
sImIy cIosod fhoIr rogIsfrnfIon offIcos fo froozo fho
vofIng roIIs. 1J., nf 3l4 (foofnofo omIffod).
InfonfIy, n now nronch wns noodod.
AnsworIng fhnf nood, fho VofIng !Ighfs Acf bocnmo ono
of fho mosf consoquonfInI, offIcncIous, nnd nmIy jusfIfIod
oxorcIsos of fodornI IogIsInfIvo owor In our nfIon`s hIs-
fory. !oquIrIng fodornI rocIonrnnco of chnngos In vofIng
Inws In fho covorod jurIsdIcfIonsfhoso Sfnfos nnd IocnII-
fIos whoro oosIfIon fo fho ConsfIfufIon`s commnnds woro

mosf vIruIonffho V!A rovIdod n fIf soIufIon for mInor-
Ify vofors ns woII ns for Sfnfos. !ndor fho rocIonrnnco
rogImo osfnbIIshod by 5 of fho V!A, covorod jurIsdIcfIons
musf submIf roosod chnngos In vofIng Inws or roco-
duros fo fho onrfmonf of JusfIco (OJ), whIch hns 60
dnys fo rosond fo fho chnngos. ?9 Sfnf. 439, codIfIod nf
42 !. S. C. l9?3c(n). A chnngo wIII bo nrovod unIoss
OJ fInds If hns fho uroso |or] . . . fho offocf of donyIng
or nbrIdgIng fho rIghf fo vofo on nccounf of rnco or coIor.
1IiJ. In fho nIfornnfIvo, fho covorod jurIsdIcfIon mny sook
nrovnI by n fhroo-judgo IsfrIcf Courf In fho IsfrIcf of
CoIumbIn.
Affor n confury`s fnIIuro fo fuIfIII fho romIso of fho
Iourfoonfh nnd IIffoonfh Amondmonfs, nssngo of fho
V!A fInnIIy Iod fo sIgnnI Imrovomonf on fhIs fronf. Tho
JusfIco onrfmonf osfImnfod fhnf In fho fIvo yonrs nffor
|fho V!A`s] nssngo, nImosf ns mnny bIncks rogIsforod |fo
vofo] In AInbnmn, MIssIssII, CoorgIn, !ouIsInnn, orfh
CnroIInn, nnd Soufh CnroIInn ns In fho onfIro confury
boforo l965. nvIdson, Tho VofIng !Ighfs Acf: A IrIof
HIsfory, In ConfrovorsIos In MInorIfy VofIng ?, 2l (I.
Crofmnn & C. nvIdson ods. l992). And In nssossIng fho
ovornII offocfs of fho V!A In 2006, Congross found fhnf
|s]IgnIfIcnnf rogross hns boon mndo In oIImInnfIng fIrsf
gonornfIon bnrrIors oxorIoncod by mInorIfy vofors, In-
cIudIng Incronsod numbors of rogIsforod mInorIfy vofors,
mInorIfy vofor furnouf, nnd mInorIfy rorosonfnfIon In
Congross, Sfnfo IogIsInfuros, nnd IocnI oIocfod offIcos. ThIs
rogross Is fho dIrocf rosuIf of fho VofIng !Ighfs Acf of
l965. InnnIo !ou Hnmor, !osn Inrks, nnd Coroffn Scoff
KIng VofIng !Ighfs Acf !onufhorIznfIon nnd Amondmonfs
Acf of 2006 (horoInnffor 2006 !onufhorIznfIon), 2(b)(l),
l20 Sfnf. 5??. On fhnf mnffor of cnuso nnd offocfs fhoro
cnn bo no gonuIno doubf.
AIfhough fho V!A wroughf drnmnfIc chnngos In fho
ronIIznfIon of mInorIfy vofIng rIghfs, fho Acf, fo dnfo,

5 CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
suroIy hns nof oIImInnfod nII vosfIgos of dIscrImInnfIon
ngnInsf fho oxorcIso of fho frnnchIso by mInorIfy cIfIzons.
JurIsdIcfIons covorod by fho rocIonrnnco roquIromonf
confInuod fo submIf, In Inrgo numbors, roosod chnngos
fo vofIng Inws fhnf fho Affornoy ConornI docIInod fo n-
rovo, nugurIng fhnf bnrrIors fo mInorIfy vofIng wouId
quIckIy rosurfnco woro fho rocIonrnnco romody oIImI-
nnfod. Ci/, of Ione v. Ini/eJ S/o/ee, 446 !. S. l56, l8l
(l980). Congross nIso found fhnf ns rogIsfrnfIon nnd
vofIng of mInorIfy cIfIzons Incrons|od], ofhor monsuros
mny bo rosorfod fo whIch wouId dIIufo IncronsIng mInorIfy
vofIng sfrongfh. 1IiJ. (quofIng H. !. !o. o. 94l96,
. l0 (l9?5)). Soo nIso Slou v. Ieno, 509 !. S. 630,
640 (l993) (|I]f soon bocnmo nnronf fhnf gunrnnfooIng
oqunI nccoss fo fho oIIs wouId nof suffIco fo roof ouf ofhor
rncInIIy dIscrImInnfory vofIng rncfIcos such ns vofIng
dIIufIon). Ifforfs fo roduco fho Imncf of mInorIfy vofos,
In confrnsf fo dIrocf nffomfs fo bIock nccoss fo fho bnI-
Iof, nro nfIy doscrIbod ns socond-gonornfIon bnrrIors fo
mInorIfy vofIng.
Socond-gonornfIon bnrrIors como In vnrIous forms. Ono
of fho bIockngos Is rncInI gorrymnndorIng, fho rodrnwIng
of IogIsInfIvo dIsfrIcfs In nn offorf fo sogrognfo fho rncos
for urosos of vofIng. 1J., nf 642. Anofhor Is ndofIon of
n sysfom of nf-Inrgo vofIng In IIou of dIsfrIcf-by-dIsfrIcf
vofIng In n cIfy wIfh n sIznbIo bInck mInorIfy. Iy swIfch-
Ing fo nf-Inrgo vofIng, fho ovornII mnjorIfy couId confroI
fho oIocfIon of onch cIfy councII mombor, offocfIvoIy oIImI-
nnfIng fho ofoncy of fho mInorIfy`s vofos. Crofmnn &
nvIdson, Tho Iffocf of MunIcInI IIocfIon Sfrucfuro on
IInck !orosonfnfIon In IIghf Soufhorn Sfnfos, In
QuIof !ovoIufIon In fho Soufh 30l, 3l9 (C. nvIdson
& I. Crofmnn ods. l994) (horoInnffor QuIof !ovoIufIon).
A sImIInr offocf couId bo nchIovod If fho cIfy ongngod
In dIscrImInnfory nnnoxnfIon by IncorornfIng mnjorIfy-
whIfo nrons Info cIfy IImIfs, fhoroby docronsIng fho offocf

of V!A-occnsIonod Incronsos In bInck vofIng. Whnfovor
fho dovIco omIoyod, fhIs Courf hns Iong rocognIzod fhnf
vofo dIIufIon, whon ndofod wIfh n dIscrImInnfory ur-
oso, cufs down fho rIghf fo vofo ns corfnInIy ns donInI of
nccoss fo fho bnIIof. Slou, 509 !. S., nf 64064l; Allen v.
S/o/e BJ. of 1lec/ione, 393 !. S. 544, 569 (l969); Ie,nolJe
v. Sine, 3?? !. S. 533, 555 (l964). Soo nIso H. !. !o. o.
l094?8, . 6 (2006) (nIfhough |d]IscrImInnfIon fodny Is
moro subfIo fhnn fho vIsIbIo mofhods usod In l965, fho
offocf nnd rosuIfs nro fho snmo, nnmoIy n dImInIshIng of
fho mInorIfy communIfy`s nbIIIfy fo fuIIy nrfIcInfo In fho
oIocfornI rocoss nnd fo oIocf fhoIr roforrod cnndIdnfos).
In rosonso fo ovIdonco of fhoso subsfIfufod bnrrIors,
Congross ronufhorIzod fho V!A for fIvo yonrs In l9?0, for
sovon yonrs In l9?5, nnd for 25 yonrs In l982. An/e, nf 45.
Inch fImo, fhIs Courf uhoId fho ronufhorIznfIon ns n
vnIId oxorcIso of congrossIonnI owor. An/e, nf 5. As fho
l982 ronufhorIznfIon nronchod Ifs 200? oxIrnfIon dnfo,
Congross ngnIn consIdorod whofhor fho V!A`s rocIonr-
nnco mochnnIsm romnInod nn nrorInfo rosonso fo fho
robIom of vofIng dIscrImInnfIon In covorod jurIsdIcfIons.
Congross dId nof fnko fhIs fnsk IIghfIy. QuIfo fho oo-
sIfo. Tho l09fh Congross fhnf fook rosonsIbIIIfy for fho
ronownI sfnrfod onrIy nnd conscIonfIousIy. In Ocfobor
2005, fho Houso bognn oxfonsIvo honrIngs, whIch confIn-
uod Info ovombor nnd rosumod In Mnrch 2006. S. !o.
o. l09295, . 2 (2006). In ArII 2006, fho Sonnfo foI-
Iowod suIf, wIfh honrIngs of Ifs own. 1IiJ. In Mny 2006,
fho bIIIs fhnf bocnmo fho V!A`s ronufhorIznfIon woro
Infroducod In bofh Housos. 1IiJ. Tho Houso hoId furfhor
honrIngs of consIdornbIo Iongfh, ns dId fho Sonnfo, whIch
confInuod fo hoId honrIngs Info Juno nnd JuIy. H. !. !o.
l094?8, nf 5; S. !o. l09295, nf 34. In mId-JuIy, fho
Houso consIdorod nnd rojocfod four nmondmonfs, fhon
nssod fho ronufhorIznfIon by n vofo of 390 yons fo 33
nnys. l52 Cong. !oc. H520? (JuIy l3, 2006); IorsIIy, Tho

? CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
IromIso nnd IIffnIIs of fho ow VofIng !Ighfs Acf, ll?
YnIo !. J. l?4, l82l83 (200?) (horoInnffor IorsIIy). Tho
bIII wns rond nnd dobnfod In fho Sonnfo, whoro If nssod
by n vofo of 98 fo 0. l52 Cong. !oc. S80l2 (JuIy 20, 2006).
IrosIdonf Iush sIgnod If n wook Infor, on JuIy 2?, 2006,
rocognIzIng fho nood for furfhor work . . . In fho fIghf
ngnInsf InjusfIco, nnd cnIIIng fho ronufhorIznfIon nn
oxnmIo of our confInuod commIfmonf fo n unIfod AmorIcn
whoro ovory orson Is vnIuod nnd fronfod wIfh dIgnIfy nnd
rosocf. l52 Cong. !oc. S8?8l (Aug. 3, 2006).
In fho Iong courso of fho IogIsInfIvo rocoss, Congross
nmnssod n sIznbIo rocord. Aor/luee/ Aue/in Municipol
I/il. Die/. Ao. One v. HolJer, 55? !. S. l93, 205 (2009).
Soo nIso 6?9 I. 3d 848, 8658?3 (CAC 20l2) (doscrIbIng
fho oxfonsIvo rocord suorfIng Congross` doformInn-
fIon fhnf sorIous nnd wIdosrond InfonfIonnI dIscrImInnfIon
orsIsfod In covorod jurIsdIcfIons). Tho Houso nnd Sonnfo
JudIcInry CommIffoos hoId 2l honrIngs, honrd from scoros
of wIfnossos, rocoIvod n numbor of InvosfIgnfIvo roorfs
nnd ofhor wrIffon documonfnfIon of confInuIng dIscrImInn-
fIon In covorod jurIsdIcfIons. In nII, fho IogIsInfIvo rocord
Congross comIIod fIIIod moro fhnn l5,000 ngos.
H. !. !o. l094?8, nf 5, lll2; S. !o. l09295, nf 24,
l5. Tho comIInfIon rosonfs counfIoss oxnmIos of fIn-
grnnf rncInI dIscrImInnfIon sInco fho Insf ronufhorIzn-
fIon; Congross nIso broughf fo IIghf sysfomnfIc ovIdonco
fhnf InfonfIonnI rncInI dIscrImInnfIon In vofIng romnIns
so sorIous nnd wIdosrond In covorod jurIsdIcfIons fhnf
socfIon 5 rocIonrnnco Is sfIII noodod. 6?9 I. 3d, nf 866.
Affor consIdorIng fho fuII IogIsInfIvo rocord, Congross
mndo fho foIIowIng fIndIngs: Tho V!A hns dIrocfIy cnusod
sIgnIfIcnnf rogross In oIImInnfIng fIrsf-gonornfIon bnrrI-
ors fo bnIIof nccoss, IondIng fo n mnrkod Incronso In mInor-
Ify vofor rogIsfrnfIon nnd furnouf nnd fho numbor of
mInorIfy oIocfod offIcInIs. 2006 !onufhorIznfIon 2(b)(l).
Iuf dosIfo fhIs rogross, socond gonornfIon bnrrIors
*Important

consfrucfod fo rovonf mInorIfy vofors from fuIIy nrfIcI-
nfIng In fho oIocfornI rocoss confInuod fo oxIsf, ns woII
ns rncInIIy oInrIzod vofIng In fho covorod jurIsdIcfIons,
whIch Incronsod fho oIIfIcnI vuInornbIIIfy of rncInI nnd
Inngungo mInorIfIos In fhoso jurIsdIcfIons. 2(b)(2)(3),
l20 Sfnf. 5??. IxfonsIvo |o]vIdonco of confInuod dIscrIm-
InnfIon, Congross concIudod, cIonrIy show|od] fho con-
fInuod nood for IodornI ovorsIghf In covorod jurIsdIcfIons.
2(b)(4)(5), iJ., nf 5??5?8. Tho ovornII rocord domon-
sfrnfod fo fho fodornI Inwmnkors fhnf, wIfhouf fho con-
fInunfIon of fho VofIng !Ighfs Acf of l965 rofocfIons,
rncInI nnd Inngungo mInorIfy cIfIzons wIII bo dorIvod of
fho oorfunIfy fo oxorcIso fhoIr rIghf fo vofo, or wIII hnvo
fhoIr vofos dIIufod, undormInIng fho sIgnIfIcnnf gnIns
mndo by mInorIfIos In fho Insf 40 yonrs. 2(b)(9), iJ., nf
5?8.
Insod on fhoso fIndIngs, Congross ronufhorIzod ro-
cIonrnnco for nnofhor 25 yonrs, whIIo nIso undorfnkIng fo
roconsIdor fho oxfonsIon nffor l5 yonrs fo onsuro fhnf fho
rovIsIon wns sfIII nocossnry nnd offocfIvo. 42 !. S. C.
l9?3b(n)(?), (8) (2006 od., Su. V). Tho quosfIon boforo
fho Courf Is whofhor Congross hnd fho nufhorIfy undor
fho ConsfIfufIon fo ncf ns If dId.
II
In nnsworIng fhIs quosfIon, fho Courf doos nof wrIfo on
n cIonn sInfo. If Is woII osfnbIIshod fhnf Congross` judg-
monf rognrdIng oxorcIso of Ifs owor fo onforco fho Iour-
foonfh nnd IIffoonfh Amondmonfs wnrrnnfs subsfnnfInI
doforonco. Tho V!A nddrossos fho combInnfIon of rnco
dIscrImInnfIon nnd fho rIghf fo vofo, whIch Is rosorvn-
fIvo of nII rIghfs. Yic/ Wo v. Hop/ine, ll8 !. S. 356, 3?0
(l886). Whon confronfIng fho mosf consfIfufIonnIIy InvId-
Ious form of dIscrImInnfIon, nnd fho mosf fundnmonfnI
rIghf In our domocrnfIc sysfom, Congross` owor fo ncf Is
nf Ifs hoIghf.
Te

9 CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
Tho bnsIs for fhIs doforonco Is fIrmIy roofod In bofh
consfIfufIonnI foxf nnd rocodonf. Tho IIffoonfh Amond-
monf, whIch fnrgofs rocIsoIy nnd onIy rncInI dIscrImInn-
fIon In vofIng rIghfs, sfnfos fhnf, In fhIs domnIn, Congross
shnII hnvo owor fo onforco fhIs nrfIcIo by nrorInfo
IogIsInfIon.
2
In choosIng fhIs Inngungo, fho Amondmonf`s
frnmors Invokod ChIof JusfIco MnrshnII`s formuInfIon of
fho scoo of Congross` owors undor fho ocossnry nnd
Iroor CInuso:
!of fho ond bo IogIfImnfo, Iof If bo wIfhIn fho scoo of
fho consfIfufIon, nnd oll neone ulicl ore opproprio/e,
ulicl ore ploinl, oJop/eJ /o /lo/ enJ, whIch nro nof
rohIbIfod, buf consIsf wIfh fho Ioffor nnd sIrIf of fho
consfIfufIon, nro consfIfufIonnI. McCullocl v. Mor,-
lonJ, 4 Whonf. 3l6, 42l (l8l9) (omhnsIs nddod).
If cnnnof fonnbIy bo mnInfnInod fhnf fho V!A, nn Acf of
Congross ndofod fo shIoId fho rIghf fo vofo from rncInI
dIscrImInnfIon, Is InconsIsfonf wIfh fho Ioffor or sIrIf of
fho IIffoonfh Amondmonf, or nny rovIsIon of fho ConsfI-
fufIon rond In IIghf of fho CIvII Wnr Amondmonfs. o-
whoro In fodny`s oInIon, or In Aor/luee/ Aue/in,
3
Is fhoro

2
Tho ConsfIfufIon usos fho words rIghf fo vofo In fIvo sonrnfo
Incos: fho Iourfoonfh, IIffoonfh, Inofoonfh, Twonfy-Iourfh, nnd
Twonfy-SIxfh Amondmonfs. Inch of fhoso Amondmonfs confnIns fho
snmo brond omowormonf of Congross fo onncf nrorInfo IogIsIn-
fIon fo onforco fho rofocfod rIghf. Tho ImIIcnfIon Is unmIsfnknbIo:
!ndor our consfIfufIonnI sfrucfuro, Congross hoIds fho Iond roIn In
mnkIng fho rIghf fo vofo oqunIIy ronI for nII !. S. cIfIzons. Thoso
Amondmonfs nro In IIno wIfh fho socInI roIo nssIgnod fo Congross In
rofocfIng fho InfogrIfy of fho domocrnfIc rocoss In fodornI oIocfIons.
!. S. Consf., Arf. I, 4 (|T]ho Congross mny nf nny fImo by !nw mnko
or nIfor roguInfIons concornIng fho TImos, IIncos nnd Mnnnor of
hoIdIng IIocfIons for Sonnfors nnd !orosonfnfIvos.); Aricono v. 1n/er
TriIol Council of Aric., 1nc., on/e, nf 56.
3
AcknowIodgIng fho oxIsfonco of sorIous consfIfufIonnI quosfIons,
soo on/e, nf 22 (InfornnI quofnfIon mnrks omIffod), doos nof suggosf
how fhoso quosfIons shouId bo nnsworod.

cIonr rocognIfIon of fho frnnsformnfIvo offocf fho IIffoonfh
Amondmonf nImod fo nchIovo. ofnbIy, fho Ioundors`
fIrsf succossfuI nmondmonf foId Congross fhnf If couId
'mnko no Inw` ovor n corfnIn domnIn; In confrnsf, fho CIvII
Wnr Amondmonfs usod Inngungo |fhnf] nufhorIzod frnns-
formnfIvo now fodornI sfnfufos fo uroof nII vosfIgos of
unfroodom nnd InoqunIIfy nnd rovIdod swooIng on-
forcomonf owors . . . fo onncf 'nrorInfo` IogIsInfIon
fnrgofIng sfnfo nbusos. A. Amnr, AmorIcn`s ConsfIfufIon:
A IIogrnhy 36l, 363, 399 (2005). Soo nIso McConnoII,
InsfIfufIons nnd InforrofnfIon: A CrIfIquo of Ci/, of
Boerne t. Iloree, lll Hnrv. !. !ov. l53, l82 (l99?)
(quofIng CIvII Wnr-orn frnmor fhnf fho romody for fho
vIoInfIon of fho fourfoonfh nnd fIffoonfh nmondmonfs
wns oxrossIy nof Ioff fo fho courfs. Tho romody wns
IogIsInfIvo.).
Tho sfnfod uroso of fho CIvII Wnr Amondmonfs wns fo
nrm Congross wIfh fho owor nnd nufhorIfy fo rofocf nII
orsons wIfhIn fho nfIon from vIoInfIons of fhoIr rIghfs
by fho Sfnfos. In oxorcIsIng fhnf owor, fhon, Congross
mny uso nII monns whIch nro nrorInfo, whIch nro
InInIy ndnfod fo fho consfIfufIonnI onds docInrod by
fhoso Amondmonfs. McCullocl, 4 Whonf., nf 42l. So
whon Congross ncfs fo onforco fho rIghf fo vofo froo from
rncInI dIscrImInnfIon, wo nsk nof whofhor Congross hns
choson fho monns mosf wIso, buf whofhor Congross hns
rnfIonnIIy soIocfod monns nrorInfo fo n IogIfImnfo ond.
If Is nof for us fo rovIow fho congrossIonnI rosoIufIon of
|fho nood for Ifs choson romody]. If Is onough fhnf wo bo
nbIo fo orcoIvo n bnsIs uon whIch fho Congross mIghf
rosoIvo fho confIIcf ns If dId. Ko/cenIocl v. Morgon, 384
!. S. 64l, 653 (l966).
!nfII fodny, In consIdorIng fho consfIfufIonnIIfy of fho
V!A, fho Courf hns nccordod Congross fho fuII monsuro of
rosocf Ifs judgmonfs In fhIs domnIn shouId gnrnor. Sou/l
Corolino v. Ko/cenIocl suIIos fho sfnndnrd of rovIow:

ll CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
As ngnInsf fho rosorvod owors of fho Sfnfos, Congross
mny uso nny rnfIonnI monns fo offocfunfo fho consfIfu-
fIonnI rohIbIfIon of rncInI dIscrImInnfIon In vofIng. 383
!. S., nf 324. Incod wIfh subsoquonf ronufhorIznfIons of
fho V!A, fho Courf hns ronffIrmod fhIs sfnndnrd. 1.g.,
Ci/, of Ione, 446 !. S., nf l?8. Todny`s Courf doos nof
urorf fo nIfor soffIod rocodonf osfnbIIshIng fhnf fho
dIsosIfIvo quosfIon Is whofhor Congross hns omIoyod
rnfIonnI monns.
Ior fhroo ronsons, IogIsInfIon renufhorIzIng nn oxIsfIng
sfnfufo Is osocInIIy IIkoIy fo snfIsfy fho mInImnI roquIro-
monfs of fho rnfIonnI-bnsIs fosf. IIrsf, whon ronufhorIznfIon
Is nf Issuo, Congross hns nIrondy nssombIod n IogIsInfIvo
rocord jusfIfyIng fho InIfInI IogIsInfIon. Congross Is on-
fIfIod fo consIdor fhnf rooxIsfIng rocord ns woII ns fho
rocord boforo If nf fho fImo of fho vofo on ronufhorIznfIon.
ThIs Is osocInIIy fruo whoro, ns horo, fho Courf hns ro-
onfodIy nffIrmod fho sfnfufo`s consfIfufIonnIIfy nnd Con-
gross hns ndhorod fo fho vory modoI fho Courf hns uhoId.
Soo iJ., nf l?4 (Tho noIInnfs nro nskIng us fo do nofh-
Ing Ioss fhnn ovorruIo our docIsIon In Sou/l Corolino v.
Ko/cenIocl . . . , In whIch wo uhoId fho consfIfufIonnIIfy
of fho Acf.); Lopec v. Mon/ere, Coun/,, 525 !. S. 266, 283
(l999) (sImIInr).
Socond, fho vory fncf fhnf ronufhorIznfIon Is nocossnry
nrIsos bocnuso Congross hns buIIf n fomornI IImIfnfIon
Info fho Acf. If hns Iodgod fo rovIow, nffor n snn of
yonrs (fIrsf l5, fhon 25) nnd In IIghf of confomornry
ovIdonco, fho confInuod nood for fho V!A. Cf. Gru//er v.
Bollinger, 539 !. S. 306, 343 (2003) (nnfIcInfIng, buf nof
gunrnnfooIng, fhnf, In 25 yonrs, fho uso of rncInI rofor-
oncos |In hIghor oducnfIon] wIII no Iongor bo nocossnry).
ThIrd, n rovIowIng courf shouId oxocf fho rocord su-
orfIng ronufhorIznfIon fo bo Ioss sfnrk fhnn fho rocord
orIgInnIIy mndo. omnnd for n rocord of vIoInfIons oquIvn-
Ionf fo fho ono onrIIor mndo wouId oxoso Congross fo n

cnfch-22. If fho sfnfufo wns workIng, fhoro wouId bo Ioss
ovIdonco of dIscrImInnfIon, so oononfs mIghf nrguo fhnf
Congross shouId nof bo nIIowod fo ronow fho sfnfufo. In
confrnsf, If fho sfnfufo wns nof workIng, fhoro wouId bo
Ionfy of ovIdonco of dIscrImInnfIon, buf scnnf ronson fo
ronow n fnIIod roguInfory rogImo. Soo IorsIIy l93l94.
ThIs Is nof fo suggosf fhnf congrossIonnI owor In fhIs
nron Is IImIfIoss. If Is fhIs Courf`s rosonsIbIIIfy fo onsuro
fhnf Congross hns usod nrorInfo monns. Tho quosfIon
moof for judIcInI rovIow Is whofhor fho choson monns nro
ndnfod fo cnrry ouf fho objocfs fho nmondmonfs hnvo In
vIow. 1x por/e Virginio, l00 !. S. 339, 346 (l880). Tho
Courf`s roIo, fhon, Is nof fo subsfIfufo Ifs judgmonf for fhnf
of Congross, buf fo doformIno whofhor fho IogIsInfIvo
rocord suffIcod fo show fhnf Congross couId rnfIonnIIy
hnvo doformInod fhnf |Ifs choson] rovIsIons woro nro-
rInfo mofhods. Ci/, of Ione, 446 !. S., nf l?6l??.
In summnry, fho ConsfIfufIon vosfs brond owor In
Congross fo rofocf fho rIghf fo vofo, nnd In nrfIcuInr fo
combnf rncInI dIscrImInnfIon In vofIng. ThIs Courf hns
roonfodIy ronffIrmod Congross` rorognfIvo fo uso nny
rnfIonnI monns In oxorcIso of Ifs owor In fhIs nron. And
bofh rocodonf nnd IogIc dIcfnfo fhnf fho rnfIonnI-monns
fosf shouId bo onsIor fo snfIsfy, nnd fho burdon on fho
sfnfufo`s chnIIongor shouId bo hIghor, whon whnf Is nf
Issuo Is fho ronufhorIznfIon of n romody fhnf fho Courf hns
rovIousIy nffIrmod, nnd fhnf Congross found, from con-
fomornry ovIdonco, fo bo workIng fo ndvnnco fho IogIsIn-
furo`s IogIfImnfo objocfIvo.
III
Tho 2006 ronufhorIznfIon of fho VofIng !Ighfs Acf fuIIy
snfIsfIos fho sfnndnrd sfnfod In McCullocl, 4 Whonf., nf
42l: Congross mny chooso nny monns nrorInfo nnd
InInIy ndnfod fo n IogIfImnfo consfIfufIonnI ond. As wo
shnII soo, If Is ImInusIbIo fo suggosf ofhorwIso.

l3 CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
A
I bogIn wIfh fho ovIdonco on whIch Congross bnsod Ifs
docIsIon fo confInuo fho rocIonrnnco romody. Tho surosf
wny fo ovnIunfo whofhor fhnf romody romnIns In ordor Is
fo soo If rocIonrnnco Is sfIII offocfIvoIy rovonfIng dIscrIm-
Innfory chnngos fo vofIng Inws. Soo Ci/, of Ione, 446
!. S., nf l8l (IdonfIfyIng InformnfIon on fho numbor nnd
fyos of submIssIons mndo by covorod jurIsdIcfIons nnd
fho numbor nnd nnfuro of objocfIons Inforosod by fho
Affornoy ConornI ns n rImnry bnsIs for uhoIdIng fho
l9?5 ronufhorIznfIon). On fhnf scoro, fho rocord boforo
Congross wns hugo. In fncf, Congross found fhoro woro
nore OJ objocfIons bofwoon l982 nnd 2004 (626) fhnn
fhoro woro bofwoon l965 nnd fho l982 ronufhorIznfIon
(490). l VofIng !Ighfs Acf: IvIdonco of ConfInuod ood,
HonrIng boforo fho SubcommIffoo on fho ConsfIfufIon of
fho Houso CommIffoo on fho JudIcInry, l09fh Cong., 2d
Soss., . l?2 (2006) (horoInnffor IvIdonco of ConfInuod
ood).
AII foId, bofwoon l982 nnd 2006, OJ objocfIons bIockod
ovor ?00 vofIng chnngos bnsod on n doformInnfIon fhnf fho
chnngos woro dIscrImInnfory. H. !. !o. o. l094?8, nf
2l. Congross found fhnf fho mnjorIfy of OJ objocfIons
IncIudod fIndIngs of dIscrImInnfory Infonf, soo 6?9 I. 3d,
nf 86?, nnd fhnf fho chnngos bIockod by rocIonrnnco woro
cnIcuInfod docIsIons fo koo mInorIfy vofors from fuIIy
nrfIcInfIng In fho oIIfIcnI rocoss. H. !. !o. l094?8,
nf 2l. On fo of fhnf, ovor fho snmo fImo orIod fho OJ
nnd rIvnfo InInfIffs succoodod In moro fhnn l00 ncfIons
fo onforco fho 5 rocIonrnnco roquIromonfs. l IvIdonco
of ConfInuod ood l86, 250.
In nddIfIon fo bIockIng roosod vofIng chnngos fhrough
rocIonrnnco, OJ mny roquosf moro InformnfIon from n
jurIsdIcfIon roosIng n chnngo. In furn, fho jurIsdIcfIon
mny modIfy or wIfhdrnw fho roosod chnngo. Tho num-
bor of such modIfIcnfIons or wIfhdrnwnIs rovIdos nn

IndIcnfIon of how mnny dIscrImInnfory roosnIs nro
doforrod wIfhouf nood for formnI objocfIon. Congross
rocoIvod ovIdonco fhnf moro fhnn 800 roosod chnngos
woro nIforod or wIfhdrnwn sInco fho Insf ronufhorIznfIon
In l982. H. !. !o. o. l094?8, nf 404l.
4
Congross nIso
rocoIvod omIrIcnI sfudIos fIndIng fhnf OJ`s roquosfs for
moro InformnfIon hnd n sIgnIfIcnnf offocf on fho dogroo fo
whIch covorod jurIsdIcfIons comI|Iod] wIfh fhoIr obIIgn-
fIo|n] fo rofocf mInorIfy vofIng rIghfs. 2 IvIdonco of
ConfInuod ood 2555.
Congross nIso rocoIvod ovIdonco fhnf IIfIgnfIon undor 2
of fho V!A wns nn Inndoqunfo subsfIfufo for rocIonrnnco
In fho covorod jurIsdIcfIons. !IfIgnfIon occurs onIy nffor
fho fncf, whon fho IIIognI vofIng schomo hns nIrondy boon
uf In Inco nnd IndIvIdunIs hnvo boon oIocfod ursunnf fo
If, fhoroby gnInIng fho ndvnnfngos of Incumboncy. l IvI-
donco of ConfInuod ood 9?. An IIIognI schomo mIghf bo
In Inco for sovornI oIocfIon cycIos boforo n 2 InInfIff cnn
gnfhor suffIcIonf ovIdonco fo chnIIongo If. l VofIng !Ighfs
Acf: SocfIon 5 of fho AcfHIsfory, Scoo, nnd Iuroso:
HonrIng boforo fho SubcommIffoo on fho ConsfIfufIon of
fho Houso CommIffoo on fho JudIcInry, l09fh Cong., lsf
Soss., . 92 (2005) (horoInnffor SocfIon 5 HonrIng). And
IIfIgnfIon Incos n honvy fInnncInI burdon on mInorIfy
vofors. Soo iJ., nf 84. Congross nIso rocoIvod ovIdonco

4
ThIs numbor IncIudos onIy chnngos ncfunIIy roosod. Congross
nIso rocoIvod ovIdonco fhnf mnny covorod jurIsdIcfIons ongngod In nn
InformnI consuIfnfIon rocoss wIfh OJ boforo formnIIy submIffIng n
roosnI, so fhnf fho doforronf offocf of rocIonrnnco wns fnr brondor
fhnn fho formnI submIssIons nIono suggosf. Tho ConfInuIng ood for
SocfIon 5 Iro-CIonrnnco: HonrIng boforo fho Sonnfo CommIffoo on fho
JudIcInry, l09fh Cong., 2d Soss., . 5354 (2006). AII ngroo fhnf nn
unsuorfod nssorfIon nbouf doforronco wouId nof bo suffIcIonf fo
jusfIfy kooIng n romody In Inco In orofuIfy. Soo on/e, nf l?. Iuf If
wns corfnInIy ronsonnbIo for Congross fo consIdor fho fosfImony of
wIfnossos who hnd workod wIfh offIcInIs In covorod jurIsdIcfIons nnd
obsorvod n ronI-worId doforronf offocf.

l5 CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
fhnf rocIonrnnco Iossonod fho IIfIgnfIon burdon on cov-
orod jurIsdIcfIons fhomsoIvos, bocnuso fho rocIonrnnco
rocoss Is fnr Ioss cosfIy fhnn dofondIng ngnInsf n 2 cInIm,
nnd cIonrnnco by OJ subsfnnfInIIy roducos fho IIkoIIhood
fhnf n 2 cInIm wIII bo mounfod. !onufhorIzIng fho VofIng
!Ighfs Acf`s Tomornry IrovIsIons: IoIIcy IorsocfIvos
nnd VIows Irom fho IIoId: HonrIng boforo fho SubcommIf-
foo on fho ConsfIfufIon, CIvII !Ighfs nnd Iroorfy !Ighfs
of fho Sonnfo CommIffoo on fho JudIcInry, l09fh Cong., 2d
Soss., . l3, l20l2l (2006). Soo nIso IrIof for Sfnfos of
ow York, CnIIfornIn, MIssIssII, nnd orfh CnroIInn ns
Anici Curioe 89 (SocfIon 5 roduc|os] fho IIkoIIhood fhnf
n jurIsdIcfIon wIII fnco cosfIy nnd rofrncfod SocfIon 2
IIfIgnfIon).
Tho numbor of dIscrImInnfory chnngos bIockod or do-
forrod by fho rocIonrnnco roquIromonf suggosfs fhnf fho
sfnfo of vofIng rIghfs In fho covorod jurIsdIcfIons wouId
hnvo boon sIgnIfIcnnfIy dIfforonf nbsonf fhIs romody. Sur-
voyIng fho fyo of chnngos sfood by fho rocIonrnnco
rocoduro convoys n sonso of fho oxfonf fo whIch 5 con-
fInuos fo rofocf mInorIfy vofIng rIghfs. Sof ouf boIow nro
chnrncforIsfIc oxnmIos of chnngos bIockod In fho yonrs
IondIng u fo fho 2006 ronufhorIznfIon:
In l995, MIssIssII soughf fo roonncf n dunI vofor
rogIsfrnfIon sysfom, whIch wns InIfInIIy onncfod In
l892 fo dIsonfrnnchIso IInck vofors, nnd for fhnf
ronson, wns sfruck down by n fodornI courf In l98?.
H. !. !o. o. l094?8, nf 39.
IoIIowIng fho 2000 consus, fho CIfy of AIbnny,
CoorgIn, roosod n rodIsfrIcfIng Inn fhnf OJ
found fo bo dosIgnod wIfh fho uroso fo IImIf nnd
rofrogross fho Incronsod bInck vofIng sfrongfh . . .
In fho cIfy ns n whoIo. 1J., nf 3? (InfornnI quofn-
fIon mnrks omIffod).

In 200l, fho mnyor nnd nII-whIfo fIvo-mombor
Ionrd of AIdormon of KIImIchnoI, MIssIssII,
nbrufIy cnncoIod fho fown`s oIocfIon nffor nn
unrocodonfod numbor of AfrIcnn-AmorIcnn cnn-
dIdnfos nnnouncod fhoy woro runnIng for offIco.
OJ roquIrod nn oIocfIon, nnd fho fown oIocfod Ifs
fIrsf bInck mnyor nnd fhroo bInck nIdormon. 1J., nf
363?.
In 2006, fhIs Courf found fhnf Toxns` nffomf fo ro-
drnw n congrossIonnI dIsfrIcf fo roduco fho sfrongfh
of !nfIno vofors boro fho mnrk of InfonfIonnI dIs-
crImInnfIon fhnf couId gIvo rIso fo nn oqunI rofoc-
fIon vIoInfIon, nnd ordorod fho dIsfrIcf rodrnwn In
comIInnco wIfh fho V!A. Leogue of Ini/eJ Lo/in
Anericon Ci/icene v. Perr,, 548 !. S. 399, 440
(2006). In rosonso, Toxns soughf fo undormIno
fhIs Courf`s ordor by curfnIIIng onrIy vofIng In fho
dIsfrIcf, buf wns bIockod by nn ncfIon fo onforco fho
5 rocIonrnnco roquIromonf. Soo Ordor In Leogue
of Ini/eJ Lo/in Anericon Ci/icene v. Texoe, o.
06cvl046 (W Tox.), oc. 8.
In 2003, nffor AfrIcnn-AmorIcnns won n mnjorIfy of
fho sonfs on fho schooI bonrd for fho fIrsf fImo In
hIsfory, ChnrIosfon Counfy, Soufh CnroIInn, ro-
osod nn nf-Inrgo vofIng mochnnIsm for fho bonrd.
Tho roosnI, mndo wIfhouf consuIfIng nny of fho
AfrIcnn-AmorIcnn mombors of fho schooI bonrd,
wns found fo bo nn 'oxncf roIIcn` of nn onrIIor
vofIng schomo fhnf, n fodornI courf hnd doformInod,
vIoInfod fho V!A. 8ll I. Su. 2d 424, 483 (C
20ll). Soo nIso S. !o. o. l09295, nf 309. OJ
Invokod 5 fo bIock fho roosnI.
In l993, fho CIfy of MIIIon, CoorgIn, roosod fo do-
Iny fho oIocfIon In n mnjorIfy-bInck dIsfrIcf by fwo

l? CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
yonrs, IonvIng fhnf dIsfrIcf wIfhouf rorosonfnfIon
on fho cIfy councII whIIo fho noIghborIng mnjorIfy-
whIfo dIsfrIcf wouId hnvo fhroo rorosonfnfIvos. l
SocfIon 5 HonrIng ?44. OJ bIockod fho roosnI.
Tho counfy fhon soughf fo movo n oIIIng Inco
from n rodomInnnfIy bInck noIghborhood In fho
cIfy fo nn InnccossIbIo IocnfIon In n rodomInnnfIy
whIfo noIghborhood oufsIdo cIfy IImIfs. 1J., nf 8l6.
In 2004, WnIIor Counfy, Toxns, fhronfonod fo roso-
cufo fwo bInck sfudonfs nffor fhoy nnnouncod fhoIr
InfonfIon fo run for offIco. Tho counfy fhon nf-
fomfod fo roduco fho nvnIInbIIIfy of onrIy vofIng In
fhnf oIocfIon nf oIIIng Incos nonr n hIsforIcnIIy
bInck unIvorsIfy. 6?9 I. 3d, nf 865866.
In l990, nIIns Counfy, AInbnmn, whoso counfy
sonf Is fho CIfy of SoImn, soughf fo urgo Ifs vofor
roIIs of mnny bInck vofors. OJ rojocfod fho urgo
ns dIscrImInnfory, nofIng fhnf If wouId hnvo dIsqunII-
fIod mnny cIfIzons from vofIng sImIy bocnuso
fhoy fnIIod fo Ick u or rofurn n vofor udnfo
form, whon fhoro wns no vnIId roquIromonf fhnf
fhoy do so. l SocfIon 5 HonrIng 356.
Thoso oxnmIos, nnd scoros moro IIko fhom, fIII fho
ngos of fho IogIsInfIvo rocord. Tho ovIdonco wns Indood
suffIcIonf fo suorf Congross` concIusIon fhnf rncInI
dIscrImInnfIon In vofIng In covorod jurIsdIcfIons |ro-
mnInod] sorIous nnd orvnsIvo. 6?9 I. 3d, nf 865.
5

5
Ior nn IIIusfrnfIon osfdnfIng fho 2006 ronufhorIznfIon, soo Sou/l
Corolino v. Ini/eJ S/o/ee, 898 I. Su. 2d 30 (C 20l2), whIch In-
voIvod n Soufh CnroIInn vofor-IdonfIfIcnfIon Inw onncfod In 20ll.
Concornod fhnf fho Inw wouId burdon mInorIfy vofors, OJ broughf n
5 onforcomonf ncfIon fo bIock fho Inw`s ImIomonfnfIon. In fho courso
of fho IIfIgnfIon, Soufh CnroIInn offIcInIs ngrood fo bIndIng Inforrofn-
fIons fhnf mndo If fnr onsIor fhnn somo mIghf hnvo oxocfod or fonrod
for Soufh CnroIInn cIfIzons fo vofo. 1J., nf 3?. A fhroo-judgo nnoI

Congross furfhor rocoIvod ovIdonco IndIcnfIng fhnf
formnI roquosfs of fho kInd sof ouf nbovo rorosonfod onIy
fho fI of fho Icoborg. Thoro wns whnf ono commonfnfor
doscrIbod ns nn nvnInncho of cnso sfudIos of vofIng rIghfs
vIoInfIons In fho covorod jurIsdIcfIons, rnngIng from
oufrIghf InfImIdnfIon nnd vIoIonco ngnInsf mInorIfy
vofors fo moro subfIo forms of vofIng rIghfs dorIvn-
fIons. IorsIIy 202 (foofnofo omIffod). ThIs ovIdonco gnvo
Congross ovor moro ronson fo concIudo fhnf fho fImo hnd
nof yof como for roInxod vIgIInnco ngnInsf fho scourgo of
rnco dIscrImInnfIon In vofIng.
Truo, condIfIons In fho Soufh hnvo ImrossIvoIy Im-
rovod sInco nssngo of fho VofIng !Ighfs Acf. Congross
nofod fhIs Imrovomonf nnd found fhnf fho V!A wns fho
drIvIng forco bohInd If. 2006 !onufhorIznfIon 2(b)(l).
Iuf Congross nIso found fhnf vofIng dIscrImInnfIon hnd
ovoIvod Info subfIor socond-gonornfIon bnrrIors, nnd fhnf
oIImInnfIng rocIonrnnco wouId rIsk Ioss of fho gnIns fhnf
hnd boon mndo. 2(b)(2), (9). Concorns of fhIs ordor, fho
Courf rovIousIy found, gnvo Congross ndoqunfo cnuso fo
ronufhorIzo fho V!A. Ci/, of Ione, 446 !. S., nf l80l82
(congrossIonnI ronufhorIznfIon of fho rocIonrnnco ro-
quIromonf wns jusfIfIod bnsod on fho numbor nnd nnfuro
of objocfIons Inforosod by fho Affornoy ConornI sInco
fho rIor ronufhorIznfIon; oxfonsIon wns nocossnry fo ro-
sorvo fho IImIfod nnd frngIIo nchIovomonfs of fho Acf nnd
fo romofo furfhor nmoIIornfIon of vofIng dIscrImInnfIon)
(InfornnI quofnfIon mnrks omIffod). IncIng such ovIdonco
fhon, fho Courf oxrossIy rojocfod fho nrgumonf fhnf
dIsnrIfIos In vofor furnouf nnd numbor of oIocfod offIcInIs

rocIonrod fho Inw nffor ndofIng bofh InforrofnfIons ns nn oxross
condIfIon of rocIonrnnco. 1J., nf 3?38. Two of fho judgos commonfod
fhnf fho cnso domonsfrnfod fho confInuIng ufIIIfy of SocfIon 5 of fho
VofIng !Ighfs Acf In doforrIng robIomnfIc, nnd honco oncourngIng
non-dIscrImInnfory, chnngos In sfnfo nnd IocnI vofIng Inws. 1J., nf 54
(oInIon of Infos, J.).

l9 CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
woro fho onIy mofrIcs cnnbIo of jusfIfyIng ronufhorIznfIon
of fho V!A. 1IiJ.
I
I furn noxf fo fho ovIdonco on whIch Congross bnsod Ifs
docIsIon fo ronufhorIzo fho covorngo formuIn In 4(b).
Iocnuso Congross dId nof nIfor fho covorngo formuIn, fho
snmo jurIsdIcfIons rovIousIy subjocf fo rocIonrnnco
confInuo fo bo covorod by fhIs romody. Tho ovIdonco jusf
doscrIbod, of rocIonrnnco`s confInuIng offIcncy In bIockIng
consfIfufIonnI vIoInfIons In fho covorod jurIsdIcfIons, IfsoIf
groundod Congross` concIusIon fhnf fho romody shouId bo
rofnInod for fhoso jurIsdIcfIons.
Thoro Is no quosfIon, moroovor, fhnf fho covorod jurIs-
dIcfIons hnvo n unIquo hIsfory of robIoms wIfh rncInI
dIscrImInnfIon In vofIng. An/e, nf l2l3. ConsIdornfIon of
fhIs Iong hIsfory, sfIII In IIvIng momory, wns nIfogofhor
nrorInfo. Tho Courf crIfIcIzos Congross for fnIIIng fo
rocognIzo fhnf hIsfory dId nof ond In l965. An/e, nf 20.
Iuf fho Courf Ignoros fhnf whnf`s nsf Is roIoguo. W.
Shnkosonro, Tho Tomosf, ncf 2, sc. l. And |f]hoso who
cnnnof romombor fho nsf nro condomnod fo roonf If. l
C. Snnfnynnn, Tho !Ifo of !onson 284 (l905). Congross
wns osocInIIy mIndfuI of fho nood fo roInforco fho gnIns
nIrondy mndo nnd fo rovonf bncksIIdIng. 2006 !onufhor-
IznfIon 2(b)(9).
Of nrfIcuInr Imorfnnco, ovon nffor 40 yonrs nnd fhou-
snnds of dIscrImInnfory chnngos bIockod by rocIonrnnco,
condIfIons In fho covorod jurIsdIcfIons domonsfrnfod fhnf
fho formuIn wns sfIII jusfIfIod by curronf noods. Aor/l-
uee/ Aue/in, 55? !. S., nf 203.
Congross Ionrnod of fhoso condIfIons fhrough n roorf,
known ns fho Knfz sfudy, fhnf Iookod nf 2 suIfs bofwoon
l982 nnd 2004. To IxnmIno fho Imncf nnd IffocfIvonoss
of fho VofIng !Ighfs Acf: HonrIng boforo fho SubcommIf-
foo on fho ConsfIfufIon of fho Houso CommIffoo on fho
WUT?

JudIcInry, l09fh Cong., lsf Soss., . 964ll24 (2005)
(horoInnffor Imncf nnd IffocfIvonoss). Iocnuso fho rI-
vnfo rIghf of ncfIon nufhorIzod by 2 of fho V!A nIIos
nnfIonwIdo, n comnrIson of 2 InwsuIfs In covorod nnd
noncovorod jurIsdIcfIons rovIdos nn nrorInfo ynrdsfIck
for monsurIng dIfforoncos bofwoon covorod nnd noncovorod
jurIsdIcfIons. If dIfforoncos In fho rIsk of vofIng dIscrImI-
nnfIon bofwoon covorod nnd noncovorod jurIsdIcfIons hnd
dIsnonrod, ono wouId oxocf fhnf fho rnfo of succossfuI
2 InwsuIfs wouId bo roughIy fho snmo In bofh nrons.
6
Tho
sfudy`s fIndIngs, howovor, IndIcnfod fhnf rncInI dIscrImI-
nnfIon In vofIng romnIns conconfrnfod In fho jurIsdIcfIons
sIngIod ouf for rocIonrnnco. Aor/luee/ Aue/in, 55? !. S.,
nf 203.
AIfhough covorod jurIsdIcfIons nccounf for Ioss fhnn 25
orconf of fho counfry`s ouInfIon, fho Knfz sfudy ro-
vonIod fhnf fhoy nccounfod for 56 orconf of succossfuI
2 IIfIgnfIon sInco l982. Imncf nnd IffocfIvonoss 9?4.
ConfroIIIng for ouInfIon, fhoro woro nonrIy four fImos ns
mnny succossfuI 2 cnsos In covorod jurIsdIcfIons ns fhoro
woro In noncovorod jurIsdIcfIons. 6?9 I. 3d, nf 8?4. Tho
Knfz sfudy furfhor found fhnf 2 InwsuIfs nro moro IIkoIy
fo succood whon fhoy nro fIIod In covorod jurIsdIcfIons
fhnn In noncovorod jurIsdIcfIons. Imncf nnd IffocfIvo-
noss 9?4. Irom fhoso fIndIngsIgnorod by fho Courf
Congross ronsonnbIy concIudod fhnf fho covorngo formuIn
confInuos fo IdonfIfy fho jurIsdIcfIons of gronfosf concorn.
Tho ovIdonco boforo Congross, furfhormoro, IndIcnfod
fhnf vofIng In fho covorod jurIsdIcfIons wns moro rncInIIy
oInrIzod fhnn oIsowhoro In fho counfry. H. !. !o. o.
l094?8, nf 3435. WhIIo rncInIIy oInrIzod vofIng nIono

6
Iocnuso rocIonrnnco occurs onIy In covorod jurIsdIcfIons nnd cnn bo
oxocfod fo sfo fho mosf obvIousIy objocfIonnbIo monsuros, ono wouId
oxocf n louer rnfo of succossfuI 2 InwsuIfs In fhoso jurIsdIcfIons If
fho rIsk of vofIng dIscrImInnfIon fhoro woro fho snmo ns oIsowhoro In fho
counfry.

2l CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
doos nof sIgnnI n consfIfufIonnI vIoInfIon, If Is n fncfor fhnf
Incronsos fho vuInornbIIIfy of rncInI mInorIfIos fo dIs-
crImInnfory chnngos In vofIng Inw. Tho ronson Is fwofoId.
IIrsf, rncInI oInrIznfIon monns fhnf rncInI mInorIfIos nro
nf rIsk of boIng sysfomnfIcnIIy oufvofod nnd hnvIng fhoIr
Inforosfs undorrorosonfod In IogIsInfuros. Socond, whon
oIIfIcnI roforoncos fnII nIong rncInI IInos, fho nnfurnI
IncIInnfIons of Incumbonfs nnd ruIIng nrfIos fo onfronch
fhomsoIvos hnvo rodIcfnbIo rncInI offocfs. !ndor cIrcum-
sfnncos of sovoro rncInI oInrIznfIon, offorfs fo gnIn oIIfI-
cnI ndvnnfngo frnnsInfo Info rnco-socIfIc dIsndvnnfngos.
AnsoInbohoro, IorsIIy, & Sfownrf, !ogIonnI Ifforoncos
In !ncInI IoInrIznfIon In fho 20l2 IrosIdonfInI IIocfIon:
ImIIcnfIons for fho ConsfIfufIonnIIfy of SocfIon 5 of fho
VofIng !Ighfs Acf, l26 Hnrv. !. !ov. Iorum 205, 209
(20l3).
In ofhor words, n govornIng oIIfIcnI conIIfIon hns nn
InconfIvo fo rovonf chnngos In fho oxIsfIng bnInnco of
vofIng owor. Whon vofIng Is rncInIIy oInrIzod, offorfs by
fho ruIIng nrfy fo ursuo fhnf InconfIvo wIII InovIfnbIy
dIscrImInnfo ngnInsf n rncInI grou. 1IiJ. Jusf ns buIId-
Ings In CnIIfornIn hnvo n gronfor nood fo bo onrfhqunko-
roofod, Incos whoro fhoro Is gronfor rncInI oInrIznfIon
In vofIng hnvo n gronfor nood for rohyIncfIc monsuros fo
rovonf urosofuI rnco dIscrImInnfIon. ThIs oInf wns
undorsfood by Congross nnd Is woII rocognIzod In fho
ncndomIc IIfornfuro. Soo 2006 !onufhorIznfIon 2(b)(3),
l20 Sfnf. 5?? (Tho confInuod ovIdonco of rncInIIy oInr-
Izod vofIng In onch of fho jurIsdIcfIons covorod by fho
|rocIonrnnco roquIromonf] domonsfrnfos fhnf rncInI nnd
Inngungo mInorIfIos romnIn oIIfIcnIIy vuInornbIo); H. !.
!o. o. l094?8, nf 35; nvIdson, Tho !oconf IvoIufIon
of VofIng !Ighfs !nw AffocfIng !ncInI nnd !nngungo
MInorIfIos, In QuIof !ovoIufIon 2l, 22.
Tho cnso for rofnInIng n covorngo formuIn fhnf mof
noods on fho ground wns fhoroforo soIId. Congross mIghf

hnvo boon chnrgod wIfh rIgIdIfy hnd If nffordod covorod
jurIsdIcfIons no wny ouf or Ignorod jurIsdIcfIons fhnf
noodod suorInfondonco. Congross, howovor, rosondod fo
fhIs concorn. CrIfIcnI comononfs of fho congrossIonnI
dosIgn nro fho sfnfufory rovIsIons nIIowIng jurIsdIcfIons
fo bnII ouf of rocIonrnnco, nnd for courf-ordorod bnII
Ins. Soo Aor/luee/ Aue/in, 55? !. S., nf l99. Tho V!A
ormIfs n jurIsdIcfIon fo bnII ouf by showIng fhnf If hns
comIIod wIfh fho Acf for fon yonrs, nnd hns ongngod In
offorfs fo oIImInnfo InfImIdnfIon nnd hnrnssmonf of vof-
ors. 42 !. S. C. l9?3b(n) (2006 od. nnd Su. V). If nIso
nufhorIzos n courf fo subjocf n noncovorod jurIsdIcfIon fo
fodornI rocIonrnnco uon fIndIng fhnf vIoInfIons of fho
Iourfoonfh nnd IIffoonfh Amondmonfs hnvo occurrod
fhoro. l9?3n(c) (2006 od.).
Congross wns snfIsfIod fhnf fho V!A`s bnIIouf mochn-
nIsm rovIdod nn offocfIvo monns of ndjusfIng fho V!A`s
covorngo ovor fImo. H. !. !o. o. l094?8, nf 25 (fho
succoss of bnIIouf IIIusfrnfos fhnf: (l) covorod sfnfus Is
noIfhor ormnnonf nor ovor-brond; nnd (2) covorod sfnfus
hns boon nnd confInuos fo bo wIfhIn fho confroI of fho
jurIsdIcfIon such fhnf fhoso jurIsdIcfIons fhnf hnvo n gonu-
InoIy cIonn rocord nnd wnnf fo formInnfo covorngo hnvo
fho nbIIIfy fo do so). onrIy 200 jurIsdIcfIons hnvo suc-
cossfuIIy bnIIod ouf of fho rocIonrnnco roquIromonf, nnd
OJ hns consonfod fo ovory bnIIouf nIIcnfIon fIIod by nn
oIIgIbIo jurIsdIcfIon sInco fho curronf bnIIouf rocoduro
bocnmo offocfIvo In l984. IrIof for IodornI !osondonf 54.
Tho bnII-In mochnnIsm hns nIso workod. SovornI jurIsdIc-
fIons hnvo boon subjocf fo fodornI rocIonrnnco by courf
ordors, IncIudIng fho Sfnfos of ow MoxIco nnd Arknnsns.
A. fo IrIof for IodornI !osondonf ln3n.
ThIs oxorIonco oxosos fho Innccurncy of fho Courf`s
orfrnynI of fho Acf ns sfnfIc, unchnngod sInco l965.
Congross dosIgnod fho V!A fo bo n dynnmIc sfnfufo, cnn-
bIo of ndjusfIng fo chnngIng condIfIons. Truo, mnny cov-
BAIL INS
ALLOWED
Text

23 CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
orod jurIsdIcfIons hnvo nof boon nbIo fo bnII ouf duo fo
roconf ncfs of noncomIInnco wIfh fho V!A, buf fhnf frufh
roInforcos fho congrossIonnI judgmonf fhnf fhoso jurIsdIc-
fIons woro rIghffuIIy subjocf fo rocIonrnnco, nnd oughf fo
romnIn undor fhnf rogImo.
IV
Congross nronchod fho 2006 ronufhorIznfIon of fho
V!A wIfh gronf cnro nnd sorIousnoss. Tho snmo cnnnof bo
snId of fho Courf`s oInIon fodny. Tho Courf mnkos no
gonuIno nffomf fo ongngo wIfh fho mnssIvo IogIsInfIvo
rocord fhnf Congross nssombIod. Insfond, If roIIos on
Incronsos In vofor rogIsfrnfIon nnd furnouf ns If fhnf woro
fho whoIo sfory. Soo eupro, nf l8l9. WIfhouf ovon
IdonfIfyIng n sfnndnrd of rovIow, fho Courf dIsmIssIvoIy
brushos off nrgumonfs bnsod on dnfn from fho rocord, nnd
docIInos fo onfor fho dobnf|o nbouf] whnf |fho] rocord
shows. An/e, nf 202l. Ono wouId oxocf moro from nn
oInIon sfrIkIng nf fho honrf of fho nfIon`s sIgnnI Ioco of
cIvII-rIghfs IogIsInfIon.
I nofo fho mosf dIsfurbIng Insos. IIrsf, by whnf rIghf,
gIvon Ifs usunI rosfrnInf, doos fho Courf ovon nddross
ShoIby Counfy`s fncInI chnIIongo fo fho V!A Socond, fho
Courf voors nwny from confroIIIng rocodonf rognrdIng fho
oqunI sovoroIgnfy docfrIno wIfhouf ovon ncknowIodgIng
fhnf If Is doIng so. ThIrd, hnrdIy showIng fho rosocf
ordInnrIIy nId whon Congross ncfs fo ImIomonf fho CIvII
Wnr Amondmonfs, nnd ns jusf sfrossod, fho Courf doos nof
ovon doIgn fo grnIo wIfh fho IogIsInfIvo rocord.
A
ShoIby Counfy Inunchod n uroIy fncInI chnIIongo fo fho
V!A`s 2006 ronufhorIznfIon. A fncInI chnIIongo fo n
IogIsInfIvo Acf, fho Courf hns ofhor fImos snId, Is, of
courso, fho mosf dIffIcuIf chnIIongo fo mounf succossfuIIy,
sInco fho chnIIongor musf osfnbIIsh fhnf no sof of cIrcum-

sfnncos oxIsfs undor whIch fho Acf wouId bo vnIId. Ini/eJ
S/o/ee v. Solerno, 48l !. S. ?39, ?45 (l98?).
|!]ndor our consfIfufIonnI sysfom|,] courfs nro nof
rovIng commIssIons nssIgnod fo nss judgmonf on fho
vnIIdIfy of fho nfIon`s Inws. BrooJric/ v. O/lolono, 4l3
!. S. 60l, 6l06ll (l9?3). Insfond, fho judIcInI Iowor Is
IImIfod fo docIdIng nrfIcuInr Cnsos nnd ConfrovorsIos.
!. S. Consf., Arf. III, 2. Imboddod In fho frndIfIonnI
ruIos govornIng consfIfufIonnI ndjudIcnfIon Is fho rIncIIo
fhnf n orson fo whom n sfnfufo mny consfIfufIonnIIy bo
nIIod wIII nof bo honrd fo chnIIongo fhnf sfnfufo on fho
ground fhnf If mny concoIvnbIy bo nIIod unconsfIfufIon-
nIIy fo ofhors, In ofhor sIfunfIons nof boforo fho Courf.
BrooJric/, 4l3 !. S., nf 6l0. Yof fho Courf`s oInIon In
fhIs cnso confnIns nof n word oxInInIng why Congross
Incks fho owor fo subjocf fo rocIonrnnco fho nrfIcuInr
InInfIff fhnf InIfInfod fhIs InwsuIfShoIby Counfy, AIn-
bnmn. Tho ronson for fho Courf`s sIIonco Is nnronf, for
ns nIIod fo ShoIby Counfy, fho V!A`s rocIonrnnco
roquIromonf Is hnrdIy confosfnbIo.
AInbnmn Is homo fo SoImn, sIfo of fho IIoody Sundny
bonfIngs of cIvII-rIghfs domonsfrnfors fhnf sorvod ns fho
cnfnIysf for fho V!A`s onncfmonf. IoIIowIng fhoso ovonfs,
MnrfIn !ufhor KIng, Jr., Iod n mnrch from SoImn fo Monf-
gomory, AInbnmn`s cnIfnI, whoro ho cnIIod for nssngo of
fho V!A. If fho Acf nssod, ho forosnw, rogross couId bo
mndo ovon In AInbnmn, buf fhoro hnd fo bo n sfondfnsf
nnfIonnI commIfmonf fo soo fho fnsk fhrough fo comIo-
fIon. In KIng`s words, fho nrc of fho mornI unIvorso Is
Iong, buf If bonds fownrd jusfIco. C. Mny, IondIng To-
wnrd JusfIco: Tho VofIng !Ighfs Acf nnd fho Trnnsfor-
mnfIon of AmorIcnn omocrncy l44 (20l3).
HIsfory hns rovod KIng rIghf. AIfhough cIrcumsfnncos
In AInbnmn hnvo chnngod, sorIous concorns romnIn.
Iofwoon l982 nnd 2005, AInbnmn hnd ono of fho hIghosf
rnfos of succossfuI 2 suIfs, socond onIy fo Ifs V!A-covorod

25 CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
noIghbor MIssIssII. 6?9 I. 3d, nf 89? (WIIIInms, J.,
dIssonfIng). In ofhor words, ovon whIIo subjocf fo fho
rosfrnInIng offocf of 5, AInbnmn wns found fo hnvo
donI|od] or nbrIdgo|d] vofIng rIghfs on nccounf of rnco or
coIor moro froquonfIy fhnn nonrIy nII ofhor Sfnfos In fho
!nIon. 42 !. S. C. l9?3(n). ThIs fncf romfod fho
dIssonfIng judgo boIow fo concodo fhnf n moro nnrrowIy
fnIIorod covorngo formuIn cnfurIng AInbnmn nnd n
hnndfuI of ofhor jurIsdIcfIons wIfh nn osfnbIIshod frnck
rocord of rncInI dIscrImInnfIon In vofIng mIghf bo dofonsI-
bIo. 6?9 I. 3d, nf 89? (oInIon of WIIIInms, J.). Thnf Is nn
undorsfnfomonf. AInbnmn`s sorry hIsfory of 2 vIoInfIons
nIono rovIdos suffIcIonf jusfIfIcnfIon for Congross` dofor-
mInnfIon In 2006 fhnf fho Sfnfo shouId romnIn subjocf fo
5`s rocIonrnnco roquIromonf.
?
A fow oxnmIos suffIco fo domonsfrnfo fhnf, nf Ionsf In
AInbnmn, fho curronf burdons Imosod by 5`s rocIonr-
nnco roquIromonf nro jusfIfIod by curronf noods. Aor/l-
uee/ Aue/in, 55? !. S., nf 203. In fho InforIm bofwoon fho
V!A`s l982 nnd 2006 ronufhorIznfIons, fhIs Courf fwIco
confronfod urosofuI rncInI dIscrImInnfIon In AInbnmn.
In Pleoeon/ Grote v. Ini/eJ S/o/ee, 4?9 !. S. 462 (l98?),
fho Courf hoId fhnf IIonsnnf Crovon cIfy In Jofforson
Counfy, ShoIby Counfy`s noIghborongngod In urosofuI
dIscrImInnfIon by nnnoxIng nII-whIfo nrons whIIo rojocfIng
fho nnnoxnfIon roquosf of nn ndjnconf bInck noIghborhood.
Tho cIfy hnd shown unnmbIguous oosIfIon fo rncInI

?
ThIs InwsuIf wns fIIod by ShoIby Counfy, n oIIfIcnI subdIvIsIon of
AInbnmn, rnfhor fhnn by fho Sfnfo IfsoIf. ovorfhoIoss, If Is nrorI-
nfo fo judgo ShoIby Counfy`s consfIfufIonnI chnIIongo In IIghf of In-
sfnncos of dIscrImInnfIon sfnfowIdo bocnuso ShoIby Counfy Is subjocf fo
5`s rocIonrnnco roquIromonf by vIrfuo of AloIono`e dosIgnnfIon ns n
covorod jurIsdIcfIon undor 4(b) of fho V!A. Soo on/e, nf ?. In nny
ovonf, ShoIby Counfy`s roconf rocord of omIoyIng nn nf-Inrgo oIocfornI
sysfom fnInfod by InfonfIonnI rncInI dIscrImInnfIon Is by IfsoIf suffIcIonf
fo jusfIfy subjocfIng fho counfy fo 5`s rocIonrnnco mnndnfo. Soo infro,
nf 26.

InfogrnfIon, bofh boforo nnd nffor fho nssngo of fho fod-
ornI cIvII rIghfs Inws, nnd Ifs sfrnfogIc nnnoxnfIons
nonrod fo bo nn nffomf fo rovIdo for fho growfh of
n monoIIfhIc whIfo vofIng bIock for fho ImormIssIbIo
uroso of mInImIzIng fufuro bInck vofIng sfrongfh. 1J.,
nf 465, 4?l4?2.
Two yonrs boforo Pleoeon/ Grote, fho Courf In Hun/er v.
InJeruooJ, 4?l !. S. 222 (l985), sfruck down n rovIsIon
of fho AInbnmn ConsfIfufIon fhnf rohIbIfod IndIvIdunIs
convIcfod of mIsdomonnor offonsos InvoIvIng mornI furI-
fudo from vofIng. 1J., nf 223 (InfornnI quofnfIon mnrks
omIffod). Tho rovIsIon vIoInfod fho Iourfoonfh Amond-
monf`s IqunI IrofocfIon CInuso, fho Courf unnnImousIy
concIudod, bocnuso Ifs orIgInnI onncfmonf wns mofIvnfod
by n dosIro fo dIscrImInnfo ngnInsf bIncks on nccounf of
rnco|,] nnd fho |rovIsIon] confInuos fo fhIs dny fo hnvo
fhnf offocf. 1J., nf 233.
Pleoeon/ Grote nnd Hun/er woro nof nnomnIIos. In
l986, n IodornI IsfrIcf Judgo concIudod fhnf fho nf-Inrgo
oIocfIon sysfoms In sovornI AInbnmn counfIos vIoInfod 2.
DillorJ v. Crenelou C/,., 640 I. Su. l34?, l354l363
(M AIn. l986). SummnrIzIng Ifs fIndIngs, fho courf
sfnfod fhnf |f ]rom fho Info l800`s fhrough fho rosonf,
|AInbnmn] hns consIsfonfIy orocfod bnrrIors fo koo bInck
orsons from fuII nnd oqunI nrfIcInfIon In fho socInI,
oconomIc, nnd oIIfIcnI IIfo of fho sfnfo. 1J., nf l360.
Tho DillorJ IIfIgnfIon uIfImnfoIy oxnndod fo IncIudo
l83 cIfIos, counfIos, nnd schooI bonrds omIoyIng dIscrIm-
Innfory nf-Inrgo oIocfIon sysfoms. DillorJ v. BolJuin C/,.
BJ. of 1J., 686 I. Su. l459, l46l (M AIn. l988). Ono
of fhoso dofondnnfs wns ShoIby Counfy, whIch ovonfunIIy
sIgnod n consonf docroo fo rosoIvo fho cInIms ngnInsf If.
Soo DillorJ v. Crenelou C/,., ?48 I. Su. 8l9 (M AIn.
l990).
AIfhough fho DillorJ IIfIgnfIon rosuIfod In ovorhnuIs of
numorous oIocfornI sysfoms fnInfod by rncInI dIscrImInn-

2? CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
fIon, concorns nbouf bncksIIdIng orsIsf. In 2008, for
oxnmIo, fho cIfy of CnIorn, Iocnfod In ShoIby Counfy,
roquosfod rocIonrnnco of n rodIsfrIcfIng Inn fhnf wouId
hnvo oIImInnfod fho cIfy`s soIo mnjorIfy-bInck dIsfrIcf,
whIch hnd boon cronfod ursunnf fo fho consonf docroo In
DillorJ. 8ll I. Su. 2d 424, 443 (C 20ll). AIfhough
OJ objocfod fo fho Inn, CnIorn forgod nhond wIfh oIoc-
fIons bnsod on fho unrocIonrod vofIng chnngos, rosuIfIng
In fho dofonf of fho Incumbonf AfrIcnn-AmorIcnn councII-
mnn who rorosonfod fho formor mnjorIfy-bInck dIsfrIcf.
1IiJ. Tho cIfy`s dofInnco roquIrod OJ fo brIng n 5 on-
forcomonf ncfIon fhnf uIfImnfoIy yIoIdod nrorInfo
rodross, IncIudIng rosfornfIon of fho mnjorIfy-bInck dIs-
frIcf. 1IiJ.; IrIof for !osondonf-Inforvonors InrI Cun-
nInghnm of nI. 20.
A roconf III InvosfIgnfIon rovIdos n furfhor wIndow
Info fho orsIsfonco of rncInI dIscrImInnfIon In sfnfo oII-
fIcs. Soo Ini/eJ S/o/ee v. McGregor, 824 I. Su. 2d l339,
l344l348 (M AIn. 20ll). !ocordIng dovIcos worn by
sfnfo IogIsInfors cooornfIng wIfh fho III`s InvosfIgnfIon
cnfurod convorsnfIons bofwoon mombors of fho sfnfo
IogIsInfuro nnd fhoIr oIIfIcnI nIIIos. Tho rocordod convor-
snfIons nro shockIng. Mombors of fho sfnfo Sonnfo dorI-
sIvoIy rofor fo AfrIcnn-AmorIcnns ns AborIgInos nnd fnIk
oonIy of fhoIr nIm fo qunsh n nrfIcuInr gnmbIIng-roInfod
roforondum bocnuso fho roforondum, If Incod on fho
bnIIof, mIghf Incronso AfrIcnn-AmorIcnn vofor furnouf.
1J., nf l345l346 (InfornnI quofnfIon mnrks omIffod). Soo
nIso iJ., nf l345 (IogIsInfors nnd fhoIr nIIIos oxrossod
concorn fhnf If fho roforondum woro Incod on fho bnIIof,
'|o]vory bInck, ovory IIIIfornfo` wouId bo 'busod |fo fho
oIIs] on H! fInnncod busos` ). Thoso convorsnfIons oc-
currod nof In fho l8?0`s, or ovon In fho l960`s, fhoy fook
Inco In 20l0. 1J., nf l344l345. Tho IsfrIcf Judgo
rosIdIng ovor fho crImInnI frInI nf whIch fho rocordod
convorsnfIons woro Infroducod commonfod fhnf fho ro-

cordIngs rorosonf comoIIIng ovIdonco fhnf oIIfIcnI
oxcIusIon fhrough rncIsm romnIns n ronI nnd ondurIng
robIom In AInbnmn. 1J., nf l34?. !ncIsf sonfImonfs, fho
judgo obsorvod, romnIn rogroffnbIy onfronchod In fho
hIgh ochoIons of sfnfo govornmonf. 1IiJ.
Thoso roconf oIsodos forcofuIIy domonsfrnfo fhnf 5`s
rocIonrnnco roquIromonf Is consfIfufIonnI ns nIIod fo
AInbnmn nnd Ifs oIIfIcnI subdIvIsIons.
8
And undor our
cnso Inw, fhnf concIusIon shouId suffIco fo rosoIvo fhIs
cnso. Soo Ini/eJ S/o/ee v. Ioinee, 362 !. S. l?, 2425
(l960) (|I]f fho comInInf horo cnIIod for nn nIIcnfIon of
fho sfnfufo cIonrIy consfIfufIonnI undor fho IIffoonfh
Amondmonf, fhnf shouId hnvo boon nn ond fo fho quosfIon
of consfIfufIonnIIfy.). Soo nIso AetoJo Dep/. of Hunon
Ieeourcee v. HiIIe, 538 !. S. ?2l, ?43 (2003) (SCA!IA, J.,
dIssonfIng) (whoro, ns horo, n sfnfo or IocnI govornmonf
rnIsos n fncInI chnIIongo fo n fodornI sfnfufo on fho ground
fhnf If oxcoods Congross` onforcomonf owors undor fho
CIvII Wnr Amondmonfs, fho chnIIongo fnIIs If fho oosIng
nrfy Is nbIo fo show fhnf fho sfnfufo couId consfIfufIon-
nIIy bo nIIod fo eone jurIsdIcfIons).
ThIs Courf hns consIsfonfIy rojocfod consfIfufIonnI
chnIIongos fo IogIsInfIon onncfod ursunnf fo Congross`
onforcomonf owors undor fho CIvII Wnr Amondmonfs
uon fIndIng fhnf fho IogIsInfIon wns consfIfufIonnI ns
nIIod fo fho nrfIcuInr sof of cIrcumsfnncos boforo fho
Courf. Soo Ini/eJ S/o/ee v. Georgio, 546 !. S. l5l, l59
(2006) (TIfIo II of fho AmorIcnns wIfh IsnbIIIfIos Acf of
l990 (AA) vnIIdIy nbrognfos sfnfo sovoroIgn ImmunIfy
Insofnr ns |If] cronfos n rIvnfo cnuso of ncfIon . . . for
conducf fhnf oc/uoll, vIoInfos fho Iourfoonfh Amond-

8
Congross confInuod rocIonrnnco ovor AInbnmn, IncIudIng ShoIby
Counfy, of/er consIdorIng ovIdonco of curronf bnrrIors fhoro fo mInorIfy
vofIng cIouf. ShoIby Counfy, fhus, Is no rodhond cnughf u In nn
nrbIfrnry schomo. Soo on/e, nf 22.

29 CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
monf); Tenneeeee v. Lone, 54l !. S. 509, 530534 (2004)
(TIfIo II of fho AA Is consfIfufIonnI ns If nIIos fo fho
cInss of cnsos ImIIcnfIng fho fundnmonfnI rIghf of nccoss
fo fho courfs); Ioinee, 362 !. S., nf 2426 (fodornI sfnfufo
roscrIbIng dorIvnfIons of fho rIghf fo vofo bnsod on rnco
wns consfIfufIonnI ns nIIod fo fho sfnfo offIcInIs boforo
fho Courf, ovon If If couId nof consfIfufIonnIIy bo nIIod
fo ofhor nrfIos). A sImIInr nronch Is wnrrnnfod horo.
9
Tho V!A`s oxcofIonnIIy brond sovornbIIIfy rovIsIon
mnkos If nrfIcuInrIy InnrorInfo for fho Courf fo nIIow
ShoIby Counfy fo mounf n fncInI chnIIongo fo 4(b) nnd 5
of fho V!A, ovon fhough nIIcnfIon of fhoso rovIsIons fo
fho counfy fnIIs woII wIfhIn fho bounds of Congross` IogIs-
InfIvo nufhorIfy. Tho sovornbIIIfy rovIsIon sfnfos:
If nny rovIsIon of |fhIs Acf] or fho nIIcnfIon
fhoroof fo nny orson or cIrcumsfnncos Is hoId InvnIId,
fho romnIndor of |fho Acf] nnd fho nIIcnfIon of fho
rovIsIon fo ofhor orsons nof sImIInrIy sIfunfod or
fo ofhor cIrcumsfnncos shnII nof bo nffocfod fhoroby.
42 !. S. C. l9?3.
In ofhor words, ovon If fho V!A couId nof consfIfufIonnIIy
bo nIIod fo corfnIn Sfnfose.g., ArIzonn nnd AInskn, soo
on/e, nf 8l9?3 cnIIs for fhoso unconsfIfufIonnI nIIcn-
fIons fo bo sovorod, IonvIng fho Acf In Inco for jurIs-
dIcfIons ns fo whIch Ifs nIIcnfIon doos nof frnnsgross
consfIfufIonnI IImIfs.

9
Tho Courf doos nof confosf fhnf AInbnmn`s hIsfory of rncInI dIscrIm-
InnfIon rovIdos n suffIcIonf bnsIs for Congross fo roquIro AInbnmn nnd
Ifs oIIfIcnI subdIvIsIons fo rocIonr oIocfornI chnngos. ovorfhoIoss,
fho Courf nssorfs fhnf ShoIby Counfy mny rovnII on Ifs fncInI chnI-
Iongo fo 4`s covorngo formuIn bocnuso If Is subjocf fo 5`s rocIonrnnco
roquIromonf by vIrfuo of fhnf formuIn. Soo on/e, nf 22 (Tho counfy
wns soIocfod |for rocIonrnnco] bnsod on fh|o] |covorngo] formuIn.).
ThIs mIssos fho ronIIfy fhnf Congross docIdod fo subjocf AInbnmn fo
rocIonrnnco bnsod on ovIdonco of confInuIng consfIfufIonnI vIoInfIons
In fhnf Sfnfo. Soo eupro, nf 28, n. 8.

ovorfhoIoss, fho Courf suggosfs fhnf IImIfIng fho
jurIsdIcfIonnI scoo of fho V!A In nn nrorInfo cnso
wouId bo fo fry our hnnd nf udnfIng fho sfnfufo. An/e,
nf 22. Jusf Insf Torm, howovor, fho Courf rojocfod fhIs
vory nrgumonf whon nddrossIng n mnforInIIy IdonfIcnI
sovornbIIIfy rovIsIon, oxInInIng fhnf such n rovIsIon Is
Congross` oxIIcIf foxfunI InsfrucfIon fo Ionvo unnffocfod
fho romnIndor of |fho Acf] If nny nrfIcuInr nIIcnfIon Is
unconsfIfufIonnI. Ao/ionol IeJero/ion of 1nJepenJen/
Bueineee v. SeIeliue, 56? !. S. __, __ (20l2) (IurnIIfy
oInIon) (sII o., nf 56) (InfornnI quofnfIon mnrks omIf-
fod); iJ., nf __ (CISI!!C, J., concurrIng In nrf, concur-
rIng In judgmonf In nrf, nnd dIssonfIng In nrf) (sII o.,
nf 60) (ngrooIng wIfh fho IurnIIfy`s sovornbIIIfy nnnIysIs).
Soo nIso Ioinee, 362 !. S., nf 23 (n sfnfufo cnnbIo of somo
consfIfufIonnI nIIcnfIons mny nonofhoIoss bo suscofIbIo
fo n fncInI chnIIongo onIy In fhnf rnrosf of cnsos whoro
fhIs Courf cnn jusfIfInbIy fhInk IfsoIf nbIo confIdonfIy fo
dIscorn fhnf Congross wouId nof hnvo dosIrod Ifs IogIsIn-
fIon fo sfnnd nf nII unIoss If couId vnIIdIy sfnnd In Ifs ovory
nIIcnfIon). !onIng fo rosoIvo ShoIby Counfy`s fncInI
chnIIongo wIfhouf consIdorIng whofhor nIIcnfIon of fho
V!A fo ShoIby Counfy Is consfIfufIonnI, or ovon nddross-
Ing fho V!A`s sovornbIIIfy rovIsIon, fho Courf`s oInIon
cnn hnrdIy bo doscrIbod ns nn oxomInr of rosfrnInod nnd
modornfo docIsIonmnkIng. QuIfo fho oosIfo. HubrIs Is n
fIf word for fodny`s domoIIfIon of fho V!A.
I
Tho Courf sfos nny nIIcnfIon of 5 by hoIdIng fhnf
4(b)`s covorngo formuIn Is unconsfIfufIonnI. If Ins fhIs
rosuIf, In Inrgo monsuro, fo fho fundnmonfnI rIncIIo of
oqunI sovoroIgnfy. An/e, nf l0ll, 23. In Ko/cenIocl,
howovor, fho Courf hoId, In no uncorfnIn forms, fhnf fho
rIncIIo oppliee onl, /o /le /erne upon ulicl S/o/ee ore
oJni//eJ /o /le Inion, nnd nof fo fho romodIos for IocnI

CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3) 3l
ovIIs whIch hnvo subsoquonfIy nonrod. 383 !. S., nf
328329 (omhnsIs nddod).
Ko/cenIocl, fho Courf ncknowIodgos, rojocfod fho
nofIon fhnf fho |oqunI sovoroIgnfy] rIncIIo oornfo|s] ns
n bnr on dIfforonfInI fronfmonf oufsIdo |fho] confoxf |of fho
ndmIssIon of now Sfnfos]. An/e, nf ll (cIfIng 383 !. S., nf
328329) (omhnsIs omIffod). Iuf fho Courf cIouds fhnf
onco cIonr undorsfnndIng by cIfIng dIcfum from Aor/luee/
Aue/in fo convoy fhnf fho rIncIIo of oqunI sovoroIgnfy
romnIns hIghIy orfInonf In nssossIng subsoquonf dIsnr-
nfo fronfmonf of Sfnfos. An/e, nf ll (cIfIng 55? !. S., nf
203). Soo nIso on/e, nf 23 (roIyIng on Aor/luee/ Aue/in`s
omhnsIs on |fho] sIgnIfIcnnco of fho oqunI-sovoroIgnfy
rIncIIo). If fho Courf Is suggosfIng fhnf dIcfum In
Aor/luee/ Aue/in sIIonfIy ovorruIod Ko/cenIocl`s IImIfn-
fIon of fho oqunI sovoroIgnfy docfrIno fo fho ndmIssIon of
now Sfnfos, fho suggosfIon Is unfonnbIo. Aor/luee/
Aue/in cIfod Ko/cenIocl`s hoIdIng In fho courso of Jeclin-
ing /o JeciJe whofhor fho V!A wns consfIfufIonnI or ovon
whnf sfnndnrd of rovIow nIIod fo fho quosfIon. 55?
!. S., nf 203204. In fodny`s docIsIon, fho Courf rnfchofs
u whnf wns uro dIcfum In Aor/luee/ Aue/in, nffrIbufIng
brondfh fo fho oqunI sovoroIgnfy rIncIIo In fInf confrn-
dIcfIon of Ko/cenIocl. Tho Courf doos so wIfh nnry nn
oxInnnfIon of why If fInds Ko/cenIocl wrong, Iof nIono
nny dIscussIon of whofhor e/ore Jecieie nonofhoIoss coun-
soIs ndhoronco fo Ko/cenIocl`s ruIIng on fho IImIfod sIg-
nIfIcnnco of fho oqunI sovoroIgnfy rIncIIo.
Todny`s unrocodonfod oxfonsIon of fho oqunI sovor-
oIgnfy rIncIIo oufsIdo Ifs roor domnInfho ndmIssIon
of now SfnfosIs cnnbIo of much mIschIof. IodornI sfnfufos
fhnf fronf Sfnfos dIsnrnfoIy nro hnrdIy novoIfIos. Soo,
e.g., 28 !. S. C. 3?04 (no Sfnfo mny oornfo or ormIf n
sorfs-roInfod gnmbIIng schomo, unIoss fhnf Sfnfo con-
ducfod such n schomo nf nny fImo durIng fho orIod
bogInnIng Jnnunry l, l9?6, nnd ondIng Augusf 3l, l990);

26 !. S. C. l42(l) (IIA roquIrod fo Iocnfo groon buIIdIng
rojocf In n Sfnfo moofIng socIfIod ouInfIon crIforIn); 42
!. S. C. 3?96bb (nf Ionsf 50 orconf of rurnI drug on-
forcomonf nssIsfnnco fundIng musf bo nIIocnfod fo Sfnfos
wIfh n ouInfIon donsIfy of fIffy-fwo or fowor orsons or
squnro mIIo or n Sfnfo In whIch fho Inrgosf counfy hns
fowor fhnn ono hundrod nnd fIffy fhousnnd ooIo, bnsod
on fho doconnInI consus of l990 fhrough fIscnI yonr l99?);
l3925, l39?l (sImIInr ouInfIon crIforIn for fundIng fo
combnf rurnI domosfIc vIoIonco); l0l36 (socIfyIng ruIos
nIIcnbIo fo ovndn`s Yuccn MounfnIn nucIonr wnsfo sIfo,
nnd rovIdIng fhnf |n]o Sfnfo, ofhor fhnn fho Sfnfo of
ovndn, mny rocoIvo fInnncInI nssIsfnnco undor fhIs sub-
socfIon nffor ocombor 22, l98?). o such rovIsIons
romnIn snfo gIvon fho Courf`s oxnnsIon of oqunI sovor-
oIgnfy`s swny
Of grnvosf concorn, Congross roIIod on our nfhmnrkIng
Ko/cenIocl docIsIon In onch ronufhorIznfIon of fho V!A.
If hnd ovory ronson fo boIIovo fhnf fho Acf`s IImIfod goo-
grnhIcnI scoo wouId woIgh In fnvor of, nof ngnInsf, fho
Acf`s consfIfufIonnIIfy. Soo, e.g., Ini/eJ S/o/ee v. Morri-
eon, 529 !. S. 598, 62662? (2000) (confInIng rocIonrnnco
rogImo fo Sfnfos wIfh n rocord of dIscrImInnfIon boIsforod
fho V!A`s consfIfufIonnIIfy). Congross couId hnrdIy hnvo
forosoon fhnf fho V!A`s IImIfod googrnhIc ronch wouId
rondor fho Acf consfIfufIonnIIy susocf. Soo IorsIIy l95
(|S]uorfors of fho Acf soughf fo dovoIo nn ovIdonfInry
rocord for fho rIncInI uroso of oxInInIng why fho
covorod jurIsdIcfIons shouId romnIn covorod, rnfhor fhnn
jusfIfyIng fho covorngo of corfnIn jurIsdIcfIons buf nof
ofhors.).
In fho Courf`s concofIon, If nonrs, dofondors of fho
V!A couId nof rovnII uon showIng whnf fho rocord
ovorwhoImIngIy bonrs ouf, i.e., fhnf fhoro Is n nood for
confInuIng fho rocIonrnnco rogImo In covorod Sfnfos. In
nddIfIon, fho dofondors wouId hnvo fo dIsrovo fho oxIsf-
*

33 CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
onco of n comnrnbIo nood oIsowhoro. Soo Tr. of OrnI Arg.
6l62 (suggosfIng fhnf roof of ogrogIous oIsodos of rncInI
dIscrImInnfIon In covorod jurIsdIcfIons wouId nof suffIco fo
cnrry fho dny for fho V!A, unIoss such oIsodos nro shown
fo bo nbsonf oIsowhoro). I nm nwnro of no rocodonf for
ImosIng such n doubIo burdon on dofondors of IogIsInfIon.
C
Tho Courf hns fImo nnd ngnIn docIInod fo usof IogIsIn-
fIon of fhIs gonro unIoss fhoro wns no or nImosf no ovI-
donco of unconsfIfufIonnI ncfIon by Sfnfos. Soo, e.g., Ci/,
of Boerne v. Iloree, 52l !. S. 50?, 530 (l99?) (IogIsInfIvo
rocord monfIon|od] no oIsodos |of fho kInd fho IogIsInfIon
nImod fo chock] occurrIng In fho nsf 40 yonrs). o such
cInIm cnn bo mndo nbouf fho congrossIonnI rocord for fho
2006 V!A ronufhorIznfIon. CIvon n rocord roIofo wIfh
oxnmIos of donInI or nbrIdgmonf of n nrnmounf fodornI
rIghf, fho Courf shouId hnvo Ioff fho mnffor whoro If
boIongs: In Congross` bnIIIwIck.
Insfond, fho Courf sfrIkos 4(b)`s covorngo rovIsIon
bocnuso, In Ifs vIow, fho rovIsIon Is nof bnsod on curronf
condIfIons. An/e, nf l?. If dIscounfs, howovor, fhnf ono
such condIfIon wns fho rocIonrnnco romody In Inco In
fho covorod jurIsdIcfIons, n romody Congross dosIgnod
bofh fo cnfch dIscrImInnfIon boforo If cnusos hnrm, nnd fo
gunrd ngnInsf rofurn fo oId wnys. 2006 !onufhorIznfIon
2(b)(3), (9). VoIumos of ovIdonco suorfod Congross` do-
formInnfIon fhnf fho rosocf of rofrogrossIon wns ronI.
ThrowIng ouf rocIonrnnco whon If hns workod nnd Is
confInuIng fo work fo sfo dIscrImInnfory chnngos Is IIko
fhrowIng nwny your umbroIIn In n rnInsform bocnuso you
nro nof goffIng wof.
Iuf, fho Courf InsIsfs, fho covorngo formuIn Is no good;
If Is bnsod on docndos-oId dnfn nnd orndIcnfod rncfIcos.
An/e, nf l8. Ivon If fho IogIsInfIvo rocord shows, ns ongng-
Ing wIfh If wouId rovonI, fhnf fho formuIn nccurnfoIy
T

IdonfIfIos fho jurIsdIcfIons wIfh fho worsf condIfIons of
vofIng dIscrImInnfIon, fhnf Is of no momonf, ns fho Courf
soos If. Congross, fho Courf docroos, musf sfnr|f] from
scrnfch. An/e, nf 23. I do nof soo why fhnf shouId bo so.
Congross` choro wns dIfforonf In l965 fhnn If wns In
2006. In l965, fhoro woro n smnII numbor of Sfnfos . . .
whIch In mosf Insfnncos woro fnmIIInr fo Congross by
nnmo, on whIch Congross fIxod Ifs nffonfIon. Ko/cenIocl,
383 !. S., nf 328. In drnffIng fho covorngo formuIn, Con-
gross bognn work wIfh roIInbIo ovIdonco of ncfunI vofIng
dIscrImInnfIon In n gronf mnjorIfy of fho Sfnfos If soughf
fo fnrgof. 1J., nf 329. Tho formuIn |Congross] ovonfunIIy
ovoIvod fo doscrIbo fhoso nrons nIso cnfurod n fow Sfnfos
fhnf hnd nof boon fho subjocf of congrossIonnI fncffIndIng.
1IiJ. ovorfhoIoss, fho Courf uhoId fho formuIn In Ifs
onfIrofy, fIndIng If fnIr fo Infor n sIgnIfIcnnf dnngor of fho
ovII In nII Incos fho formuIn covorod. 1IiJ.
Tho sIfunfIon Congross fncod In 2006, whon If fook u
renufhorIznfIon of fho covorngo formuIn, wns nof fho snmo.
Iy fhon, fho formuIn hnd boon In offocf for mnny yonrs,
nnd oll of fho jurIsdIcfIons covorod by If woro fnmIIInr
fo Congross by nnmo. 1J., nf 328. Tho quosfIon boforo
Congross: Wns fhoro sfIII n suffIcIonf bnsIs fo suorf
confInuod nIIcnfIon of fho rocIonrnnco romody In onch
of fhoso nIrondy-IdonfIfIod Incos Thoro wns nf fhnf oInf
no chnnco fhnf fho formuIn mIghf InndvorfonfIy swoo In
now nrons fhnf woro nof fho subjocf of congrossIonnI
fIndIngs. And Congross couId doformIno from fho rocord
whofhor fho jurIsdIcfIons cnfurod by fho covorngo for-
muIn sfIII boIongod undor fho rocIonrnnco rogImo. If fhoy
dId, fhoro wns no nood fo nIfor fho formuIn. Thnf Is why
fho Courf, In nddrossIng rIor ronufhorIznfIons of fho
V!A, dId nof quosfIon fho confInuIng roIovnnco of fho
formuIn.
ConsIdor onco ngnIn fho comononfs of fho rocord boforo
Congross In 2006. Tho covorngo rovIsIon IdonfIfIod n

35 CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
known IIsf of Incos wIfh nn undIsufod hIsfory of sorIous
robIoms wIfh rncInI dIscrImInnfIon In vofIng. !oconf
ovIdonco roInfIng fo AInbnmn nnd Ifs counfIos wns fhoro
for nII fo soo. MuIfIIo Suromo Courf docIsIons hnd
uhoId fho covorngo rovIsIon, mosf roconfIy In l999.
Thoro wns oxfonsIvo ovIdonco fhnf, duo fo fho rocIonr-
nnco mochnnIsm, condIfIons In fho covorod jurIsdIcfIons
hnd nofnbIy Imrovod. And fhoro wns ovIdonco fhnf ro-
cIonrnnco wns sfIII hnvIng n subsfnnfInI ronI-worId offocf,
hnvIng sfood hundrods of dIscrImInnfory vofIng chnngos
In fho covorod jurIsdIcfIons sInco fho Insf ronufhorIznfIon.
In nddIfIon, fhoro wns ovIdonco fhnf rncInI oInrIznfIon In
vofIng wns hIghor In covorod jurIsdIcfIons fhnn oIsowhoro,
IncronsIng fho vuInornbIIIfy of mInorIfy cIfIzons In fhoso
jurIsdIcfIons. And counfIoss wIfnossos, roorfs, nnd cnso
sfudIos documonfod confInuIng robIoms wIfh vofIng dIs-
crImInnfIon In fhoso jurIsdIcfIons. In IIghf of fhIs roc-
ord, Congross hnd moro fhnn n ronsonnbIo bnsIs fo
concIudo fhnf fho oxIsfIng covorngo formuIn wns nof ouf of
sync wIfh condIfIons on fho ground In covorod nrons. And
corfnInIy ShoIby Counfy wns no cnndIdnfo for roIonso
fhrough fho mochnnIsm Congross rovIdod. Soo eupro, nf
2223, 2628.
Tho Courf hoIds 4(b) InvnIId on fho ground fhnf If Is
IrrnfIonnI fo bnso covorngo on fho uso of vofIng fosfs 40
yonrs ngo, whon such fosfs hnvo boon IIIognI sInco fhnf
fImo. An/e, nf 23. Iuf fho Courf dIsrognrds whnf Con-
gross sof nbouf fo do In onncfIng fho V!A. Thnf oxfrnor-
dInnry IogIsInfIon scnrcoIy sfood nf fho nrfIcuInr fosfs
nnd dovIcos fhnf hnonod fo oxIsf In l965. Tho grnnd
nIm of fho Acf Is fo socuro fo nII In our oIIfy oqunI cIfIzon-
shI sfnfuro, n voIco In our domocrncy undIIufod by rnco.
As fho rocord for fho 2006 ronufhorIznfIon mnkos nbun-
dnnfIy cIonr, socond-gonornfIon bnrrIors fo mInorIfy vofIng
rIghfs hnvo omorgod In fho covorod jurIsdIcfIons ns nf-
fomfod euIe/i/u/ee for fho fIrsf-gonornfIon bnrrIors fhnf

orIgInnIIy frIggorod rocIonrnnco In fhoso jurIsdIcfIons.
Soo eupro, nf 56, 8, l5l?.
Tho snd Irony of fodny`s docIsIon IIos In Ifs uffor fnIIuro
fo grns why fho V!A hns rovon offocfIvo. Tho Courf
nonrs fo boIIovo fhnf fho V!A`s succoss In oIImInnfIng
fho socIfIc dovIcos oxfnnf In l965 monns fhnf rocIonr-
nnco Is no Iongor noodod. An/e, nf 2l22, 2324. WIfh
fhnf boIIof, nnd fho nrgumonf dorIvod from If, hIsfory
roonfs IfsoIf. Tho snmo nssumfIonfhnf fho robIom
couId bo soIvod whon nrfIcuInr mofhods of vofIng dIscrIm-
InnfIon nro IdonfIfIod nnd oIImInnfodwns InduIgod nnd
rovod wrong roonfodIy rIor fo fho V!A`s onncfmonf.
!nIIko rIor sfnfufos, whIch sIngIod ouf nrfIcuInr fosfs or
dovIcos, fho V!A Is groundod In Congross` rocognIfIon of
fho vnrIofy nnd orsIsfonco of monsuros dosIgnod fo
ImnIr mInorIfy vofIng rIghfs. Ko/cenIocl, 383 !. S., nf
3ll; eupro, nf 2. In frufh, fho ovoIufIon of vofIng dIscrIm-
InnfIon Info moro subfIo socond-gonornfIon bnrrIors Is
oworfuI ovIdonco fhnf n romody ns offocfIvo ns rocIonr-
nnco romnIns vIfnI fo rofocf mInorIfy vofIng rIghfs nnd
rovonf bncksIIdIng.
Ioyond quosfIon, fho V!A Is no ordInnry IogIsInfIon. If
Is oxfrnordInnry bocnuso Congross ombnrkod on n mIssIon
Iong doInyod nnd of oxfrnordInnry Imorfnnco: fo ronIIzo
fho uroso nnd romIso of fho IIffoonfh Amondmonf.
Ior n hnIf confury, n concorfod offorf hns boon mndo fo
ond rncInI dIscrImInnfIon In vofIng. Thnnks fo fho VofIng
!Ighfs Acf, rogross onco fho subjocf of n dronm hns boon
nchIovod nnd confInuos fo bo mndo.
Tho rocord suorfIng fho 2006 ronufhorIznfIon of
fho V!A Is nIso oxfrnordInnry. If wns doscrIbod by fho
ChnIrmnn of fho Houso JudIcInry CommIffoo ns ono of
fho mosf oxfonsIvo consIdornfIons of nny Ioco of IogIsIn-
fIon fhnf fho !nIfod Sfnfos Congross hns donIf wIfh In fho
2? yonrs ho hnd sorvod In fho Houso. l52 Cong. !oc.
H5l43 (JuIy l3, 2006) (sfnfomonf of !o. Sonsonbronnor).

3? CIfo ns: 5?0 !. S. ____ (20l3)
Affor oxhnusfIvo ovIdonco-gnfhorIng nnd doIIbornfIvo
rocoss, Congross ronufhorIzod fho V!A, IncIudIng fho
covorngo rovIsIon, wIfh ovorwhoImIng bInrfIsnn suorf.
If wns fho judgmonf of Congross fhnf 40 yonrs hns nof
boon n suffIcIonf nmounf of fImo fo oIImInnfo fho vosfIgos
of dIscrImInnfIon foIIowIng nonrIy l00 yonrs of dIsrognrd
for fho dIcfnfos of fho l5fh nmondmonf nnd fo onsuro fhnf
fho rIghf of nII cIfIzons fo vofo Is rofocfod ns gunrnnfood
by fho ConsfIfufIon. 2006 !onufhorIznfIon 2(b)(?), l20
Sfnf. 5??. Thnf doformInnfIon of fho body omoworod fo
onforco fho CIvII Wnr Amondmonfs by nrorInfo IogIs-
InfIon morIfs fhIs Courf`s ufmosf rosocf. In my judg-
monf, fho Courf orrs ogrogIousIy by ovorrIdIng Congross`
docIsIon.
* * *
Ior fho ronsons sfnfod, I wouId nffIrm fho judgmonf of
fho Courf of AonIs.

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