HIGHER

ALGEBRA

SEQUEL

TO

ELEMENTARY

ALGEBRA

EOR

SCHOOLS.

s.

HIGHER

ALGEBRA

SEQUEL

TO

ELEMENTARY

ALGEBRA

FOR

SCHOOLS

BY

H.
FORMERLY MASTER OF THE

S.
OF AND

HALL,
CHRIST'S
ENGINEERING

M.A.,
COLLEGE, SIDE,

SCHOLAR
MILITARY

CAMBRIDGE,
CLIFTON COLLEGE

AND

S. K
FORMERLY

KNIGHT,
OF TRINITY AT

B.A.,
COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE,
COLLEGE.

SCHOLAR ASSISTANT-MASTER

LATE

MARLBOROUGH

FOURTH

EDITION.

Honfcon:
MACMILLAN
AND NEW

AND
YOKE.

CO.

1891
[The Right of Translation
is reserved.}

2- TO

"

4 2 2
First Second Edition Edition

12/
1887.
corrections
and

Printed
with

1888.

Third

revised

enlarged 1889.
Edition

Reprinted 1890.

Fourth

1891.

PREFACE.

The

present

work

is intended

as

sequel

to

our

Elementary
devoted and
in
to

Algebra for Schools.

a

The
of

first few

chapters

are

fuller

discussion

Ratio,
the
we

Proportion, Variation,
work
here
were

the
an

Progressions, which elementary

and
manner

in
;

former have unsuitable

treated

and
are

introduced for
a

theorems
course

examples

which

first

of

reading.
From this
to
:

point

the

work

covers

ground
upon

for

the of

most

part

new

the

student, and
we

enters

subjects
to

special

importance
and witli
our

these

have

endeavoured both have bookwork

treat

minutely examples

thoroughly, discussing
that
fulness
as

and found

which

we

always

necessary

in

experience
It has been

teachers.
our

aim

to

discuss within later than has been

all

the limits

essential of
a

parts

as

completely
but
to

as

possible
few

the

single
possible im;

volume,

in find
cases

of
for

the
more

chapters
an

it has

been

room

introductory
to

sketch suitable

in

all

such

our

object

map
to

out

first

course

of

reading, referring the

student

special treatises

for fuller In
are

information.

the

chapter
indebted

on

Permutations the of For Rev.

some

and W. A. the

Combinations
for in

we

much
to

to
use

Whitworth

mission per-

make

of

proofs given
we

his

Choice

and in
our

Chance.
own

many

years
we are

have convinced

used
that

these
this

proofs

teaching,

and

vi

PREFACE.

to the beginner intelligible part of Algebrais made far more from first principles sense reasoning by a system of common text-books. found in algebraical than by the proofs usually and Divergency of Series The discussion of Convergency his first to the student on great difficulty always presents reading. The inherent difficultiesof the subjectare no increased by the placeit and these are doubt considerable, and by the somewhat has ordinarily occupied, inadequate have it has hitherto received. Accordingly treatment we later than is usual; much placed this section somewhat arrangement,and thoughthas been bestowed on its general the selection of suitable examplesto illustratethe text ; on and have endeavoured to make it more and we interesting short chapter on a introducing by previously intelligible Fractions. Values and Vanishing Limiting Summation of Series we have laid In the chapter on

much

stress

on

the

"

Method

of Differences" and its wide and basis of this method is a wellin

The important applications.

known

which formula in the Calculus of Finite Differences,

a

the absence of

Finite

396, we

can sidered algebraical hardlybe conpurely proof The proof of the admissible in a treatise on Algebra. Difference formula which we have givenin Arts. 395, and original, and the development believe to be new

of the Difference Method

from this formula

has enabled

us

to

introduce many interesting types of serieswhich have hitherto been relegated later stage in the student's reading. to a much We have received able and material Rev.
warmest

assistance in the C. Simmons thanks

are

from chapteron Probability Christ's College, Brecon, and

to

the
our

T.

of due

him, both

for his aid in

text, and for

at our placing original problems. It is hardly possible to read any modern Conies or Solid Geometry without Analytical

and improving the criticising several interesting and disposal treatise

some

on

know-

PKEFACE.

yii

We have applications. therefore givena brief elementary discussion of Determinants in Chapterxxxm., in the hope that it may provide the student with a useful introductory course, and prepare him for a more complete studyof the subject. The last chapter contains all the most useful propositions in the Theoryof Equations suitable for a first reading.The the study of Theory of Equationsfollows so naturally on is needed for here introducing Algebrathat no apology position prowhich usually find place in a separatetreatise. In considerable part of Chapter xxxv. a fact, may be read with advantage at a much earlierstage, and may conveniently be studied before some of the harder sections of previous chapters. It will be found that each chapter is as nearly as possible that the order of their succession can in itself, so complete
be varied at the discretion of the teacher ; but it is recomwith an asterisk should be mended that all sections marked reserved for
In
a

ledge of

Determinants

and

their

second

reading.
from which
we

the sources enumerating of assistance in the preparation

to which

have derived
one

this work, there is far

we are

book

it is difficult to

say how

indebted.

has been the Algebra for Schools and Colleges Englishtext-book for so long that it is hardly recognised text-book on Algebra that any one at the a writing possible influenced by it. At the presentday should not be largely same time,though for many years Todhunter's Algebrahas have rarely been in constant use we our pupils, among adoptedthe order and arrangement there laid down; in have found it expedient to make we frequent chapters many and we have alwayslargely of alternative proofs; use supplemented These notes, the text by manuscriptnotes. the present work, which now appear scattered throughout the last twenty have been collected at different times during Todhunter's
H. H. A.

Viii

PREFACE.

definite acknowledgeto make ment years, so that it is impossible in every case where assistance has been obtained from other writers.
are

But

our speakinggenerally,

ments acknowledge-

due to the treatisesof Schlomilch, Serret, chiefly besides Todhunter's and Laurent;and among English writers, consulted the works of De have occasionally we Algebra, Gross,and Chrystal. Morgan,Colenso, MatheTo the Rev. J. Wolsienholme, D.Sc, Professor of matics thanks at the Royal Indian Engineering our College,
to select questions us allowing from his unique collection of problems ; and the consequent we gratefully acknowledge. gainto our later chapters It remains for us to express our thanks to our colleagues assisted us in reading and and friends who have so largely the proof sheets ; in particular indebted to we are correcting the Rev. H. C Watson of Clifton College for his kindness in the whole work, and for many valuable suggestions; revising
are

due

for his kindness

in

in every part of it. **'

1887"

H. S. HALL, S. R. KNIGHT.

j
"

PREFACE
In

TO

THE

THIRD and

EDITION.

this edition the text

as

examplesare
a

substantially

the
been

same

in

and recast, have

but editions, previous all the exampleshave

a

few articles

havej

been verified

again.

We

also added

collection of three hundred

laneous Miscel-

Examples which will be found useful for advanced students. These exampleshave been selected mainly but from Scholarship Senate House not exclusively or papers ;
much
care

has been
to

taken

to illustrate every

part

of the

and subject,

and fairly representthe principal University

Civil Service Examinations.

March, 1889.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

I.

ratio.
PAGE

Commensurable Ratio of

and

incommensurable less

quantities

2 3

greater and /pan

_

inequality
i

_c

_e

+ +

qcn
qdn

+ren+
+

...\n
'

b~d~f~"'~\pbn
a1 + a2 + a3+...
+ bl + b2 + b.i
...

rfn+...J
greatest and
least
flh
a
n

+ an
+

lies between

of

fractions

bn

V
8

Cross

multiplication
of three I linear

Eliminant

equations

9
10

Examples

CHAPTER

II.

proportion.

Definitions

and

Propositions
algebraical
and

13

Comparison
Case

between

geometrical

definitions

1G 17 19

of incommensurable II.

quantities

Examples

CHAPTER

III.

VARIATION.

If Ace Inverse Joint li

Ace

B,

then

mB

21 22 23

variation variation
B

when

is

constant,

and

"

when

is constant,

then
23

A=mBG

Illustrations.

Examples

on

joint

variation
. . . . .

.21 20

Examples

III

b-1

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER
Sum of
n

IV.

ARITHMETICAL

PROGRESSION.
PAGE

terms

of

an

arithmetical series

28

Fundamental Insertion

formulae
means

29 31 31

of arithmetic
IV.
a

Examples
Discussion

of roots

of dn~ +

(2a-d)n-2s

33 35

Examples

IV. b

f' Insertion of Sum Sum

of of
n

CHAPTER

V.

GEOMETRICAL

PROGRESSION.

means geometric series terms of a geometrical

....

38
.

39
40

an

infinite
a.

series geometrical

Examples V.
Sum
of
n

41

Proof of rule for the reduction

terms

of

an

recurringdecimal series arithmetico-geometric

of
a

43

44 45

Examples

V. b

CHAPTER

VI.

HARMONICAL WITH THE

PROGRESSION.
PROGRESSIONS.

THEOREMS

CONNECTED

in of quantities Reciprocals Harmonic Formulae Hints Sum Sum

2
mean
......

H. P.

are

in A. P.

connectingA. M., G.M., H.M. for solution of questions in Progressions

of the natural
of the natural

of squares of cubes

numbers
.

numbers

notation
a.
.....

Examples VI.
Number

of shot in
on on a a

pyramid

on

square

base

Pyramid Pyramid

base triangular

base rectangular Incomplete pyramid

.....

5J

Examples VI.

CHAPTER

VII.
of notation

scales

of

notation.

Explanation of systems

57 59 in

Examples VII. a. of an integral Expression number of a radix fraction in Expression

proposed scale proposed scale

a
.

59
01

CONTENTS.

XI

PAGE

The

difference between

number

and

tho

sum

of its

is digits

divisible

by
Proof Test of

1
"

62
the nines
"

castingout divisibility by r + 1 Examples VII. b

CHAPTER
the nationalising

of rule for

C3

64
65

VIII.
denominator

SURDS

AND
a

IMAGINARY

QUANTITIES.
07 68

of

sjb+

jc + s/d

factor of fJa"Z/b Rationalising Square root of a + Jb + *Jc + Jd Cube

root of
a

69

*Jb

70 72
74
.

Examples VIII. a. Imaginary quantities

J
If If

-ax
a

J
= =

-b=

sjab
a
=

75
=

+ ib
+ ib

0, then
c

Q, b
a
=

75
d

id, then
+ ib

c, b

75 moduli 77 77

Modulus

of

productis equal to product of

a

Square
Powers Cube Powers

root of

of i roots of of
u

79

unity; 1 +
.

-f or

79 80

Examples VIII.
CHAPTER
A

b.

81

IX.

THE

THEORY

OF

QUADRATIC
two roots

EQUATIONS.
...

than quadraticequation cannot have more Conditions for real,equal,imaginaryroots

b
c
,

83

84 85

Sum

of roots of

"

product of roots

Formation

equationswhen
a

the roots

are

given

.....

86

Conditions that the roots of

and

should quadratic in sign, opposite (2)reciprocals

a

be

(1)equal in magnitude
88 88

Examples IX.
For

real values of

signas
Definitions Condition

expressionax2 + exceptions
x

the

bx +

has in

generalthe

same

90 92
...

Examples IX.

of function, variable,rativnnl integral function that ax2 +

93 into two
9i

2hxy+ by2+ 2gx + 2fy+

c
=

may

be resolved

linear factors

Condition that ax2 + bx +

root

0 and

a'x- + b'x + c'=

0 may

have

common

96
IX.
c.

Examples

96

Xll

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER
one Equations involving

X.
unknown

MISCELLANEOUS

EQUATIONS.
page

quantity

97
100 101

equations Reciprocal
Examples X. a Equations involvingtwo unknown Homogeneous equations
....

quantities

103 104 106

Examples

X. b

several unknown quantities Equations involving Examples X. c. examples Indeterminate equations ; easy numerical

107
109 111 113

Examples X.

CHAPTER

XL

permutations

and

combinations.

Preliminaryproposition
Number Number The of of permutations of
n n r things

"

"

.115 115 117

at

time

of combinations

things r
of of
m
n n n

at a time

number number

of combinations of combinations in which

n,

thingsr

at

time

is

equal to the
. .

Number

of ways

+
...

time things ?i-rata things can be divided +p +

...

.119 into 120 122

classes containing m,

p,

things severally
'unlike'

....

Examples XI. a of the Signification

Number
are

terms

'like' and

.....

124

of

alike of

Number

arrangements of n thingstaken all at a time, when p things one are alike of a second kind, q things kind, "c. of permutations of n thingsr at a time, when each may be
.

125

repeated
The total number of combinations value of
r

126

To find for what Ab

initio

the

things expression nGr is greatest

n

of

127
. .
.

127

proof of the
at a time

formula

for the number

of combinations

of

r things

128
...

Total of

number
one

of selections of p + q+r+ whereof things, of alike second "c a kind,q kind, b

are

alike 129 131

Examples XI.

CHAPTER
Illustrations of the method Product
of
n

XII.
of

mathematical

induction.

proof
x

133
+
a

binomial

factors of the form

134 135

Examples

XII

CONTENTS.

Xlii

CHAPTER

XIII.

BINOMIAL

THEOREM.

POSITIVE

INTEGRAL

INDEX.

PAGE

when n is a positive Expansion of (x+ a)11, integer General term of the expansion to depend upon the case The expansion may be made term is unity

....

137 139

in which

the first 140

141

Second

proof of the binomial

XLII.
a

theorem

Examples
The
are

142

coefficients of terms

equidistant from

the

beginningand

end
143

equal
of the greatestterm

Determination
Sum

143 146

of the coefficients of coefficientsof odd terms

terms

Sum

is

equal to

sum

of coefficients of

even

146 146 147

Expansion of multinomials Examples XIII. b.

CHAPTER
Euler's General

XIV.
the binomial

BINOMIAL

THEOREM.

ANY

INDEX.

proofof
term

theorem

for any
.....

index

150 153 155 155

of the
a

expansion of

(1+ x)'1

Examples is only arithmetically when x"l Expansion of (l-rx)n intelligible The can expression(.r-f?/)'1 always be expanded by the binomial
theorem

XIV.

157 of the
-

expansion of (1 .r)_n cases expansions of (1 x)~n obtained by the binomial theorem Approximations
term
....

General

157
158

Particular

of the

159
161 162
out

Examples XIV. b. term in the expansion of (l+ x)n Numerically greatest Number formed of homogeneous productsof r dimensions
.

of

letters Number Number of terms of

164 in the multinomial

a

expansionof a combinations of n things r at

c

105

beingallowed time,repetitions

166
107

Examples XIV.

CHAPTER
General term
in the

XV.

MULTINOMIAL

THEOREM.

expansionof (a+

when bx + ex2 + dx3 + ...)p,

^ is

integer positive
General
term

170

in

the

expansion of (a+

bx +

cx-

when "lv:i+ ...)n,

//

is a rational quantity

171
173

Examples

XV

XIV

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER
Definition.
N=a)ogaN

XVI.

LOGARITHMS.
PAGE

175

Elementary propositions

176
178
" "

Examples XVI.
Common Determination

Logarithms
of the characteristic

.179 180

by inspection

.....

181 Advantages of logarithmsto base 10 182 Advantagesof always keepingthe mantissa positive Given the logarithms of all numbers to base a, to find the logarithms
....

to base b

183
183

loga"xlog6a
=

Examples XVI. b

185

CHAPTER

XVII.
ax.

EXPONENTIAL

AND

LOGARITHMIC

SERIES.

Expansion of
e

Series for

187
n

is the limit of

(1

l\n
+
-

V
Construction

when
,

is infinite

188

Expansion of log,, (1+ x) Logarithms n Rapidlyconvergingseries for log,, (n+ 1) loge

.
-

191 192
194

of Tables

of

e quantity Examples XVII

The

is incommensurable

195 195

CHAPTER
Interest and Amount of
a

XVIII.

INTEREST

AND

ANNUITIES.

given sum at simpleinterest Present Value and Discount of a given sum at simpleinterest Interest and Amount of a given sum at compound interest
. . .

.198
.

198

199
200

Nominal
Case of

and

true

annual

rates of interest
....

compound interest payableevery moment Present Value and Discount of a given sum at compound interest
.

200
.

201 202 202 203 203 204 204

Examples XVIII.
Annuities.

Definitions

unpaid annuity, simpleinterest unpaid annuity, compound interest Present value of an annuity, compound interest Number of years' purchase
Amount of Present value of
a

Amount

of

deferred
of
a

annuity, compound interest

.

.205 206 206

Fine for the renewal

lease

ExamplesXVIII.

CONTENTS.

XV

CHAPTER

XIX.

INEQUALITIES.
PAGE

ElementaryPropositions Arithmetic mean of two positive is greater than quantities

mean

208 the

geometric
209

The

sum

of two

they are
equal
The

their product is greatestwhen quantities being given, is least when theyare the sum equal: product beinggiven, 210
mean

arithmetic
the

of

number

of

is greater than positive quantities

211 212 212 213

geometricmean
of a, ", c, ...; to find the greatestvalue of ambncp of maxima
a

Given

sum cases

Easy Examples XIX.

The

and

minima

arithmetic

mean

of

the

quantitiesis greater than except when m lies between

If
a

?/ithpowers mth power 0 and 1

of

number

of

positive
mean, 214

of their arithmetic

and b

are

and a"b, ( 1 + positive integers,

"

(1 + ^ )

216

?1"*"""0'Vrr|"vrrf
y

217

'a + b\a+b 217

Examples XIX.
CHAPTER

218

XX.

LIMITING

VALUES

AND

VANISHING

FRACTIONS.

Definition of Limit Limit of a0 + axx + takingx small

+ a2x" + a3x3
...

220

is a0 when

is

zero

....

222
...

By

enough, any term of the series a0 + arr + a^x- + be made as large of all as we compared with the sum please may be that follow it; and by taking x large enough, any term may of all that made as large as we please compared with the sum precedeit
.

222 221

Method

of

determining the limits of

of
some

vanishing fractions
the solution of

Discussion

in peculiarities

simultaneous

equations
Peculiarities in the solution of

226

quadraticequations

....

227 228

Examples XX
CHAPTER
Case of terms

XXI.

CONVERGENCE

AND

DIVERGENCY

OF

SERIES.

and negative alternately positive

u

.....

230
232

Series is convergent if Lim

~n

is less than
-i

"u

XVI

CONTENTS.
PAGE

Comparison of 2rtnwith
The series auxiliary ^p
+

an

series 2vn auxiliary

+

234 235 237 238

238

2P

3~p
.

Series to Binomial, Exponential, Logarithmic Application

Limits Product of

log71
n

and nxn

when

is infinite of factors

of

an

infinite number
a.
.

Examples XXI.

241
243

v
.

w-series is convergent when

v-

series is

convergent,if
u ji-i v n-l

Series is convergent if Lim Series is convergent if Lim

]nI
"

"

"

\un+i
" "

)
]

244

( n log

)"

245

Series 20 (n)compared with series 2a,l0 {n)

The series auxiliary
2
n

247
248

(log n)p

Series is convergent if Lim Product of two infinite series

.

\n (

"

J
-

log l|

248 249
252

Examples XXI. b.

CHAPTER
If the

XXII.

UNDETERMINED

COEFFICIENTS.

equation f(x)-=0has more than n roots,it is an identity coefficientsfor finite series Proof of principle of undetermined Examples XXII. a of undetermined Proof of principle coefficients for infinite series

254 254

256
. .

257
2C0

Examples XX1T.

CHAPTER

XXIII.

PARTIAL

FRACTIONS.

into partial fractions Decomposition Use fractions in of partial XXIII

261 265

expansions

Examples

265

CHAPTER
Scale of relation
Sum of
a

XXIV.

recurring

series.

267
269 269 272

series recurring

Generating function

Examples XXIV

CHAPTER Summary
un the un the Method of

XXIX.

summation

of

series.

methods previous productof n factors in A. P of the productof reciprocal

of Subtraction

.312
" "

314
n

factors in A. P

316 318 318 319 320 321

322
. .

of factorials of un as sum Expression and FigurateNumbers Polygonal Pascal's Triangle

Examples XXIX.
Method
Method If an is
a

of Differences succeeds when function of n un is a rational integral function of n, the series 2anx'1is rational integral

326

recurring
327
329 332

series Further
cases

of

series recurring b of summation

.......

Examples XXIX.
Miscellaneous

methods

331 336 337 338

Sumof

series lr + 2r + Sr+...+nr

Bernoulli's Numbers

Examples XXIX.

CHAPTER
Statement Number No of of

XXX.

theory

of

numbers.

principles
can

341 342

rational

primes is infinite formula algebraical

be resolved into
a

represent primes only

factors in

342 342 343

A number

can

Number Number

of divisors of

prime given integer

only one

way

Sum

of ways an integer be resolved into two can of the divisors of a given integer of
a

factors

343 344 345 345

Highestpower
Product of
r

prime contained in In

consecutive

is divisibleby integers [r

Fermat's Theorem

NP-ia

l=M(p)

where p is prime and N

prime

to 2?

347
348

Examples XXX.

Definition of congruent

....

350

CONTENTS.

XIX

PAGE

If

is

prime

to

b, then

a,

2a, 3a,
......

...

(6- 1)a

when

divided

by

6 leave

different remainders

350 352
352

(p(abcd...)="p(a)(p(b)"p(c) "p(d)

"PO-"'(i-i)(i-J)(i-l)
Wilson's A Theorem
:

1 +

\p
-

(p)where
....

p is

prime

354 354 355 35G 357

to prime numbers property peculiar Wilson's Theorem proof) (second

Proofs

by induction
b.

.......

Examples XXX.

CHAPTER

XXXI.

the

general

theory

of

continued

FRACTIONS. of formation

Law

of successive
a

convergents

359 362

"

"

"

...

has

definite value if Lim

"""'" n4'1"0 yn+l

a,+

a.2+

The

convergents
order of

to

\
al
~

h
. . .

are

positive proper

fractions in ascending 363

a2~

magnitude, if an"kl + bn
an and

General Cases

value of convergent when

bn are
can

constant
.

364 365 366

where

generalvalue of convergent
is incommensurable, if
"

be found

"1

ax+

a2 +

cl

Examples XXXI. a Series expressed as

'Conversion of
one

367
continued

fractions

369 371 372

continued b

fraction into another

Examples XXXI.

CHAPTER
Definitions and illustrations.
a

XXXII.

probability.

Simple Events

373

(ExamplesXXXII.

376
377
.

/Compound Events IProbability that two independent events will both happen is pp' holds also for dependentevents formula The [ in mutually exclusive ways Chance of an event which can haj^pen
.

378 379
381

Examples XXXII.
Chance of
an

b
r happening exactly
.......

383 times in
n

event

trials

385 386
388

Expectationand
"Problem of

value probable
.

points"

.......

XX

CONTENTS.

PAOE

Examples
Inverse Statement Proof

XXXII.

c.

389 391
.

probability
of Bernoulli's Theorem
P P

of formula

Qr= ^rj-jn
....

392 396

testimony testimony Traditionary

Concurrent

....

Examples XXXII. d Geometrical Local Probability. Miscellaneous examples Examples XXXII. e

CHAPTER
Eliminant Eliminant Determinant of two of

899
methods 401 402 405

XXXIII.

dktkrminants.

homogeneous linear equations three homogeneous linear equations

rows by interchanging

.....

409
. .

.410
.

is not altered of determinant

and columns

410
411

Development

of third order

Sign of
If two

determinant
. .

is altered
. .

fcw" adjacent rows by interchanging

. .

or

columns
rows
or

412 vanishes
. .

columns
to any

are row are

the determinant identical,

or

112

A factor

common

column up of

may
a

be

placedoutside
of terms
or
.

412
413

Cases where

constituents

made

number
rows

Keduction

of determinants

of by simplification

columns

.111

Product of two determinants

417 419

Examples XXXIII.
Determinant Determinant Notation

to solution of simultaneous Application

equations
...

422

of fourth order of any order

. . .

423

42jl
.

Sia^-^ Examples XXXIII.

...

...

425
.

b.

\-r,

CHAPTER
Keview

XXXIV.

miscellaneous

theorems

and

examples.

of the fundamental divided

x
-

laws of
a

Algebra /"
a

429 432
433 434

f(x) when
Method Horner's

by when Quotient of / (x)

of Detached

leaves remainder
x
-

divided by Coefficients

Method

of

SyntheticDivision
out

434

Symmetricaland Examples

Functions Alternating

435
437 438

of identitiesworked
.

List of useful formula?

CONTENTS.

XXI

PAGE

Examples

XXXIV.

438 of cube roots properties

-

Identities provedby
Value

of

unity

440 441

Linear factors of a3 + 63 + c3
of an + bn + cn when b.
.

Sabc
c
=

+ b+

442 442 444

Examples XXXIV.
Elimination Elimination

functions by symmetrical of elimination

.

444 445 446 446

Euler's method

Method Dialytic Sylvester's

Bezout's

method

....

Miscellaneous

examples
c.
.

of elimination
. .

447 449

Examples XXXIV.

CHAPTER
of Every equation the nth

XXXV. degreehas
n

theory

of

equations.
more

roots and

no

452

Kelations between
These Cases

the roots
not

and the coefficients

452
454 454 455 456

relations are

sufficientfor the solution

of solution under
cases

given conditions
of the roots

Easy

of

symmetricalfunctions
roots
occur

Examples XXXV. a. Imaginary and surd

Formation
Descartes' Kule of

and solution of

pairs with equations

in

457 surd roots

....

458 459 460 462 463 464

Signs

b Examples XXXV. Value of /(.r + //).Derived Functions Calculation of f(x+h) by Horner's process /( x) changesits value gradually If f(a) and/ (b)are of contrary signs, f(x)
a

0 has

root

between 464

and 6
an an

An An

of equation of equation
roots

odd degreehas
even

one

real root its last term

465

degree with
a,

has negative
1 roots

two

real 465

If

/ (x)
=

0 has

roots

Determination

of

equal to equal roots

x-c

f (x)
=

0 has

equal to

466

467
468

/'(*)_ I1,1,
J (X) Sum of
x-a an

x-b

assignedpower
c

of the roots

468
.

Examples XXXV.
Transformation of

470 471 those of of

Equation Equation

with

equations roots of sign opposite to

of those multiples

f(x)

0
.

471
472

with roots

f{x)=0

"

"

"

XX11

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Equation
Discussion

with of with

roots

reciprocals equations

of

those

of

/ (x)

0
.

472 473

reciprocal
roots

....

Equation

squares

of

those

of those

f(x)
of

0
. .

475
0
.

Equation
Bemoval

with
of
an

roots

exceeding
term

by

f (x)

475 476
.

assigned
roots

Equation Examples
Cubic

with XXXV.

given
d

functions

of

those

of

f{x)-.

0
.

477

478
.

equations.
of

Cardan's the solution

Solution
.

480 481
.

Discussion Solution

by

Trigonometry
Equations.
Solution

in

the

irreducible Solution

case
.

482
.

Biquadratic
Descartes'

Ferrari's

483
. .

484
.

Undetermined

multipliers
.

486 all real

.

Discriminating

cubic

roots

486

Solution

of

three

simultaneous

equations
a+\

+ b
+

+ \
c

=1,
+

"c.
.

487

Examples
Miscellaneous Answers

XXXV.

e.

488

Examples

490 525

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

CHAPTER

I.

RATIO.

1. bears
to

Definition. another what of the

Ratio
same

is

the

relation the

which

one

quantity
made is of

kind,
or

comparison
one

considering
other. The A and
"

multiple, part,

parts,

being quantity

by
the

ratio B the
are

of A

to

is

usually
terms

written the

A ratio.

B.
The

The

quantities
term

called

the the

of

first

is

called

antecedent,
find the shall what ratio

second

term

the A

consequent.
is of

2.

To
; hence
we

multiple
A
:

or

part
be

B,

we

divide

by
-^
,

may

measured
to

by

the this

fraction notation.

and

usually

find

it convenient

adopt
must

In
terms
....

order of the
"

to
same

compare unit. 2x20

"

two

quantities they
the ratio of "2

be

expressed

in

Thus 8

to

15s. is measured

by

the

traction

"

or

Note.

ratio and

another, 3. Since

expresses therefore

the every

number
ratio is

of
an

times abstract

that

one

quantity

tains con-

quantity.

by

the

laws

of
a

fractions,
ma

b=mJ'
it follows
that and that value the ratio
a a :

is

equal
divided

to

the

ratio

ma

mb

is, the
the
H.

of
are

ratio

remains

unaltered

if the
the
same

antecedent

consequent
H.

multiplied or

by

quantity.
1

A.

2
4. Two
or more

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

ratios may
to two
a

be

their comparedby reducing denominator. Thus

i

fractions equivalent
_ _

common
xxt

suppose bx
,

a
-

and

y J

are

ratios.

JNow

aV
=
~

x
"

and

="

hence

by

by3
the ratio bx. ratio

the
x :

ratio y 5.

greaterthan, equalto, or less as according ay is greaterthan,equalto, or

a :

b is

than

less than
a

The

ratio of two

fractions the ratio

can
Ch

be
C

as expressed

of two

integers. Thus
"

"

"

is measured

by the

fraction

"

or

="

and

is therefore

be

equivalentto

the

ratio

d ad
:

be. If

6.

either,or
no

both, of
Thus the

the

terms

of

ratio be which will be

surd

then quantity,
measure

two

can integers

be found

exactly

their ratio. any

two

ratio

J'2:

1 cannot

exactly

expressed by
7.

integers.
If the

ratio of any two quantities be can the quantities expressed exactly by the ratio of two integers, said to be commensurable are ; otherwise, they are said to be Definition. incommensurable. which will exactly integers incommensurable the ratio of two we can measure quantities, whose ratio differs from that required always find two integers as we please. by as small a quantity

Although

we

cannot

find

two

Thus

J5 V
4
.

2-236068...
=

-.

"A1I, -559017...

, and , therefore

J5
"

559017
"

559018 and
,

mm("

"

-jooOOOO;
:

so

that the difference between 5 : 4 is less than -000001.

the ratios 559017 the By carrying

1000000

and

decimals

a further,

closer 8.

approximation may
Definition. the fractions which the antecedents for

be arrived at.
together compounded by multiplying denote them ; or by multiplying together and the consequents new antecedent,
are

Ratios

for

new

consequent.
Find the ratio
2a

Example.

compounded
:

of the three ratios

: a

Sb, Q"ab

5c2,c

4
The the

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

importanttheorem proofof the following of procedure. method

a c

will illustrate

//
,
.
.

d
+

'

these each of J

ratios

/pan (
"

qcn
j-

re11 +

.\n

r-

\pbn + qdn +

rtn

)
+
. . .

where

p, q, r, n

are

any
ace

ivhatever. quantities
j "

Ijet

')

b then whence
a
"

7-

",

"

J
=

~""

"

"

"

"

bk, c
=

dk,

=fk,...;
=

ren pan=pbn^ qc" qd"kn,

...

rf"k",... ;

'''

+ + qd"kn + rf"kn pa" + gc"+ ren+ _pb"k" +r/i+... fbn+ qcln pbH+ qd"+rf+...
'

k";
k
,

.\n + qc"+ re" + 'pa" + qd"+ ?'/" + .../ 2)b"

.
.

^
b

c
=

-,=

By givingdifferent values to p, q, r, n many be deduced ; of this generalproposition may method. by usingthe same provedindependently
a

cases particular or they may be

For

instance,

_c

b-~d'f-'"
each of these ratios b+d
a

+f+
the
:

result of such should be

that frequent utility noticed

When

series

verbal equivalent following are equal, offractions divided

each
sum

of them is equalto the sum of all the denominators.

(I C
=
-

of all the numerators

by the

""
=-

Example

1.

If

shew

that

azb + 2c2e

Sae2/
_

ace

~b4 + 2^/-36/3 ~bdf

Let Let then

"-"-"-X;.
a
=

6_rf_^._A,,
bk, c
=

dk, e =fk

RATIO.

'*

aa6+2c"g-3qgy k4 + 2tl-f Bbf3

_

""

+2d?fk* 3bf3k3 fc4 + 2r/-/ 36/8

-

...

ace
=

bdf'
Example
2. If
-

f
b

prove

that

*2 + a2
#+a
x

y2+

"2

32 + c2
_

+ y+2)2+ (a+ " + c)2 (.c

a;

y + b
z

+ ?/+

+ "+c

it
=

Let

r
y

A;,

so

that

"", ?/= 6/c, 2; aW+a*

ch ;

then

"

sa + a3
=

(k* +
=

"

L_

l)a '
; + l)c (fc2

"

a:

ah +

Jc+1

x*+a*
ar

ya+y
?/+ "

"

+ l)" ("2 ga+e"_(ifea+l)o

'

/c+ 1
+ l)(a+ Jfc2

" + 1
6 +

" + 1

c)

fc+1

Jfc8(a+6+c)8+(a+6+c)a
"(a +
+ kb (lea
_

"+
+

c)+

+ 6+

(ka+
_

kb

+ (a+ he)% + kc)+a +

b+ b+

c)2
c

(x+y+z)*+(a+
x+y+z+a+b+c

b+

cf

is homogeneous with respect to certain equation substitute in the equation we quantities, may for these quantities For the equation to them. instance, any others proportional

13.

If

an

+ mxifz + ny2z2 lx3y

"

0 three

is

homogeneous

in x, y,
%

z.

Let

a,

j3, y

be

quantities portiona pro-

to x, y,
x 11
=

respectively.
z
-

Put then that

an

"

"

75

so

that

ak, y

z /3k,

yk ;

y
+ n^y'k4 0, + ma(32yk* Ia3f3k4
=

is,

0 + nj32y2 + ma/32y 7a3/?

=

; but

a,

equationof the same of x, /?, y in the places

form y,
z

one, original respectively.

as

the

with

6 14.
.

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

The
.
.

theorem following
.
.

is

important.
the de-

If y*
1

y~
2

."

,.... 3

r-nbe unequalfractions, of which

n

nominators

are

all

of the
a,

same +

then sign,
...

the fraction
an

a8 + a3+

bl+b2+b3+
liesin

"'"

+bn
least of them. Let positive.
"=* be

magnitudebetween

and the greatest

are

Supposethat

all the denominators denote

a
"

the

and least fraction,

it
/c i
'

by

k ; then
.'.a
r
"

ko
r

"

b
a

"

k " y-1

.-.

a"

kb
i '

bl
a

2"

b
a

k;
so

.-.

a2

"

kb2;

and
.*.

on;

by addition,
a

,+"2

"3 +

+ K+ +an"(bl+b, +

+K)k'"
.

al + a2 + a3+

au
n

b.+b9
1

b.+
3

+b that
+ +

'

ar b
r

we Similarly

may

prove
+

al

a2 + a3

an

at

6.+*.+*" +
where In

+K"
may be

is tlie greatestof the

manner are

givenfractions. proved when

all the

like

the

theorem

denominators
15. that any
an

negative.
the

The

of readyapplication

in Art. 12 is of such

great value in

involved generalprinciple of all branches mathematics,

the

student should

case particular

freedom in it with some be able to use that may arise, without necessarily introducing

auxiliary symbol.
Example 1.
If
x

X"
-

V=
=

z a

"

b +
+

c-a

c z
=

a-b

b-c

prove that
a

y +

*"+*)+?

(*+*)+* (*+V)

+ b +

2(ax + by + cz)

RATIO.
sum
=

t Each

e ,i of the given

"

ie fi actions

"f numerators
"

__

sum

of denominators + y +
+ b +
z
"

x
_ '

(
and

''

Again,

if

we

multiply both
y + z,
z

numerator

denominator

of

the

three

givenfractions by
each fractions

+ x, +

+ y

respectively,
=

+ c-a) (y z)(b

z) \{lj +

?("+ *" + a-b) + x) (c (z

__.

'(* + *)
-

(x+ y)(a+b-e)

sum sum

of numerators of denominators y 2ax +

+ x)+z {x+ y) (z 2by+ 2cz

x
=

(y+z) +

(2).

.'.

from

and (2), (1)

x a

+ y +

_x

+ b + c~

+ x)+z (x+ y) (y+ z)+y (z 2 (ax+ by + cz)

Example

2.

If

l(mb
I

nc-la)

m(nc + la-mb)
m n

+ (la

mb

nc)

'

prove that

x(by

cz-ax)
x

+ ax-by) (cz

z(ax+ by -cz)
z n

y
m
"

We

have
mb
+
nc

la

nc

+ la-mb
z n

la + mb

"

nc

-+m
=

'"2/a"
two
mz

similar
nx
_

expressions ;
mx

ny +
a

_lz +
b

+
c

ly

the Multiply y, and the third

first of these fractions above

and

below

by

.r, the second

by

by

then
+
ax mxz
_

nxy

Jyz+ nxy
_

mxz

+
cz

lyz

by

_2lyz
=

by +
=

cz-

ax

two

similar
m

expressions ;
n z

I
x

+ (by

cz

-ax)

+ ax-by) (cz

(ax+ by-cz)'

8
16. If
we

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

have

in quantities

the

three equationscontaining such as first degree,

two

unknown

alx

+
+

a2x
we

+ clz=Q bly 0 + c2z b2y

=

(1),

(2),
in the

cannot

solve these

them completely ; but by writing

form

X we

II

can,

by regarding
and
x
"

and
z

as z

the

unknowns,

solve

in the

ordinary way

obtain

blc2 b2ci
-

y
__ "

cxa2

c2al

"

or,

more

afi2 a2bl symmetrically,

%
-

'

-a2bl afi2

'

y
'

bxc2 b2cx
-

cla2

c2a,
have

afi2 a_px
-

,(3).
the

It thus appears

that when

we

by represented
write down

(1)and
x

(2)
:

we :z

the ratios the

may in terms
:

of equations alwaysby the above

two

type

formula

of the coefficients of the

equations by
Write

rule following

down

those of y; and

with the coefficients of x, y, z in order, beginning repeatthese as in the diagram.

in the way indicated by the Multiplythe coefficients across remembering that in forming the products any one arrows, obtained and any one obtained by by descendingis positive, is results The three ascending negative.

are

hicz-hfv cxa2-c2an aA-a2b" to x, y, z respectively. proportional

This is called the Rule

of Cross Multiplication,

RATIO. 1. Find the ratios of from

12x +

9
: z
=

Example

y 3z

the

equations

7x=4y
By transposition
"Write down the
we

+
-

Qzt Ay
-

Uy.

have

7x 12x +

8-2=
=

0,
0.

lly-Sz
-8

thus coeilicients, -4
11

7
12

-4

-3

11,

whence

we

obtain

the

products

(-4)x(-3)-llx(-8),
or x "'*

(-8)xl2-(-3)x7,
100,
~

11

12

(-4),

-75,
y

125;
z

100
x,

^75~"125'
=

that

,.

is,

y -*-3

z
=

4 2.

Example

Eliminate

x,

y,

from

the equations
=

a1a;+ a^
+

+ c12 ^1?/

(1), (2), (3).

^y

c^^O

Ogaj+fegy+c^^O
From and (3), by cross (2)

multiplication,
y
_ "

*__

j*
~

k"C3 Vs
"

C2"i

C3"2

"263 llih

'

in (1), up, substituting denoting each of these ratios by k, by multiplying obtain out by A-, and dividing we Oj (Va
-

+ ('i + "i(^'"3 c3aa) A (" 63ca)

-

"

A-)

"-

This relation is called the eliminant

of the

givenequations.

Example

3.

Solve the equations

ax

by +
y+

cz

0 0

(1), (2),
-

x+

hex + cay + abz

(b c) (c-a)(a-b)
z
=
"

(3).

From

by (1)and (2),
x
-

cross

multiplication,
^"
"

b-c
.-. x
=

c-a

a-b
"

k, suppose
"

(b- c),y

(c a),z
-

k(a- b).

in (3), Substituting
k + {bc(b-c)

={b- c) (c a) {a b), b)} \ (b-e)[e a){a b); k{-{b-c)(c- a){a ")

ca

(c

a)+

ab

(a

.-.

fcss-lj
z
=

^ln'nce

-b, y

"

a-r,

a.

10 17.
If in Art. 16

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

we

put z
+

and (2) become 1, equations (1) ct c2

=

axx

bxy+
+ h2y

0,
"
"

v
and

(3)becomes
x

bxc2 b2cl
-

cxaa

c2ai

aj"% a2b]
-

'

alb2-a0bl
Hence any in the
two

afi2-a2bl
knowns uncross

simultaneous

first

degreemay
5x-3y
-1 5x
x
-

equationsinvolvingtwo be solved by the rule of

multiplication.
Example.
Solve
=

0, x

+ 1

2y
=

12.

By transposition,

3y

0,

2y -12
y
~

0;
1 10 + 3
;

x *'"
=

36 + 2

1 + 60

38

59 y
=

whence

is'

lS'

EXAMPLES.

I.

1.

Find

the ratio

compounded of
:

(1) (2)

the ratio 2a the

36,and

the

ratio duplicate
:

of 9b2

ab.
:

ratio subduplicate of

of 64
2a

9, and the ratio 27

and
,

56.

/6a?
:
-

ratio (3) the duplicate

-j-

M--

the ratio Sax

2by.

2. 3.
exceeds

If #+7

(#+ 14)in

the

ratio duplicate
:

of 5
so

8, find

x.

Find two numbers the less by 275.

in the ratio of 7

12

that the greater

4.
to make

What
it

number
:

must 3 \

be added

to each

term

of the ratio 5

37

equalto 1
:

5. 6.

If x
If 15

y=3
-

4,find the
=

ratio of

7x-4y
x

3x+y.
y.

find (2a-2 y2) *7xy,

the ratio of

12 18.
shew If
x

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

cy +
X

bz,y
=

az+cx}
II
=

z=bx
z2

+ ay,

that

j"*

a1

\-bl i

""

\"cL

"

19.

Given

that

a(y

z)=x, b(z+ x)=y, c(x+y)=z,

ca

prove that Solve the

bc +

+ ab + 2abc

l.

equations: following
+ 7z
=

20.

3x-4y

0,

21.

x+y=

z,
=

2x-y-2z

0,

3x-2y+17z
x* + 23. 3x2

0,
l67.

to?-f+"=l8.
22.

3f

+ 2zs

tyz+ 3sa?=4an/,
2tys Sac 4ry, ff+2y+32=19.
-

7a*

2y2+ oz2 3y2-I5z2

0, 0,
6.

5.0-4^ + 73

24.

If

.--*
I

+-^L^
m

*""",
n

Ja+Jb
shew that
" "

Jb+Jo

"/c+V"
?===

'

=-

(a-b)(c-\/ab) (b
Solve the

c)(a

V be)

ac) (c a) (b \J
-

equations:
ax

25.

by+
+

cz

0, 0,
0.

bcx + cay xyz + abc

abz

+ "z) (a3x+ b3y

=

26.
x

+ 6'22==0, + "2y + C2=a2# a.-"+"y 0. + y + z + (b-c)(c-a) (a-b)

=

27.
prove 1

If

a(y+x)=x, b(z+ x)=y, c(x+y)=z,

X2 ?/2 *
7"
=
,
"

s2
=

that

"

"

{I-be)
=

b(l-ca)
+

c(l-ab)
+
cz
=

28.
prove

If that

ax

ky+gz

0, kx

by+ fz^0, gx+fy

0,

x2

bc-f2

y2 ca-g2
-

z2

ab-h2
-

(2) (be -f2){ea

g2)(ab h2) (fg eh)(gk af) (A/- bg).

=
-

CHAPTER

II.

PROPORTION,

18.

Definition.

When them d
are

two

ratios
to

are

equal,

the

four

quantities composing
ft c
=
-

said

be

proportionals.
This is

Thus

if

then
,

a,

b, c,
b
as

are

proportionals.
d,
b
: :

expressed by
is written

saying

that

is to

is to
a :

and
c :

the d ; d.

proportion

or

b
"

The

terms

and

are

called

the

extremes,

b and

the

means.

19.
extremes

in proportion, If four quantities are is equal to the product of the means.

a,

the

product

of

the

Let

b,
by
J

c, d

be

the

proportionals.
"
"

Then

definition

=.

"

b ad
=

d be. of
a

whence Hence fourth if be any three

terms

proportion
are

are

given,
b
=
"

the

may

found.

Thus

if a,

c,

given,

then

that

Conversely, if ad be, then

=

there
a,

are

any
are

b,

c, d

quantities, a, b, c, d, such d being the proportionals ; a and

vice
versa.

four

extremes,
20.

b and

the

means

or

Definition. when
as
are

Quantities
the the
first

are

said

to

be
as

in the
so

continued

proportion
to a,

is
to

to

the the

second,
fourth
;

second
on.

is Thus

the

third, d,

third

and

b,

c,

in continued
a

proportion
c

when

bed

14
If three

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

quantities a, b,c
a

are

in continued
"

then proportion,

b
=

: c

.-.

ac

b2.

18.] [Art.
a

In this
c

case c

\ and 21.

proportionalbetween b is said to be a mean is said to be a third proportionalto a and b.

three is the first are proportionals quantities
to of the first

and

If

to

the

ratio third in the duplicate

Let the three

tJie second.
then

be quantities
1

a.

b,c:

-.

be

a
=

b
x
-

Now
cue

a
=

a2

b that

X6 =F,;
=

is,
seen

: c

a2

b2.
the
v.
same as

It will be of

that this

is proposition

the

definition

ratio givenin Euclid, Book duplicate 22. If b d and

c
=
-

'f=g
,

h, then

will

ae

bf= eg

dh.

"

.bor

and

""=!-:
j
ae

h eg
=

"'*

bf
or ae :

dhy
:

bf= eg
:

dh.

Cor. and then

If

d,
v/,

b
a

: x

d
c

: x

y-

This is the theorem 23. other The them

known

as

ex

in Geometry. cequali d

If four

quantities a, b, c,
be deduced

form

proportion, many

proportions may
results of
are

often

of fractions. by the properties these operations and of are some very useful, borrowed from quoted by the annexed names

Geometry.

PROPORTION.

15
d
: c.

(1)
For
-

If

b
;

d, then b
-f- ==

: a

[Invertendo

therefore 1

-r- -_

b
that
is

d'

b
-

d'
=
-

a or

c
=

: a

d
: c
=

: c.

(2)

If
. -

d,

then

d.

[Alternando

For acZ

be ; therefore

"

j
a

"

b
=

"! that

is,
a

-,

c or : c
=

b
+

d.
:

(3)
lor

If

"

d, tlien
s-

b
1

c +

d.

[Componeudo.'

7-

-, :

therefore

+ 1

o a

d
+
7"

-,

b
=
"

c +
="

d
:

that
or

is

a +

c +

d
:

d.
c-

(4)
For
"

If

d, then
"

a-b
1

b
1
:

d.

[Divideudo.]

=-

b
.

-,

therefore

b
a
"

-7

bc-d
=
"

that
or

is,
a
-

"7"

-="

b
a

d
: a

d.

(5)
For

If

"

then df,

+6

"

b=c+d:c"

d.

by (3)
a
"

-j-

bc"d

and
.

by (4)
,
.
.

/ * \

-j
"

^-j
"
=
=

c +

d
"

.'.

by division, J
a

a-b
+

c-d'
=

or

a-b

c +

c-d. JJivi-

This

is usually quotedas Componeiuh a) id proposition be

in proved
a

dendo.
Several other proportions may
similar way.

16
24. The

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

article are the algebraical results of the preceding fifth in the book of Euclid, of the propositions of some equivalents himself familiar with them and the student is advised to make in their verbal follows
:

form.

For

dividendo example,

may

be

quoted as

the excess above of the first four proportionals, the second is to the second, as the excess of the third above the fourthis to the fourth.
When there
are

25.

We with

the compare that givenin Euclid. shall

now as

definition algebraical

of proportion

Euclid's definition is
Four
are quantities

follows

if any equiwhen said to be proportionals multipl first and third, and also any whatever be taken of the second and of of the the wJiatever fourth, multiple equimultiples
the third is

greaterthan,equalto,or

less than

of the the multiple as fourth,according In

of the multiple first is greaterthan,equal the be thus stated

of the second. to, or less than the multiple

symbolsthe algebraical quantities a, b,

p"a
=

definition may
are

Four

c, d

in

when proportion

p"c

qd

as according

qb,p
the

and

tcJudever. beingany positive integers of

I.

To

deduce

definition geometrical

from proportion

definition. the algebraical

a
c
-

u
,

Since

-z

both by multiplying
pa 2)C

sides

by

we

obtain

qb

qd

'

of fractions, hence, from the properties

pc
=

as qd according

pa

qb,

which II. the

proves To

the

proposition.
the definition algebraical of

deduce

from proportion

definition. geometrical Given that pc

=

as qd according

pa

to qb,

prove

b=~d'

PROPORTION.

17
them
must

If

-j-

is not

equalto
; then

one

of

be

the

greater.

Supposeg
which

"

-^

it will be and

to possible
"p

find

some

fraction 2
P

lies between

them, q

beingpositive integers.
-

Hence

"

b and From from

"

0). (2"

(1) (2)
and

pa"qb;
2)c"qd\

and these contradict the

hypothesis.
not

Therefore
the

are

that unequal;

is

-"

which proves

proposition.
26.

It should be noticed that the geometrical definitionof proportion deals with concrete magnitudes, such as lines or areas, but not referred to any common unit geometrically represented of measurement.
as

So that Euclid's definition is well

as

commens to inapplicable

to commensurable

quantities ; whereas

mensurable definition, strictly speaking, applies onlyto comalgebraical it that is the since assumes a same tacitly quantities, of b that c is of d. But the determinate multiple, part,or parts, for will commensurable which have been given quantities proofs

the

stillbe true mensurables

the ratio of two incomcan always be made to differfrom the ratio of two quantity.This lias been by less than any assignable integers in the it be also as shewn in Art. 7 ; provedmore generally may for
next

since incommensurables,

article. 27.

Suppose that

and

are

divide incommensurable; that b

=

into

so equal parts each equalto /?,

m/3,where
in
a more

is a
n

positive integer.Also
times and then
i,

less than

n+
a
-

suppose 1 times; nB
.

f3is contained
*

than

" o

-^
mp

and

(n+1)
imp

B
,

"

/^
m

that

is,

-="

lies between

"

and

so

that

-j-

differs from

"

by

quantity less than

"

And
.

since

we

H. H. A.

18
choose

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

can

B
as

unit (our

of
we

as measurement)

small 1
"

as

we

m please,

can

be
as

made
we

great

as

please. Hence
and
m

can

be made

as

small ratio

and please,
that

two

n integers

can

be found

whose

will express 28. The

of

and

b to any

degreeof accuracy. required

proved in Art. 23 are often useful in propositions the solution of certain equations problems. In particular, solving of skilful the comfacilitated use is greatly operations by a ponendo and dividendo.
Example
If 1. 6mb + Snc +
d
+
-

(2ma +
that

prove

a,b, c,
2ma 2ma

are

9wtZ) (2ma Gmb (2ma 6mb + proportionals.

-

Snc + Snc
-

9nd) (2mm + 9/uZ)

Snc

Gmi

Snc

dnd),

Gmb + Snc + 9nd

_

2ma
2
ma

+
-

Qmb 6mb

9nd
'

bmb

+ Snc

\)nd

Snc + 9nd

.*.

componendo

and

dividendo,
2

(2ma + Snc)
_

2 2

{2ma

Sue)
'

2~{Gmb + 9nd)
2ma
+

(Smb
"

9m/)
"

Snc
="
=

Gmb + (.)nd
-

Alternando,

n-

"

,.

2ma-Snc

bmb-vna

Again,componendo

and

dividendo,
Ama
_ ~

\2mb

One
a

lQnd
b
=

whence
or
a :

-,
a

"

d.

Example

2.

Solve the equation

Jx+l + Jx^l Jx + l- Jx-1

We

4a; -1
_

have, componendo and dividendo,

Jx+l
_

4a;+ 1

.r

+
-

+ l_16a;2
"

8a;+l
*

*'"
x

16a;2-24a; + 9

Again, componendo and dividendo,

2x
_
~

32a;2- 16a; + 10
~

32a;

-8a; + 5 16a;2
"X~

16a;- 4
-

'

whence

16a;2

4a;=
x

16a;2 8a;+ 5
-

5
" "

-.

20

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

18.

If the
2
men

work in
x
-

done
1

by

"

men

in

+
:

days

is to
x.

the

work

done

by

days

in the

ratio

of 9 that

10, find
sum

19.

Find
sum

four of the

proportionals such
means

the of

of

the

extremes

is

21, the
numbers

19, and

the

sum

the

squares

of

all four

is 442. Two cask What shall Nine A casks in A the and ratio
must

20.
in the
1
:

were

filled with
:

two the

kinds cask
to

of B

sherry, mixed
in the ratio mixture other \ of
a

of

7, and
taken
one

in from

5.

quantity
consist of 2

be of

each
9

form

which 21.

gallons
drawn

kind

and cask

gallons
of
are

of the

gallons
then with of

are

from of

full

filled with cask be

to

water,

nine

gallons
in it
as

the

mixture

wine; it is then drawn, and the

now

is

again filled the quantity

water.

If the 16

quantity
to

of wine much

in the the

cask cask

water

9, how

does

hold?

22.
that the
as

If

four

positive quantities
between the between the the

are

in

continued is at

proportion,
least three

shew
as

difference the In

first and other

last
two.

times

great

difference

23.
1871 and

England
1881;
if the
4

15*9 population increased increased town 18 population

per per

cent,
cent,

between and the

country
in

population
1871. In certain of

per

cent., compare

the

town

and

country

tions popula-

24.
coffee
cent,
were more

country
If the per
a

the per

consumption
cent,
more

of
tea

tea

is five times b per would

cent,

the
more

consumption
were more

coffee.

and

cent, be
more

consumed,
;

aggregate
cent,
more

amount tea

consumed and
a

1c

but

if b the
a

consumed,
:

aggregate
b.

amount

consumed

per would

per coffee cent,

be

3c

per

compare Brass
80

and

25.
of

is per and

an

alloy
of

of

copper
4 to

and of

zinc

; bronze

is tin.

an

alloy
fused

containing
mass

cent,

brass and
10

bronze
:

copper, is found the

zinc, and
74
to

16

of

contain of copper

of

zinc,

of tin

find

ratio

of copper, 16 per cent, zinc in the composition

of brass.

26.

crew row
row

can

row same

a course

certain down
:

course

up would

stream

in minutes take

84

minutes;
less than down
row

they they
with

can

the
it in

stream

in

could the

still water

how

long

they

to

stream

CHAPTER

III.

VARIATION.

29.
as

Definition.

One the
two

another
a manner

B,

when that

such ratio.

if B

quantity A is said to vary each quantities depend upon is changed, A is changed in

often

directly
other the
same

in

Note.
as

The

word

directlyis

omitted,

and

is said

to

vary

B.

For 40 80 miles miles

instance in in 60 120

if

train it

moving
will
so

at

uniform miles in

rate

travels

minutes, minutes,
or

travel
on;

20 the
same

30 in
as

minutes,
each the
case

and

distance
ratio

being
This the the

increased is

diminished

in that the

the when

time.

distance time. 30.

expressed by saying is ptroportional to

the
or

velocity
the

is

uniform varies
as

time,

distance

The is read

symbol
"A

oc

is
as

used B."

to

denote

variation

so

that

on

B 31.

varies

constant

If A. varies quantity.
suppose of A and that B.

as

B,

tlien A

is

equal

to

multiplied by

some

For values

a,

are b2,b3... alt a", a3..., b, bx,

corresponding

a
mi

b
=
=-

a
:
"

b
=
"

b
,

Inen,

by

deimition,

/"

","

"

"

",

V
,.j-

-r

and

so

on,

"3

K
to

/. s-i

"=*

y^=

each

being equal

6,
TT

62

63
of A
. _

any
-=

value
r.

Hence

="

is

always

the

same

the

corresponding
" "

value

ot

that

is,

7u,

where

is constant.

.'. A=mB.

22
If any the constant

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

values pairof corresponding

m can

of A

and

are
=

known,
3 when

be

determined.

For

if A instance,

^=12,
we

have

=m

12;

and 32.
as

A Definition.
when Z?,

\B.
is said to vary inversely the reciprocal of B.

another Thus The

A quantity varies directly as One A

=

if A

varies

as B, inversely

-^

where

is constant.
:

is an following in 8 in 24
men

illustration of inverse variation

If 6 work

men

do 4

certain work
the number

hours,12

men

would

do the

same

in

hours, 2

when

Thus it appears that hours ; and so on. the time is proportionately of men is increased,

and decreased;

vice-versa.
cube root of x varies when y = l^. where have
m

Example 1. The
x=8

as the inversely

square

of y ; if

when

3, find

By supposition "/x=

"

is constant.
Tit

if

Puttingx

8, y

3, we

2=n"
.*. ?;t =

18,
18
=
"

and

v *jx

hence, by putting y

^,

we

obtain

a; =

512.

the cube

The square of the time of a planet's revolution varies as of its distance from the Sun; find the time of Venus' revolution, and assuming the distances of the Earth and Venus from the Sun to be 91-J 66 millions of miles respectively.

Example 2.

time Let P be the periodic of miles ; we have

or

measured

in

days,D the distance

in millions

P2

D3,

P*=kD3,
k is
some

where

constant. 365
x

For the Earth,

365

91" x 91| x 91",

4x4x4

whence

365 4
. "

4
"
'

p2 r

_ ~

365

VARIATION.

23
66

For

Venus,

pa^i^ili 66 3
x

b.)

6G ;

whence

4x66

/264
:":

365

264 264

x x

a/*7233, approximately,
-85

224-4. is

Hence

the time of revolution

nearly224" days.
to vary

33. number Thus

Definition.
of A the

One

others,when
varies interest
on

it varies B

is said quantity as directly

and of

jointly as
For

their A
=

product.
mBC.
as jointly

as jointly
a

C, when

stance, inthe

the principal,

time,and

money the rate per cent. A is said to vary

as -^
.

sum

varies

3 -i. Definition.
as C, when versely

as directly

and

in-

varies

35. when
vary.

7/*A

varies

as

when

is constant,and
as

varies

as

C C

is constant,then tvill A of A

vary

BC

ivhen both B

and

The

variation each

on dependspartly

that of C.

Suppose these

a,

b,c
1
.

in its turn be certain simultaneous Let

that of B and partly on latter variations to take place rately, sepaeffect on A ; also let producingits own values of B

A, B, C.
A must intermediate value
b ; then

C be constant

while will

changesto
some

change and undergoa partial a\

where

assume

"=-

(1)

2.

Let B
c

changesto
intermediate

let it retain its value b,while C be constant,that is, its change and pass from its complete ; then A must value a' to its final value a, where

From

(1) and (2)

x '

"

x a

"

: c

that

is,

=-

BC,
as

be
or

A varies

BC.

24
36. The

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

are following

illustrations of the theorem

provedin

the last article. varies by a givennumber of men of of days they work, and the amount the number as directly of men the number as work done in a giventime varies directly ; of men of days and the number are the number therefore when will vary as the productof of work the amount both variable, of days. and the number of men the number varies directly as Again,in Geometry the area of a triangle the and a s is the height directly its base when height constant, and base both the when and is constant base the when height ; the productof the numbers varies as are variable, the area and the base. the height representing The
amount

of work

done

Example. The volume of a rightcircular cone varies as the square of the the the height is constant, and as the height when radius of the base when and the 15 is feet base feet, radius of the 7 If the height constant. is base is 132 whose volume the volume is 770 cubic feet ; find the height of a cone is 3 feet. radius whose base which stands on a cubic feet and
the height ani radius Let h and r denote respectively in cubic feet. measured in feet ; also let V be the volume Then of

the base

V=mr2h,

where

is constant. 770
"

By supposition,
whence

72 x 15
22
;

"

.*.

V= by substituting

132, r

S, we
132="

get
22

xOxft;
X

whence and therefore the

7i= 14 ;

heightis

14 feet.

37.
case

The

of proposition

Art. 35

two

the variation of A variables. Further, the variations

in which

be extended easily dependsupon that of more

can

to the

than

inverse.

be either direct or may because of its frequent is interesting currence ocThe principle For example, in the theory of Science. in Physical

of a gas gases it is found by experimentthat the pressure (p) its volume when varies as the "absolute (v)is (t) temperature" the volume as constant, and that the pressure varies inversely when the

temperature is
2?
oc

constant
v

; that is

t, when

is constant

VARIATION.

25

and
From

cc

when

t is constant.

these

results should

we

should

expect that,when

both

t and

are

we variable,

have

the formula

p and

cc

or

pv

kt,where

k is constant

by

actual

this experiment
duration of
a

is found

to be the- case.
varies

Example.
distance
square

The

railway journey

directlyas

the

number with 18 consumed

varies directly the the velocity;the velocity as as inversely root of the quantityof coal used per mile, and inverselyas the In a journey of 25 miles in half an hour in the train. of carriages and

carriages 10
in
a

much coal will be of coal is required; how 16 with in 28 21 miles minutes of carriages? journey
cwt.

Let t be the time expressedin hours, d the distance in miles, in miles per hour, v the velocity of coal in cwt., the quantity q of carriages. c the number We have
t
oc

and

oc

*!l
,

whence

oc

"

or

"

"

7-

where

k is constant.

the Substituting

values

given,we
1
_

have
x

18

25
;

2~

jm
=

that

is,

25x36"

v/lO cd
.

Hence
now Substituting

t=

"

0^ 2o

^"

36

Jq given in the
second

the values

of t, c, d

part of

the

question, we

have
28

710x16x21.
25x36^2
^
'
,-

60"
"" a that

is,

/ s/q="

16x21 n/10x 15x28

q
-==

=5^10,
6|.

whence Hence the of quantity coal is

"

6|cwt.

26

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

EXAMPLES. 1. 2. 3.
If
x

III.
when y
=

varies

as

y, and

#=8

15,find
when

when
=

10.

If P

varies

as Q, and inversely

P=7

3, find P when
x"3

If the square

of

varies
.

as

the cube

of y, and

when

4,

find the value of y when

#=-yand i?
=

4.

varies
A
=

as

C
3.

if jointly;

2 when

and

C="

10
,

find 0 when 5.

54 and
as

If .4 varies each vary as C. 6. If J. varies

C, and

i? varies

as

AB C, then J. "Z? and \/

will

C
as

BC,

then Z" varies

as inversely

-7

7.

varies

as directly

Q and

as R\ inversely

also P

=
~

when
o

and

="

find
as

(^when

P=a/48
that

and

jR=\/"5.
as

8. 9.

If

a'

varies

y, prove

x2+y2 varies

x2-y\
one

If y varies as the directly x and the other 3 ; find the 31 when x y

as
=
=

of which of two quantities, sum if y 6 when as x ; and inversely between and x equation y.
=

varies

x=4, and
varies
or

If 3/ is equal to the and the other as x directly, 3 ; find y in terms of x.

10.

sum as

of two x2

one quantities

of which
19 when

and inversely;

if y

x=2,

11.
the cube and

the square root of B and inversely If A varies directly as as and C=2, find B when A 24 3 when ."=256 of C, and if 4
=

C=g
12.

Given

that

+ y

varies
x

as

and
,

that

"

varies
when
x

as

"

find the relation between y

=

and

z,

that provided

=2

=3

and

\.

13.
varies 14.

If J. varies
as

as

inversely A,

while B and C jointly, shew that A varies as D.

varies

as

and Z"2,

of which the first is of three quantities If y varies as the sum and third the second the varies as as x2; and if y 0 when constant, .r, find and when l when 4 x 3; x=l, y x=2, y when x=7. y
= = = =

When a body falls from rest its distance from the starting : if a body falls pointvaries as the square of the time it has been falling through 402^ feet in 5 seconds, how far does it fall in 10 seconds ? Also how far does it fall in the 10th second?

15.

CHAPTER

IV.

ARITHMETICAL

PROGRESSION.

38.

Definition. when

Quantities

are or

said decrease

to

be

in
a

Arithmetical
common

Progression

they

increase

by

ference. dif-

Thus

each
:

of

the

following
15,

series

forms

an

Arithmetical

Progression

3, 7, 11, 8, 2, -4,
a,
a

-10,
a

d,

2d,

3d,

The the series

common

difference that
common

is found

by subtracting
it. In the the first second

any

term

of

from the

which

follows

of

the
"

above 6 ; in

examples
the third

difference

is 4 ; in

it is

it is d.

39.

If

we

examine
a,
a

the
+

series
a

d,

2d,

3d,

we

notice the Thus

that number the

in

any

term term

the hi

coefficient of
the seiies. is is is is
a

is

always

less

by

one

than

of

the

3rd term 6th term 20th

term
term

2d;
5d
;

I9d',

and, generally,
If
n

the

pth

(p
and

"

\)d.
if I denote the

be
we

the have

number

of I
=

terms,
a

last,

or

?ith term,

(n

"

1) d.
of
terms

40.

To

find

the

sum

of

number

in

Arithmetical

Progression.
Let
the
a

denote
of

the
terms.

first

term,
let

the

common

difference, and
the

n s

number

Also

I denote

last

term,

and

ARITHMETICAL

PROGRESSION.

29

the

sum required 8

; then
+

a+(a

d)+ (a+ 2d) +

series in the
...

...

(I 2d)+ (l-d)+ l;
-

the and, by writing

s
=

reverse

order,
a.

I+

(I d)+ (I 2d)+
-

(a + 2d)+ (a + d) +

these Adding together 2s

=

two

series,
to
...

+ (a + l) + (a+ l)+ (a+ l) n

terms

(a+ I), (1); (2), (3).

three of the useful formula;

"'"

^(a+ l)
a

and

l~a

(n-l)d
+

.-.

-^{2a (n-l)d\
we

41.

In

tlie last article of these when quantity

have
one

(1),

(2),(3);
the

in each

any

unknown

the three

others

letters may denote known. For are

in (1)if we instance,

givenvalues for s, n, I,we obtain in the other formulae. a ; and an equationfor finding similarly of these But it is necessary to guard against a too mechanical use will found a nd it often solve be better to formulae, general simple than reference mental rather actual to the a an questions by by formula. requisite
substitute

Example
Here the

1.

common

Find the sura of the series 5^, GJ, 8, difference is 1^; hence from (3),
=

to 17 terms.

the

sum

\2

"

16

*li|

y (11+20)
17x31

~2
=

263".
of
a

Example
400
:

2. The find the number be the number

first term

of terms, and of

series is 5, the last 45, and difference. the common

from

the

sum

If

terms, then
"

(1)

400 whence

(5+ 4r");
n
=

10.

30
If d be the
common

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

difference 45= the 16th term d

=

5 + 15d;

whence

2f
an

42. furnish

If
two

any

two
can

terms

of

Arithmetical

be Progression data will

given,the givethe
23rd term. If
a

series

be the

simultaneous and
54th and

determined; for the completely the solution of which equations,

common

first term
The

difference.
of
an

Example.

4th terms

A. P.

are

61 and

64 ; find the

be the first term, and

-

d the
=

common
=

difference,
a

61 64

the 54th term the d= 4th term 5

53d ;

and whence
we

+ 3d ;

obtain
=

-jr,

Hh.

and the 23rd term

22d

16".
three
are quantities

When Definition. middle one Progression the 43. the other two. Thus 44. Let Then
a a

in Arithmetical
mean

is said to be the arithmetic

of

is the arithmetic

mean

between

"

d and

d.

To

findthe
A, b

arithmetic

mean

betiveen two

givenquantities.
mean.

and

b be the two
are

quantities ; A
we
=

the arithmetic

since a,

in A. P.
b
-

must

have

"

a,

each

beingequalto

the

common a +

difference ; b
"

whence

A Between
two

45.
insert

it given quantities that

is

to always possible

of terms such any number formed shall be in A. P. ; and by an Art. 43, the terms thus inserted are

the

whole

series thus

extension

of the definition in
means.

called the arithmetic

between 4 and

Example.
to find
a

Insert 20 arithmetic

means

67.

Includingthe extremes, the

series of 22 terms
common

number of terms will be 22 ; so that we have in A.P., of which 4 is the first and 67 the last.

Let d be the

difference ;

then
whence d
=

67

the 22nd term

4 + 21d ;

S, and the series is 4, 7, 10,

are

61, 64, 67 58, 71, 64.

and the

means required

7, 10, 13,

ARITHMETICAL

PROGRESSION.

31
means

46.
two

givennumber givenquantities.
To insert
a a

of

arithmetic

betiveen

Let

and

b be the

the n givenquantities, the

number

of

means.

the Including
so a

extremes

number
n +

to find a series of that we and b is the last. is the first,

have

2 terms

of terms will be u + 2 ; in A. P.,of which

Let d be the then

common

difference ; b
=

the

term (n + 2)th

whence and the

means required

71+
are

'

b
a

"

a
-

2
,

a) (b *
"
"

nib
,

"

=-'

*
" "

a)
'
_.

n+l

n+l

n+l
in A.P. is 27, and the
sum

Example
their squares Let numbers
a

1.

The sum of three numbers is 293 ; find them.

of

be the middle
are a
-

number,
+ d.

d the

common

difference ; then

the three

d, a,

Hence whence
a
=

a-d

+ d

27 ;

9, and the three numbers

.-.

are

d, 9, $
=

d.

+ 81 (9-rf)2

(9+ d)2 293;

whence
and

d="5;
are

the numbers

4, 9, 14.
the
sum

Example
w"' term is 3n

2.
-

Find

of the first p

terms

of the

series whose

1.
obtain we respectively,
=

By putting n=l, and n=p

first term

2, last
+

term

=3p

"

1;

.-.

l). 3i"-l)=|(3p sum=|(2

+

EXAMPLES. 1. 2. 3.
Sum Sum
to 20 terms. 2, 3|,4J,... to 17 49,44,39,... 3 2
"

IV.

a.

terms.

7
I
,...
"

Sum-,
4

-,
o

to 19 terms.

32
7 4. Sum Sum Sum Sum Sum

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

3, -,
o

to If,...

terms.

5. 6. 7. 8.

to 3'75,35, 3-25,...

16 terms. 24 terms. 10 terms.

to -Tl, -7, -6J,...

to 1-3,-3-1, -7-5,... 6
-.-

12
,

3x/3,-75 "...
4
-tt

to 50 terms.

9.
10.

Sum Sum Sum

n

-j=

to V5;-..

25 terms.

36, 2a
-

56, 3a

76,
. .

to 40 terms.
. .

11.
12.

2a
tt

6,4a
,

36,6a
^
"

56,.
,
,,

to
,

terms.

Sum

-"-

+ 6 a,

3a-6
"

,...

to 21 terms.

13. 14. 15.

16. 17.

Insert 19 arithmetic Insert 17 arithmetic Insert 18 arithmetic Insert Find

as

means

between between between between

and

"

9|.
"

means

3^ and
-

41".
S.v.

means

36.17and 1.

arithmetic
sum

means

x2 and

the

of the first n odd

numbers.

18. In an A. P. the first term find the difference.

is 2, the last term

29, the
the

sum

155;
ence differ-

19.

of 15 terms The sum is 5 ; find the first term. The

sum

of

an

A. P. is 600, and

common

20.
find the

of third term of 17 terms.

an

A. P. is

18, and the seventh

term

is 30 ;

21. The sum 504 ; find them. 22.

cubes The
sum

of three numbers

in A. P. is

27,and

their

product is
of their

of three numbers find them. is 408 ; Find Find the the

sum

in A. P. is

12, and the

sum

23.
24.

of 15 terms of 35 terms

of the series whose of the series whose

nth term

is 4?i4- 1. is

sum

pihterm
nth term

^+
+

2.

25. 26.

Find Find

the the

sum

of p terms of 2a2
a n
-

of the series whose of the series

3

is

b.

sum

terms 1
,

6a2 -5
, ,
. . .

4a
a

ARITHMETICAL

PROGRESSION.
s, a, d

33
are

In 47. to determine

an

Arithmetical Progression when

the

given,

values

of

we

have

the

quadratic equation

"2a

(n-

l)d\ ;

when in
a

and integral there is no difficult positive the result corresponding to each. In some interpreting cases suitable interpretation be for can a value of n. given negative both
roots
are

Example.
taken that the

How
sum

many
may

terms

of the

series -9,

-6, -3,...

must

be

be G6 ?

Here

{-18 + ("-l)3}=66;
n--ln-U
=

that is,
or

Q,

(n-ll)(n+4)=0;
.'.

?i=ll

or

4.

If

we

take 11 terms
-

of the
-

have we series,

9,

6,

3, 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21

the

sum

of which

is 66.

If we beginat the last of these terms and count backwards four terms, the is also 66; and thus, although the negativesolution does not directly enabled to give the question it an intelligible we are answer proposed, meaning, and we see that it answers a questionclosely connected with that to which the positive solution applies.
sum

48. the

We

can

this interpretation in the general case justify

in

following way.
The
to equation

determine dn2
+

is
=

(2a-d)n-2s

(1).
have equation
n
.
-

Since in the

case

under

let us opposite signs, to term of the series corresponding

a

discussion the roots of this denote them by n and nl is

1 )d ;
count

The

last

(nl
-

if

we

beirin

at

difference must

this term be denoted

and

backwards,
the
sum

the

common

by

d, and

of

terms yi.,

is

(" |{2
and
we

+ (", ",-!"/)

-!)(-"/)}
6-.

shall shew
A.

to that this is equal

H. H.

34

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

For

the

expression -? \ 2a
=

(2n{
"

n2

"

l)dl

d + ^ 2an2 2nxn2d n2 (n2+ 1)

-

1
=

I 2nxn2d (da*
-

2a

.n2)\

l(4s-2s)
=

s,

since

"

n2 satisfies dn2
the roots When

(2a d) n"
"

2s

0, and
is

"

n}n2

is

the

productof
49. of terms

of this

equation.
n

the value of which

How

is fractional there such

a

no

exact

ber num-

to corresponds
terms

solution.
be taken
to

Example.
amount to 71 ?

many

of the series 26, 21, 16,...must

Here

{52+ (n-l)(-5)} 74;

=

that is,
or

5)i2

57u + 148

0, 0;

(n-4)(5n-37)
.*.
?i
=

or

1%.
sum

Thus

the number

is greater,while the

sum

is 4. of terms of 8 terms
0

It will be found that the is less than 74.

of 7 terms

50.

We

add
1.
:

some

Miscellaneous

Examples.
are

Example

ratio of 7?t+ l

of two arithmetic series The of n terms sums 4" + 27; rind the ratio of their 11th terms. and
common

in the

Let the first term

a",
"

difference of the two

series be av

dx and

d2 respectively.
We have

"+1 |M^* 27 2a2 {n-l)d2

+

4?i +

Now

we

have

to find the value of

"

"

tttt',

a2 +

l0d2'
4
_ "~

hence, by putting n"21, x

we

obtain

2^ + 20^ 2a2+ 20d2

thus the

148
_

111

'

requiredratio is
2.

3.

Example
series whose

If

are Su S2,S"...S,, are

first terms

the and 1, 2, 3, 4,...

sums

of

terms

of arithmetic

whose

common

differences are

1, 3, 5, 7,... ; find the value of

#L+ "Sf2+"3+.+ "".

..

36

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

9.

Sum

the

series

-_

."

to
,
...

terms.

10. find the

If the
sum

sum
n

of 7 terms
terms.

is

49, and

the

sum

of 17 terms

is 289,

of

11.
that

If the

rih pth, qth,

terms

of

an

A. P.

are

a,
=

shew b,c respectively, 0.

(q-i')a + (r-p)b+(p-q)c
12.
The
sum sum

of p

terms

of

an

A. P. is q, and

the

sum

of q terms

is

find the p ;

ofp

q terms.

The 13. sum 945 ; find them.

of four

integers in
parts which

A. P. is

24, and

their

product
that and

is

14.

Divide

20

into four

are

in A.

P., and

such

the

product
15.
mtb
term.

of the first and

fourth

is to the

product of
the

the second

third

in the ratio of 2 to 3.

The

pth

term

of

an

A. P. is q, and

term qth

is p ; find

the

16.
make

How

many

terms

of the

series 9, 12, 15,... must

be

taken

to

306?

17.

If the

sum

of of

terms
m

of

an

A. P. is 2n +
an

3n2,find
sum

the ?tth term. of

n

If the sum 18. shew that 'in2 to ?i2,

terms

of

A. P. is to the

terms
"

as

the mth term

the
sum

is to the
an

nth term

as

2m

"

1 is to 2n

1.

19.
to the

Prove middle If
5
=

that
term
n

of

odd the

number
number

of terms of terms.

in A. P. is

equal

multipliedby
-

20. 21.
terms

(pn

3) for

all values in
an

of nt find the A.

pth term.
;

The is

number
even

of terms
terms

P. is

even

the

sum

of the odd the first

24, of the
There
sum

30, and

the last term

exceeds

by

10 1

find the number

are

of terms.
sets of numbers set is 15.

22. and
is the

two

each
common

of consisting difference of the

3 terms

in A. P. first set the

:

of each
1 than

The

of the

greater by

the

common

difference

second set
as

set, and
7 to 8

product
23. between
n means

of the

first set is to the

product

of the second

find

the numbers.

Find
x

the

relation

between
same case.

x as

and the

and

2y may

be the in each

mean y in order that the ?,th ?-th between and 2x mean y,

being inserted

24. If the sum of an A. P. is the that its sum for p + q terms is zero.

same

for p

as

for

terms, shew

CHAPTER

V.

GEOMETRICAL

PROGRESSION.

51.

Definition. when of

Quantities

are

said

to

be
a

in

Geometrical

Progression
Thus
:

they
the

increase

or

decrease series forms

by
a

constant

factor.
gression Pro-

each

following

Geometrical

3, G, 12, 24,
1

-1
3'
ar,

I
9'

-I
27'

a,

ar2, ar3,
is also
term

The found

constant

factor
any

called

the which the

common

ratio, and
ratio

it is

by dividing
In the

it.
the

first of the it is ; in

above the

by that examples
third it is

immediately iwecedes
common

is 2 ; in

second

"

r.

52.

If

we

examine
a,

the ar,
term

series

ar2, ar3, aiA,

the in index

we

notice

that

in

any

of

is

always

less

by

one

tlian

the number

of

the term the

the

the series. is ar2 ; is

Thus

3rd term 6th term 20th term

ars; ar19;

the

is

and, generally,
If
n we

the number

pih
of l
=

term

is a?^-1. and if I denote

the

be

the

terms,
ar"~\

last, or

n,h

term,

have

53.

Definition. the middle

When
one

three is called

quantities are
the

in
mean

Geometrical
between

Progression
the other

geometric

two.

38
To

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

mean find the geometric a

between two

givenquantities.
the
mean. geometric

Let Then

and

b be

the

two

quantities ; G
P.,
b

since a,

G, b

are

in G.

_G
a'
ratio ;

G~
each

being equalto

the

common

.-.

G2 G

ab;

whence

Jab.
means of geometric

54.
two

givennumber givenquantities.
To insert
a a

between

Let In

and

b be the

the n givenquantities,
n

number
we

of

means.

all there will be

n

2 terms which

so a

that

have

to

find

series of Let
then
r

2 terms
common

in G.

P.,of
ratio ;

is the firstand

b the last.

be the

the

term (n + 2)th

"r"+1;

"

~a'
i

"""""""
the found value
Hence
means required in (1). are

""
where
r

of,

arn, a?-2,...

has

the

Example.
We sixth. Let have

Insert 4

geometric means

between

100

and 5.
and is the first,
5 the

to find 6 terms

in G. P. of which

160

be tbe

common

ratio ; tben 5
=

the sixth term

160?'5;
1

'

~32'

whence

r=o'
means are

and the

80, 40, 20, 10.

GEOMETRICAL

PROGRESSION.

o!)

find Progression.
55.
To

the

sum

of a

number

of

terms

in

Geometrical

Let

be
s

the first term, the

8
=

the

common

n ratio,

the

number

of

terms, and

sum

required. Then
+ car +

ar2
r,

+
we

arn~2

ar"~l ;

multiplying every
rs
=

term
ar

by
ar2
+

have
+

ar"~2

ar""1

ar*,

Hence

by subtraction,
rs
"

arn

"

.-.

(r-l)s

a(r"-l);
(i).
1

,..-5fe^a
r
-

in Changing the signs

numerator

and

denominator,

.-?S=*3
1
Note. for
s.

(2).

-r

both forms given above It will be found convenient to remember and in all when?1 cases isj^ositive greater than 1. using(2) except

Since ar'^1^

1,the formula

(1)may

be written

rl-a

S=7--T:
a

form

which

is sometimes

useful.
2 3
,

Example.
The

Sum

the series
3

-1,

-,

to 7 terms.

common

ratio

hence

by formula

(2)

(-23
the
sum
=
"

II
2
~

2187]
128
I

2315
X *

2 5

128

403

40

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

111 56. Consider the

n

series

1,

r,

^-2,

~3,

2
The
sum

to

terms

"-

-H1
2 .2-

27
"

2"-i
From taken
see

this
sum

the

result it appears that however terms many of the above series is always less than 2. Also
n

be
we

that,by making
as

sufficiently large,
we

can

make

the fraction

njr-^i

smaU the

as

we

please. Thus
can

by takinga by
as

sufficient number little as

we

of terms from 2.

sum

be made

to differ

please

In the next

article Art. 55

more

case general

is discussed.

57.

From

we

have

\
1
a -r

ar"
t

"

1 the

'
"

Suppose r
n

is

proper

then fraction; of and ?"",

greater the value of

ar'1 ; and

the smaller

is the value
n

of consequently
can

therefore
n

by making

we sufficiently large,

make
a

the

sum

of

terms

of the series differ from

by

as

small

as quantity

we

please.
This result is

usuallystated

thus

the

sum

of

an

infinite
^

number

Geometrical Progression is of terms of a decreasing

the briefly,
Find
a sum

:
"

or

more

to

is infinity

1-r'
sum

Example 1. product is 216.

Denote

three numbers

in G. P. whose

is

19, and

whose

the numbers

by

-, r

a, ar;

then

x r

ar

216 ; hence

6, and

the numbers

are

6, 6r.

GEOMETRICAL

PROGRESSION. 6
-

41

+ 6 +

6r=19;
6r2 =
2

.-.

6-13r 3

0;

whence Thus the cumbers The

are

or

4, 6, 9.
of
an

Example 2.
the
sum

sum

infinite number

of terms

in G. P. is

15, and
of the

of their squares
a

is 45 ; find the series.

r

Let
terms

denote the first term,

(l

the

common
'

ratio ; then ci^

-z

the

sum

is
1
-

;
r

and

the

sum

of their squares

is

1 -r*

"

Hence

,"=15 1
-

(1),

a2
=

1_72 Dividing (2)by (1)

and from
~

45

(2)(3),

l +

r
=

and (3) (1)

2

5;

whence

r=x

and

therefore 10

5.

20
"

an,

Thus

+1

the

...

series

is

o,

"

EXAMPLES.
112

V.

a.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
7. 8.

Sum Sum Sum Sum Sum Sum Sum Sum Sum

-,-,-,...
A

to 7 terms.
9

-2, 2^, -3i,...to

to l", 3,... ^t,

6 terms.

8 terms.

to 10 terms. 2, -4, 8,... to 7 5-4,1-8,... 16'2, to p 1, 5, 25,... terms.

terms.

3, -4,

"

,...
o

to 2n terms. 12 terms. to 7 terms.

to 1, N/3,3,...
1

8
' ,

9.

v/2

-j-

-2,

-jr

s'2

,...

42
11

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

3
3,

10.

Sum

-~,

-j,.-

to ^ terms.
4

11.

Insert 3 Insert 5 Insert 6 the

means geometric

between between between

: infinity

2^ and

12.
13. Sum

means geometric

3f and 40|.
14 and

means geometric

I
-

"

64

series following

to

14. 16.
18.

-1, |,

?,...

15. 17.

-45, -015, -0005,...

1-665,-1-11, -74,...
3, v/3,1,...

3"1, 3~2, 3-',...

7, N/42,6,...
a

19.

20. The sum the first 3 terms 21. The the series.

of of the first 6 terms find ratio. the common ; of

a

G. P. is 9 times

the

sum

of

fifth term

G. P. is 81, and

the second

term

is 24; find

The sum of a G. P. whose common 22. last term is 486 ; find the first term.

ratio is 3 is

728,and
the

the

23.

In

889 ; find the

G. P. the first term ratio. common of three numbers

is

7,the

last term

448, and

sum

24.

1728;
25.
the
sum

The sum find them.

in G. P. is

38, and their product is

The continued in G. P. is 216, and product of three numbers of the productof them in pairs is 156 ; find the numbers. If the of the series 1

26. sp the
sum

Sp denote

sum
"

of the series l+rp + r2p+... ad ad inf., rp + r2p prove that

-

and inf.,

...

/Op +

Sp== ^*ij'2p'

27. that

If the

rth terms pth, qth,

of a G. P. be a, a"-r6r-*c*-"=l.

b,c respectively, prove

of
a

28.
sum

The sum of an infinite number of terms of their cubes is 192 ; find the series.
a

G. P. is

4, and the

Recurringdecimals furnish Geometrical Progressions.

Example.
Find the value of "423. "423 =-4232323 4
~

58.

good illustration

of infinite

23
+

23
+

io

iooo

iooooo

~io+ IP+105+

44
60. To

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

find the
a,

sum

ofn

terms

of the

series

(a+ d) r, (a+ 2d)r2,(a+ 3d)r3,

term

in which arithmetic Denote

each and the

+

is the

terms product of corresponding

in

an

series. geometric
sum

by

S ; then
+

S=a+(a
.-.

d)r+(a
ar

2d)r2+
. .

...

(a+

n~^ld)r"-' ;
n

rS=

(a+ d)r2+

+(a+ n-2d)rn~l+(a+

-ld)rn.

By subtraction, S(l
-

r)
=

(dr+
"

dr2

dr""1)(a+ n-lct)rn
-

dr(\-rn~l)
a

=
"

, (a
v

-N +
n
-

Id) r
'

"

1
a

'

"'"

dr(l-r"-1) l-r+ (1-r)2

Write
a

r" (a + n~^\d)
_

T^r

'

Cor.

S in the form dr

l-r+ (l-ry~
then

(a + n~ld)r\ T^r (l-r)*

as

dr"

r"l, we can sufficiently great.

involve obtain
to this
rn
can

if

make

r"

small

as

we

pleaseby taking n

In this case,
so

be made
+
7^ r"

assuming that all the terms which be neglected, small that they may we
sum

-z

"

for the

to

(1 -r) pointagain in Chap. XXI.

1-r

We infinity. J

shall refer

series of this summing to infinity proceed as in the following example.

In

class it is

best usually

to

Example

1.

If

"1,

sum

the series
to

l + 2ar + 3x2 + 4x3+

infinity.
;

Let
.-.

S xS=

l + 2a;+ 3a:s + 4as +

x

2x* + 3x*+

"

"

S(l-x)

l+ 1

x2 + x*+

~l-x]
"

a-

GE0METK1CAL

PROGRESSION.

45

Example

2.

Sum

the series 1 +

-, o-

" .

to

terms.

0"*

^
T

Let

+ S==i+i+_ 1
"""

"

10 _+

Sn-2 +
_..

1
+

4
+

3n
+

3n-2

5*4
,

5
/3

52
3

53+
3

-57^-+
3 \

5,"

3n-2

3 A

1
f

\
"

57-"1" +5"-"j"~5"~

3n- _2

*
3
,

"

1 +

'""-i
'

3
=

/
"

1 + 7
~

(1 5" J
_

1\

3"-2
-

-5.-

12w + 7

5*

35
"'*

12/t+7
'

16

16

5"-1

EXAMPLES.

V. b.

1. 2.
3.

Sum Sum Sum Sum

1 4- 2a 4- 3a2 + 4a3 43 1+
-

to

terms. to

7
477.

15 +
^,

31 +
c^rr. zoo

"

infinity.

lb

64

1 + 3.r + 5d'2 + 7o? + 9.z4 + 2 3

4-,

...

to

infinity.

4.

1+

4 + -2 -3 +

to

terms.

5 +
-7

7
+
+
Q
...

5. 6.

Sum Sum

1+

to

infinity. infinity.

to l + 3^ + 6lf24-10ji"34-...

of which the first term term of a G. P., 7. Prove that the (n+ l)th of a G. P. of term and the the third is term to a (2"+l)th b, equal 6. which the first term is a and the fifth term is The sum of 2n terms of a G. P. whose firstterm is a and common ratio r is equalto the sum of n of a G. P. whose first term is b and of the first two ratio r1. Prove that b is equal to the sum common of the firstseries. terms

8.

46
9. Find the
l+
r sum

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

of the infinite series b+

+ {l+ b2)r2

(l+ b)r+ (l+

b + b2 +

b3)r3+...,

and

being proper

fractions.
extremes

of three numbers in G. P. is 70 ; if the two 10. The sum be multiplied each by 4, and the mean by 5, the productsare find the numbers.

in A. P. ;

11. The first two terms of an and every term is 3 times the sum the series.
Sum the series following
:

infinite G. P. are of all the terms

together equalto 5,
that follow

it; find

12. 13.
14.

.r3 + 3a. + 2"x, .r+a, ,v2

x

..

to

terms.
. . .

+ a? (a*3 (x + if) + x2 (x2+ y2) + if) + + 3" ha + to

to

terms.

"

"

+...

2p

terms.

3 +

2
+

3 +

2
+

3 +

15.
3

^2

33

34

35

p+-- to
76
+

mfinity.

454545

16.
7

72

73

74

to
-

75

llifinity-

"

.,

17.

If a,

b,c, d be in G. P.,prove that + (d b)2 {a- d)2. (b cf + (c a)2

-

18.

geometric mean,
19.
Find

If the arithmetic mean shew that a the

sum

between a and b is twice 6 2 + ^/3 : 2-^3.

=

as

great as the
of which is

of

terms

of the series the rth term

(2r-f-l)2'\
is 20. Find the sum of 2n terms of a series of which every the term before it, and every odd term a times c times before it, the first term beingunity.
even

term the term

21.
a, and

If
common

Sn denote the

of n terms of a G. P. whose first term sum ratio r, find the sum of SlfS3,/8'5,.../8r2B_1.

is

22.
whose

If Sv JS2, of infinite geometricseries, the sums are S3,...SP first terms are 1,2, 3,..,j2, ratios are and whose common 2' 3' 4
'
* ' '

^Ti
.

respectively, Sp=f(p+ 3).

prove that 23.

If
r
"

"\+ S2+ S3+

1 and

Hence shew

that nrn

shew that and m is a positive integer, positive, + 1. + l)rwl(l-r)"l-r2wi (2"i small when n is indefinitely is indefinitely great.

CHAPTER

VI.

HARMON

ICAL

PROGRESSION.
THE

THEOREMS

CONNECTED

WITH

PROGRESSIONS.

61. Harmonical

DEFINITION.

Three

quantities a, b, c
-

are

said

to

be

in

Progression when

"

"

said of quantitiesare Any number consecutive three Progression when every Progression. 62.
are

to

be
terms

in

Harmonical
are

in

monical Har-

in A

in of quantities reciprocals rithmetical Progression. The

are

Harmonical

Progression

if ", b, c By definition,

in Harmonical
a
"

Progression,

~c^~b^~c'}
.'.

a(b

"

c)

(a b),
"

dividing every

term

by abc,
1111
c

a'

which

proves

the

proposition.
properties are

because interesting chiefly : of their importance in Geometry and in the Theory of Sound of in Algebra the proposition any just proved is the only one of any importance. There is no general formula for the sum number of quantities in Harmonical Progression. Questions in H. P. are generally solved by invertingthe terms, and making use of the properties A. P. of the corresponding 63. Harmonical

48
64. Let then
-

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

To
a,

find the
b be
are

harmonic
two

7tiean

between two
their

givenquantities.
harmonic
mean;

the

H quantities,

-~

11

in A. P. ; 1

I
a~b
2

I
11

I
IV

''11

H~
,,

a+
2ab
a

"'

Example.
Here
common

Insert

40 harmonic

means

between

7 and

6 is the difference

42na term
; then

of

an

A. P. whose

first term

is

; let d

be the

41d ; whence
2 3
-

-.

Thus

the

arithmetic

41
---

means

are

; and

therefore the har-

monic

means

are

3", 2\,...~.
*

65.
means

If

A, G"
a

II and

be

the
we

and arithmetic, geometric, have

a

harmonic

between

b,

proved
+

A
G

~Y~

(!)"

Jab

(2).
(3). v '
ab
7
=

H=^ a+b
_,

Therefore

"

a
Tr =
"

+
"

b
.

2ab a+b
T
=

All

~2

that

is,G

is the these

geometricmean
results
we see

between that
a
=

and

//.

From

. -

G=-~-Jab

,-z-

b-

g-^_

2 Jab

HARMONICA!

PROGRESSION.

49

which
mean mean.

is

if a positive
two

of any
Also from

the arithmetic is greater than their geometric positive quantities

are

and

therefore positive;

the

equation G*--A1I,

we

see

that G

is intermediate

"

G,

in value therefore
means

between A and 11; and it lias been proved that G " II ; that is,the arithmetic, and geometric,

harmonic
order

in between any tioopositive are quantities

descending

ofmagnitude.

in the Progressions afford scope Miscellaneous questions the often solution for skill and ingenuity, being neatlyeffected student will find the following artifice. The special by some

66.

hints useful. If the of an the terms 1.

the
same common same

be added to, or subtracted from, all quantity terms will form an A. P. with P., the resulting difference
terms
as

before. A.P.
be

[Art. 38.]
or multiplied

2.
the with
same a

If all the

of

an

divided A.

by

terms the resulting quantity,

new common

will form

an

P., but

difference.

[Art. 38.]

3.
same same

divided by the or If all the terms of a G.P. be multiplied will form G.P. with the terms a the resulting quantity, ratio as before. [Art. common 51.] If a,

4.

b, c, d... are in G.P.,they are since, by definition,

a

also in continued

portion^ pro-

1
'

bed
in series of quantities a Conversely, by x, aw, xr'2, represented

continued

proportion may
c

be

Example
in H. P.

1.

If

a2, b2, c2 are

in A. P., shew

that

b + c,

+ a,

+ b

are

By addingab
a* + ab + that is

+ ac + bc to each +

term,

we

see

that
+

ac

bc, b2 +

ba + bc + ac,

c'2+ ca + cb

ab

are

in A.P.

+ b)are + a) (c {b+ c)(b+ a),(c {a+ b)(a+ c), + a), by (a+ b)(b+ c)(c

in A. P.

each term .-.,dividing

-.

b+

are
a

A. P.

+
c

+ b + b are

that is, H. H. A.

b + c,

+ a,

in H. P

50 Example
of
n

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

2.
an

terms

of

and s the sum difference, If I the last term, d tlie common A. P. be connected by the equation Sds={d + 2l)2, prove that
d
=

2a.

Since

the

given relation is

true

for any
a
=

number

of terms, put

n=

1 ; then

l=

s.

Hence
or

by substitution,

8ad

{d + 2a)2,

(d-2ay- 0;
=

.-.

"

2a.

Example 3.
p
-

q, q

r,

sth terms If the pth, rth, qth, in G. P. are

we

of

an

A. P.

are

in G.

P., shew that

"With the usual notation

a

have
+

(p-l)d_a

(g-l)d_a+(r-l)d

^V(q^lJd-^T"^l)~d-aT(^l)d
.*.

LAlt-bb-

(4)J'

each

of these ratios

{a + (p-l)d}-{a+(q-l)d\
_ ~ "

{a+ (q- 1)d]

-

\a + (r- 1)d}
-

{a + (q 1)d\
-

{a+ (r- 1)d)

{a+(r 1)d] {a+ {s 1)d\

-

=p-q^q-r
q-r Hence
p
-

'
"

8
s are

q, q

r,

in G.P.

often referred to are 1, 2, 3, 67. The numbers of nth the series is n, and the term natural numbers ; the
the first n terms

as sum

the

of

is

(n+1).
sum

68.

To

find the
sum

of the by
22
+

squares

of

the first n

natural

numbers.
Let

the

be denoted

S ; then
3'
=

"=l2
We and have n3
-

+n2.
-

(n l)a
-

3n2

3n+

1 ;

by changingn into n"l, (n \y (n 2)3 3(" l)2 3(w 1)+ similarly (w 2)3 (71 3)3 3(w 2)2 3(n 2)+
_ _ _

1 ; 1 ;

33-23=3.32-3.3+l;
23-l3=3.22-3.2 13-03=3.12-3.1
+ +

l;
1.

52
70. In
meet

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

to referring

the

results

we

have

just proved
the

it will

be convenient

to introduce a notation which with in Higher Mathematics.

student

will frequently the

We

shall denote

series
1
+

+ n

by

2,n ;
;

1* + 2* + 3* + l3
where which
+

...

+na

by %n*

23 + 33+...
a

+"8by 2n3;
the signifies
sum

placedbefore
is the
1. Sum

term

of all terms

of

that term

general type.
3 + 3 4 +

Example
The wth

the series
1
.

2 + 2

.to

terms.

term=ra(n+l)=n2+";

and

similar form numbers, and

shall have two columns, we the other of their squares.

one

by writing down of consisting

each in a term the first n natural

.".

the

sum

2m2

+ 2?i

_w(m+1) (2m+ 1)
6
T'

n(n

l)

2
)

n(n+l) j2n+l
n(n + l)(n+2)
3

Example
Let the

2.
sum

Sum

to

terms

the series whose

Mth term

is 2'1_1+ 8m3

6m2.

be denoted S
=

by

S ; then

2 2"-1 + 82"i3-62n2 2"

_
"

1
+
-

8m2(m+ 1)2
~~

6m

(m+1)(2m + 1)
6
-

2
=

1
-

4~

2"

1 +"
+

(m+ 1){2m (m + 1) (2m + 1)} n(n + l)(2n2-l).

2'l-l

EXAMPLES.
1. Find the fourth term

VI.

a.

in each of the

series : following

(1) 2, 2J, 3i,... (2) 2, 21, 3,... (3) 2, 2f, 3i,...

2. 3.
Insert two harmonic
means

between between

5 and

11. 2

Insert four harmonic

means

and

"

1"3

EXAMPLES

OX

THE

riiOGltESSlOXS.

53
means,

4.

If 12 and 9:l are the geometric and between two numbers, find them. If the harmonic
means as

harmonic

ively, respect-

5.

between two that 12 to 13, prove the

mean

quantitiesis
are quantities

to their geometric

in the

ratio

of 4 to 9. 6. If a,

b,c be in H. P.,shew
a : a
"

that
=

a +

: a

"

c.

7.

If the iiilh term

m, prove

of

H. P. be

equal to

n, and
m m

the ulh term

n

be

equal to
8. that 9.

that the

term (m + n)th

is equal to

+ n

If the

rth terms of a H. P. be a, b,c respectively, pth, "7th, prove ("j r)be + (r p) ca + (p-q) ub 0.
-

"

If b is the harmonic
1
o

mean

between
111
=
,
-

and

c, prove

that

j"

+
a

"

Find

the

sum

of

terms

of the series whose

nth term

is

10. 13. 16.

3n*-n.

11.
14.

ns+^n.
3" -2".

12. 15.

"("+2).
3 + 2;i2)-4/i:J. (4'l

"2(2"+3).

( i.

If the (m+iy\ (?^+l)th, of an A. P. are terms and (r+ l)th and in the ratio of the common H. shew that P., P., on, ny r are
2

in

difference to the first term

in the A. P. is

"

in G. If I,m, n are three numbers and ?ithterms are of an A. P. whose "th, mth, difference as m-\-\ to 1.

17.

P.,prove that the

in H. P. is to the

first term
common

18.
term

and

If the sum the nature Find the

sum

of n terms of of the series. of

n

series be

+ bu +

find the cri2,

nth

19.

terms

of the series whose

nth term

is

4?i(?i2+l)-(6"i2-fl).
20. If between
two

any

means Au A0; H1, 7/2;shew that

there be inserted two arithmetic quantities means geometric Gly G2; and two harmonic means : II1H.2 Al + A2 : I^ + IL,. 6^0',,
two
=

21.
and

If p be the firstof n arithmetic means between the first of n harmonic means q that the value of q cannot lie between

between the same

two two

numbers,

numbers,

prove

p and

"

J p.
A.

Find the sum 22. of the cubes of the terms of that it is exactly divisible by the sum of the term-.

an

P.,and

shew

54)

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

Piles

of

Shot

and

Shells.

71.

To
on

find
a

the

number

of

shot

arranged in

complete

pyramid
number
in

square

base.

Suppose
the

that each side of the base contains n shot ; then the is n2 \ in the next it is (n"l)2; of shot in the lowest layer shot to a single at the and so next on, up (n-2)2;

top.
.-.

S^n2

+ (n-l)2+ (n-2)2+...

n(n+l)(2n
=

l)

72.

To the

pyramid
number

of shot arranged in a find the number base of which is an equilateral triangle.

n

complete
the

Suppose that

each side of the base contains is of shot in the lowest layer

n

shot ; then

(n 1)+ (n 2)+
-

1 j

xi

that

"

n(n
"

+
"

is,

V"

1)
or
-

1
,

[n
"

n)

In this result write n of shot in the the number

.-.

"

1," 2, 2nd, 3rd,

"

for n, and

we

thus obtain

layers.

S=i($n* + 2,n) + 2) M"(n+l)("

of shot arranged in rectangle.
of shot in the
a

[Art7a]
complete
short side

73.

To

find

the number is
a

pyramid
Let
m

the base and

of which

be the number n of the base. respectively The

m
"

longand
of

top layer consists of

shot ; in the next in the next the layer the layer

singlerow
is 2 is 3

"

(n l), or
"

n+1

number number

(in
"

2); 3);

(in
"

and

so

on

in the lowest

the layer

number

is

(m

"

n).

PILES

OF

SHOT

AND

SHELLS.

55

.-.

S=
=

(m -01

1)+ *2(m-n
...

n)(1+ 2 + 3 + (wi n)n (n+ 1 ) w +

(m
-

2)+ 3(w-w + 3)+ + n)+ (l2 + 22 + 3s + (n+ 1)(2n+1)

+

...

+n(rn-n
+

n)

...

n2)

n(n
=

1){3(m-n) 2n+l}
+

_n(n + l)(3m=

n+

1)
'

find the number 2"yramidthe base of which is

To Let
a

74.

of
a

shot

arrangedin

an

incomplete
sides of the

rectangle.
of shot in the two

and

b denote

the number of

the number n top layer, In the

layers.
of shot is ab ; is is

the number top layer the layer the layer number number

in the next

(a+ 1)(6+ 1); (a+ 2)(b+ 2)\ 1)(b+

1)

in the
and
so on

next

in the lowest
or

the layer ab
+ +

number

is

("+

--

"

(a + b)(n-l)+ ()i-l)2.

.-.

abn abn

(a+ 6)% (n- 1)+ % (n- Vf ("-l)w(a

+

6)
+

(n-l)n(2 .n-l
6

1)

|{6ab

(a+ b)(n 1)+ (w 1)(2m 1)}.

-

75.

In

numerical

examplesit

is

easier generally

to

use

the

method. following

Example. Find courses, having 12

If the
we

the number shot in each

of shot in side of the

incomplete square top.

an

pile of 16

having 11 placeon the given pilea square pile of 27 obtain we a base, complete square pile courses;
number of shot in the

shot in each side of

and

complete pile
=

^
11
x

")'.)30 ;

7 1 .] [Art.

12
"

23
=

also number
.*.

of shot

in the added

pile=

506;

number

of shot in the

=6424. pile incomplete

56

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

EXAMPLES.
Find the number A A A
50

VI. b.

of shot in

1. 2. 3.

square

pile, having

15 shot

in each

side of the base.

4.
and
a

An

having 18 shot in each side of the base. triangular pile, the lengthand the breadth of the base containing rectangular pile, and 28 shot respectively. a side of the base having 25 shot, triangular pile, incomplete
top 14.

side of the

5. An incomplete square side of the base. 6.

there
are

pileof
a

27 courses,

having 40

shot in each

The

of shot in 34 shot in the breadth

number

complete rectangular pileis

of the

24395

; if

base, how

many

are

there in its

? length

7.
and

The

number

in the lowest

of shot in the is 1089 ; how layer

top layer of
many in
a

a pileis 169, square shot does the pile contain ?

8.

Find

the

number

of shot

complete rectangular pileof

of its base.

15 courses,

having 20
the

shot in the

longerside
in
an

9.

Find

number

of shot

of shot in the sides of its upper the number and the number in the shorter side of its lowest 10. its upper What is the number and
6 shot

incomplete rectangularpile, course being 11 and 18, course being 30.

of shot

pilehaving 15
11.
The

in the

to complete a rectangular required of longerand shorter side, respectively,

course? number
a triangular pileis greater by 150 than of shot in a square pile, the number in each of layers find the number of shot in the lowest layerof the triangular

of shot in

half the number

being the same; pile.

12.
courses

Find when

the the
course.

number
number

of shot

in

an

incomplete square
course

pileof

16

of shot in the upper

is 1005

less than

in the lowest

13. number 14.

Shew

that the number

a

of shot in

of shot in a square pile is one-fourth of courses. triangular pileof double the number

the

of shot in a triangular of pileis to the number double of find the number of 175 13 to a square courses as pile ; the number of shot in each pile. shot in

If the number

15.
value lowest of

The iron

value be

of
10s.

triangular pileof

16

lb. shot number

6d. per

cwt., find the

n

is ,"51 ; if the of shot in the

layer.
If from number
a

16.
the same will be number

complete square pileof

of
courses

be formed

just

sufficient to form of shot in its side.

another-

triangular pileof shew that the remaining shot and find the triangular pile,
courses a

CHAPTER

VII.

SCALES

OF

NOTATION.

76.

The

Arithmetic for instance

numbers with which we are acquainted in ordinary of multiples of powers of 10; are expressed by means 25-2 4705
=

10

5;
+

103

102

10

5.
common
or

This method scale. nine The

of

numbers representing
ten

is called the

denary scale of notation, and

is said to be the radix this

of the
are

symbolsemployed in and zero. digits

manner a

system of notation

the

In like
the radix of this scale

expressed by
no.

other than ten may be taken as any number scale of notation ; thus if 7 is the radix, a number 2453 represents 2x73 + 4x7" + 5x7 + 3; and in
6
can occur.

digit higherthan
a

Again
number

in

scale whose for 2r3 is

r +

radix

is denoted
+

2453 in the

stands radix units'

4?,2+ hr denote

3.

More

by r the above if in generally,

the

the scale whose

that

we

the

digits, beginning with

number
so

formed

will be
a

by att, a,, place, represented by

+ a ,rn~1
a

a2,...aj then

rn

+ a

y~~

a/2

a,r + a,
r,

where which

the coefficients a any

one or more

,,...",. are

integers,all less than

be
in
zero.

of

after the first may

are digits r

Hence

in this scale the

number, their values

rangingfrom
77. The

0 to
names

"

1
.

Quinary,Senary, Quaternary, Binary, Ternary, Septenary, Octenary, Nonary, Denary, Undenarv, and Duodenary used to denote the scales corresponding to the values fae", are
twelve three,... of the radix.

58
In

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

symbols undenary, duodenary, scales we shall require which are greaterthan nine. It is unusual to representthe digits to consider any scale higherthan that with radix twelve ; when to denote necessary we shall employ the symbols t, e, T as digits
the
. . .

'

ten

', eleven
'

'

and

'

twelve '.

It is

especially worthy of
for
'

symbol not
78.

notice that in every scale 10 is the but for the radix itself. ten ',

of Arithmetic operations ordinary may be performed in mind that the successive powers of in any scale ; but, bearing the carrying the radix are no longer powers of ten, in determining not divide by ten, but by the radix of the scale must we figures in question. The

Example multiply the

1. In the scale of difference by 27.

eightsubtract

371532

from

530225, and

530225 371532 136473

136473 27 1226235

275166
4200115

Explanation. After the first figureof the subtraction,since we cannot take 3 from 2 we add 8 ; thus we have to take 3 from ten, which leaves 7 ; then 6 from ten, which leaves 4 ; then 2 from eightwhich leaves 6 ; and so on.
by 7, we Again,in multiplying
3x7
we
=

have
one
=

twenty

2x8

5;

therefore put down Next

5 and 7x7

carry 2.
+ 2
so
=

one fifty

6x8

3;

put down
In the

3 and

carry 6 ; and

on,

until the

is completed. multiplication

addition,
3 + 6
=

nine

lx8

l;

we

therefore put

down

1 and

carry 1.
=

Similarly
and
and
so on.

2 + 6 + l

nine=l

8 + +

1;

6+ l + l

eight
=

lx8

0;

Example

2.

Divide

15et20

by

9 in the scale of twelve.

9)15"?"20
lee96...G. Since 15
1 T + 5 seventeen 1 x9 + 8,

Explanation.
we

put down
Also 8
x

1 and T +
e
=

carry 8.
one

hundred
e

and

seven

e x on.

9+ 8 ;

we

therefore put down

and carry 8; and

so

60
Divide N

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

by

r, then
a
n

the remainder
a
71"1

is a0, and
+a0r
+

the

is quotient

r"

rn 2+

...

al.

If this if the next and

so

is divided by quotient quotient until there is

no

r, the

remainder

is ai ;

a2 ;

on,

further

quotient.
determined ax, ag1...anare scale. the proposed
5213 in the scale of
seven.

Thus successive

all the

digits required a0, divisions by the radix of

1.

by

Example

Express

the

denary

number

7)5213

7)7447
7)106.

5 2 1 1

7)15.
2

Thus and

5213

2x74+lx73

+ lx7-

+ 2x7

5;

the number

is 21125. required Transform 21125 from scale

seven

Example

2.

to scale eleven.

e)21125

e)1244T ~e)Gl3.
.-.

0
t

the

number required

is 3t0t.

Explanation.
therefore Next therefore
on

In the first line of work

21
=

2x7+l=fifteen
we

lx"? + 4; carry 4.

dividing by
+ 1
=

put down
=

1 and
+ 7 ;
so

4x7
we

twenty nine
2 and

put
3.

down Reduce

carry 7 ; and

on.

Example

scale ten, and

the verify
r

7215 from scale twelve to scale ten result by working in the scale twelve.

by working

in

7215

f)7215

1
1 0

JL2
80

")874.
t)t^.

In scale of ten

In scale of twelve

12
1033 12

t)10.
1.

.4 .2
J

1 12401
Thus the result is 12401 in each
case.

7 x 123+ 2 x 122+ 1 x 12 + 5 in Explanation. 7215 in scale twelve means The calculation is most readily scale ten. effected by writingthis expression in the form x 12 + 2)} x 12 + 1] x 12 + 5 ; thus we [{(7 multiply7 by 12, and add 2 to the product; then we multiply 86 by 12 and add 1 to the product; then 1033 by 12 and add 5 to the product.

SCALES

OF

NOTATION.

f"l

80.

Hitherto

we

have

only

discussed

fractions may

also be

in any expressed denotes

whole numbers; but scale of notation ; thus 2

5
+
"

"25 in scale ten

"

10
2 "25 in scale six denotes
-=

10*'
5
+

0 2 5
h
"

"25 in scale
thus

denotes

"

Fractions

expressedin
are

form

analogous to
of such

that the

of

ordinarydecimal
scale
r

fractions

and called radix-fractions,

point

is called the radix-point. is

~

The

generaltype

fractions in

"

where
or more

b2, 6a,
...

are

all integers,

less than

r, of which

any

one

may

be

zero.

81. Let F scale. Let

To express be the

in given radix fraction

r

any

proposedscale.

and given fraction,

the radix of the

proposed
the

b
,

be the required b0, b3,... digits beginningfrom

left ; then

FJ-X+bA+b^3+
r

We

have

now

to find the values of

6p b2,63,
r

both Multiply

sides of the rF=b+-2

equation by
+

; then

h-l+

; rF

Hence

blis equalto

the

integral part of
have

and, if

we

denote

the fractional

part by Fx, we

H-i.+J+
Multiplyagain by r\ then,as before,b is the integralpart of rFx; and similarly by r, each of by successive multiplications in the pro the digits be found,and the fraction expressed may
posed scale.

62
If
the

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

in

the
an

successive
can

by multiplications
terminates

products is

integerthe process
be

of the any one at this stage,and

by a finite number of digits. expressed is an integerthe process will never But"if of the products none recur, forming a radixterminate, and in this case the digits decimal. fraction analogousto a recurring

given fraction

13

Example

1.

Express -^

as

radix fraction in scale six. 13x3

13
ft

16x6=-87
a

4 +

7.
8'

7x3

Kj.1
I..1

1
a

lx3

^x6
=

3. 5 13
+

4
.-.

the

fraction required

g
=

Qi

"4513.

Example
We
must

2.

Transform

16064-24 from

scale eightto scale five.

treat the

and integral

the fractional parts separately, '24 5

1*44

5)16064
0 5)2644... 4 5)440... ..3 5)71. 2 5)13...

J"_
2-64

2...1

"_
4-04

5_
0-24 After number this the

digitsin

the

fractional part recur;

hence

the

required

is 212340-1240.

82.

In

any

scale
any
as

of notation of which
number divided divided
alt a2,

of of the digits
same

whole

the radix is r, the sum 1 will leave the by r

-

remainder Let

the whole number the

by

"

1.

denote

number, a0,

an the
sum

with then

that in the units' N

and place,
+ +

S the

of the

digits beginning digits;

aQ

+ +

axr +

+ a2r2

+ arn a"_/,~1

S=a0

ax+a2+
+

an_l + an
+

r.tf-S=a1(r-l)

a2(r"--l)+

""_, (i*-

1)+

",

(f

1).

SCALES

OF

NOTATION.

03
r
"

Now

every

term

on

the iV-S

hand right

side is divisibleby

"

=-

"

an

r-

integer 6

; y

that

is,
r
-

-=/

+
r
-

'

when;

/ is

some

integer j

which
r

proves

tlie proposition.

Hence
sum

number

in scale

will be divisible
r
"

by

?"

"

1 when

the

of its

is divisible digits

by
we

1.

83. that
sum a

By taking ?-=10
number
"

learn

from the

the
same

above
"

proposition
as

divided

by

9 will leave

remainder
as

the

of its nines this The Let

the
on

divided by 9. The digits for testing the accuracy

rule known of

out casting is founded multiplication

property.
rule may
two

be thus be then P^Slac

: explained

numbers

by represented
+

da

b and

9c

-f

d, and

their

productby P;

%c

9ad

bd.

Hence
s?nn

"

has the

same

remainder

as

and -^ ;

therefore

the
same

of

the
as

remainder
on

divided by 9, gives the digitsof /*,when divided by of the when the sum of digits bd,
not

9.

If

trial this should from the

be the case, the

In

must multiplication

have

been

performed. incorrectly
sums

found

of the

practiceb and of the two digits

are

readily
to be

numbers

together. multiplied
Example.
The
sums

Can of the

the product of 31256

of digits the

and

8127 be 263395312

and product are 17, multiplier, multiplicand,

sums
=

again, the 21, and 31 respectively; M 8x3 whence and are 3, 7, 8,

=

thus digits; is incorrect.

we

have

two

these three numbers of the has 6 for the sum 6 and 7, and the multiplication differentremainders,
of the of digits

24, which

If N denote any number in between the difference, supposedpositive, D odd and the even places;then N
84.
"

the scale the

or sums

of'r,and D denote in the of the digit* D is a multiple, of

r+

1.

64
Let

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

an a0, "!, a , then in the units' place; JV=

.-.
a

denote

the

with beginning digits

that

a,r

r2

ar*

+ ,r"-1

r".

Ar-a0 +
the

and

aA-a2 last term

n

a3on

(r+1) + "2 (r2-1)+ a3 (r3+1)+ ...; ...="*,

the
or

right will
even.

be

or aw(r"+l) an(rn" 1)

accordingas divisible by r

is odd

Thus

every

term

on

the

is right

I ; hence
'=

! r

%
+

an

mteo-er.
"

NOW

a0~
.'.

a} +fl2~ CC3+
is an

"^D)

="

integer;

which

proves

the

proposition.
sum

Cor.
the
sum r

If the of the

of the
the

in digits

in the digits D odd places,

even
=

is equalto places N is divisible

0, and

by

1.
1. Prove that 4 "41 is radix is greater than 4.
r

Example
whose Let

square

number

in any

scale of notation

be the radix ; then

4-41 4 +
+

rz

i=(2 -Y;
+

rj

thus the

given number
2.

is the square

of 2*1.

Example
213? Let
r

In what

scale is the

denary number

2-4375 represented by

be the scale ; then

13

2+
whence
"

+
r

2=2-4375=2-^; 16
r=

7r2- 16r-48

0 ; 0.

that Hence

is,
the radix is 4.

(7r+12)(/--4)
=

Sometimes

it is best to
In

use

the

method. following
nonary number

Example

3.

what

scale will the

25607 be expressed

by

101215

The required scale must be less than 9, since the new number appears the greater ; also it must be greater than 5 ; therefore the requiredscale be 6, 7, or 8; and by trial we find that it is 7. must

SCALES

OF

NOTATION.

65 height of
the
area
a

find the By working in the duodenary scale, solid whose volume is 364 cub. ft. 1048 cub. in., and rectangular whose base is 46 sq. ft. 8 sq. in.

Example 4.

of

The

volume

is

which 364-^i?cub. ft.,

in expressed

the scale of twelve is

264-734 cub. ft.

The We
area

is

46^

sq.

which expressedin the scale of twelve is 3"-08. ft.,

have therefore to divide 264*734

by St-OS in 3*08)26473-4(7-e
22*48 36274 36274

the scale of twelve.

Thus

the

heightis 7ft. lliu.

EXAMPLES.

VII. b.
seven.

Express4954 2. Express624 3. Express206

1.

in the scale of

in the scale of five. in the scale. binary

4. 5.
6.

Express1458
Transform

in the scale of three. powers from of nine. soale four to scale five.
398e

Express5381 in
212231

7. 8.
9. 10.

number Expressthe duodenary Transform Transform Transform Transform

in powers of 10. 6"12 from scale twelve to scale eleven.

from from the senary to the nonary scale nine to scale
to the

213014 23861 400803

scale.

eight.
scale. quinary

11. 12.
13. 14.

from the nonary

number Express the septenary Transform

3
ttteee from

20665152

in powers
common

of 12. scale.

scale twelve to the

Express
Transform Transform Transform

"

as

radix fraction in the from

septenaryscale.

15.
16.

17 "15625

scale ten to scale twelve. the

200 "211 from

ternaryto the nonary

the
1552

scale.

17. 18.

71*03 from

the

to duodenary
" "

octenaryscale.

the septenaryfraction Express

as

fraction vulgar denary

in its lowest terms.

19.
20.

Find

the value of *4 and of '42 in the scale of scale is the scale is the

seven.

In what In what

denarynumber
denary fraction

182 denoted 25

by 222? by
-0302?

21.

-"

denoted

H. H. A.

66
22. of 24. Find the radix

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

of the scale in which denoted

554

the square represents ? denoted

23. 24.
25.

In what Find

scale is 511197

by

1746335

the radix of the scale in which the numbers 479, 698, 907 are in arithmetical progression. In what ? progression scale
are

by

the radix-fractions

'28 in geometric *16,"20,

212542 The number 26. 17486? denoted be by

is in the scale of

six; in what

scale will it the

that 148'84 is a radix is greaterthan eight.

27.

Shew

perfect square

in every scale in which

is a perfect Shew that 1234321 square in any scale whose radix is always expressed the and that root 4 than is greater by the square ; four digits. same

28.

Prove that 1-331 is three. than greater

29.

cube perfect

in any

scale whose

radix

is

30.

Find
one

which

of the

lbs. must weights1, 2, 4, 8, 16,...

be used to

weigh
31.

ton.

lbs. must be used of the weights1, 3, 9, 27, 81,... which of each kind being used than one not more to weigh ten thousand lbs., but in either scale that is necessary. Find that 1367631 radix is greaterthan seven.

32. 33. 34.

Shew

is

cube perfect

in every scale in which

the

scale a number will be divisible by Prove that in the ordinary formed by its last three digits is divisible by eight. 8 if the number Prove that the square of rrrr in the scale of three consecutive integers.
s

is rm^OOOl,where

any q, r, number N' N be taken in the scale ?*,and a new If any number 35. t he order in shew that the of its digits be formed by altering any way, N and N' is divisible by r 1. difference between
"

s are

36.
divisible

If

by

of digits, shew that it is number has an even number if the digits from each end are the same. r+1 equidistant of digits
a

of the scale St be the sum 37. If in the ordinary the number the of and be the of sum digits JV, 3#2 and "S'2 is a multiple of 3. difference between aS^ Shew down writing

3iV,prove

number that the

38.

is

that in the ordinary scale any number formed by three digits and then repeating them in the same order of 7, 11,and 13. multiple the
sum

In a scale whose radix is odd, shew that of number will be odd if the number be digits any be even. the number 39. 40. If

odd, and

of the if even

be odd, and a number in the denary scale be n down and then repeating them n in the same by writing digits shew that it will be divisible by the number formed by the and also by 9090... 9091 containing \ digits. n-

formed
n

order, digits,

68
86. To

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

find the factorwhich

will rationalise any

mial givenbino-

surd. Case Let

xn and

I.

Supposethe givensurd
=

is

"]a $b.
-

ZJa
yn are
xn ar_ "

x,

?Jb
=

y, and

let

be the

l.c.m.

of p and

q ; then

both

rational.
x
-

Now

yn is divisible by
y"
=

y for all values of n, and

+ +

+xn~2y+ xnSf (x-y) {xn~'

is
+

y""1).

Thus

the

factor rationalising .X'""1 +

xn~2y+ xn~y
"

; y"~l

and

the rational

productis xn

y'\
is pJa
+

Case

II.
n

Supposethe givensurd
have
the xn
"

fjb.

Let x, y,

same

then meanings as before;

x +

(1)
Thus

If
xn
-

is even,

y" is divisible by
-

y, and
-

yn

+ (x+ y) (xn~l xn~2y

xf~*

y""1).

the

factor rationalising

is
+

url-ary +
and
the rational

ay"-'-3r1;

productis x"
odd, x"
+

"

yn.
x

(2)

If
xn
+

is

y" is divisible by
-

y, and
+ yn~'). xyn~2

yn

(x+ y) (xn~x xnSj +

is

Thus

the

factor rationalising

xn~1-xn~2y+
and the rational

+ y"-1; -xyn-2

productis x"

yn.
will rationalise ^/S+

Example
i

1.

Find
i
=

the factor which

^/5.

Let

32,y

55 ;
"

then xb and
-

and y6 are both rational,

-

xe

+ xyi y5) y6 (x+ y) (x5 x*y+ xhj2 xhj3 ;

x

for thus,substituting 32

and

y, the

requiredfactor
14
-

is
5
-

541
-

3223

32
5

53+ 32
13

53

32

53+ 32 53
.

53,
5

14

or

32-9.

55+ 32~. 53-15

6 6
-

32.
2.

53-55;

and the rational

productis

32

5s" 33 =

52 =

SURDS

AND

IMAGINARY

QUANTITIES.

69

Example
as an

2.

Express

("+") \55-9s)
*
a

fraction with equivalent

rational denominator.
i i i
=

To
34
=

rationalise the denominator, which since x4

is

equal

to 5"

-3*, put 52

x,

y ; then

-yA

+ xhj+ xy2+ if') [x y) (x*

-

2
.

12
.

the

requiredfactor is

5- + 52
4

3-* + 5] 3*+ 3~4 ;

4
-

and

the rational denominator

/
i

is 52
i\
/
3

3-* 52 =
2

22.
3\

1
.

12
'

.".

+Vl the

"

V 55+
=

3V

expression

'"

\" i
3

+ 52
"

3^+

5-

3~4 + 3V '
"

13

52 + 2
_

52.3j
.

+ 2.

5,J.34"+2.55.3j + 3t
22

113

_ll + o2.

3j+ 5.32+52.3j
11

87.
how

may

in the ElementaryAlgebra, Art. 277, have shewn We surd. to find the square root of a binomial We quadratic sometimes extract the square root of an expression ing contain-

more

than

two

such surds, quadratic

=

as

Jb

Jc

4-

Jd.

Assume
.'. a +

Ja + Jb + Jc + Jd
Jb
+

Jx
+

Jy

Jz j

Jc + Jd
=

Jxy +
=

Jxz +

Jyz.

If then and
x +

Jxy Jb,2 Jxz Jc, 2 Jyz Jd,

=

if,at the
y
+
z
=

same we

time, the values of

obtained the

x, y,

thus

found

satisfy

a,

shall have
the square
-

root. required

Example.
Assume
.'.

Find

root

of 21

+ 8^/3 4^/15. 4^/5

-

V21 V5
21
-

V3
=

V15
+

slx+ Jy
+ 2

slz\
-

4^5

8^/3 4J15
-

y +
=

Jxy- 2 Jxz 2jyz

=
=

Jyz.

Put

2jxy
it follows that

8JS,
=

2jxl
=

4J15,

"Jo\

by multiplication,
whence

xyz

240 ; that is
=

Jxyz=4s/lo ;
2, "Jz s/5.
+

,Jx 2j3, Jy

And
root is

since these values

satisfythe equation x

y +

21, the required

2^3

2-^/5.

70
88.

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

If J a,

Jh

Jy, then

ivill J a,

"

Jh

"

Jy,

we For, by cubing, ci +

obtain
+

Jb=x3
and
+

3x2

+ 3xy + ^/y

Jy.
have

Equatingrational
a
=

irrational
=

parts,we

x3

3xy, Jb
=

3x2

Jy
+

Jy

.'. a-

Jb

x3
-

3x2

Jy
x"

3xy -y Jy;

that

is,

Ja

Jb

Jy.
Theorem, Chap. XIII.
,

by the helpof Similarly, it may be provedthat if

the Binomial

Ja + Jb
where 89.
n

Jy, then J a

Jb

x-

Jy,

is any

integer. positive
method following the cube be found.
x

By
a

the
"

root of

an

expression

of the form

Jb

may

sometimes

Suppose
then

Ja + Jb Ja- Jb
.-.

Jy

x-

Jy.
(1).

Jtf^b=x2-y
article,
=

Again,as

in the last
a

x3

3xy
from

(2).
and (2). (1)
y in

The

values of
In

and

y have

to be determined

(1)suppose
obtain

that

J a2
a
=

"

b=c;
+

then

for by substituting

(2)we
that

x3

3x

(x2 c);
"
"

is,
If from this

kx3

"

3cx

a.

equationthe

value from

of
y
=

can
"

be determined
c.

by

the value of y is obtained trial,

Note. extraction have

x2

We do not here assume sjx+ sly for the cube root, as in the of the square root; for with this assumption,on cubing we should
a

Jb

and since every term on the rational and irrational parts.

xjx + Sxjy + Syjx + yjyy righthand side is irrationalwe

cannot

equate

SUKDS

AND

IMAGINARY

QUANTITIES.

71

Example.
Assume then

Find the cube root of 72

32x/5.
x
-

sf 72 -'62^5
=

^/y; s/y.
=

^72 + 32s/5
,

By multiplication
that

^5184
-

1024
=

a;2 y ;
-

is,
72
-

"

x'--y
-

(1).
-

Again
whence
From that

32^/5
=

.c3 x3 +

+ Sxy fkcPJy

y^'y;
(2).

72

3.t//
-

(1)and (2)
,

72

x:i + Sx (xar}-3x
=

4);

is,
x
=

18.
=

find that we By trial,

S; hence

o,

and

the cube

root is

3-^/5.
seekhi"

90.

When

the

binomial

whose

cube

root

we

are

consists of two

we surds, quadratic

proceedas follows.

Example.

Find

the cube root of

+ llv/2. 9N/3

we as in the last article, By proceeding

find that

.-.

the

cube required

root

=*J3 ( 1
=

/- J

v/3+v/2.

91.

We

add

few

harder

examplesin

surds.
4

'Example1.
The

Express with rational denominator

4
=
"

NV9-^3

expression

^
-

3fj

33 + 1

(J l)
+

l33 +

l) l) (33-3ri +
~d

iM"i]-33
l +1" + 3 + 1

72
Example
2.

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

Find the square root of

l(x-l) fj2x"i-7x-i.
+

The

expression
=

\{3x
-

3 + 2

+ J(2x

l)(x-4)}

"{(2x l)
+

{x-") +
root is

2jc2x+ l){x-")};

the hence,by inspection,

square

Example

3.

Given

^5

2-23607, find the value

(5

of

J2
numerator Multiplying

J7- 3J5'
by "J2,

and

denominator

the expression

^6-2^/5 2 + ^14-6^/5
2

n/5-1 + 3-^/5

EXAMPLES.
fractions Express as equivalent
1
i L-

Villa.
with rational denominator

1+

V2-V3'

2 A

J2+J3-J5'

3.

1-=.
+ b' + s/a sfa+ s/b

^^ *Ja-l-\/2a+ *Ja +
+ ^/2) (j3 + x/5)(j5

^10

^5-^/3

fi

Find 7.
10.

factor which will rationalise:

i i

#3 -a/2.
N3/3-l.

8. 11.

^/5+ ^/2.
2 +

9. 12.

06+6*.

4/7.

4/5-^3.

SUKDS

AND

IMAGINARY

QUANTITIES.

73

Express with

rational denominator:

16

*/3

17

v8

^4
i"

Find 19. 21.

the square

root

of
+

16-2N/20-2v/28
G +

2N/l3.-". 20.
22.

24+4^15-4^21-2^35.
5-x/10-N/15
+

,/12-^24-,/8.

N/G.

23. 24.
Find

a+36+4+4^/a-4^6-2V3oS
21+3

N/8

N/3
of

(5 Jl

v'24

N/56 +

N/21.

the eube

root

25.
28. Find 31.

10+6

JZ.

26.

38 +

17^5.
+

27. 30.

99-70^/2. 135^3-87^6.

38^14-100^2.
the square
a

29.
of

54^3

41^5.

root

\J%ax +
(l+a2
"

x2.
i

32.

2a

\/3a2
-

2ab
i

b'2.

33. 35.

l + "2 +

a4)2.
6

34.

l+(l-"2)"2.
-

If

-i"
=
"

"j-

find the value of 7"2 + 1 1 ab

lb'2.

36.

If

find S/|z7^ jl'jl y

=

"

the value of 3"t"2

~

5jy

3^-

Find

the value of

V26-15J3

/6 +
1

2V3

5V2-V38T573'
1

V33-19N/32 "_"

39. 41.

(28

10

N/3)2 (7+
-

"2. 40. v/.3)

the value

(26+
of

15

sfzf
-

(26+ 15

N/3)

Given

s/b 2-23607,find lOx/2

=
-

N/10+ N/18
'

N/18 a/3+V5
42. 43. 44.
Divide Find

N/8+ V3
-

V5

x*+ 1 + 3# #2 by
root

1 + */2.
+ 24a2) (b2 ^6* -3a8.

the cube

of 9a62

Evaluate

V^'2-1

when
,

2.r; =

Ja+

-i\'"
,

x-s/x*-\

74

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

Imaginary 92.

Quantities.

Although from the rule of signsit is evident that a have a real square rootletimaginary cannot quantity negative represented by symbolsof the form J- a, J- 1 are of quantities and their in mathematical investigations, frequentoccurrence therefore proceedto explain leads to valuable results. We use such roots are to be regarded. in what sense
is negative, under the radical sign we can no quantity arithmetical a possible consider the symbol J as indicating longer defined be as a symbol which obeys operation ; but justas J a may shall define J" a to be such that the relation J a x Ja a, so we shall accept the meaning to which this J" a x J" a a, and we leads us. assumption When the
=
=
-

It will be found

that

this definition will enable

of under the dominion imaginaryquantities results their use and that through may be obtained which rules, others which as be relied on with as much certainty depend can real of the use quantities. on solely

bring ordinary algebraical

us

to

93.

By definition,
.-.

Jx

J -I

1.

Ja.J-l Ja. J-l^a^l);

(J a
.

that

is,
the
.

J- 1)2
=

a.

Thus the

productJ a J" 1 J" a. imaginaryquantity

It will

may

be

to as regarded equivalent

convenient be found generally by the imaginary character of an expression symbol J- 1 ; thus 94.

to

indicate of

the the

presence

JZjtf Jja2 ( 1)
=

J7 J-T.

always consider that,in the absence of any statement to the contrary, of the signswhich be prefixed may before a radical the positive signis to be taken. But in the use of imaginaryquantities there is one pointof importancewhich
deserves notice.

95.

We

shall

76
Thus in order

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

be equal it imaginaryexpressions may and that the real parts should be equal, is necessary and sufficient the imaginary parts should be equal.

that

two

100.

Definition. the

When the

only in

sign of

differ imaginaryexpressions be said to imaginary part they are

two

conjugate.
Thus
a
"

"

1 is
+

to conjugate

"

1.
'2
-

^2 Similarly
101. The
are sum

3^-1
and

is

to J conjugate
two

J-

1.

the

product of

imayinary conjugate

expressions
For
(

both real.
a

b b

J -\

+a-b
-

J-\
b

2a. a2-

Again

(a+

J- 1)(a
The

J- 1)

(- b2)

a2 + b2.
of the square
root

102. a2
+

Definition.

value positive of each of the

"

of

b2 is called the modulus

a

conjugate expressions
1.

"

1 and

"

103. is

The

modulus

equalto

of the product of two the product of their moduli.

denoted
"

imaginary expressions
and

Let the two Then their

be expressions

by a+bj" 1
"

c+dJ"\.
is
an

product
= =

ac

bd

(ad + bc) J
+

1, which

whose imaginary expression

-

modulus
+

J(ac bd)2 (ad be)2

+ b*"f + Jasc*

a*d* + bs(?

+ b2) + dr) J (a2 (c2

J a2 +

b2

+ Jc2

d2 ;

which

proves

the

proposition.
of
a

104.
it may

If the denominator be rationalised

fraction is of the form

numerator

bj" 1,
the

by

the multiplying
"

and

denominator

by

the

a conjugate expression

"

1.

SURDS

AND

IMAGINARY

QUANTITIES.

77

For

instance
c +
a

dj- 1 (c dJ-\)(a-bJ-\ ) b J=l ~(a + b J~i)(a-bJ-T)

+
ac

bd

+
a

J (ad be)
"

"

b
"

72

ac a

+
+

bd
-i

ad
a'

be
b _"
"

b~

by reference to Art. 97, we see that the sum, difference, and quotient is in each case of two imaginaryexpressions product, the an same imaginary expression of form.
Thus 105. Assume
where
x

To

find the

square
+

root

of a
=x +

J
"

"

1.

J
y
are

V"

s/ 1,

and

real
+

quantities.
+

By squaring, a

bj"\=x2-y2
x2-y2
^!/
=

2xy J

"

1;

real and imaginary therefore, by equating parts,

a

(1), (2);
-

b
+

.-.

+ y2)2 (x2 ff (x2

=

(2xyY

2
=

b ;

2.2

."

xs

if

J a2 +

6"

(3).

From

we (1)and (3),

obtain b2 + 2
a

-*

Ja2+
"

Ja2+ b2-a .""=*" i

.

Thus
Since the
x

the
and

root required y
are

is obtained.

real be
see

and therefore in (3) x2 + y- is positive, quantities, the

+ b-. *Ja2 quantity

sign must positive

before prefixed

Also from (2) we hence x and y must

have

have the same that the productxy must and unlike like signsif b is positive,

sign as

b ;

signsif

is

negative.

78
Example
Assume
1.

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

Find

the square

root of

24

1.

J-

7-

l 21*/=

J-

1 ;

then

-7-24N/Tl
"""

+ 2^N/Tl; -^2-2/2

*2-?/2=-7
2a;?/ -24.
=

(1),

and

49 + 576

625;

.\ar

2/2 25
=

(2).

From

x(1)and (2),

9 and
.-.

16 ?y2=
x=

"3,

?/== "4.
must
#
=
-

Since the

we product xy is negative,
x

take

3, y =
-

4 j
1 and

or

3,
-

?/=

4.

Thus that

the roots

are

"/
-

-3

+ 4

*J
4

1 ;

is,

7
2.

247"TT=
^/
-

"

(3

J ~i).

Example

To

find the value of

64a4.

It remains

to find the value of

\/"*J
-

1.

.".v/ + v/-l
Similarly
-

V-l). "-^(l
+

J J^l=

*
"

(1
-

^ ZI)

.".^"^^[="^(1=1=^31);
and

finally

^-64a4=

"

2a

(1"

^/^T).

SURDS

AND

IMAGINARY

QUANTITIES.

70

106.

The

symbolJ
has

"

1 is often represented by the letter i; but

a

until the student

he quantities

had

littlepractice in the

use

of
"

imaginary
1.
It is

will find it easier to retain the of

symbol J
1
or

useful to notice the successive powers

"

i ; thus

(7-1)^1,
and since each power
see

i*=ij
the by multiplying
now recur. one

is obtained

before it

by

"

we 1, or ?',

that the results must

107.

We

shall

now

which quantities

of the properties investigate of are occurrence. very frequent

; then
-

certain

nary imagi-

Suppose
that
.

^1

x3

1, or
x+

x3

"

0 ;

is,
\

(x
x
"

1 ) (x2 +

1)^0.
+

either

0, or x2
or x

0 ;

-W-3
whence

35=1,
be
shewn

=
.

It may values when

cubed

by actual involution that each of is equalto unity. Thus unityhas three

these
cube

roots,

-l+JZTs
2
two
"'

-1-733
2
~'

of which Let
us

are

imaginary expressions.
these

denote

by

and

ft;
+

then

since

they are

the roots

of the

equation
x2
+
x

l =0.

their

productis equalto unity;

\

that is,
.

that

is,

aft= 1 ; aft a2 ; ft a2,

= =

since

a8

1.

we Similarly

may each

shew

that

ft2.
cube
is thr, square roots of unityby

108.
it other,

Since

of

the

imaginary roots

of thr
1, "d, ""~.

is usual to denote

the three

80
Also
a)

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

satisfies the

x2 + equation
.

0 ;

".

to

w2

0;

that

is,the

sum

of the

three cube roots

to

ofunityis zero.
1;

Again,
therefore

o"2
"

(1)the productof the two imaginary roots of w3 is unity. power (2)every integral
It is useful of
a"

is

unity;

109. it must If 3m
+
-rt"

to

notice and
; and to"

that w3m

the
n

successive he
a

positive

integral powers
n

are

1, to,
3m

if w2; for,
=
"

of 3, multiple

be of the form be not

a

1.
be of the form 3m
+

of 3, it must multiple
n
1

or

2.
n
=

It

dm
om

+
.

1
,

3m
"

+ 1 =to

3m

W
"

o"
3m

.to
3m 2

to. 2

KO
110.
two

+-,
see

+2 =w

w=w

.w=to.

We

now are

of which

has three cube every quantity For the cube of a3 are roots imaginary. that
are

roots,
those
roots

of a7"x of 9
the
are

1, and

therefore
o"

a, ao",

aw2.

the cube Similarly cube root found otherwise the

^9,

^9,

a"2^9, where rule. In

^79is the
taken

ordinary arithmetical
cube
root of
a.

unless future,
to denote

by the stated,

symbol %jawill always be

(9
4.

arithmetical

Example

1.

Reduce

/
,

1 \2
_

to the form
.

A +

Bj

1.

2 +

N/-l
+

The

expression

^4-9
(-5

12^-1

2 +
+

v/:=~l

12N/Jl)(2-V^l)
J-l)(2-J-T) J~l
4 + 1

(2+
-10

+ 12 + 29

2
=

5+W-1;
x3 +

29

/"

which

is of the

requiredform.
Resolve

Example 2.
Since

y3 into
=

three

factors of the first degree.

+

x3 +
.'.

if (x+ y) (x2-xy
=

y2)

x*
w

y9 (x+ y) (x+ toy) (x+ ury) ;

w2=

for

-1, and w3

l.

SURDS

AND that

IMAGINARY

QUANTITIES.

81

Example

3.

Shew
+

(a+ wb
In the

arc) (a+
a

w26 +

toe) a2 + b2 + c2
-

60

ca

ab.

of product

+ wb + arc

and
1 ;
=

+ orb + wc,

the coefficientsof Zr and c2 are

or,

or

the coefficient of be the coefficientsof

.*. ca

w2 + o"4 o"2+ o"

=
-

or

o"

1 ;

and

a"

1 ;
=

(a+

cob+

arc) {a+
that

urb +

wc)

a2 + b2 + c2

be

ea

ab.

Example 4.

Shew

(l+ "-"")'-(l-M+U?)*=0.
Since
+ (1
u-

1 +
-

+ o"2=
-

0, we

have
-

w2)3 (1

wa)3=( 2m2)3 ( 2o"):J

=

-8o"6 + 8a/{ -8 + 8 0.

EXAMPLES.
2 \/~~3 + 3 V3^ Multiply 3 V ^7 Multiply
-

VIII. b.

1. 2.
3.

by by

4 3

*J^3- 5 a/^2.

V^

V^+

V^.

e^-1 +e'^~1by e^_1 -e -V-*. Multiply

AT

A 4.

Multiplya;

IX'

l+V3^
5

by

l-V^
#
=
.

with Express
_

rational denominator
o.

0.

3-V-2
3+ 2

"

"

a/~2~ + 2 *J~-h 3V-2-2V-5

3
,
,

V~l

3-2 2 +

V^l

a+rV^l

a-x"f-i

2-5\/rl
g
+ V-l)a (.f

5V:rl'
ia

a-WisT-i a+a?V^-l"
(a+
+

(W-l)^
.r

V-lja-Cft-V-l)^
w

.v-V-1
11. Find

V-1
-

V-l)a# (a \/-l)2-("-

the value of

+ when 3, ( \/ l)4n

is a
40

positive integer.

12.

Find the square of

Jd +

40

V"-T+ V9

V -?.
(j

H. H. A.

82

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

Find

the

square
+

root

of

13.
16.

-S

ISV^L

14.

-ll-COV17!". a2-l+2a^^l.

15.

-47

8V-3.

-SV^l.

17.

18.

"ab-2(a2-b2)*/^T.
in the form A
+

Express

iB

iy*

ZU"

zu

2-3r

2V3-i\/2' O8
9"*
"

1-T

a
09

+ 3

(^ + ^)2
a
"

("-^)2
a

ib

io

If

1,

co,

g"2

are

the

three

cube

roots

of

unity,
+

prove
4.

24.

(l+co2)4
(1
-

co.

25.

(l-co
-

co2)(l+co-or)

26. 27. 28. 29.

A3

co)(1
5co +

co-

) (1
=

CO4) (1
2co +

co5)

9.

(2 +

2co2)6 (2 + co2)(l-co2
+

5a"2)6
=

729.

(l-co
Prove

to co4)(l-co4 + co8)...

2"i factors

22".

that ""

+yZ
If

2#gZ

(x+y+z)
y
"

(# +
aw

i/a" +

Za"2) (x +y"o2
+

Za).

30.
shew that

x=a+bt

s="co2 Z"co2,

6co,

(1) (2)

xyz=a3+b3.
^-2 +

?/2 + 52

6a6.

(3)
31.
shew that If
ax

a3+y3+s3=3(a3+"3)k
+
+

cy + 62
+

bz c2

X,
be
-

ex

by

az

I", Zu- +
+

ay

gs

if,

(a2

ca

ab) (x2 +y2

=

z2-yz+

zx

xy)
YZXZ-

X2+Y2

Z2-

XY.

84
113.
so /3,

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

In Art.

Ill let the two

roots in

be (2)

denoted

by

and

that -b
a
=

Jb2
-

Aac
' ,

"b-

2a
then
we

P
'

Jb2
"

Aac
_

2a

'

have If

(1)
a

and

(3are
If

(2)
0

results : following under the radical) is positive, b2 Aac (thequantity real and unequal. Aac is zero, a and b2 ft are real and equal,each
the
"

reducing in this

case

to

"

77-

2a

(3) (4)

If b2

Aac is negative, a and

"

and unequal. are ft imaginary

a

If b2

Aac is

perfect square,
the

and

/3are
the

rational and

unequal. By applying these tests quadratic may be determined

Example 1. by
Here Shew
x. a

nature

of

roots

of

any

without

the equation. solving

+

that

the

equation2x2-6a;
=
-

0 cannot

be

satisfied

any real values of

2, b

6, c

"

7;

so

that

"2_4ac=(_6)2-4.2.7=-20.
Therefore the roots 2.
are

imaginary.
+ equation a?2

Example
The

If the for

(k+ 2)x
=

91c= 0 has

equal roots,find

l\

condition

equal roots gives + 2)2 9", (fc fc2_5ft+ 4=0,

(fc-4)(fc-l)=0j
.-.

A, or 1.

Example
are

3.

Shew

that the roots of the

x2
-

equation
r2 =
0

2p3 +p2-q2

2qr-

rational.
The
roots
-

will be rational provided (--2p)2 4 (p2 q2+ 2qr-r2) is a reduces to 4 (q2-2qr+ r2), or But this expression 4:(q-r)2. perfect square. rational. the roots are Hence

, 114.

D. Since

Jb2
-

Aac
'

-b-

a=

?=

Jb2
-

Aac
'

2a

we

have

by

addition
-

Jb2
-

Aac -b2a

Jb2
-

Aac

__M_b
2a
a

0);

THE

THEORY

OF

QUADRATIC

EQUATIONS.

85

and

have we by multiplication
n =

(- b

5 J"~r^) (_. j,/r^-c)

_

4ac
_

c
=

~4a2

(2).

"

the equationin By writing

2

the form
c
'

"
a

these results may

*

also be

expressedas follows.
**
term of the first coefficient

"**" qUadratiC e(luation

the roots is

is

unity,
its

4**5d?

equal t0

the coefficient of

"

with

the product of (ii)

the roots is

equalto

the third term.

not contain the 8nta0"

*"%* """"
115. Since

""""**""
__=a+"
and

"

the

equationar+

a; +

0 may

be written 0 the form 0

+ ap x2-(a+ f])x

(1).

Hence

any
x2
-

quadraticmay

also be

expressedin
roots
=

x + product of (sum of roots)

(2).

we Again, from (1)

have

(x-a)(x-p) Q
=

(3).

We

may

now

form easily

an

equationwith given roots.

roots
are

Example 1. Form
The equation is
or

the equation whose

-

3 and

2.

(* 3)(*+ 2)=0,
""-*6=0.
to
use

When
metnou.

the

roots

are

irrational it is easier

the

following
~"

86 Example 2.
We have Form the

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

equation whose roots

sum

are

2 +

^3

and

^3.

of roots

4,
1;

product of roots
"
.

the

is equation

x-

Ax + 1

0,

by using formula
116.
roots.

of (2)
a

the

presentarticle.
to that used in Example 1 of analogous with three or more form an equation given

By

method
we can

the last article

Example 1.
The

Form

the

equationwhose

roots

are

2,

3, and

required equationmust
:

be satisfied

by
7

each

of the

following positions sup-

#-2=0,
therefore the

+ 3

0,

"--

();

equationmust

be

(*-2)(*+3)(*-|)=0j
that is,
or

=0, [x 2) (x+3) (5a;7)

-

-2a;2 -37a; 5a;3

42

0.

Example 2.
The

Form

the

equationwhose by

roots

are

0, "",

equation has

to be satisfied
x

c
=

0,

a.

x=-a,

x=}

therefore it is
x

(x-J-a)(x a) ( x
-

j
=

0 ;

that
or

is,

(bx c) 0, (x2 a2)

-

bx4

ex3

a~bx- +

a-cx

0.

117.
are

The

results of Art.
to

114

are

most

and they important, connected

roots

sufficient generally In roots of quadratics. but singly, down writing

use

solve should
sum

problems
be made

with
never

the be

such the

the questions

should

considered

of the

by
in terms

of the roots,and

relations tained obtheir product,

of the coefficients of the

If
a

equation.
+ q
=

Example 1.
We

and

/3are

the roots of x--px

0, find the value of

+ /32, + /33. (l)a2 (2)as

have

(2=p,
a
=

a(3 q.
.-.

a2 +

+ /3)2-2a/3 /32=(a

=p*-2q.

THE

THEORY

OF a;{ + ft =
"

QUADRATIC
-

EQUATIONS.

87

Again,

(a2 + p"2 a/3) (a+ /3)

+ /3)a-3a/3] =i"{(a =*(?"- 89).

Example 2.
equation whose

If

a,

p"are
are
"

the roots of the

-

mx equation/.r'-'-| +

7i

0, find the

roots

"We have

sum

of roots

^
=

= ,

a.

ap

product of
.-.

roots

-=1
a

by Art. 115 the requiredequationis

or

+ p~2) " + 0/3 apx2 (a2

-

0.

O
="

As

in the last

example o2+j8B=
n
0

and

a/3
=
_

.*. the

.,

equation

,.

?ji2-2wZ
-= v
"

?i x

is V

x-

it

0,
0,

or

/x-2 (m2
-

x 2nZ)

+ nl

Example
and shew

3.

When

.r

^
if

find the value

of 2x3 + 2x2-7x+l'2

that it will be unaltered

"a

be substituted

for

x.

Form the the

sum

the

quadraticequation whose
=

roots 3 ;

are

of the roots the roots 2.r2

-

17

productof

"

hence
.*.

the equationis
+

6.r+ 17

0 ; vanishes for either of the

2x2-6x

17

is

which quadratic expression

, values

3*5^/-"!
^
m
"

Now

2a* + 2.t2

Ix + 72

+ 17)+ (2.r2C".c
-

(2.r2Cx
-

17) + 4

=xx0+4x0+4
=

4;
of the

which

is the numerical

value

in each of the supposedcases. expression

88
118. ax2 in
+

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

To
+
c
=

find Vie
0 should

condition

bx

the roots of the be (1) equal in magnitude and that

equation

opposite

reciprocals. sign, (2)

The
roots will be
sum

their

is

zero

in signif equal in magnitudeand opposite condition is hence the required

=

0,

or

0. their

Again, the unity ; hence we

roots must

will he have
c
"

when reciprocals

product is

i 1.

or

a.

The

firstof these results is of and second

Geometry,

condition general

in Analytioccurrence cal frequent of the more case a a particular of to applicable equations any degree. is
=

Example. Find the condition that the roots of ax2 + bx + c 0 may but the greater of them negative. both positive, (2)oppositein sign,
b
c
,

be

(1)

We

have

+ B=

"

a8=a

(1)

If the roots

are

both

and positive, a/Jis positive,

therefore

and

have like signs.

Also, since

fiis positive, is negative;therefore b and

"

have

unlike

signs.
Hence and the to the opposite

requiredcondition sign of b.
of

is that the

signsof

ft

and

should

be like,

(2)
a

have

If the roots are unlike signs.

a

is negative, and therefore oppositesigns, a/3

and

Also since
-

and therefore +/3 has the sign of the greater root it is negative,
b and
a

is

therefore positive;
the

have

like

signs.
a

(X

Hence and

to opposite

requiredcondition is that the signsof the sign of c.

and

b should

be like,

EXAMPLES.
Form the
4
.

IX.

a.

whose equations
3
/

roots

are

m
n

n m

p-q

p + q p"y

p+q
6.

4.

7"2N/5.

5.

"2"/3~5.

-p"2s/Tq.

THE

THEORY

OF

QUADRATIC

EQUATIONS. 9. 12.

89

7.
10.

-3"5l

8.
11.

-a"ib. 0, -|. |,

"i(a -b). 2""/3, 4.

-3,
Prove

i. |,
x2
-

13.

that tlio roots of the

2ax

following equations are real :

-

(1 )

+aa

6a

c2
-

0,
-

(2) (a
14. If the values of m. 15.

b+

c)

r-

+4

(a 6).v + (a
15

b
=

c)
=

0.

equationx2values of x2
-

-m(2x-8)

0 lias

equalroots,find

the

For what

will the
+ (1+ 3//0

equation
7

2x

(3+ 2m)

have

equalroots
For what

? value of
m

16.

will the

equation
m
-

x*

"

bx

ax-c

+ 1

have

roots

in sign? equalin magnitude but opposite that the roots of the

2cx +

17.

Prove

rational: are following equations

=

(1) (a+ c-b)x2 +

(b+ c-a)
-

0,
+ 2b'1 0.
=

(2) abc2x2 + 3a2cx +

If
a,

b2ex

6a2 -ab

ax2 + bx + /3are the roots of the equation

0, find the values of

18.
Find

",+".
the value of

19.

aW

aV.

20.

(|-f)2.

21. 22. 23.

a3 + s2
x3
-

+ 22 when 8x +15

.r

1 + 2/.
x
=

Zx2

when

3+

.t-3 ".r2+ 2a2.r+ 4"3 when

-

-=

3.

24.
whose

If

and
are

/3 are

the

roots

of

x*+px+q=Ot
h2
are

form

the

equation

roots

and (a+ /3)2. (a- ft)2

25. 26.

Prove

that the roots of

are

-b) (x a)(.";
"

always red.

I f .'-, x%
,

the roots of

ctx*+bx +

0, find tho value i "f

+ b)-2, + b)-2 + ("xi (1) (axl

(2) (ax^byt+iaxt+b)-*.

90
27.
n

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

Find

times

the condition the other.

a,

that

one

root

of ax2

bx-\-c
=

shall be

28.
roots

If
are

the roots of ax2 and a2 + /32 o~2+/3-2,

(3are

bx +

0, form the equationwhose

the equationwhose Form of the difference of the roots of

29.

roots

are

the squares

of the

sum

and

2x* + 2

(m + n)x
the roots

m2 + n2=0.

30.

Discuss

the

signsof

of the
+ r
=

equation

px2+
119. The

qx

0.

following example

illustrates

useful

application
+ 2x

of the results

provedin Art.
x

113.
x"

11
-.

Example.
can

If

is

real

quantity, prove
as

that the

expression
""

have

all numerical

values except such

lie between
y,
so

2 and

6.

Let the

be represented given expression by a2 +

that

2:r-ll_ ~y; 2(s-3)

have
=

then

multiplying up

and

we transposing,

+ 6f/-ll rr2+2.r(l-?/)

0.

and in order that x may have real values equation, quadratic be or positive; dividingby 4 and simplifying, 4(1 -i/)2-4(Gy 11) must Hence that be positive is,(y 6)(y 2) must be positive. + 12 must ?/2 8*/ ; This is
a
" -

be both positive, the factors of this product must or both negative. In the Therefore former case y is greater than 6; in the latter y is less than 2. have any other value. 2 and 6, but may y cannot lie between

expression example it will be noticed that the quadratic does lie between the roots not 12 is so long as y positive y2 8y + of the corresponding quadratic y2 Sy + 12 0. equation
In this
" "

This is a in the next

case particular

of the

general proposition investigated

article.

the
are

ax2 + bx+c when the the ax2+bx roots same sign a, except of equation real and unequal,and x has a value lying between them.
as

120.

For

all real values

of x

tlie expression

has
+ c

=0

Case

I.

Suppose that

the roots of the

+

equation
be the

ax2
are

bx

0 let
a

real ; denote

them

by

and

and ft,

greater.

92

HIGHER Find the limits between ax2

-

ALGEBRA.
which Ix + 5 Ix +
a

Example.

must

lie in order that

5x2may
_

be
Put

capableof

all

values,x beingany real quantity.

ax1 -lx
io rr

5
=v;

then In order

+ (5-a?/):=0. (a-5?/)a:2-7.r(l-?/)

that the values 49

of

found

from

this

quadraticmay
be

be

the real,

expression

(1 y)'24 (a
-

5y)(5 ay) must

-

positive,
be

that
hence

is,

(49 20a)y2+
-

+ l)y+ (49 20a) must (2a2

positive ;
49
-

+ 1)2 (49 20a)2must (2a2 positive.

be

or negative

zero,

and

20a must

be

Now

is negative or zero, according as + 1)2 (49 20a)2 (2a2 2 (a2 10a + 25)x 2 (a2 + 10a 24) is negativeor zero
-

that is, accordingas

or (a o)2 (a+ 12)(a 2) is negative

-

zero.

is negative This expression as 12, and for long as a lies between 2 and when is zero the expression 20a is positive; such values 49 a = 5, 12,or 2, the limiting values are 2 and is negative when 5. Hence but 49 -20a a = 12, and a may have any intermediate value.
-

EXAMPLES. 1.
the Determine the limits between
2ax

IX. b.
which
n

must

lie in order that

equation (ax+ nc)+ (n2 2)c2

-

may

have real roots.

x

2.

If

be real, prove x
^"2
.774'-

that
1

'-

xl

-5

"

must

liebetween

1 1 and
-

"

bx + 9 3 and

r^

11

3.

Shew

that

-=

"

lies between
+ x+\

for allreal values of

x.

x-

4.
5 and 9.

If

be

real, prove
x

that

sb3 + 34a?" 71
" " "

x1 + 2#

"=
"

=-

can

have

no

value between

5. 6.

Find If

the

equationwhose
roots of the

roots

are

s]a" sja b
-

a,

/3are

x2 equation

"

px+q=0,

find the value of

(1) atitfp-i-fl+ ptfPa-i-a), (2) (a-p)-* + (P-p)-\

THE

THEORY

OF

QUADRATIC

EQUATIONS.
:

!":{ qt prove that

7.

If the roots of ht?+ nx+n=0

be in the ratio of p

8.

If

be
as

the expression real,

2)i and 2m.

r
-

admits

of all values

(x n)

except such

lie between

9. Tf the roots of the equationax2 + 2hx + c=() be a and (3,and those of the equation Ax'ybe a-ffiand fi + 2Ux+C=0 + d,prove that

b*-ae_B*-AC
~~a2
10.
Shew
x
~

A2

'

values when

will be capable of all "5 L 4x* p + 3x is real, providedthat p has any value between 1 and 7.

that

the

expression

"

"

.#4-2

11. 12.

Find

the " greatest value of that if x is

for real values of

x.

2x2 + 3x
n n

Shew

the expression real,

(x2-bc)(2x-b-c)~i
has
no

real values

between

b and

c.

If the roots of ax2 + 2bx the roots of

13.

+ c

0 be

and different, then possible

+ (a+ c)(ax2

2bx

c)

+ 1) (.r2 (ac b2)

-

will be

and vice versa. impossible,

Shew
x

14.

that the is

expression -fl(ox
-

will {-)- ,!
"

be capable of all

a) (ex a)
"

values when *122. theorems

a

if a2 real,

b2 and

c2

"

d2 have

the

same

sign.
miscellaneous will

We and

shall conclude

this

with chapter the

some

examples. It and notation phraseology

with in his mathematical Definition.

will be convenient which student

here to introduce

frequently
whose of X.

meet

reading.
x, and

value

is

Functions

which involves Any expression dependent on that of x, is called a denoted of x are usually by symbolsof

function the form

f(x),

F(x),"f"(x).
Thus
to
a

the

equation y =f(x)
that any

statement
a

be considered as may made in the value of change

equivalent
as

will produce

and vice versd. The quantities x consequent change in ;//, the and y are called variables, and are further distinguished as independent variable and the dependent variable.

94
An value
we

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

which variable is a quantity independent may have any and the corresponding to it, choose to assign dependent
as soon as

variable has its value determined variable is known.

the value of the independent

123.

An

of expression

the form
2

pjs"+ pxxn
where of
n

pjf

pn_ tx + pn

is In

and integer, positive

a

not involve x, is called

x.

rational and

the coefficients plt,plt pa,...pndo algebraicalfunction integral shall confine

our

the

present chapterwe

attention

to

functions

of this kind.

*124. function contains

A of
no

higher power

function is said to be linear when of the variable than the first; thus
x.

it contains
ax

no

b is

linear it

function

is said

to

be

quadratic

when

higherpower of the variable than the second ; thus function of x. of the third, Functions ax2 + bx + c is a quadratic of the degreesare those in which the highest fourth,... power in the last Thus the third, variable is respectively fourth, is a function of x of the nth degree. article the expression
*125.
variables
are x

The and

symbol fix, y) is used

y ; thus
ax

to denote

function
+

of two ey

linear and respectively The

...

by + c, and ax2+ bxy + cy2+dx functions of x, y. quadratic

+
"

+f

quadratic, equations fix) 0,fix, y) 0 are said to be linear, the are as linear, functions ratic,.. quadf(x), f(x,y) according
=

*126. ax2
+

We
c

have

bx
a

admits

proved in of being put

of the

Art. in

120 the

that form
+
a

the bx

expression (x a)(x fi),

" "

where

and
a

j3are

the roots

ax2 equation
+

"

0.

Thus resolved the b2

-

ax2 quadratic expression

=

bx-\-c is

into two

rational factors of the 0 has rational

capableof being first degree, whenever

roots ; that

equationax2 + bx + c iac is a perfect square.

*127.
To

is,when

find the

condition linear

may

be resolved into two Denote the function

=

function ofx,y quadratic factors.

that
a

hy f(x,y) where
c.

+ 2gx+ 2fy+ + by2 f{x, y) axz+'2hxy

THE

THEORY

OF

QUADRATIC

EQUATIONS.

95
to zero;

Write thus

this in

descending powers
+

of x, and
c

equate it
-

ax*

2x

(hy+ y) + by2+ 2fy+

x

in Solvingthis quadratic
-

we

have
-

(h
g
=

" (j)

J{hy+ y)*
a
-

+ 2fy+ c) (by2
,

"

"

"v

ax

hy +

"

Jy2(h* ab)+
J\.r, y)

2y (hy a/)+ (g2 ac).

" -

be the productof two linear may factors of the the radical px + qy + r, the quantityunder hence be a perfect must square ; Now form

in order

that

(kg a/)2 (h- ab){"f ac).

-

and dividing Transposing by abc which

+
" "

a,

we

obtain
"

2fyh af2 by2 required.

ch2

0 ;

is the condition

This *128.

is of great importance in Analytical proposition Geometry. To

find the condition ax2

+

that the ax2

f

equations
c
-

bx

"

0,

b'x +

may

have

common

root.

are Supposethese equations

both
+ +
c
=

satisfied

by

; then

aa.2+ ba a'a2+b'a
.*.

0,

c'

0;
1

by

cross

multiplication
a"
a

be To eliminate
a,

"

b'c

ca

"

c'a

ab'

"

ab

'

equate

square the second of these of the other two ; thus it to the product
a a
'

equal ratios

and

1
'
"

.'.

(ca c'a)2 (be b'c) (ab' ab) (ca ca)2 (be b'c) (ab' ab),
" " "

"

"

which

is the condition

required.
that the
two

It is easy to prove that this is the condition + functions ax2 + bxy + cy2and a'x2 + b'xy quadratic linear factor. a common

c'y' may

have

06

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

^EXAMPLES.
1. For what

IX.

c.

values of

will the

expression
-

y2+ 2xy +
be

2x + my

capableof resolution
2.

into two

rational factors ?

Find the values of

to the equivalent

which will make 2.v2+ mxy + m of two linear factors. product

3y2 5y
-

3.

Shew

that the

expression

alwaysadmits
4.
If the

of two

real linear factors.

equations
x2
+

px

+ q

0,

x2 +

p'x+ q'
=

have

common

shew that it must root,

be either 9-q p-p

p'l'-p'q
nr

q-q

5.

Find

the condition Lv2 + mxy

that the
+

expressions
l'x2 +

ny2,

m'xy-fn'y'1

may

have

common

linear factor.

6.

If the

expression
%a? +
+ 2Pxy + 2y2 2ax
-

4y +

1 must

can

roots

be resolved into linear factors, that P prove of the equation P'2+ 4aP + 2d1 + 6 0.
=

be

one

of the

7.

Find the condition that the

ax2 +

expressions

+ b'y2 2hxy+ by2, a'x2 + 2k'xy

may

be

divisibleby respectively
Shew that in the x2
-

factors of the form

y -mx,

my +

x.

8.

equation
-

Zxy + 2y2

2x

3y

35

0,
of y, and for every

for every real value of x there is a value of y there is a real value of x.

real value

real

9.

If

and y

are

two
+

connected real quantities

-

by
0,

the

equation

9x2 then will

x

2xy +y2
3 and

92.r

20y +

244

lie between

6, and y between
=

1 and

10.
x

10. may
be

If (ax2 + bx + c)y-\-a'x2 + b'x + e' rational function of y.

0, find the condition that

CHAPTER

X.

MISCELLANEOUS

EQUATIONS.

129.
solved require

In

this

chapter
;

equations

to consider propose it will be seen of that many

we

the^l Z
but

some

cellaneous mis-

by
some

the

for quadratic for their solution special artifice

ordinary rules

equJtions, others

3_
_

Example

I.

Solve

8x2n-8x~^=63.

Multiplyby

.r2n and

transpose; thus
i.
-

8xn"

63x2'*-8
L

0; 0;

(a?"-8)(8x^+l)
=
-

1
=

"2n

8,

or--;

8'
2n

"=(*)* "(-p)*;
.-.*=""",
or

A.
^
=

Example

2.

Solve

/-+
V
"

/V
"

6 6a
I

"

.".%+!
=

*
+

""""
3a"
=

+ 2"%2-6a2?/-"2"/

0;

(2ay~")(ty-3a)=0;
6

3a

"2

9a2

4a

'

"l

"a

H.

H.

A.

98 Examples.
We Solve

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

7)(" + 6)(*+ 4) (*-5)(a:-

504.

have

(x2
-

20)(x2
-

42)
-

504 ;

which, being arranged as

quadraticin
-

x2
-

x,

gives
=

(a2 x)2
.-.

62

(x2 x)+

336

(x2-a:-6)(x2-x-56) 0
= =

.-.

X*-X-Q
x
=

0f

or

a2

-a;

-56

whence

S, -2, 8,

-7.

130.

which Any equation ax2

+

can

be thrown bx
=

into the form

"

bx

c +

J ax2 +

q bx
+

may

be solved

as

follows.

Putting y

J ax2 +

c,

we

obtain

Let

and

ftbe

the roots of this bx

+
c
=

so equation,

that

J ax2 +
from these "When
no

a,

J ax2 +bx
four

ft;
x.

we equations

shall obtain

values of

understood to a radical it is usually signis prefixed as hence, if a and ftare both that it is to be taken positive; the original all the four values of x satisfy equation. positive, the roots found from the resulting If however or a ftis negative, the equation will satisfy quadratic

ax2
but not the

bx

"

J ax2 +

bx

q,

equation. original
Solve x2
-

Example.
Add

ox

+ 2

Jx2

5z + 3

12.

3 to each side ; then

rc2-5a; + 3 +

+ 3 2N/^-5a;

15.
=

Putting
Thus

Jx2-5x+3
-

y,

we

obtain

y2+ 2y
S
=

15

0 ; whence

or

5.

*Jx2 5x

+ 3

3,

or

Jx2-6x +

-5. obtain first from the first values

Squaring, and
ic=6
or

we ing quadratics, solving the resulting

:= x^

-1; and from the second

"

^
3

The

pair of

the equation but the second pair satisfies the given equation, satisfies

x2- 5x -2

Jx2-5x +

12.

100
133. The

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

solution of ax4
"

an
"

of equation ex2 " bx

+
a

the form
=

bx3

0,
the

in which and end

the coefficients of terms

are

from equidistant
as

beginning
a

be made to depend on can equal, of quadratic.Equations this type are known because they are and are so named not

the solution of altered when

reciprocal tions, equax

is

changed into
For student
a

its

reciprocal
-

more

completediscussion
"

of

reciprocal equationsthe
=

is referred to Arts. 568

Solve 12a;4
-

570.
-

Example.

56x3 + 89a;2

56.x + 12

0.

Dividingby x2 and rearranging,

12/W-2) -56^+^+89
=

0.

Put

-=z: x

then a;2+
+

"

z2-2;

x-

.-.

12

(z2- 2) -56^
z
=
-

89

0;

whence

we

obtain

or

-=-

1
a;

5
2
x

13 6 13 2
-

By solvingthese equationswe

find that

2,

134.

The
a

equationthough not reciprocal following may

manner.

be

solved in

similar
Solve
6

Example.
We
have

6a;4
-

25a;3+ 12a;2+ 25a; + 6 25

0.

fx (^2+^i)
-

-\+
"

12

0;

whence

6(a;
"

j -25
=

(a;

1+24

0;

.-.

0, (^--^-3

or

fx- -]-8-0;
-

whence

we

obtain

a; =

2,

3,

is obvious by quadratic equation often be readily obtained the other root may by inspection, of the of of the roots use properties quadratic equations making provedin Art. 114.
one

135.

When

root

of

MISCELLANEOUS

EQUATIONS.
-

101

Example.
This is
a

Solve

(1

a-){x+ a)

2a

(1

ar) 0.
=

one quadratic,

of whose

roots

is

a. clearly

Also, since the equation may

2ax- +
-

be written
-

x (1 a2)

(1+ a2) 0,
=
"
"

the

productof

the roots is

and

therefore the other root is

EXAMPLES.

X.

a.

Solve the 1. 3. 5.

: following equations

a-2 -2x~1

8.

2.

9 + a-4
3

10a--'.
1

_J

2jx
2

2x "=51

4.
6.

6a?*~7**-8a7
JL
1

*.

3"+6=5#".

3.f2n-.rri-2=0.
"2*.

7-

""/;+Vj-"* \/S+\/?'
a
i

9. 11. 13. 15.

6x/a=5a

2-13.

10.

1+8.^
5

9^
=

0.

32*+ 9" 10. 3*.

22* +
8

12. 14. 16.

+ 5-*) (5*
=

26.

+ 1

32.2'.

22* + 3-57

65(2*-l).

,/*"+"-*
+ 1) (x 7)(a- 3){x+ 5)(.v
-

^.-#=5A-

17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23.

24.

1 680.

(x+ 9)(x 3)(x

-

7){x+ 5)
-

385.

(2x+

1 )(.v
-

2)(2a 3)
+

63.
91.

(2a-7)(a2-9)(2a
A'2 + 2

5)

"/a2 + 6a
4a +

24

6x.
=

3a2

s/'3xi-4x-6l8.

3a2 -7 + 3
8 + 9

(N/3sa-16a? + 21
= =

16a;. 7a.

J("v-1) (x-2)

3.c2
-

25.

^-2+s/,,,_-5,+3=^:.

102

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

26.
27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35.
36.

W.Y. 7.-^hs"i_c"
x

\*j x
-

j
-

J4x2-7x-lb
+ 4 + "/2^2-9^

"Jx2-3x=Jx2
3

9. 2\x-l\. 0.

J%v-l

J2x2+
-

V2^2+

5^-7

V3(a;2-7a; + 6) J7x2-6x-l
-

+ 2ax-3x2 s/a2

Ja2+

ax-6x2
5a; 9
=

+ 3ao; ^/Sa2

9a;2.

J2x2+
-

bx

V2#2 +
-

1. 13. 1.
a?

x/3^2 2x

+ 9 +

2o; -4 x/3.r2
+

-9a; V2^2-7a;+l ./2a;2

-

"/3^2 7^
-

30
+

7x */2o;2
-

o^ + a?-4o;2
8

a;+l

0.

x*

+ ^x2 9

3x3+3x.

37.

3*+l-3("s+#)=2tf*.

38.

+ 52a;2 10(o7t+l)-63a?(a;2-l)

0.

x+J\2a-x _*Ja+\ x "Jl2a-x sJct-V

-

+ 2a; +

J 'a2
-

4x2
_ ~

bx
'

a+2x,"
"

J a2
-

4a;2

a;
.1 41.

+
-

sjx2 1
-

a; x

1 ^/.r2
-

sjx2
-

a/^2
-

8x

jx2

3x + 2.

42.

"/^+#I |. Jtf-x
=

43.

"".+ ./". a;2-l V

#

44.

2*2: 22*

1.

45.

+ I) (a?* + a*)a. a2*(a2

=

46

^/a?-5 V3a?-7
=

18
' '

(7a; 3)
_

250
"

3a;-7
2

x-b
2
-

2a;+l
1
=

V^+T 3n/7^3

48.
49.

+ 4 (a *)" (a+ a;)3"

(a2 a;2)"3.
-

"/a;2 + aa;-l

Jx2+

bx-l

Ja

K/b.

50.

^B+-"-^El.8a V^'2 \/a'2

#
-

51.

.v4- 2.v3 +

a;

380.

52.

27^

+ 2U- + 8

MISCELLANEOUS

EQUATIONS.
some

108

136.
two

We

shall

now

discuss

simultaneous

equationsof

unknown

quantities.
Solve

Example 1.

x+2+y+S+

J(x+

2)(y+ 3)

39.

+ 3)=741. + (:r + (y+ 3)2 + 2)(2/ (z + 2)2

Put

+ 2

m,

and

y + 3

then
+

u+v

Juv
wv

Sd

(1),
(2),

w2 + v2 +
we hence, from (1)and (2),

741

obtain
u

by division,
-

+ v

Juv

19

(3)
.

From and
or

(1)and (3),

u+t?=29;

Juv
wv

10, 100;
v
=

whence thus

25, or 4;

4, or
or

25 ;

23, or 2; y=l,
.r4 +

22.

Example

2.

Solve

y*=

82

(1), (2).

ar-y=2
Put
then from
#
=

+ t", and

y
v

u-

v;

(2)we

obtain

l.
=

in (1), Substituting

+ (u- 1)4 82; (w+ l)4

.-.

2(m4+ 6m2 + 1) 82;

=

u4 + 6u2-40

0;

whence and
Thus

w2
u=

4, or
"2,

"

10 ;
"

or

"/~10*

x=s,

-l, i"

V^iO;

ysal,-3, -li^-10.
JEa;ampZe3. e
Solve

f^
-

^
"

2A 29

Sx-yx
7x +

y10
=

(1),

5y
-

(2).
=

From

15 (2a;2 + Sxy + y* (1),

.-.
.-.

3z2 +

Axy

y-)
=

38

+ 2xy (3.x2

; y*)

129o;2-29xy-38?/20;
+ 19y)=0. {Sx-2y)(iBx

Hence
or

Sx 43#

2y -19y

(3),
(1).

104

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

From

(3),

y
=

__7x+ 5y
=

29
=

1, by equation (2). 2, y
=

.-.

3.

Again,

from

(4),

y
~

7x +
~
-

5y

19

^43

82 29

-gg,

by equation (2),

551
"*' X~

_1247
,V~
"

82

82

551 Hence
x
=

1247
,

2, y

3;

or

x-

"

11=

-^-

"

Example

4.

Solve

4#3 +

3a;2f/ + ?/3=8,
=

+ "?/2 2z3-2a;2?/

l. Thus

Put

mx,

and

substitute

in both

equations. m3)
=

z3(4+

3m +
+

8 l

(1).

z3(2-2m
"*'

m2)
=
_

(2).
'

4 + 3m + mz 2-2m
+

m2~
-12
=

m3-8"i9+19m
that is,

0;

(/;i-l)(?/i-3) (m-4)
.*.

0;

m=l,

or

3, or 4.

(i)
From and

Take

l, and

substitute in either
#3
=

(1)or (2).

(2),

1;

.*.

l;

y=mx=x=l. (ii) Take

m
=

3, and

substitute in 5:r3 l;
=

(2) ;
3 x=

thus

.*.

\/
3 */

/l
k'-"

3/1
-.

and

vix

3x

(iii)Take7?"

4;

we

obtain

3/ 10.r3=l;
and
.-.
3

x=^-;
/I

mx

4x=4.

/r^.

MISCELLANEOUS

EQUATIONS.

L05

Hence

the

complete solution is *=1,

""=

V5'

To*

1'

s\/l" 4\/^*
always be homogeneous.
may
=

Note.

The

ahove
same

method

of solution

used

when

the

equations are

of the

degree and

Example 5.

Solve

3 lx2y2-7y4- 112^ + 64

(1),

x2-7xy
From
we (2)

4y2+

('2).

have
-

-8

x2-

in (1), Ixy + 4//'; and, substituting

-

+ {x2 Ixy + 3\x2y2 7#4+ Uxy {x2 Ixy + Ay2)

.-.

0; j/")= =

31x-y2
-

7 j/4 +

(x2 Ixy
-

Ay2) (Uxy

x2

Ixy + Ay2)
=

0 ;

.-.

+ 4y2)2-(7xy)2 0; + (x2 Slx2y2-7y*

that

is,
.'.

s*-10sy+9y4=0
0; (x2-y2)(x2-9y2)
=

(3).

hence

x="y,
cases

ov

x=

"3y.
obtain

Taking these

in succession
x
=

and

in (2), we substituting

y="2;

x=-y=" x="3,

^J
y="l\

3"/-17'^=T\/
-

yj

Note. It should be observed that equation (3) is homogeneous. The method here employed by which one equation is made homogeneous by a suitable combination with the other is a valuable artifice. It is especially useful in Analytical Geometry.

Example 6.

Solve

(x+yft+2 {x
-

?/)*
=

{x2
-

y*fi
i i
-

(1).
(2).

3x-2y=13
i

Divide

each term

of

(1)by (x2 y2)

-

or

{x +y)* (x y)r;
i

(x+y\s+2(-~yY=3
\x-yj
\.v+

gj

106

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

This

in ( is a quadratic equation
i

[x

v\a
1
,

from

which

we

find, easily

(x"y-Y 2oTl;
=

whence

^=8
x-y y
=

or

\x-yj

1 ;

.'.

7x

9y,

or

0.

we Combining these equationswith (2),

obtain 13

x=9,

7;

or

-^,y=0.

EXAMPLES.

X. b.

Solve the

: following equations

1.

3x-2y
xy

7,
%).

2.

bx -y

3,
25.

3.

4^-3^ 12^
+

1,
25.

y2- 6#2
=

13y2
=

4.

a,4 + x2"

#y+2/4
xy

931,
19.

5.

x2 +
x
-

ocy

+3/2 84,
=

+y2

=6. *Jxy+y

6.

+
+

Jxy +y
#y

65,

7.

+y

\A?y,

#2

+y2=2275.
=

x2

+y2

l33-xy.
10.
3.r2+ 165
=

8.

3#2-5y2 7,
Zxy
-

9.

5y2-7^
bxy
-

l7,
6.

16.ry,
1 32.

4y2
=

2.

6x2

7^y+ 3y2
=

11.

3x2+xy+y2
Zlxy
-

l5,
45.

12.

#2 + 2x2
-

y2-3
6 +

3.zy,
0.

3x2

-bf

y2
=

13.

.r4+y4=706,
x+y
=

14.

xA+y* 272,
=

15.

^-y5
x-y

992,
2.

8.

x-y

2.

16.

,r+i l,
=

17.

"+"-",
y
3
x

18.

y
4

|+t
=

5.

2
=

5
+
-

5
=

?/+-=25.
11

"e

1.

7;

11

19.

x
11

+y

1072,

20.

xy^+yx^=20,
33

21.
11

#2+y2 5,
=

^3+y3=ie.

^-2+y2=65.

2+y 6(.i?

2)
=

5.

108
Also whence Thus from
we

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

(1),
u
=

+z
or

=13;
7.
"

obtain
we

or

6;
x

have

+ y #?/

7,1
10 \

and

+ ?/=

6,
10

acy

Hence

the solutions

are

x=5,
y
*
=

or or

2, 65

3db\/-l., 2,'| 5,1 y^W^T,

.r
=

or

J
+ (a;

z=l.

Example

2.

Solve

y){x+ z) 30,
= =

+ x) 15, {y+ z)(y

=18. [z+x)(z+y)
Write
m, 1;,w

for ?/+ 2,
viv
"

+ as, a; + y
tvu
=

respectively ; thus
mv
=

30,

15,

18 have

(1).

we these equations together, Multiplying

wVu"2

30
.*.

15

18

15*

62 ;

uvw

"90.
in (1), we equations
v
=

Combining this result

u
=

with
w
=

each

of the
w
=

have

3,

6,
y +
z x

5\

or

-3,

-6, w=-5;

.-.

z=3,\ x $, "
=

y+z=-S,\
or

z+x
x

-d",\
-5,i

+ y

5))
=

+ y

whence

ce=4, y
3.

l,

2;

or

x=-i,
=

y=-l,

"=-2.

Example

Solve

y2+ ys
22 +
z:r

+ 22

49

(1), (2),
:

= + a;2

19

x* + xy + from (1) Subtracting(2)

y2=39

(3).

y2-x2 + z{y -")=30;

that

is,

(y-x){x +

y +

z)

30

(4).

from (1) and (3) Similarly

[z-x){x+y+z)*=10
Hence from

(5).

by division (4)and (5),

y-*-3.
"

"-"

whence

3z-2x.

MISCELLANEOUS
in equation (3), we Substituting obtain

EQUATIONS.

10f)

z*-8xa+8zs=13.
From

(2),
a;="2,

x2 +

xz

z~

19. obtain

Solvingtbese homogeneous equationsas in Example 4, Art. 130, we

z
=

"

3 ; and therefore y

"

5;

or

jc=

"-ts,

2=

"-t^ ;
=

and

therefore

y=T

"

-,

Example

4.

Solve

.t2-yz

a2, y^ -zx
2,
a;

62, z2

"

xy

c2.

by y, Multiplythe equations
c2.r +

and respectively
=

add ; then

+ "2z "2//

0
; then

(1).

the equationsby Multiply

z, x, y

and add respectively 0

b2x + c-y + a*z = From and (2), by (1)

=

(2).

cross

multiplication,
=

~^"c2V^W ^W2
Substitute in any
one

suPP"se'

of the k2
+ (a6
11

given equations; then

b6 + c6
-

1 ; 3a2Z"2c2)
=

a4_^2c2

^4_c2ft2

C4_ai7/j

*Ja*+b*+c*-3a?tP"?

EXAMPLES.

X.

c.

110
9.

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

#VW=8, x*y*zhi=\%
^-3=54, aPy*z=12t

x*yz2u2l, 3xy2z2u24.
= =

10. 11.

.*%322 72.
=

ay+#+y=23,
xz+x +
ij z z
=

12.

4l,
27. yz +

2^-4?+2/ 3yz+y-6z

17,
52,
29.

yz

"xz + 3s + 2#=

13. 14. 15. 16.

xz+y^lz,

x=8z,

y +
=

l2.
+ # +
2 s
=

+ ^3=a3, ^2+y2 + .r3+y3 + ^2+y2+22=3/^

=

22
=

a2,#

a.

2^

+ ."y
+

"2,3.r-# +
=

a*/3.
=

#2+y2-M2 21a2,ys

^-.ry

6a2,3x+y-2z

3a.

Indeterminate

Equations.

138.
:

problem were Suppose the following spends ."461

and each
cow

proposedfor
and
cows;

tion solu-

person horse costs "23

in

buying
how

horses many
cows

if each

"16,

of each does he

buy1?

Let x, y be the number

of horses and

respectively ; then

23a; + Here
we

16^

461.

two unknown equation involving quantities, and it is clear that by ascribing value to we please x, we can any obtain a corresponding value for y ; thus it would appear at first admits of an infinite number the of solutions. problem sightthat of the question But it is clear from the nature that x and y must be positive shall see as we integers ; and with this restriction,

have

one

the number later, If the number

of solutions is limited. of unknown

is greater than the quantities of independentequations, number unlimited there will be an of solutions, and the equations minate. number said to be indeterare In the presentsection we shall only discuss the simplest kinds of indeterminate attention to posiour confining equations, tive values of the unknown will it be seen integral quantities ; that this restriction enables
us

to express

the solutions in

very

simpleform.
in

generaltheory of Chap. xxvi.

The

indeterminate

will equations

be found

INDETERMINATE

EQUATIONS.

Ill

Example
Divide

1.

Solve 7#

12j/ 220 in positive integers.

=

throughout by 7, the smaller coefficient ; thus

x

y+^
x

=31

+ -;

.-.

y+^-~
must

=31
...

(1)

Since

anil y

are

to be

we integers,

have

5y-S
=

integer ; integer ;

and

therefore

l%-9
=

w-2

that is,

%-l+

*-=-= integer; 1/-2

:

and

therefore

integer =p
7p, lp +
2

suppose.

.-. or

y-2
y

(2).

this Substituting

value of y in
.r

(1),
2 +

+
=

7p +

5" +

31;

that

is,

2"-l2p

.(3).

If in these results we giveto p any integral value,we obtain corresponding that x is negative values of x and y; but if p " 2, we see from (3) integral ; is and if p is a negativeinteger, the Thus negative. only integral positive y values of x and y are obtained by putting 0, 1, 2. p
=

The complete solution may

be exhibited
p=
a: =

as

follows

0,
28,

1,

2, 4,
16.

16,
9,

y=

2,

Note.

When

we

obtained

5y-S

we integer,

multiplied by

in order

the coefficient to make by unityfrom a multiple of y differ of 7. A similar artifice should always be employed before introducing a symbol to denote the integer.

Example
Divide

2.

Solve in

14x positive integers,

11// 29.
=

(1).

thus by 11, the smaller coefficient; Sx

x

11

i/-2
+

ir;

3x-7
=

11

integer ;

112

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

12" hence
"

28
=

^
g*

mteger *" integer ;

^
=

that

is,
Qfc
'"

2 +

""

^
"

.-.

integer =_p suppose;

.*. X

\\p+
14p +

"
5

and, from (1),

This
any

"

!
p
x

general solution of the equation, and by giving to value or zero, we obtain positive values of integral integral positive
we

is called the have

and

y ; thus

p
.t

0,

1,

2,

3,

6, 17, 28, 39, 5, 19, 33, 47,

y the number of solutions

beinginfinite.
ways
can

Example 3. In how many

Let
x

"5

be

paidin

half-crowns

and

florins?

be the number

of half-crowns,y the number 5^ +

of florins ; then

4y 200;
=

"""

x+y+\=
x .'
.
.

5";

"

integer

2^ suppose

.*.

x=4p,
y
=

and

50-5p.

Solutions are obtained by ascribing the values 1, 2, 3, ...9; and to p therefore the number is of ways be paid either 9. If,however, the sum may also have the values 0 and 10. If ^ = 0, in half-crowns or florins, p may is paid entirely then x = 0, and the sum in florins ; if p = 10, then y = 0, and is paid entirely in half-crowns. the sum Thus if zero values of x and y are of ways is 11. admissible the number

each

Example 4. The expenses of each woman man paid 5s.,

party numbering 43
6d.,and

2s.

"5. 14s. Qd. ; if were each child Is.,how many were and

there of each? Let x, y, z denote the number then we have

of men,
x

women,
z=

children, respectively;

y +

43 229. 143.

(1),

10.r +

+ 5?/

2z

Eliminating z,
The

we

obtain
of this

8x +

By

generalsolution

equationis x=Sp
y
=

l,

45-8p;

INDETERMINATE in (1), we by substituting

z
=

EQUATIONS.
obtain

113

Hence

5p-3.
may have values integral positive

Here from

p 1 to 5.

cannot

be Thus

negativeor
p=
x-

zero, but

1, 2, 3, 4, 5; 4, 7, 10, 13, 16; 37, 29, 21, 13, 5; 7, 12, 17, 22.
*

2=2,

EXAMPLES.
Solve in
: positive integers

X. d.

1.
4.

3.i +

8y

103.

2.
5.

5#+2y=53.

3. 6.

7.";+12y=152.
4L"; +

l"P+lly=414

23a?+25y=915.

47y

2191.

solution in positive and Find the general integers, the equations of x and y which satisfy :

the least values

7.
10.

5.v-7y

3.

8.

6a?-13y=l.

9. 12.

8#-2ty=33.

I7y-13#=0.
A farmer
and each

11.

19y-23a?=7.

77y-3Qa?=295.

13.

costs "37

spends"752 in buyinghorses and cows ; if each horse cow "23, how many of each does he buy ?
can

14.

In how
zero

including

ways many solutions ?

"5

be

and sixpences, paid in shillings

15. Divide 81 into two and the other of 5. 16.

to pay

parts so that
for

one

may

be

of multiple

What

is the

simplest way
who has

person

who ?

has

only guineas
16,

105. 6d. to another

a

only half-crowns

17. Find
and

number

by
18.

56

remainder

which beingdivided by 39 gives a remainder such 27. How numbers there ? are many

is the smallest number What if the debt of "1. (5s. a 6d., discharge

change is to

of florins that must be given to be paid in half-crowns

only?
divided by 5 of which when 19. Divide 136 into two parts one leaves remainder 2, and the other divided by 8 leaves remainder 3.

20.
at "17
:

of rams at "4, pigsat I buy 40 animals consisting of each do I buy ? if I spend "301, how many

"2, and

oxen

half-crowns which are sovereigns, In my pocketI have 27 coins, how I coins of have 6d. is amount 05. and "5. the or shillings, ; many ? each sort have I 21.
H.
H. A.

CHAPTER

XL

Permutations

and

Combinations.

139.
some or

Each all of
a

of the number

arrangements which
of
or

can a

be made

by taking
by taking

thingsis called
selections which

permutation.
be made

Each
some
or

of the groups all of a number the

can a

of

thingsis called
which
are can

combination.

Thus letters a,

"permutations
d two
at
a

be in

made

b, c,

time

twelve

by taking the number, namely,

ab,

ac, ca,

ad,

be, bd,

cd,
dc ; of two letters. letters

ba,
each of these The
a,

da, cb, db,

a presenting

different arrangement
can

combinations
two at
a

which
are

be

made
:

b, c, d

time

six in number

by taking the namely,

ab,
each of these From

ac,

ad,

be, bd, cd;

letters.

a presenting

different selection of two

this it appears that in of with the number concerned whereas order if from
as

in four

of the

formingcombinations we are only things each selection contains ; forming permutations we have also to consider the which make things up each arrangement; for instance,
we

letters a, b, c, d combination abc, this single

:

make admits

selection of

three,such
the

of

being arranged in

following ways
and
so

abc, acb, bca, bac, cab, cba,

givesrise

to six different

permutations.

116

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

1 ways ; then be filledup in n can these ways, the second place be associated and since each way of filling up the first placecan of ways in the number of filling with each way up the second, be filledup is given by the product which the firsttwo places can
-

(n

1).
way,

And the

when third

the first two

placeshave

been
"

filled up

in

any

placecan
number
-

the as before, reasoning be filled up is

n
-

be filled up in h of ways in which

And 2 ways. three places can

(n 1)(n 2).
new

that a thus, and noticing Proceeding with each new placefilled up, and that of factors is the have the number
same as

factor is introduced any

at

stage the number

we

the number in which

of
r

filled up, places

shall

of ways
n

placescan
factors ;

be

filled up

equalto

(n- l)(n" 2)
n

to

and

the rth factor is

"

(r" 1), or
of

"

r+1.
n

Therefore
a

the number

of permutations

taken things

at

time is

n{n- 1)(n- 2)
Cor.
a

(n-r

1).
taken things all at

The

number

of

of permutations
to
n

time is
n

(n 1)(?i 2)
"

factors,

or

n(n
It is usual

Y)(n"2)

3.2.1. the

to denote this

productby

symbol \n,which
for of
,

is

read

"factorial 142. We

n."

Also

n\ is sometimes

used

\n.

shall in future
r

denote

the number

permutations
that

of

taken things

at

time

by

the

symbol nPr

so

"Pr w(w-l)(w-2)
=

(n-r + 1);
notice that the

also In

"P

\n.
of factors in

working numerical examplesit is useful to suffix in the symbol nPr always denotes the number the formula we are using.
143.
a

The

number

of

time Let

may

also be found

permutations of n thingstaken in the following manner.

number of

at

"Pr represent the

r

permutations of

things

taken

at

time.

PERMUTATIONS

AND

COMBINATIONS.

117
t;iken things
r

Supposewe
at
a
'

form

all the

of permutations
.

"

time ; the number

of these will be "P

r"l

each With Each time we

r

of these put
do this
we

one

of the

remainingn
number of the

"

r +

1
u

tilings.

shall

get
-

one

permutation of
+

things

at
n

time;
r

and
at
a

therefore time is

the whole

permutations

of

things

nPr_] (n
x

1); that

is,

By writing r"l

for

in this

formula,we

obtain

"P_1 '^r_2x(n-r-f2),
=

similarly,

'P

'Pr_a (n
x

r +

3),

"P^P.x
"Px=7l.
the Multiply together from each and side,
=

(71 -I),

vertical columns

and

cancel like factors

we

obtain

nPr n(n-l)(n-2)
Example
seats ; in how 1.

(n-r+l).
which

Four

persons ways
can

enter

railwaycarriagein
their ? places

there

are

six

many

they take

The first person may seat himself in 6 ways ; and then the second person in 5 ; the third in 4 ; and the fourth in 3 ; and since each of these ways may is 6x5x4x3, be associated with each of the others, the required answer
or

360.

Example
of the nine Here
we

2.

How

many

different numbers

can

be formed

by using six

out

digits 1, 2, 3,...9?
have 9 different of them taken 6 at
* . .

thingsand
a

we

have

to find the number

of permutations

time ;
=

the requiredresult

9P6

=9x8x7x6x5x4
=

60480.

144.

To
r

find
at
a

the number time. the

of

combinations

of

dissimilar

taken tilings Let Then dissimilar

"Crdenote
each

number required combinations

can

of combinations. consists of of r group in themselves

a

of these

things which

be

arranged among

|rways.

[Art. 142.]

118
Hence

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

"Crx

\r is equal to the number

time ; that
=

of arrangements

of

taken things

rata

is,

*C x\r |
r

"P
r

(n 1)(n
"

"

2)

(n

r +

1);
V
'"

_tt(w-l)(w-2)...(w-r+l)
|r
Cor. form This formula for

nCr may

also be written and

in

different

\n

"

; for if we obtain r we
n

the multiply

numerator

the denominator

by

(n 1)(n
-

2)
\r

...

{n
"

1)

\n

"

The numbers

numerator

now

consists of the
;

productof

all the natural

from

to

\n
.'.

"Cr=.
to

(2).
both numerical it in
have
i
an

It will be convenient

remember

these

for expressions

nCr,using (1)in all cases where a it is sufficient to leave and (2)when

Note. If in formula
we (2) put
r
=

required, algebraical shaj)e.

result is

n,

we

\n

|0' n~jn|_0"
but

nCn=l,

so

that if the formula

as

is to be true for

n,

the

symbol 10

must

be considered

to 1. equivalent

12 books in how selection of 5 be can a Example. From many ways when book is always included, (2) when one one made, (1) specified specified book is always excluded ?

(1)
have

Since the

only

to choose

4 out

book is to be included specified of the remaining 11. of ways

n
=

in every

we selection,

Hence

the number

C4

11x10x9x8
~

1x2x3x4
=

330.

PERMUTATIONS

AND

COMBINATIONS.
to be

119
we

(2)

Since

the
out

book specified of the

select the 5 books

Hence

is always remaining 11. of ways

=

excluded,

have

to

the number

nC6
11x10x9x8x7

1x2x3x4x5
=

462.

145.

The

number

of combinations

equalto the number

In group
n r n
-

of combinations

r at a time of n things of\\ things n r at a time.

"

is

r a

combinations of n things, to each making all the possible of r things there is left we a corresponding select, group of of combinations of n things things ; that is,the number time is the
same as

at
"

the number

of combinations

of

things

at

time ;
.-.

"C =nC
r n
"

The

proposition may
"0
_r

also be

provedas
\n
="

follows

"

"

(n r)
-

[Art.144.1

"

Such
Note.

combinations
Put r=w,

are

called
=

complementary.

then

ttC0 nCn=l.

The

result

we

have

just proved is

useful

in

enablingus

to

arithmetical abridge Example.

Out of 14
The

work.
men

in how

many
=

ways

can

an

eleven be chosen?

requirednumber

14CU

14

13

12

1x2x3
=

364. should have had to reduce each contained 11 factors.

au

If

we

had

made

use

of the formula

uCn,

we

expressionwhose

numerator

and

denominator

120 146.

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

Tojind the number of ways in which m + n thingscan be divided into two groups containing in and n thingsrespectively. of combithe number nations to finding This is clearly equivalent select of ra + n thingsra at a time, for every time we of leave behind. we a group n things one group of ra things
Thus the

required number
1

Ira + h=
ra

\7b in this
one

Note.

If

m,

the

groups
"

are

equal, and
"

case

the number it is

of

\2m
different ways
to of subdivision is two groups
~

[9

for in any
new

way

possible

the interchange

without

a obtaining

distribution.

To jind the number 147. can of ways in which m + n + p things be divided into three groups containing severally. m, n, p things First and
can n

divide

thingsinto two : the number thingsrespectively

ra

groups of ways

m containing

in which

this

\m
be done is
-r=

n+p n+p of n+p things group and p things n containing respecthe

\m

Then
can

the number

of ways groups

in which

be divided

into two

\n+p
is tively
n

p the subdivision is
n

Hence groups

the number

of ways
n, p

in which

into three

containing m,
m

thingscan
n+p
x
, ,

be made
\m
+

n+p
n

]"

in

\n

-, 5

or

\p

Ira \n

\p
regards
occur

J3wi
Note.
as

If

we

put

?i=p

m.

we

obtain

"

r=-|

"

hut this formula

groups 13 such of is
can

different all the possible orders in which ~th.e three mode of there And since subdivision. one are any
to

in
responding cor-

orders

each

mode

of

the subdivision,
can

number be made

different ways
-

in

which

subdivision into three equal groups

The

"

771

|3ot r^f r^ 771 m |3

"

"

Example.
three

number
is
,---

of ways

in which and

15 recruits

can

be divided into
in which

115

equal groups

the number

of ways

they

can

be drafted into three different regiments,five into each, is

-_"

5 [6 J [6

I15 Hr
"

PERMUTATIONS

AND

COMBINATIONS.

121 notice

148.

In the

exampleswhich

follow

it is
not

important to
be used been
a

that the formula

for 'permutations should

until the

suitable selections required by the

have question

made.

Example 1. From 7 be formed; in how many

Englishmen and 4 Americans

can

this be done, (1) when ways 2 ? at least Americans 2 exactly Americans, (2)

committee of 0 is to the committee tains con-

(1)

"We have to choose

2 Americans

and

Englishmen.

be chosen is 4C, ; and of ways in which the Americans can The number of ways in which the Englishmen can be chosen is 7C4. Each of the number be associated with each of the second ; hence the first groups can of ways = 4C2x 7C4 the requirednumber

li
=

\1
210.

|~2"[2X TTJ3
17

'J^
(2)
The committee contain

|2|2|3
may

2, 3, or

4 Americans.

"We shall exhaust

and containing2 Americans 4 Americans and lastly The number

sum

all the suitable combinations by forming all the groups 4 Englishmen ; then 3 Americans and 3 Englishmen; and 2 Englishmen.

of the three
=

of ways

give the answer. + 4C4 x 7C, *C2x 7C4+ 4C3x 7(73

17
X

results will

Hence

the

required

|4
+
TK

17
X

17
1
X

2 [2 1
=

TTT^

rl-^+

[4 j_3 j_3 |3|4

=

[2)5
suitable formulae for

210 + 140 + 21

371. of the

have only to make use we with the concerned not for are we combinations, themselves. of the committee members among
In this

Example

possible arrangements

of the

made

and 4 vowels, how many Example 2. Out of 7 consonants and 2 vowels? each containing3 consonants The

words

can

be

is 7C3, and the of choosingthe three consonants of ways number is since each of the first 2 the vowels and of ways of choosing number *Ca; of number combined the the be associated with each of second, groups can and 2 vowels, is 7C3x 4C2. 3 consonants groups, each containing

Further,each of these
among

groups

contains Hence

which letters,

may

be

arranged

themselves

in

[5ways.
of words
=

the

requirednumber

7C3x 4C2x Jo
"

~|3|4X[2]2X
=

5x|7
r

25200.

122
many that the vowels occupy the

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.
be formed
out

Example

3.

How

words
even

can

of the letters article, so

places?

and the 4 consonants Here we have to put the 3 vowels in 3 specified places, 3 done in the be 4 first in the can remaining places operation ; 1 ways, and the second in
4 1
.

Hence

the requirednumber

of words

=|3x[4
=

144.

is In this Example the formula for permutations because by the statement of the questionthere is but vowels, and one way of choosingthe consonants.

immediately applicable, one way of choosing the

EXAMPLES
1.

XI.

a.

In how many ways can a consonant the letters of the word courage?

and

vowel be chosen out of

and 8 candidates for a Classical, 7 for a Mathematical, are the In how Natural Science 4 can a Scholarship. ways many be awarded? Scholarships

2.

There

for

3.

Find

the value of

8P7, 25P5, 24"74, 19CU.

can

different arrangements 4. How many of the letters of the word equation ? of If four times the number number five times to the equal find n. 3 together,

be made

by taking 5

5.

is

of n things 3 together permutations 1 things of permutationsof n

"

6.

How

the word with e ?

can permutations How of triangle? many

many

be made these will

of the letters of beginwith t and end

out

be made different selections can 7. How by many different How numbers ? the digits 1 3, 4, 7, 5,8, many ? with four of these digits 8. If

taking four
can

of be formed

2nC3 : nOj
=

44

3, find n.
be rung
with
a

9. 10.

How How

many

changescan changescan

pealof
a

5 bells ? tenor

many alwaysbeinglast ?

be rung with

the pealof 7 bells,

how many nightsmay crew 24, so that no two watches be taken? would any one man

11.

On

of

watch of 4 men be drafted from a of these identical how ? On are many

a

12. How arrangements can be made out of the letters of the many wrord draught, the vowels never ? beingseparated

124
30.

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

boat is to be manned An eight-oared by a crew chosen from 11 but canand the rest can row cannot but not steer of whom 3 can row, men, of the be if the crew arranged, two steer. In how many ways can men can only row on bow side? that the number be placedin a negative signs may be together is p + 1Cn. 31. Prove of ways in which two so that no row and n positive shall signs negative p

32. 33.
may

If

56Pr +

54Pr+

30800

1, find

r.

ently 6 differbe made by hoisting different signals How can many them of number above the other,when coloured flags one any be hoisted at once ?

34.

U^C2r

225 24C2r_4
=

11, find r.
we

149. have
some

Hitherto, in the formulae

as regarded or more

been
one

unlike.

Before

proved,the things in which cases considering

be it like, is necessary like and unlike
to

have

sets of

thingsmay

the words are point out exactlyin what sense used. When like, unwe different, speak of thingsbeing dissimilar, be to that the unlike,so as we thingsare visibly imply On the other hand from each other. we distinguishable easily like things alike to denote such as are shall always use the term from each other. For be distinguished to the eye and cannot in instance, be said each but Ex. the 2, Art. 1-48,
a a

consonants

and

the vowels

may

to consist of

and thus in characteristic,

group certain

of

thingsunited

by

common

sense

to be of the

same

kind;

because there is an regardedas like things, which the things of each group individuality existing among from each other. makes them Hence, in distinguishable easily considered each to the final stage of the example we group therefore capable of [5 consist of five dissimilar things and

they cannot

be

arrangements among
150. 12

themselves.

141 Cor.] [Art.

Supposewe
books
on a

have

to find all the

5 shelf,

of them

possible ways of arranging and being Latin, 4 English,

be
to regardedas belonging

the remainder The

one

in different in each
a

languages.
characteristic ; but of other, the number of if

books

languagemay
common

united by class, be

they were
selves them-

from distinguishable would

each

permutations
among

since for the purpose )12, different. essentially

arrangement

they are

PERMUTATIONS

AND

COMBINATIONS.

125

tinguisha If, however, the books in the same language are not disshould have to find the number from each other,we be of ways in which 12 things can alike of when 5 of them are exactly of
a

arrangedamong
one

themselves,
alike, exactly

kind, and

second
cases

kind
we

problem which

is not

included directly

in any

of the

have

considered. previously number

be of ways in which n things may themselves, takingthem all at a time, when p arranged among alike of one kind, q of them exactly of the thingsare exactly alike alike of another kind,r of them exactly of a third kind,and the rest all different. 151.

To

find the

Let there be
to be

b, r of them
x

letters ; suppose p of them to be a, q of them to be c, and the rest to be unlike.

of permutations number required ; then if in the_pletters a were by p replaced any one of these permutations of from the this unlike letters different from any rest, single of of the the without remaining altering position any permutation, if Hence this I could form new we change permutations. letters, p should obtain we x x made in each of the x permutations were \p permutations. Let be the if the q letters b were Similarly, would of permutations number
x
x

by replaced
be

q unlike

letters,

the

\p x

|"7.
letters,

we

the r letters c by r unlike In like manner, by replacing obtain x x \px \q x \rpermutations. should finally But the
are things now

all

and therefore different, Hence

r-

admit

of \n

permutationsamong

themselves.
x
x

\px \qx
r '
x

\n;

that

is,

" "

~.
"

\p\g p
number required in which the of

which

is the
case

permutations.
not

Any
treated

thingsare

all different may

be

similarly.

126 Example

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

different 1. How many assassination taken letters of the word We Hence have here the number

can permutations ? all together

be made

out

of the

4 13 letters of which of permutations

are

s, 3

are

a, 2

are

i, and

are

n.

~|^[3|2j"
=

13.11.10.9.8.7.3.5
1001
x

10800

10810800. be

many Example 2. How 1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, 1, so that the

numbers odd

the digits with formed digits always occupy the odd places?
can

The

odd

1, 3, 3, 1 digits

can

be

in arranged

their four

placesin

l^2ways
The
even

(1)-

2, 4, 2 digits

can

be 13

arranged in their three placesin

y^ ways
Each Hence of the ways in

(2).
of the ways in

(1)can
14
=

the

number required

y^=x--j^

be associated with each 13 6 x 3 = 18. = x

(2).

152.

To

find
each

the number

time, when
times in any Here
we

thing may

of n thingsr of permutations be repeated up once, twice,

the number

at to

a r

arrangement.
have
to

consider

be can places each disposal, any The

filled up when have n we of the n things beingused

of ways in which different thingsat our often

as we

as

in please

arrangement.

it has first placemay be filled up in n ways, and, when been filled up in any one may also be filled way, the second place from using the same not are precluded up in n ways, since we of ways in which the number n2. The third be filled up iswxn or also be filled up in n ways, and therefore the first three n3 ways.

thing again. two placescan

Therefore

the first

placecan in places
stage the

index
we

in this manner, Proceeding of n is always the same the number

nr.

and
as

that noticing of the in which

at any

the number

shall have

of ways

filled up, places be can r places

filled up

equalto

PERMUTATIONS

AND

COMBINATIONS.

127
to 4

Example. In
each

how

many

ways

can

prizesbe given away

boys,when

boy

is

for all the eligible of the

can

prizes?
and then any one of the; ways; since it may be obtained by the two prizescan be given away in Hence the 5 prizescan be given

Any

one

prizescan

also be remaining prizes received has who already boy away in 45, or 1024 ways.

be given in 4 given in 4 ways, a prize. Thus and

so

4a ways, three prizesin 4:! ways,

on.

153.
to

make Each

find the total number selection by taking some

To

of
or

ways

in which

it is possible

all

of \\ things.
ways, for it may either of dealing with any one of

be taken

tiling may be or left;and

dealt with in two

thing may
of the

since either way be associated with either way of selections is

to
case n

with dealing

eacli

one

others,the number
2x2x2x2

factors. all the

But

this includes

the

in which

thingsare

left,

this therefore, rejecting This is often of

n

case, the total number

as

of ways

is 2"-l.

spoken of

"the

total number

of combinations"

things.
of them has to dinner?
A
man

Example.
more

6 friends ; in how

many

ways

may

he invite

one

or

He ways

has to select some is 2s 1, or 63.

-

or

all of his 6 friends ; and

therefore the number

of

This The number

result

can

be verifiedin the be invited

=

manner. following

guests may
of selections

in twos, threes, singly, 6C1+ 6C2+ 6C3+ 6C4+ 6C5+ ""C6 6 + 15 + 20 + 15 + 6 + 1

=

; therefore the

63.

154.

To

findfor what
at
a

value

of

the number

of combinations l)

r of n things

time is greatest.

Since

"C

=^(?l-1)(n-2) (w-r +
1.2.3

2)(n-r
2)

(r-l)r (w-r
(r-1)
+

_n(n-l)(n-2)
1. 2.3
n
"

r r

"C

=nC
.

The which

factor multiplying shews that it decreases

as

may
r

be

written Hence
as

"

1,

increases.

receives

128
the

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

values
71 4-

1, 2, 3
1 becomes

in

is continually increased succession, nGr

or

until
r

equal to 1

less than

1.

Now
r

1^1,
71+1

so

long

as r

"

that

is,

"

"

"

r.

We this

have

to

choose

the

greatestvalue

of

consistent

with

inequality.

(1)

Let

be even,
n

and 1

equalto 2m;
2m +1

then 1

-2
and for all values of
?"

2"
up
=
"

"

+s;
greater than
r.

to
we

?n

inclusive this is find that the

Hence

by puttingr
is "C
n
.

"

greatestnumber

of

combinations

(2)

Let

be

odd, and equalto 2m

n
"

1 ; then
-

2m

2
"

=-5"
r

li

and

for all values

r
-

but when

greater than r ; factor becomes 1 the multiplying equalto 1, and

of up
to
m
mi+I

inclusive this is

*C.=nC
m

:
'

that

is,"C n+
'

-nC
1 7i"l 2

"

and

therefore the number

taken
" "

of combinations
or
"

is

greatest when

the

thingsare
same

^"

at

time;

the result

being the

in the two 155.

cases.

The formula may of

at

time

for the number of combinations of be found without assumingthe formula

things
for the

numbes Let
r

permutations.
the number let the
n

"Crdenote
time; d,
and

of combinations

of

taken things the letters

at

thingsbe

denoted

by

a,

b,c,

PERMUTATIONS

AND

COMBINATIONS. letters remaining

r
-

120
we cm

Take away a; then of combinations "~XC eaeli of of

a
n

with tin1
n"

form

1 letters taken

1 at

time.

With

these write a;
at
a

r tilings

thus we see time, the number

is

the w~lC x\ similarly

,

b is n~xC

and
n
x

so

number for each of the n letters.

that of the combinations of those which contain of those which contain

Tlierefore
r

which those that contain c, and

at
a

time

is equal to the number of combinations "~*Cr_l with those that contain b, contain a, together
so
on.

But

by formingthe combinations will be repeated r times. one

in this manner,
For if instance,

each ticular parr=3, the

amonir

abc will be found anions; those containinga, those containing Hence c. b,and among those containing combination

*c=n-xcr
r
r"

1x-.
i .,

By writingu

"

1 and

"

1 instead of
ni

and
1

respectively,

r-l"
"-2

Similarly,

-V^

^Gr_z

n"

+ 2/~1 2

_n-r

+ \ri

U
".

"

o
;

^i
=

and

finally,
each side ; thus "C

n-r+1C1 "-r

1.
and cancel like factors

the Multiply together from

vertical columns

.n(rc-l)(n-2)
r(r-l)(r-2)

(n-r+l)
1

156.
to make
a

To

find the

total number

of ways
or

in which

it is -possible

selection

some by taking

alike

alike of one are tilings, ivJierenf-p third kind; and so on. ofa The p things of may be disposed
take

all out kind, q alike in p

+ cx+r + qfip of a second kind, r

1 ways

; for

wo

may

0, 1,2, 3,
in
q
+

of disposed
so on.

p "f thorn. \ ways; the

be the q things may Similarly and r things in r+1 ways;

H. II. A.

130
Hence the is number

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

of Avays in which

all the

tilings may

be

of disposed But taken ways

;

(^ + 1)(q+ 1)(r+ 1)
the
case

this includes

in which
case,

none

of the total

thingsare
number of

this therefore, rejecting

the

is
+ .l) + l)fe+l)(r (jp

-1. number
at
a

157.
or

formula general

the expressing

of

tions, permutathe
a

of n thingstaken r combinations, may be somewhat thingsare not all different,

case particular

time,when

complicated ; but
(1)a selection, (2)an
the letters of the

may

be solved in the

manner. following
rangement, ar-

Example.
of

Find four

of ways in which the number from be made letters can

word

proportion.
There In
are

namely o, o,o; 10 letters of six different sorts,

of four these may

p,p;
:

r, r; t;

i; n.

findinggroups

be classified as follows

(1) (2) (3)

Three Two Two

alike,one

different.

alike,two others alike.

the other alike,
two

different.

(4)
(1)
The p, r, t, is

All four different. selection

can

n, can

be taken
can

in 5 ways be made with the single group be made

r, r.

; for each

of the five letters, of the three like letters o.

we

(2) The of the three (3)

3

selection

in

3C2ways
in 3
x

; for

have to choose two out

pairs o,

o;

p, p;
can

This" 3 selections. gives

This

selection
then two selection from

and pairs,

from
can

10 ways ; for we select one of the 5 the remaining letters. This gives30 selections. be made be made in

(1) This
Thus In

6C4ways,

as

we

have

to take 4 different

letters to choose

the six

o, p, r,

t, i,n.

This

gives15 selections. is,53.

the total number

of selections is 5 + 3 + 30 + 15 ; that letters

we

the different arrangements of 4 finding all possible groups. ways each of the foregoing

have to permute in

(1) givesrise to

= ,

or

20

arrangements.

(2) givesrise

to 3

-^=^ or
,

18 arrangements.

rise (3) gives

to 30

-=-

or

360 arrangements.

(4) givesrise
Thus

to 15

j4
,

or

3G0 arrangements.

the total number

of arrangements is 20 + 18 + 360 + 360; that is,758.

132
17.
A

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

and has 5 arms telegraph of the position including positions, ? made t hat be can signals

each

is capableof 4 distinct is the total number rest ; what of

arm

7 persons form a many ways can Americans sit down and 7 7 Englishmen ways two Americans beingtogether? 18.
In how
can

ring?
at
a

In how many round table, no

a a

of money from to draw a sum possible a a a a sovereign,half-sovereign, florin, shilling, crown, bag containing and a farthing? penny,

19.

In how

many

ways

is it
a

20.

From

3
can

cocoa

and nuts, 4 apples,

of fruit

be

made,

takingat least one

oranges, how many of each kind ?

mn dividing

tions selec-

21.
n

Find

the number

of different ways

of

thingsinto

equalgroups.
22.
be made 4 flags of different can signals by hoisting when any number of them may be hoisted above the other, one with 5 ? ? How flags many How many

colours
at
once

of permutations which can 23. Find the number ? the letters of the word series taken three together

be formed

out of

in a plane, There are p points three of which are in the same no line with the exception of q, which are all in the same straight straight of of which result the number find (1) straight lines, (2) triangles line; them. from joining

24.

25. There plane with the

how many

pointsin space, no four of which are in the same of q, which all in the same are exception plane; find the there each three of are planes containing points.
are

26. number

There of ways

are

in which

different books,and p copiesof each; find the be made from them. a selection can
can

of selections and of arrangements that 27. Find the number made by taking4 letters from the word expression. of 4 letters 28. How many permutations letters of the word examination ?
can

be

be made

out of the

of all numbers 29. Find the sum greaterthan 10000 formed in any number. usingthe digits no digit beingrepeated 1,3,5, 7,9, Find the sum of all numbers greater than 10000 formed in any number. using the digits beingrepeated 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, no digit

by

30.

by

If of p + q + r thingsp be shew that the total number different,

31.

and alike,

and q be alike, of combinations is

the rest

(p + l)(q+l)2r-l.
32. Shew that the number of permutationswhich be formed can from 2n letters which are either a's or 6's is greatest when the number of a's is equalto the number of Z"'s. 33.
them
a

If the

-f 1 numbers

a,

b,c, d,

prime number, prove that the number ambcd is (m + 1)2W" 1. expression

be all different, and each of of differentfactors of the

CHAPTER

XIT.

Mathematical

Induction.

158. demonstrated

Many

find mathematical

formula? are not important mathematical easily quently frewe by a direct mode of proof; in such cases it convenient of proofknown to employ a method as

induction, which
1.

we

shall
to
"

now

illustrate.
the of the cubes

Example

Suppose

it is

required
is

prove
^"
" "

that
.

sum

of the first n natural

numbers

equal

to

'Jin

We
as

can

when

is true easilysee by trial that the statement 3 and from this we or or 2, re=l, might be ;
was

simple cases,
n

such

led to

that conjecture
terms
are

the formula taken

;

true

in all

cases.

Assume

that it is true when

that is,suppose
13 + 23 + 33+
to

itteims=|H(;t+1)j3.
each side ; then
\-

Add

the

term, ("+ l)th

to

that

is,(n+ 1)3to

13 + 23 + 33+

+ 1 terms

=jn^2+1^| +(n+iy
=

{n+

l\ iy-('j+n
+

(n+l)8(na+4n+4)
4

\(n -\
which is

l)(K + 2))\
2
we

'

of

the

same

form

as

the

result

assumed

to

be

true

for

terms,

take we words, if the result is true when n when it is true number we that be, a may when 3 terms it is true are that but increase that number see we by one; taken ; it is therefore true when 4 terms taken ; therefore it is true when are is true universally. the result Thus 5 terms are taken; and so on.
+ 1 taking the certain number

place of n ; in other of terms, whatever

134 Example
x

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

2.

To

determine the

productof

binomial

factors of the form

a.

By

actual

we multiplication
=

have
x3 +
=

(x+ a)(x+ b)(x+ c)

(a+

b+

+ c)x2 + (ab b+
c

bc +

ca)x

+ abc ;

(x+a) (x+ b) (x+ c)(x+ d) x*+(a +

+ + + (ab

d)x3 cd)x~
+ abed.
:

ac+

ad + bc+ bd +
x bed)

+ (abc

abd + acd +

In these results 1. The number binomial factors on

2.

we

laws hold observe that the following

on

of terms the left.

the

rightis

one

more

than

the number

of

of the number is the same of x in the first term as the index is one less than binomial factors ; and in each of the other terms that of the preceding term. The index The coefficient of the firstterm is unity; the coefficient of the second is the sum of the letters a, b, c, ; the coefficient of the third two these letters taken is the of the of at a time; term sum products taken three at of their the fourth is the the coefficient of term sum products the of all letters. is the product a time ; and so on ; the last term 3.
term

Assume

that these laws hold in the

=

case

of

1 factors ; that
...

is,suppose
,

(x+ a) (x+b)... (x+ h)

where p1

x71'1+p1xn~2 + +p.2xn~3 +p.ixn-i

a

+p"n^

+ b + c+
ac

...h;
...

p.2= p3
=

ab +

+ ah + bc + bd+
;

abc + abd+

pn_x

abc...h. factor
+

Multiplyboth

sides

by

another

k ; thus

(x + a) (x + b)
=

...

(x + h)(x+ k)
+

xn +

+ k)xn~l (px

(p.2 +pxk)xn~*
"+
c

xn~3 (p3+ pJc)

+...

+l^n-xk.

Now

^i +

+ A;:=(a
=

+ " ..+/*)
n

sum

of all the
b+

letters a,
+

b,c,...k;

k (a+ p.2+p1k=p.2+
=

...

h)
two
at
a

sum n

of the

taken products
...

time of all the

letters a, b, c,

k;
.

p.A+p.2k =p3 + k
=

(ab+

ac

ah + bc +

.)
a

sum

of the
n

productstaken
...

three at

time

of all

the
=

letters a, b, c, all the

n

k; b,
c,

2?n_1A* productof

letters a,

k.
...

MATHEMATICAL

INDUCTION.
when

135
are seen

If therefore the

laws of

hold
n

?t-l But
we

factors havo

multiplied together
that they hold
also

they
case

hold
of 4

in the

case

factors.

factors; therefore
so on

factors ; and

; thus

they hold for 5 factors; therefore they hold universally. Therefore

in the for 6

[x+ a) (x+ b) {x+c)

where

...

(x+ k)
n

x11 +

,VU_1
...

+ S.Axn~* + Stfp-*

8n

S^the
"So=

sum

of all the of the

letters a, b, c
two

Js;
at
a

the

sum

products taken

time

of these

letters.

Sn=the product
159. Theorems

of all the

letters.

to divisibility relating may

often

be

blished esta-

by
Example.
values of
n.

induction.
Shew

that .-cu-l is divisible by x-1 xn-l

z'l-1-l
=

for all positive integral

division By J
if therefore xn~l But x'1
-

xn~l ^

"

x-1
1 is divisible

x-1

by

1, then
x3
-

x*

1 is also divisible
-

by

1.

1 is divisible
1 is divisible

by
-

1 ; therefore
so on

1 is divisible

x4,
-

by^r 1,and
of the
same

; hence

the

by x propositionis established.
in the

1 ; therefore

Other examples Theory of Numbers.

kind

will be found

chapter

on

the

1G0.

From

the
to

foregoingexamples
induction
cases can

it will be be

seen

that

the

only
which the

theorems admit

which

of successive numbers

applied are those correspondingto the order of

n.

natural

1, 2, 3,

EXAMPLES.
Prove

XII.

by
+

Induction
5+
+

1. 2.
3. 4.

1+3

(2n-l)
+

n2.

l2 + 22 + 32+
2 + 22 + 23 +

n2=i?i(n+l)(2tt+l).
=

+ 2"

2(2'l-l).
ton terms
=
"

T~o

+ o~q 1.22.33.4

q-~T

-^ n+1

5.
even.

Prove

by

Induction

that

.rn

"

yn is divisible by x+y

when

is

CHAPTER

XIII.

Binomial

Theorem.

Positive

Integral

Index.

161.

that by actual multiplication (x+ a)(x+ b)(x+ c){x+ d) x* x4 + (a+ b + c + d) x3 + (ab + ac + ad + bc + bd + cd) + (abc x + abed + abd + acd + bed) (1). It may

be shewn

We

may,

however, write
of which

down of the from

this result

completeproductconsists
each
one letters,

is formed which

by inspection ; for the "of partial of a number sum products four by multiplyingtogether
of the various four factors. If
we

being
the
see

taken

each the

examine

formed, we

in way that

partialproducts are
letter
x

(1) the

term

x4 is formed

by taking the
are

out

of each

of the factors.

(2) the
out

terms

x3 involving

formed

of any in every factors, way letters a, 6, c, d out of the remainingfactor.

three

by taking the and one possible,

letter

of the

(3)the
out

terms

x2 involving

are

formed way

of any two factors, in letters a, b, c, d out of the

every

by taking the and two possible,

letter

of the

(4)the
out

terms
one

remainingfactors. formed by taking the x are involving

three of the
letters a,

letter
out

of any

and factor,

b, c, d

of

the

remainingfactors. (5) the term independentof

d.
.

is the

productof

all the letters

",

b,c,

Example
=

1. x4 +

(-

2 + 3
+

2)(x+ 3) (x 5) (x+ 9) 5 + 9)z3 + (- 6 + 10 -18 -15 (30 54 + 90 135)x + 270

(x
-

+ 27

-45) a2

x4 + 5a;3

47."c2 69z
-

+ 270.

BINOMIAL

THEOREM.

POSITIVE

INTEGRAL

INDEX.

137

product (x 3) 5)[x 1)(x 2)(x 8). The terms involvingx* are formed by multiplying togetherthe x in any and two of the numerical three of the factors, out of the two requantities maining factors ; hence the coefficient is equal to the sum of the products 8 taken two at a time. of the quantities 3, 5, -1,2,
-

Example

2.

Find

the coefficient of x* in the

(*+

Thus

the

coefficient required
=

-15 -39.

+ 3-

G + 2-1- 5 + 10-40-

2 + 8-

10

1G2.

If in
we

of equation (1) x4

the

article preceding

we

suppose

b=c=d=a,
The

obtain

(x+ a)4
=

iax*

6a V

4a3as+ a4.

of deducing a case exemplified particular result is of in one more a general frequentoccurrence often Mathematics for it that it is to more happens ; easy prove than it is of to it. a a case general proposition particular prove shall in the next article employ the same We method to prove Binomial known as the a formula Theorem, by which any binomial of the form x + a can be raised to any assigned integral positive method here from power. 163. To

find the expansion of (x+ a)nivhen

the

is

positive

integer.
Consider

expression
(x + a)(x+ b)(x+ c)

(x+ k),
the continued

the number The the

n

of factors

beingn.
this
+

of expansion
a,
x

is expression

productof

x + k, and b,x + c, every term in the plying is,of n dimensions, being a productformed by multiexpansion of factors. taken from each these n n one letters, together x + factors,

The letter
x

highest power
from
terms

of
n

is xn, and

is formed

by taking the
letter
...

each of the

factors.
are

The from from

xn~l involving of the

formed
one

by takingthe

remainingfactor ; thus the of the letters a, final product *is the sum
The from
terms
"

any the

n"\

and factors,

k of the letters a, b, c, coefficient of xn~1 in the

b, c,

k;

denote

it

by^.
xn~2 involving 2 of. the
are

formed
two

by takingthe

letter
...

any n from the two remaining factors ; thus of the the final product is the sum
a,

and factors,

of the letters a, b, c, the coefficient of xn~

k in

b, c,

...

k taken

two

at

time; denote

productsof it by S2.

the

letters

138
the And, generally, letter
...

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

xn~r are formed by taking involving and r of the letters the r x factors, any k from the r remainingfactors ; thus the coefficient of a, b,c, of the products of the letters is the sum x"~r in the final product denote it by Sr. a, b, c, ...k taken r at a time;
terms
"

from

of the

The

last term

in the

productis abc
+

...

k;

denote

it

by Sn.
S
n

Hence
=

+ b)(x + c) (x+ a)(x

(x+ k)
+

xn

Sxn~l
12

SjxT* +

"""

" x"~r
r

...+S
n"

,x 1

In the
same

$j the
as

number

of terms

is

; in

S2 the
of
n

number

of terms
at
a

is

the number

of combinations

things2
so

time ;

that is, nC2; in S3 the number Now "Ca: suppose S, becomes

=
...

of terms

is

nC3; and

on.

b, c, k, each equal to a; then "C\a2: S0 becomes "Cjf: and so on:

+ + "C^aV"3 + + nC2a2xn~2 nClaxn-1
we
. . .

Sl becomes
thus
+

(x+ a)n

xn

"Ca" ;

for *Clt substituting nC2,

...

obtain

(x+a)n
=

x"

x"+naxn

"

"-i

l+

n(n"l) \ r-^oV
"
"

n(n
"_"

"

J+

v1

\)(n"2) /v l
"

a3xn 3+...
n

"

"

an,

the

series

n+ containing

1 terms.
on expression

This is the Binomial Theorem, and the is said to be the expansion of (x+ a)*. 164. The Binomial
we can

the

right

Theorem find

may the

also be

proved as

follows

By
x

induction
x

a,

b, x

c,

...x

can

then 165.

deduce The

the

product of the n factors in Art. 158, Ex. 2; we + k as explained of (x+ a)n in Art. 163. as expansion

expansionof (x+ a)" are very expressedby the symbols "C,,"C2,nC3, nCn. conveniently We however, sometimes further abbreviate them by omitting shall, (7,, C2,C3, Cn. With this notation we have n, and writing + C3a3xn~3 + C2a2xn~2 + + Ca\ (x+ a)n x" + Cxaxn~l
coefficients in the
... ...

...

If

we

write
=

"

in the

placeof

a,

we

obtain

(x-a)n
=

x"

+ Cn(-a)n C\(-a)xn-l + C2(-a)2xn-2+C3(-a)3xn-3+... + C"a2xn-2 + C,axn~l C,a3xn~3

-

xn-

...

(- IYG
\

a\
n
"

Thus

the

terms

in the

the same, but in (x a)'1 numerically they are is positive and the last term and negative, or
-

expansionof (x+ a)nand (x a)nare alternately positive according negative

as

is

even

or

odd.

140

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

Example
The

1.

Find

the fifth term

of

(a+ 2a;3)17.

requiredterm

=17C4a13 (2a;3)4
17.16.15.14 xl6ft13.T12 1.2.3.4
=

38080a13 x12.
of (3
-

Example
The

2.

Find

the fourteenth term

=

a)15.

requiredterm

(3)2 ( a)13 15C13 15C2x(-9a13)

-

[Art.145.]

945a13.

167.
of Art. of
a.

The of

form simplest This

of the binomial
from

theorem the

is the

pansion ex-

(l+x)n.

is obtained

163, by writing1 in the

Thus

placeof x, and
+ + "Crxr

formula general in the place x

+ (1+ x)n l+HCix+ "C2x2

=

..+

"Cxn

1 the

n(n-\)
+
nx

"

^
"

2
~

zr"i

ar +

4+

r"

'

1.2
term being general

n(n"l)(n"2)
The upon the

(n-r+ 1)
tb

,
.

expansion of
case

binomial

may

in which

the first term

always be made is unity ; thus

to

depend

{x+

yyJ(X(i+l)J
=

where + z)n, xn(l

V
z
=
-

Example

1.

Find

the coefficient of a;16 in the

of (as22a;)10. expansion
-

We

have

(1 a;20 (a;2 2a;)10

-

2\10
-

and,
this

since a;20multiplies every term

in the

of ( 1 expansion

J
"

we

have

in

expansion to
the

seek the coefficient of the term

=
-

which contains

Hence

coefficient 10C4 required ( 2)4

10
.

7 xl6

1.2.3.4
=

3360.

In

some

cases

the

method following

is

simpler.

BINOMIAL

THEOEEM.

POSITIVE

INTEGRAL

INDEX.

141

Example Suppose
The

2.

Find

the coefficientof xr in the in tlio (p +

term. l),h

expansion of

./"-

that xr

occurs

term (p + 1)"'

(iY *CP (x-)n-i"

nCp x"'1-*".
2*1
=
"

But this term

Thus the

contains

xr, and therefore 2n-5p

= =

r,

or

requiredeoellicient nCiJ nCo,l_,.

5 n

g(2n-r)(3n +
=

?")

n
-

"

i'
"

Unless

"

is a positive there will be integer

no

term

xr containing

in

the expansion.

1G8. the of

In Art.
n

163

we

deduced

the

expansion of (x+ ")"from

...

productof proofthere

factors

(x+ a)(x+ b)

givenis valuable
Theorem
seen

of the results obtained. the Binomial It will be

to obtain

should in

(x+ k),and the method in consequence of the wide generality But the following shorter proofof be noticed.
that
a

Chap. xv.
of the b
+ c+

similar method

is used

the

term general

of expansion

(a+
161). The To prove

)".

the Binomial

Theorem. each product of n factors, in the expansionis of n dimensions, n letters, by multiplying together Thus each term the

is expansionof (x+ a)'1

equal to x + a, and every term being a productformed

one

taken

from

each of the

factors.
out

involving

x"~rar out
terms

is obtained

of the

of any r of the factors, and x by takinga of remaining n r factors. Therefore the number
"

of ways the coellicient in which r things be selected out of n ; that is, can in and by givingto r the values 0, 1, 2, 3, of xn~rcC is "6'r, n of Hence coefficients all the terms. succession we obtain the

which

involve x"~rar must

be

equalto

the number

...

(x+ a)n
=

xl

4-

+ nC,,xn-"-a2 + mCJX*-1a
.

+ nCrx"-ar

...+

a",

since

*C0and

"C
n

are

each

equalto unity.

142

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

EXAMPLES.

XIII.
:

a.

Expand
1.

the

binomials following
2. 5.

(#-3)5.
(l-3a2)6.

(3^+ 2y)4.

3. 6.

{Zx-yf.
(1-^j/)7.

4.

{a?+x)\

"""
Write

g*-js)'- (H'nclown and The

The
: simplify

12-

NT
of of

13. 15. 17.

4th term 12th term 4th term

of

(a? 5)13.
-

14.

The The

10th term

(1 2x)12.
-

of

(2# 1)13.16.
-

28th term

(5x+ 8y)30.

(a

\10
+

The

of U

96

J
.

/ 18.
The

b\8
-

5th term

of (2a

-J

19.

The

Vth term

of

^-Y (^'
-

5. 8

20.

The

5th term

of

(
"

V-%
(V^^+^-CV^3^-^)5(2-Vr^)6 + (2+ v/I^^)6.
cV\10 +
-

Find the value of 21. 23. 25.

(x+ s/2y+ (x-j2)\

+ l)6-(N/2-l)6. (v/2

22. 24. of

Find

the middle

term

a
-

\x

^" 26. Find the middle

term

of ( 1

""
-

j
"

27. 28.

Find Find

the coefficient of a.18in L'V2+ the coefficient of x18 in

(axA bx)9.
-

29.

Find the coefficientsof x32 and #~17 in ( xA

/ of ( 3a a3\9
"

1\15
-

-g

30.

Find the two

middle terms

BINOMIAL

THEOREM.

POSITIVE

INTEGRAL

INDEX.

1 b3

31.

Find

the term

independent of
of

in

(-x2"

"

32.

Find

the 13th term

Ux

\-\
.

33.

If x*

occurs

in the

of lx+-\ expansion
/

find its coefficient.

1
-.,

\ 3"i

34.

Find

the

term

uf independent

;/;

in f x"

j
,

35.
....

If xp
,
.

occurs

in the

of expansion

( xr+-

1\'-'1
I

prove

that its

co-

\2n
-

eihcient

is

\@n+p) j3(4"-^
170. In the the

from
The

distant of(14- x)uthe coefficients of terms equiexpansion end and are equal. beginning
term (r+ l)th

coefficient of the

from

the

is beginning

"C..
Tlie terms the (n shewn

(r+l)thterm
it;
r +

before
to be

therefore

"

term, l)th

equalto

(r+1),or n-r beginningit is which has been and its coefficient is "Cn_r, 145.] Hence the proposition "Cr. [Art.
from the
n

end

has

1"

countingfrom

the

follows. 171. To

find

the greatest

in coefficient

the

expansion of

(l x)"
+

The

coefficient of the

term general

of

(1+x)"

is

mCrjand

we

have

onlyto find for what By Art. 154, when n

when
n

value of is even,
,,

this is

greatest.
i

the

greatestcoefficient is "Cn;
,

and

is

odd, it is "C
2

or

"C

; these two

coefficients

beingequal.
172. We To
term findthe greatest

in the

expansion of(x + a)".

have
xn

(x+ a)"
=

x"

(l+ -Y ;
term

since therefore,

multiplies every
greatestterm

in ( 1

-j

it will be

sufficient to find the

in this latter expansion.

144
Let The the

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

rth and

(r+l)thbe
1
r

any

two

consecutive

terms.

(r+l)thterm
"

is obtained

the by multiplying

rth term
L

by
_

that

is,by (
\
]
"

)
J

[Art. 166.1 J

Vh +

The

factor
r

decreases

as

increases ; hence the rth term, but

the

term (r+l)th

is not 1

always greaterthan
becomes

only

until

( \

)
J

equal to 1, or less than 1.

/n

+
r

1
1 1

a
-

Now \

"

Jx
x
"
-

"

1 "j

1
.,

so

long as
1
"

that

..

+ r

x
-

is,

1,

or

"

"

"

(1 ).

If

"

"

be 1

an

denote integer,

it

by

j" j then

if

"

]) the

factor becomes term 1,and the (p + l)th multiplying /"th ; and these are greaterthan any other term. 71+1 If
-

is

to equal

the

"

"

be 1

not

an

denote integer,

its

integral part by

q ;

then

greatest value of r consistent with term is the greatest. (q+ 1 )th

the

(1)is

q\ hence

the

Since

term, the in any numerical

only concerned with will be the same investigation

we are

the

numerically greatest

for

(x-a)";therefore

to consider the sign it is unnecessary Also it will be found best of the binomial. of the second term formula. of the general each exampleindependently to work

example

BINOMIAL

THEOREM.

POSITIVE

INTEGRAL

INDEX.

1 to

Example
Denote

1.

If

-,

find the greatestterm

in the

expansionof (1+

the ?""' and

terms + l)tu (/-

then by Tr and Tr"1respectively;

9-r

hence

" T7^.l Tr

9-r
.

4
x

so

long "

as r

-"1;
3

that is
or

36

4r

"

3r,

3G"7r.
r

The greatest value of is the sixth, and its value

consistent with this is 5 ; hence the greatestterm

3i4

243~ Example
2.

Find

the greatest term

in the

when expansion of (3- 2a:)9

(3- 2^

3^1 -2|J; J (2rV

1
" .

"

"

9-r+l

2*
...

Here

-*r+i= 10
"

-~o~xTr, numerically,
-

r X

^r,.; X3 Tr+1" Tr
,

iience

10~r
so
i

2
x
-

long as
r

"

i 1

that is, Hence

20"5r.

have Tr+l"Tr; but if r=4, then for all values of r up to 3, we Thus the 4"' and 5th terms are Tr+x= Tr" and these are the greatestterms. value their other and term, equal and greaterthan any numerically

=3"x"C,x
H. H. A.

f| J =36x

84x8

=489888.

10

146 173.
To

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

find

the

sum

of
=

the

in the expansion coefficients

of(I+x)".
In the

identity (1+ a?)n 1

2*=l
=

+ C3x3 + Cxx+ G2x2

af, Ct

put

1 ; thus
+
sum

+ Cn Cx+ C2 + C3+...

of the coefficients.

Cor. that is "the

C\ + Cg + Cq +
12 3

...

C
n

=T-l;
of
n

'

total number

of combinations

things"is 2"

"

1.

[Art. 153.]
174. To prove
terms.

that in the
terms

the coefficients of the odd

is

of expansion of (1+ x)n,the sum the sum equal to of the coefficients

+ C3x3 + Cxx + C2x2 +

of the

even

In the

(1 identity
1 ; thus 0
...
=

x)n
=

...

C x\

put

+ (74-C6+ l-C1 + a8-(7a 01+c4+ ;.....-01+'Ca + C.+

1
=
-

(sum of
"

all the

coefficients)

2 n-l may also be than two terms.

2xto expand applied

175.

The

Binomial contain
:

Theorem
more

which expressions

Example.

Find the
-

expansionof (xz+
a

l)3.

Regarding2x
= =

term, the expansion single + 3 (a2)2 (x-)3 (2x 1)+ 3a;2(2x l)2 + (2x l)3
-

1 as

x6 + 6a;3+ 9a;4 4c3

-

9a;2 + 6x

"

l, on

reduction.

176.

The
If

example is instructive. following

(1+ x)n c0 + cxx + c#? + + 4c3 + + 3c2 c0 + 2c2 + 2c22 + + 3c32 c12
= =

Example.
and
The series

+cnxn,
+

find the value of

(n+l)cn
+ncn)
+il

+ncn2

(1), (?).

+ c1 + (l) {c0 =2w

+ ?i

c2+

+ + 2c2+ 3c3 cn)+ (cx

Jl +

(/t-l)+v

J_L

2n +

n(l + l)n~1

-2n+w.2"-1.

148
7. Shew
to

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

that
sum

the

equal
8.
even

the

coefficient of the middle of term middle of the coefficients of the two

(l+ x)2n is
terms

of

(1+tf)2"-1.
If A
terms terms of the odd in the expansionof (x + a)n,prove

be

the

sum

and that

the
=

sum

of the

A2-B2

(x2-a2)n.
240, 720,

9.
1080

The

4th terms 3rd, 2nd,

n.

in the

expansion of (x+y)n x2)\

are

respectively ; find x, y,
10. 11. 12. Find Find Find
the the

expansionof (1+

2x

expansionof (Zx2-2ax + 3a2)3.

from
the end in

the rth term

(x + a)n.

(]\ x--j
14.
the In the
terms (r+ 2)th

2n

the expansionof (1+ #)43 find r. are equal;

r

coefficients of the

and (2r+ l)th

15.
of the

Find

the relation between terms (r+ 2)th that the middle of

and

in order that

the coefficients

3rth and
Shew

(l+x)2n may
in the

be

equal.
of

16.

term

expansion

(1 +x)2n is

1.3.5...(2n-l)sn^
hi

If c0, Cj, c2, prove

that ^ +

...

"?n denote

the coefficients in the

expansion

of

(1+x)n,

17.

2^
c,
-

303+
c, 4o24-

+ncn=n.2n-1.
cn
. .

2n
=

1-l
.

18.

c0+i
2

4+

H +

"

n+l

n+\
ncn

io

c.2c2
"

3c8
1
r

n{n+\)
"

iy.

c0 20.

cx
v ,

C2
N ,

cn_x
.

O A

+ c2) (co+ej (Cl

+ cn) (cn.1
=

c,c, -1-2

cn(n+l)H '-

21.

2c0+

"

22c, 23c2 24c, ? i+ + 02 +

"

2n +
"

1cn

3'1 + 1-1
-=-..

-p^ + l

+ l

|2w 22.

c(f+c1+c2+

c"

i7i]^
"

\2n
23. c0cr + CjCr +
j

+ c2cr + 2+

+cn_

rcn

--

=~~
.

CHAPTER

XIV.

Binomial

Theorem.

Any

Index.

177. Theorem consider of

In when

the

last the

chapter
was

we

the index

whether

any formula? there values

investigatedthe positive integer;we

obtained hold

Binomial shall
now case

in the

and negative

fractional

of the index.
one

be reduced to Since, by Art. 167, every binomial may it will sufficient be to confine attention common our type, binomials of the form

to

(1+x)n.
have

By

actual

we evolution,

(1 + xf
and

V 1 +

1+

X2

yr.

x3

by

actual

division, x)~2
=

(1

7^

-x-a=

2x

3x*

ix3

[CompareEx. 1, Art. CO.]

and in each In these of these series the number
cases
we

of terms

is unlimited. obtained
an

have

by independent processes
i

(1+ x)2and (1+ x)~~. expansionfor each of the expressions shall presently that they are of cases only particular prove of where is it (1 + x)n, generalformula for the expansion rational quantity.
This 178. powers
,

We
the any

formula

was

discovered have

by

Newton.

Suppose we
of x, such
m as

two

expressions arrangedin ascending

m
-

(m
v

1)

(m
x

mx+

'x-+
"

1 ) (m
/x

2)

, 'a?+

(I ).

and

l+n.v

"x-+-"] J

K-

a?

(2).

150
The

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

productof
powers of x\

these

two

denote

will expressions it by
+

be

series in

cending as-

1+ Ax
then and
case

+Bx2

Cx3

Dx4
are

it is clear that will

A, B, C,
the values of

; functions

of

and

n,

therefore the actual values of

A, B, C,
m

depend upon
in which

and

in any in that

particular
case.

But

the way combine in other

the coefficients of the powers of a; in (1) and is quite of to giveA, B, C, independent m and words, whatever values in and n may have,A, B, C,
same

(2)
n

preserve the the form of that and

invariable form.
will have

If therefore

we

can

determine

A, B, C,

A, B, C,
n.

for any value of m and n, we conclude form for all values of m the same

here explained is often referred to as an example principle of equivalent forms ; in the present case of "the permanence we the fact that in any algebraical have onlyto recognise product the whether the quantities volved inform of the result will be the same whole fractions are or numbers, or negative. ; positive, of this principle We shall make in the general use proofof for any Theorem index. The the Binomial proof which Ave giveis due to Euler. The
"

179.

To

prove

the Binomial

Theorem

ivhen the index

is

fraction. positive
Wliatever be the value
let the fractional,
,

or or of m, positive negative, integral stand for series the symbolf(m)

(m

1)
"

"

+ mx

"

y" ^
stand n(n

-x-

(m-Y) ' (m v
v

"

2) '

"

s x3+

...

will then.y(n)
-

for the series

"

1 If

nx

l)" '

x2

n(n v

"

l)(n ' v

"

2) '-

x3

"

....

will be series together the product these two multiply of x, whose loillbe another series in ascending coefficients powers unaltered inform whatever m and n may be.
we

To determine

this invariable
are

form of the productwe

most

may

give

to m and n any values that suppose that m and n are

convenient

; for this purpose

is the

expanded form of (1+x)n; and therefore

integers.In this casey(m) positive is the expanded form of (1+ x)m, andy*(?i)

BINOMIAL

THEOREM.

ANY

INDEX.

1.51

f(m) xf(n) (1+ x)mx (1+ a?)"(1+ x)m+\

=

but when

and
-,

are

the expansionof (1+ x)", integers positive

"

(m

n) (m
I
.
"

1)

This

then

is the

form

of the
m

in product of f(m) x/("")

n may be; be denoted hyf(m

cases, whatever

tlie values of

and

and

o# in agreement
+

with

our

notation previous all values

it may
n

n) ;

fore there-

for

ofm

and

/(m) xf(n)=f(m+ n).

Also

/(w) x/(n) x/(^) =/(w

=f(m

") x/( p)
n

+p), similarly.

in Proceeding

tliisway

we

may

shew

that
n

k factors =/("" + f(m) xf(n)x/(j;)...to

+p

+...to

terms).
"="

Let where

each h and k

of these
are

quantities m,

?i, j),

be

equal to

rC

integers positive ;

but since h is

f (h) (1+ x)h integer, positive ;

=

but

y*(y ) stands

for the series

h
,

k\k

.*.

(1

,,

a;)
=

vi

h
,

k \k x

J
/

x-

"

1.2
Theorem

which
index.

proves

the

Binomial

for any

fractional positive

152
180. To

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

prove

the Binomial

Theorem

when

the index

is any

quantity. negative
It has been

provedthat

f(m) x/(w)=/(w*+ n)
for all values
we positive),

of

and

n.

Replacingin by

"

n (wliere

is

have

f(-n) "xf(n)=f(-n+ 7i)

=/(0)
=%
since all terms of the series

except the first vanish ;

"'"

/hr/(-n)'
value positive of n;

for but/(w) (l + x)'\

=

any

or

=/(-*)" (1+ *)""

But

f("n)
1
+

stands

for the series

(-n) x
1

'-f", L 1
=
.

ar

...

(1+ ".)=

(_W) a. +

(rg)"" "

"

*"g"

which Hence

the proves the theorem

Binomial is

Theorem

for any

negative index.

established. completely

181.
not

The
to

appear
now

articles proofcontained in the two preceding and will probably presentsome whollysatisfactory, There is only one the student. point to which

may ficultie difwe

shall

refer.

of terms is finite when iov f(in) the number expression See is a positive and unlimited in all other cases. vi integer, Art. 182. It is therefore necessary to enquire in what sense we In the

BINOMIAL

T11EOUEM.

ANY

INDEX.

153

regardthe statement thaty(m)x/(n)=f(m + n). It a\ ill be seen in Chapter xxi., that when x" 1, each of the series/^/), /(n)i/(m + n) *s convergent,and/(m + ") is the true arithmetical of f(m) *f(n). But when equivalent sol, all these series are and divergent, we can only assert that if we multiplythe series denoted by/(m) by the series denoted by f(u),the first r terms of the product will agree with the first r terms of f(m + n),
are

to

whatever

finite value

may
3

have.

[8eeArt. 308.]

Example

1.

Expand (1
-

to xf2

four terms.

Id-1), ,.J(H(S-)

Example

2.

to Expand (2+ 3a;)-4

four terms.

(2+ 3z)-4
=

^)~4 2-"(l
+

182.

In

findingthe

general term

we

must

now.

use

the

formula

m(w-1)(w-2)

(n-r

l)
x

written when
n

in full ; for the symbol "Cr can is fractional or negative. the coefficient of the
at

no

longerbe employed
vanish unless

Also
one

term general

can

never

of the factors of its numerator

stop
r=oi+

the

rth term, when

n

l ; but since r is a hold except when the index

fore is zero; the series will therewhen is that 1 zero is, n r + ; this equality never can positive integer
"

is

Thus and integral. positive extends

to

the

expansionby the Binomial and is a positive n integer,

other
cases.

Theorem
to
an

w+1

terms

when in all

infinite number

of terms

154

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.
1

Example 1.

Find

the

generalterm

in the

expansion of

(1+x)'\

The

term(r+l)th

"

L"
r

-5)
2rlr The
;

(-2r + 3)

af.

number

therefore, by taking

1 of these are tive is r, and r of factors in the numerator nega1 out of each of these negativefactors, we may
--

write the above

expression

(-i)~1-8-6-""-V
i

Example

2.

Find

the

term general

in the

expansion of

(l-nx)n.

"

The

term + 1)'(r

V"

A"

/
E
wr Ir

" ( "")r
-

!(!-") (l-ar.)
=

(1-F^Un)
_

l(l-n)(l-2n)

(1-r-l.n)

( i)r ( i)r-i
_

(n-l)(2n-l)

(r-l.n-1)^

(n 1)(2" 1)
-

....(^l.n-l)

since

1# (_1)"(_ l)r-i (_ i)2r-i=_

=

Example

3.

Find

the

generalterm

in the

expansionof (1 x)~3.
-

The(r

irterm="-3'(-4"'-_5)^-(-3-'-+1)(-,)
r
=

(1)r3.4.5(r+2)(1)ffa,
}
X

~[

1.2.3
.

_(r+l)(r+2)
~

1.2

*"

by removing

like factors from

the numerator

and denominator.

156

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

and, if not, under

be used
as

what

conditions

the

expansion of (1 + x)n may

then x3
+

its true

equivalent.
n
"
"

that Suppose,for instance,

l;
x2
+

we

have
+

(1-x)~r
in this

1
we

+ x

x*

(1);

put equation

2 ;

then
+

obtain 23
+

(-l)~1=l+2
This take
,

22

24

result contradictory

is sufficient to shew

that

we

cannot

l+nx+" the true arithmetical Now from

we

n(n-l) '

\
"

~"

x2

as

of (1+ x)n in equivalent for the the 1

-

all

cases.

the know

formula that

sum

of the

geometrical gression, pror

sum

of

first

terms

of the

xr
"x

series

(1)
v '

-z

1 1
-

xr
X

1 than
as

y
-

and, when
we large can

is

less numerically xr
^
as

1, by takingr sufficiently

make

small the
^
.

we

please by taking ; that is,

can

sufficient number
as we

of terms

sum

be when

made
x

to

differ

as

little

pleasefrom

But
xr

is

numerically
therefore

greater than
no

1, the value of

r
-

increases with

r.

and

such

to approximation

the value

of
JL
vC

is obtained

by taking

any

number

of terms

of the series 1
+ X +

Xs

X3

4-

in the It will be seen of Series that the of

(1+x)" in
when But if
x

gency Convergency and Diverexpansionby the Binomial Theorem telligi inascending powers of a? is alwaysarithmetically

chapter on

is less than

1.

is

greater than
,

1, then
"

since the

generalterm

of

the series
1 +

n(n-\)
nx

.j I
.

x" +
-

BINOMIAL

THEOREM.

ANY

INDEX.

157

contains
r

xr, it

can

be made

greater than any

which
case

Unite
no

by quantity

large taking sufficiently ; in and value of the above series;

as an

limit to the therefore the expansionof (1 + x)n infinite series in ascending of x has no powers meaning
x

there is

when intelligible arithmetically 184. We

is

greaterthan 1.

remark that we can may by the Binomial Theorem ; for we may forms : either of the two following
x"

always expand (x + y)"

write the

expressionin

('*!)'" '(""ff.
expansionfrom
the
y.

and

we

obtain
x

the is

first

or

second

of these

as according

greater or less than

form find in its simplest of (1 x)-u. expansion

185.
"

To

the

general term

in

the

The

term (r+ l)th

(-n)(-n- I)(-71- 2)... (-n-r+1)

(-*y

(-iy

"(*+1Hw+2) -(**

+ ""-

1)

(_ I)*
n

+ r-l) ttv*+l)(tt+2)...ytt

xr

(n+ 1)(n + 2)

...

(n +

1)

this it appears (1-x)~*is positive.

From

that

every

term

in the

expansionof

of any binomial in the expansion term Although the general in Art. 182, it will be found always be found as explained may the above form of the general in practice to use more expeditious term in all cases the where the index is negative, retaining form

n(n-

l)(n-2)
i

...

(n

1)
x

t
only in
the
case

of

indices. positive

158

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

Example.

Find

the

of term in the expansion general 1

" -

. _

"

(l-3x)

-13.

The

term + l)th (r

1.4.7

(3r-2)3rrr
(Sr-2)^
: w "

1.4.7
^H

_i

If the formula

had been (1+ Sx) 3 given expression Sx by for the general term, replacing

we
-

should have
3x.

used the

same

186.
-

The
=

should following expansions 1 1

+ +
x

be remembered

(1 x)'1 (1 x)~2
-

+ +

x2

x3
+

+ +

xr
+

2x

3x2

"x3

(r+ 1)xr +

=1 (I x)~3
-

3x + 6x*

10x3

+(r+ lJ%"Kr+
in
no

when expansionof (1+ x)n, found Art. in Art.

to applying

is unrestricted student will have the

value, will be
in difficulty in explained

189 ; but the any numerical

example

method

172.
Find
20.
fi
j_
"t'

Example.
2
x
=
-

the greatestterm

in the

of (l+a;)~nwhen expansion

and

"

We

have

^V+i"
19+r
-

,xxTr, numerically,

"

"""

"'r+l"-'r"
"

2
so

long as is,
=

+ r) (19 "

"

1 ;

that

38

"r.

for all values of r up to 37, we have jrr+1"Tr;but if r=38, then the greatest terms. Thus the 38th and 39th terms are I^k , than any other term. and greater are equalnumerically Hence

T,. and these

BINOMIAL

THEOREM.

ANY

INDEX.

159 Theorem
are

188.

Some

useful

in the explained Example 1.

of applications following examples.

the Binomial

Find the firstthree terms

i

in the

expansion of

_i

(l+ Expanding the

two

3. 3*)r-(l-2x)
as

binomials

far

as

the term

containingx'\ we

have

/3
,

2\

0/8

13
1 =

55

1 +

-QX + 72X"'

we that the third see Example ^='002, so that ar = -000004, 5 with decimal If fraction therefore term we beginning were a ciphers. value of the givenexpression to find the numerical correct to 5 places required

If in this
is

of decimals it would

be sufficient to substitute *002 for

in 1 +

x,

neglect-

ing the

term

x2. involving and

Example 2. When x is so small that its square find the value of be neglected,

higherpowers

may

J("+ xJ*
Since
retain
x-

and the higher powers

first two
terms

may

the

in the

be neglected, it will be sufficient to Therefore expansion of each binomial.

i

the

expression

_tl"""l
b(i+|.)

-K-S-).
the term
xinvolving being neglected.

160

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

Example

3.

Find

the value of

x/47
_i

-rj=

to four

placesof
2 \
2

decimals.

-^
=

--

(47)
1/

*=(7*-2)*=-(l-n)
--

1 /

1 +
+

3 3

^
-74

5
+

-7^
-7
To obtain the values
+

72

-7G+--

:L_

73

75

+ 2

*77+""
we

of the several terms

proceed as

follows

1)1
7 7
7

-142857

=t,
'
=

) -020408
) -002915
"000059

7-3,

7 ) -000416
=

^;
fraction beginning with

5 and 5
we
can

1
.

see

that

the

term

is

decimal

ciphers.
.-.

-i-

-142857

-002915

+ -000088

\/47
=

"14586, placesof decimals.

of places decimals.

and

this result is correct

to at least four

Example

4.

Find

the cube root of 126 to 5

!
+ l)a (126)3 (53
=

5 1 1 M 5
+

~5V
~

/t
1
'

3"5:J

9'5"

81*59
1
"""

'")

1_

1
'

52~ 9

J.+ _1
55
+

81 *57 1

+3*"l029'105
_

1^1^

W_
"""

81 *107

-04
3

-00032
h

-0000128
"

5-1 ^

9
-

81

=5-f -013333
=

...

-000035

...+...

5 '01329,to five placesof decimals.

BINOMIAL

THEOREM.

ANY

INDEX.

101

EXAMPLES.
Find the
term (r+1)"1 -I

XIV.

b.

in each of the

following : expansions
i

!"

(l+#)2. (l+#)
J 3.

2.

(l-.t-)-5.
(l+.r2)-3. (2-.r)~2.
*
3/

3.

(l+3.e):].
3

4.

5.

6.

(i-2.v)~*.

7.
10-

(a+fo?)"1.

8.

9. 12.

tt{rf-x*)\
*

7=A=. "/T+2*
(1 + .v) 7 when
~

11.

Nf/(l-3.^
in each of the
4

V"Z^

Find the greatest term 13.

x="

following : expansions

lo 2
a?=

"

14.

2 when (1 + a?)

-1-1

1
=

15. 16. 17.

4wheu# (1 74?)
"

-.

when + 5J/)12 (2a?

a?

8 and

3.

(5 4.v)7
~
-

when

tv=25

18.
Find

+ 4/) (3-r2

when

9, y

2, "

1 5.

of to five places
v98. 1

decimals the value of

19.

20.

4/998.
1

21.

\3/1003.
3

22.

\4/2400. tfilla
neglected,

23.

^=.

24.

(1^)3.

25.

(630)*.

26.

If x be so small that its square find the value of

and

higher powers

may

be

162

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

31.

V^+C+jj
Prove that

'

^T^-^1^
32.

(1+5*)*+
33.
is
v2
'

(4+|Y
*

the coefficient of sf in the

of (l-4r) expansion

31

Prove

that

(1+*)*=2-

|l
-"

"

-^

) (f^

35.

Find the firstthree terms

in the
1

of expansion

'

(1 + x)2Vl
36. Find the firstthree terms
3

+ 4x

in the

expansionof
bx

(!+ #)*+ *Jl+

37. Shew double of the

that

the nth coefficientin the

expansion of (1 x)~n is
-

(n-l)th.
in the

greatest term find the numerically of (1+ x)n, for any rational value of\\.
189. To Since
we

expansion

are

only concerned
shall consider
n

with
x

the numerical

value of the

term, we greatest
Case The

as throughout positive.

I.

Let

be

integer. positive
the by multiplying 1 rth term

term (r+l)th
.

is obtained

by
terms

; that

is, by f
so

; and

therefore the

continue

to increase
'n+

longas
1

Or1-1)-1'
that
.,

(n+ l)x
is. r
"

, "

x,

or

+ 1 )x (n *"
"

"r.

1+02

164

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

(1) (2)

If

be
no

that there is If
x

greaterthan unitywe term. greatest

may

shew,

as

in Case

II.,

be less than

factor unity,the multiplying

will be

greater than

1, so long

as

(m
that
is,

1 )x
"

"

x,

(m"\)x
or
" "

"

r.

I lyn. ^"
x
" "

-.

-x

1 ) CC
"

If

be is

denote positive integer, the

it

by
are

p \ tlien the

term (p + l)th

equalto

pthterm,

and

these

greater than

any

other term. (fjr * 1

-x

1) "C '
"

If

be the

positivebut
term (q+ l)th

not

an

let integer,

q be

its inte-

gralpart ;
If
i

then

is the

greatest.

'"

be

tlien negative,

is less than

unity;
"

and

by
we

writing the multiplyingfactor

see

in the hence

form each

(1
term

J x,

the

always less than 1 : the and consequently preceding,

that it is 190. that To
can

is less than

first term

is the

greatest.

sions find the number of homogeneous productsof v dimenbe formed out of the n letters a, b, c, and their

powers.
or by By division,

the Binomial a2x2

Theorem,
+

we

have

"=

=
"

+ ax

a3x3

ax

1
=

bx

b2x2 + b3x3 +

"

bx 1
=

ex

c2x2 + c3x3 +

"

ex

BINOMIAL

THEOREM.

ANY

INDEX.

KJ5

Hence, by multiplication,
1 1
=
_

1
ax

"

bx
+

"

ex

(1 +
1 1
+
x

ax

aV
b
+

+
c +

...) (1+

bx

b*x* +
ab
+

...) (1+
ac

ex

c"x2 +
4. .

...)
... .

(a+

+x2 (a2 + ...)

b'2 + bc"c2

)+

...

+ Saxa + Stx+ Sjfx?

suppose the
sums

where

Slt"S'.,, SaJ

are

of the that

homogeneous procan

duets of one, two, three, dimensions and their a, b, c, powers. To values obtain the number of these

be

formed

of

equalto

1 ; each term in of Sl9 S2, S:i,

each products, put a, b, c, becomes and the now JSl9 1, S2,S:i,

so

obtained

give the
1

number

of the

of homogeneousproducts 1 Also 1
"

one,

two, three,
1

dimensions.

ax

"

bx

"

ex

becomes

"

or

(1

"

(1
Hence

x)

". a;)

Sr

coefficient of xr in the

of (1 x)~ expansion
"

n(n+ l)(n+ 2)
~

(n+r- 1)

jr
n

r"1

\r \n" 1 191. multinomial In the To

find
when

the number
a

of

terms

in the

of any expansion

the index is

integer. positive

of expansion
+ aB + aB+ (at

+ar)",
of terms dimensions

every term is of n dimensions; therefore the number of n of homogeneousproducts the same the number as that
can

is

be formed
; and

out

of the

powers

therefore

by

the

quantities a,, a article preceding

r n
"

...

ar, and

their

is

equalto

I?' +
n

1
1

"

166
192.
to relating

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

From

the

result of Art.

190

we

may
n

deduce

theorem

the number
n

of combinations

of

things.
if
we were

Consider
down formed would all the

letters a,

b, c, d,
their

; then
r

to write
can

of homogeneous products letters and

one

dimensions every
r

which such

be

of these

powers,

product
the
n

represent when letters, any

of the
one

combinations,
the letters

at

time, of
once,

of

might
of

occur

twice,

thrice,
...

up to

times. of combinations is \n
n

Therefore
when

the number

thingsr
number be formed

at

time of

are repetitions productsof

allowed
r

equal to
which
+
r
"

the
can

of homogeneous
out
n

dimensions
to

1
n+r
-

and therefore equal letters,

\r n"\ That when the is, of excluded. number 1

or

*C
.

of combinations allowed is
at

of

it

thingsr
number

at

time
binations com-

are repetitions n

equal to
a

the when

of

+ r"

things r

time

are repetitions

193.

We

shall

conclude

this

chapter

with

few

laneous miscel-

examples.
(1
-

Example
The The

1.

Find

the coefficient of xr in the

expansionof
+

2a;)2
~

expression (1
=
-

Ax +

4.x2) (1+PyC +p^xr

...

+prxr + ...) suppose.

pr-x, pr-"

and adding -4,4 respectively,

the

coefficient of xr will be obtained by multiplying pr, the results ; hence

by 1,

requiredcoefficient=pr

+ 4pr_2. 4pr_x

But

pr=(- iy
the

fe"afc"9
.

[Ex. 3,

Art.

182.]

Hence

requiredcoefficient
+ +

(.1)r(r+lHr 2)_4(_1)r.1rJ^ 4(_ira(I^r

l)(r ^-[(r
+ +

2)+ 4r(r+ l)+4r(r-l)]

f-l)r

BINOMIAL

TIIEOltEM.

ANY

INDEX.

Hi?

Example

2.

Find

the value of the scries 5

"
, 2 4.

5.7
T

5.7.!)
-4+
.
"""

4 3 |3.32^ 1 |_2. 3
.
"

3:J
1
"

5
"

1
.

mU

3.5.7
+
13
.

The

expression v

0 2 +

"

3.5.7.9 :
" _

1
.

[2
3
Q

33
'

3;! 3
'

14
5
'

34
1)
'

5
'

2Ll?2~ 2 2 2 2J 2 2 2 ~|3~ '3:i+ ]i~ |2 '3?*"1

3 2 z 1 2 z 3

24

*35+

""'

5
2

7 2

2' 2

/2\a /2\-

2*2*2 2 2

/2V

*3+ "~J2~

"o-.r-ffl"1
=

35=V3shew integer, positive that the

Example

(3+ Jl)n
Then
Now

If ?t is any 3. is an odd number. to denote

integral part of
of

Suppose I

integral and/ the fractional part I+f=3n+C1S"-is/7+ a2Sn~2 7+(783*-"^7)8+

the
.

(3+ a/7)'1. (1).

a

is positive and it fraction;denote by/';

3-N/7
=

less than

1, therefore

(S-^)'1

is

proper

+ C'23'l-2.7+C33'l-3(v/7)3+ ."./' 3n-C,13'l-V7

(2).
we

Add

; (1)and (2) together I+f+f

the irrational terms

=

2 (3" + C2 3'1"2 7 +
.

and disappear, )
. . .

have

an

even

integer.
must

But

since/and/'

are

proper
:\

fractions their sum odd integer.

be 1 ;

I=an

EXAMPLES. of Find the coeflicient 1.

xm

XIV.

c.

in the

expansionof expansionof

2.

an

in the

3.

"* in the

expansionof
X
"T" X

168

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

4- x

+ X2

4.
5.

Find Prove
1
*

the coefficientof xn in the that

1.3
+

expansionof
(1 + ^J

1
2

1
'

1.3.5

271
that

2_+

1-3.5.7 2.4.6.8'2*

1^
V
3'

2*

2.4.6'23

6.

Prove

N/8
=

1 +

H' +

3^5 t^~;+ H~
4. 8

3.5.7 4.8.12
,

\ \n

7.

Prove

that
2n +

2n(2n
+~

2)
"+

2n(2n + 2)(2n+ 4)
+

~3

3.6

3.6.9

~2

V
8. Prove 7' that

+ 3

_3T6~+

3.6.9

h J

^(^-1) ?i +

n{n-\)(n-2)
7.14.21
+

7+

7.14

J
+

"n

Ji
(2

%
.

"(*+!)
j.

n(" + l)(n+ 2)
+"
,

\
J
"

2.4

2.4.6
x

9.

Prove

that

when approximately,

is very

small,

2(1+r6'V
10.
Shew that the

"7!

\2

256'

'

integral part of (5+ integral part

xn

is odd, if "JQ)n

be

positive integer.
11.
Shew that the of

(8+

is odd, if V/7)H

be

integer. positive
12.
Find

the coefficient of

in the

expansionof

(l-2.v+ 3.v2-4.v3+
13.
Shew that the middle term / of ( x ^"
+
-

)-*.
1\4'1 1 is equalto the coefficient

of xn in the

expansionof (1-Ax)
that the
3nx

2
.

14.

Prove

expansionof (1 x^)n may

"

be

put into
-

the form

(1 xfn +
-

(1 xfn
-

3n@n-3) xi (i xyn
_

BINOMIAL

THEOREM.

ANY

INDEX.

L69

15.

Prove
1

that

the
n

coefficient of
is of the form

at*

ill the
-

expansion

"

is
,

1,0,

as according

3m, 3m

1,or

3//".+1. of terms,

16.

In
sum

the

(2)the
17.

b + c)s find of the coefficients of the terms. that if n be

an even

expansion of (a +

(1) the number

Prove
111

integer,
1

2""1

l\n-l
18.

\n \'S
-

\b\n-5

\u-\ ,1
the

|rc

'

when (1+.f)u,

If c0, (',, C2, the coefficients in fn are is a positive n integer, prove that

expansion of
I//-1

a)

c0-cl+c2-c3+
+

+(-mv-(-i)'-1/,|;^
+

(2) ^-2^

3^-4^+

0" (_i)n(/i4.1)t.M
=

(3) c*-c*+c"-c*+ accordingas

19.
n

(-l)"cn2=0, or

(-1)^,
that

is odd

or

even.

If *" denote

the
=

sum

of the first
+

natural

numbers, prove

(1) (l-;r)-3
(2)
2

^ + %^

^.^+
+

+V"~1+...
j2^+
4

(*! *,B + 82*2,_j

8n8n +

l)
=

-"

"

"

1.3.5.7
T.

20.

If

(2)i-l)
2n
+
.

fr-

2.4.6,8
?2n 2
+ "Mj"

P*""

that

(!) (2)

Man
+

+ 2n- \"ln + +

+ ?"?"
1

+1

5-

{?2n
-

?1y,(l
_

g^a. _2+

1)"
-

tjn #"
_

21.
in the

Find

the

sum

of the

products,two
n

at

time, of the coefficients

expansion of (1+x)n, when

If

is

integer. positive
are

22.
a

proper

where n and p (7+4 v/3)n=p+ /3, shew that (1 -f3)(p+ p) fraction,

=

and |9 integers, positive

l.

If c0, "?!,c^, the coefficients in rn are where shew that ?i is a positive (1+#)*, integer,

23.

the

expansionof
1

c2
2

c\
3

(-I)n_1fn
n

,11
2 3

CHAPTER

XV.

Multinomial

Theorem.

194.

We

have

already
Theorem In the the

seen

in

Art. the

175,

how

we
a

apply the Binomial

so

to obtain

expansionof
a

may multinomial
not
as

expression.
much
to

present chapter our

objectis
multinomial

obtain

to find the coefficient of any

completeexpansionof term. assigned

(a+
b+
c

Example.

Find

the coefficientof a4b"c3d5 in the

+

expansionof

d)u.

The
every
we

term

expansionis the productof 14 factors each equal to a+b + c + d, and in the expansionis of 14 dimensions, being a product formed by
a

taking one
take

ways that

letter out of each of these factors. Thus to form the term a4b2c*d5, maining of any four of the fourteen factors,b out of any hco of the rethe But number the of of three out eight. of remaining c ten, any of ways of arbe done is clearly ranging in which this can equal to the number be a, two 6, three c, and five d ; must four of them 14 letters when
out

is, equal to
114
A 412

TTralg.
3

151.] [Art. J L

This

is therefore the number

in the final

of times in which the term a4b2c*d5 appears coefficient the and requiredis 2522520. consequently product,

195. of The
a

To

find (a+ b +

the
c +

in the term of any assigned coefficient where p is a positive cl + integer. ..)p,

.

pansion ex-

expansion is
c +

the

product
term

of p

factors each

equal to
by

ft+

cZ +

and
...,

taking one
the number

letter out of ways

every of each in which

in the

expansionis formed
...

of these p

any term of ways of arranging in the final productis equalto the number be a, (3 must be c; be b, y must must of them a p letters when and so on. That is, the coefficient of aabPcyds
...

factors ; and therefore will appear aab^cyd8

is

\p
=
"

~f~^
o

"

\y

...

where

j3+

...

=p.

172

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

And, by

Art.

term 195,the general

+ ex' (6a; +

of the

expansionof

dx3

...)''

\P

\pjy_\o_"
where

ft, y,
is

8
. .

are

whose positive integers in the

sum

is p. the
pression given ex-

Hence

the

general term

expansionof

where 197. form ail Since

/?+

y +

=
...

/?. be written in the

(a+
"A

bx

ex2

dx3

..)" may
a*
3
...

6
+-x +
a

c a

-x+-ar+
a

y
J
,

it will be sufficient to consider of the multinomial Thus the is

the

case

in which

the

hrst term

unity.
of bx
+

term general

(1 +
n is
-

ex2

dx3

.)"

(n-l)(n-2).

(n-p+l)bpcyd8 ^+9f+u+
y
+

\p\v\8
where

fi+
Find

"-\-...=p.
expansion of

Example.

of x3 in the the coefficient

(l-3z-2.r2+ 6x'3)3.
The generalterm
is

S(S-0(t-")...(|-*+o V
,., ,,

iO-sA-^e)8/-^^

(i).

values of /3, have to obtain by trial all the positive integral 7, 5 which from the found is then the equation j3 equation + Zy + 35 = 3 ; and p satisfy of the corresponding 2"=/3+ 7 + 5. The requiredcoefficientwill be the sum values of the expression (1). We

MULTINOMIAL

THEOREM.

173

it will be best to commence finding /3, 7, 5, by givingto 5 successive with the values admissible. In the present case beginning integral greatest In
...

the values

are

found

to be

8=1,
5= 5=

0,

18 0, p=l;
=

0, 7=1, 0,
7
=

0=1,

p=2;
p
=

0, 0=3,

3.

the requiredcoefficient these values in (1) Substituting

^)"^)(-")"-3"-2"+
(-3)s

4_4_4
3

3~3

198.

Sometimes

it is

more

to expeditious

use

the Binomial

Theorem. Example.
The Find the coefficientof x4 in the

expansion of (1 2x
-

3.r2)-3.

requiredcoefficient is found
the

of the first few terms from Theorem ; that is,

1 + 3
we

out the coefficient of xx from by picking expansion of (1 2x Sx2)-*by the Binomial

-

+ {2x Sx2)
-

+ (2.r 3x2)2
-

10

+ 15 (2.r 3.r2)4 {2x 3.r-):J ;

-

stop
The

at

this term

for all the

other

terms

involve

powers

of

higher

than x*. coefficient required

= =

9 + 10

(2)2 ( 3)+
-

15

(2)4

-66.

EXAMPLES.
Find 1. the coefficient of a2Pc4d in the

XV.

expansionof (a-b
b
"

"

c+d)w.
c
"

2. 3. 4. 5.
6.

a2bryd in the

expansionof (a+

d)s.

a?bsc in the

expansionof (2a+ 6-f 3c)r. expansionof {cub by + cz)9.

"

x~yhA in
x3 in the xA in the

the

expansionof (l+3# expansionof (l+ (1+

-

2a2)3.
3.r2)10. x2)'\ 4.r'!)4.

2.r + 2.v
-

7.
8.

of in tlie expansion .'"" A"8 in the

(if (1 expansion

2.r + 3#2-

174
Find 9.
the coefficient

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

of
of

.r23 in the

expansion expansion

(1

2x

3x2

x4
i

.i/')5.

10.

x5 in the

of

(1 -2x (1
( (1
2x

3x2)
3x2
X*\

2.
i

11.

x3 in the

expansion
expansion expansion

of

4a3)2.
~

X2
-

12.

x8

in the

of

"

'-")

13. 14. 15.

x*

in the

of

(2 (1

4x

3x2) 2.
~

3
"

Xs in the x12 in the

expansion
expansion

of of
i

Ax2 + 15x*

1 Ox4 +

20^G)
-

*
.

(3

18^') l.

16.

Expand Expand

(1

2x

2x2)* as far
2

as

x2.

17.

(1 + 3x2

6x*)

as

far

as

x5.

18. 19.
prove

Expand (8
If
that

9^

8a4)3" as
+xP)n
=

far

as

x8.

(l+x

+ x2 +

a0 + alx +

a.^v2+

allf"xnr",

(1) (2)
20.

a0+a1+aa+

+a^=(p+l)n. +"p.a"p=5"i"(p+l)*.
are

a1+2a2+3a8+

If a0, a15 a2" ft3 of (1 +x+x2)n, that prove

the

coefficients in order

"""

of the

expansion

a2-a2

a2-a2+

(-l)n-1aU1=^an{l-(-l)^an}.
+

21.
be shew

If the

expansion
a0 +

of

(1 +x
...

x2)n
+arafr
+
...

alx+a2x2+

+a2nx2n,
3n_1.

that "o + a3 + a6 +
...

=al

+ a4 +

a-+

...

="2

a6+a8+

=
...

CHAPTER

XVI.

Logarithms.

199. base is the

Definition. index of the

The

logarithm of any
to which

number
must
=

to

given

power base

the base if ax

be raised is called

in order the

to

equal the
N

given number.
a.

Thus

JV,x

logarithmof
Examples.

to the
34
=

(1) Since

81, the logarithm

102
=

of 81 to base 3 is 4.
=

(2) Since lO^lO,

the natural

100, 103

1000,

numbers
to base

1, 2, 3,...are

the logarithms of 10, 100, respectively

1000, 200.
so

10.

The the
same

that

logarithmof iV to base a is usuallywritten logajy, meaning is expressed by the two equations

ax
=

N;

\ogaN.

From

these

we equations

deduce

an

which identity

is sometimes
the

useful.
32

Example.
Let
x

Find

logarithmof

to "/"!

base

2N/2.

be the

required logarithm; then,

by definition,
.-.

(2x/2)"
=

32

4/4;
2

(2.2*)*
=

2s. 2* ;
2

3 .-.

2^
3
-

25^;
27
-r

hence, by equating

the

indices,

.'.

"

3-6.

176
201. Thus When

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

it is understood the suffix calculations

that

particular system
base 10 is the

of

is logarithms

in use, in arithmetical

denotingthe
in which

is omitted.

base, we

write log2, log3, usually Any number might be to any such corresponding

2, logl0 3, log10 taken as the base of logarithms, and base a system of logarithms of all before found. But could be the numbers discussing logarithmic shall we generalpropositions prove some systems commonly used, of any particular which are true for all logarithms independently
base. 202. For TJie

instead of

of 1 logarithm

is 0. of
a

a"

1 for all values be.

; therefore

log1-0,

whatever

the base may 203. For 201. Let MN suppose The

logarithm of the
; therefore

base
=

is 1. itself

a1

logaa

To

of a product. find the logarithm

be the

product;let a
a:
=

be the base of the

system, and

J/, log. M,
MN==ax
=

\ogaJ\T;
N.
ay

so

that Thus the

a*

a*
x

product

ax+y;
x

MN whence, by definition, loga

low N. 100^1/"+

logaP; \oga3INP \ogaM+ logaiV+ Similarly,

=

and

so

on

for any

number

of factors.
=

Example.

log42

log (2x

7)

log2 + log3 + log7.

205. M Let
-zz

To

of a fraction. find the logarithm

and suppose fraction,
x
=

be the

\ogaMi
Mt

2/ ay

logaiT;
N.

so

that

ax

177

Thus

the fraction

*"-=x loga by definition, whence',

=

"

y
-

log J/

Xos^N.

30

Example.

log(if) log
=
=

"

log30 -log 7
2 + log 3 + log5 log

=log(2x3xo)-log7
=
-

log7. rained to any power,

of a logarithm or fractional. integral

206. :Z'o findthe Let and be required, loga(J/'')
x
=

number

suppose that a"

"

\ogaM,so
M
*
=

21

then

(aj
aT;
"

whence, by definition,\oga(JP)px\
that

is,

\oga(M")=p\o%aM.
I

1
=
-

Similarly,
207.

(J/r) loga

J/. logtt that proved equalto the sum have

It follows from

the results
a

we

of (1) the logarithm

productis
fraction is

of the

of its factors ; logarithms of a (2)the logarithm the

of equalto the logarithm of the denominator diminished by the logarithm ; numerator times the of the p*** power of a number is^" (3)the logarithm the number
;

of logarithm

of (4)the logarithm
of the of logarithm
we see

the rth root of

number

is equal to -th

the number.

of the operations that by the use of logarithms and division may be replaced by those of addition multiplication of involution and evolution and subtraction ; and the operations and division. by those of multiplication
Also
H. II. A.

12

178

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.
ra3

Example
log c.

1.

of Express the logarithm

"^

terms

of

loga, log b

and

Ja*

a2

3
=

log a2- log (c^2)

3

-log"-(logc5 + logfc2)
3

log a

logc

log ".

Example

2.

Find

a;

from

the

equation ax c~2*="3a!+1.
.

of both sides, we Taking logarithms

x

have
=

loga
x

2x
-

logc
logc
2

(Sx+ 1)log6
-

.-.

a (log

logb) logb
=
'
-

loga

lo2 6 log c

logb

EXAMPLES.
Find the 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
of logarithms

XVI.

a.

16 to base 125

J2, and

1728 to base 2

v'3.

to base

5v/5,and
and x/2,

*25 to base 4.

256

stt.

to base 2

'3 to base 9.

'0625 to base
-0001 to base

2, and 1000
and i '001,
3

to base -01. to base

9^/3.

6.

kI gp

4/~*r i
"

r~-^
a
2

*/

to base

a.

a?

7.

Find

the value of

l0g8128,l0g6^,log-frgj, log34349'
seven Expressthe following logo.

in logarithms

terms

of

and log a, logb,

8.

log(N^)fi.

9.

log{Va2xybs).

10.

logflcFW).

180

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

Again,
.*.

-06

"

10~2 and
=
-

"

10_l ; fraction. is called logarithm

log *06
The

209. the

Definition.

part of integral

and the decimal characteristic, The

part is called the mantissa.

number
to

characteristic of the
can

base

10 210.

be written To

down

logarithmof any as we by inspection,

the

shall

now

shew.

determine

the characteristic of the

of any logarithm

number

greaterthan

unity.
101
-

Since

10,

102=100,
103-1000,

it follows between with

that

number

with number and

two

in digits three

10' and

102; a
102

with

integral part lies in digits its integral

Hence 10"_I and contains
a

its

part lies between

n

103; and so on. in its integral part lies between digits

N be
a

number 10".

Let then

number

whose

integral part
fraction
.

digits;

J\T" in(tt-l)+a

.*.

logiV= (n

"

1)+
"

fraction.

Hence the the

the characteristic is n

of a number logarithm in its integral number ofdigits part, and

211.
To

the characteristicof 1 \ that is, greater than unity is less by one than is positive.

determine

the characteristic

of

the

logarithmof

decimal

fraction.
10"= 1,

Since

1(rs=iJcr01' =i='001"
10-8

LOGARITHMS.

181
after the cipherimmediately -01 and

it follows that decimal

decimal
as

with

one

less than -1,lies between 10~2 and 10-1; with two ciphers a number after the decimal pointlies between 10_:i and 10""; and so on. decimal fraction with n ciphers Hence a after the immediately decimal

point,such

-0324, being greater than

pointlies between
be
a

10~(" +

1)

and

10~".
n

Let D

decimal
/)
.-.

with beginning
_

ciphers ; thou

+ l) + 1 f)~(w

"

fraction.
n

logJ)

"

(n+ l)+
-

fraction.

Hence

of the
number

(n+ 1); that is,the characteristic is greater by unitytitan the of a decimal fraction logarithm and is of ciphers immediately afterthe decimal point,
The

the characteristic is

negative.
212. 200000
to logarithms

base

10 of all
j in

have been found

seven

and

tabulated

from 1 to integers Tables they are most

givento
use, and

of places

decimals.

This is the

system in practical
that the that

it has two From the

can

: great advantages

(1)

characteristics

the mantissse have

alreadyproved it is evident be written down so by inspection, in the Tables. to be registered

are

results

only

of all logarithms which numbers have the same that it is so significant digits; of sufficient to tabulate the mantissse the logarithms of integers. This proposition to prove. we proceed

(2)

The

mantissse

the

same

for the

213.

Let

be

dividingby a power decimal point without changing the

that N
x
-~

number, then since any of 10 merely alters the

of
are as

numbers Now

sequence and N 10''. 107,where p and q whose significant the same are digits

or multiplying of the position it follows figures, are any integers,

those of N.

log(N

10p) logN+p log10

= =

logJ\r+p logN
-

(1 ). log10 (2).
in
or

Again, log(AT
-

1 09)
=

logiV-7
to

In

(1) an

integeris

added

and logiV^,

(2)

an

integeris

subtracted from

logN

; that

is,the mantissa

decimal

portion

remains of the logarithm

unaltered.

182
In been this and the

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

three

articles preceding

the

mantissse

have

the advantagesof In order to secure supposed positive. work so as our always to keep the system, we Briggs' arrange of any logarithm the mantissa that when mantissa so positive, is prefixed characteristic the the Tables has been taken from to the rules already with its appropriate given. signaccording 214. written In
over

the the

case

of

the logarithm negative

not

minus

signis
that

and characteristic,

before

to it,

indicate

and the characteristic alone is negative, Thus and both

must

not the whole

expression.
+

of -0002,is equivalent to -4 4-30103,the logarithm be from distinguished the decimal

an
"

-30103, in which an 4*30103, expression

the

and integer

are

negative. In working with

artifice will sometimes be

negative

logarithms
-

arithmetical

necessary in order result such as a

to make

the mantissa

3*69897, in
transformed

negative,may
characteristic
-

be and

For instance, positive. which is the whole expression by subtracting1 from the mantissa.
=

adding
-

1 to the
+

Thus

3-69897

(1

-69897) 4-30103. Examples.

Other

cases

will be noticed in the

Example

1.

Requiredthe logarithmof -0002432.

(the 211,

In the Tables we find that 3859636 is the mantissa of log2432 decimal point as well as the characteristic being omitted) ; and, by Art. the characteristic of the logarithm of the givennumber is 4;
-

.-.

log -0002432

4-3859636.

Example

2.

Find

the value of
=

given ^-00000165,

log 165
Let
x

2-2174839,log 697424=5-8434968. required ;

then I
l
=

denote

the value

loga-

l"g(-00000165)5

log (-00000165)

i
=

; (6-2174839)

the mantissa characteristic

of

log -00000165 being the being prefixed by the rule.

same

as

that

of

log 165,

and

the

Now

(6-2174839) (10 + 4-2174839)

=
-

2-8434968

LOGARITHMS.
and -8434908 is the mantissa but with of these same digits Thus of
one

183
consisting [Art.211. J

log007424; hence

x is a number after the decimal cipher point.

a:

-0097424.

215. found

The

method

of

will calculating logarithms

it will there be
seen

in the next

and chapter,

that

to another to base 10.

and base,

then transformed into

explained they are first common rithms loga-

be

to investigate for method a necessary a a system of logarithmshaving given base to a transforming different with base. a new system

It will therefore

be

216.
are

known b. N

of all numbers to base a Suppose that the logarithms it is required and tabulated, to find the logarithms

to base

Let

be

any

number

whose

logarithm to

base

is

quired. re-

Let

so log6iV,

that by
"""

N ;
=

log. ("") logJT;

that

is,

ylog"
1/ J
"

log,JV;
X

loga6

N. log 0u

'

or

k"^wK*10^ 1UOa"
Now since N and b
are

C1)and

N given, los:

log b

are

known

from

the Hence

Tables,and thus log^Vmay

it appears
we

be found. from logarithms all base

a

that
to

to transform

to base

have

only J

them multiply r J

by J

log b

; '

this is
as

constant

and quantity

is

given by

the

Tables; it is known

the

modulus. 217. thus Tn

equation(1) of
i
.

the

article put preceding i

Oa

for

N\

On

log/t log8/j1
x
=

184
This result may Let then

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

also be
x
=

as proveddirectly

follows

so log/?,

that a*

b;

to by taking logarithms
x

base
=

b,we

have

\ogba \ogbb

.-.

loga6xlog4a l.
=

examples will illustrate following arithmetical calculation in facilitating logarithms of Logarithmic Tables to the use as referred to works on Trigonometry.
218. The

the the

of utility for reader is

; but

formatio in-

Example
The

1.

Given

log 3
=

find log {(2-7)3 x (-81)"-H90)*}. -4771213,

27 4 +
-

81

5
-

value required

logj=

log

-=

1Q

log 90

3(l"^3"-l)+|oog3*-2)-|(

KM)"*a-K+t)
=

^log3-5H
4-6280766-5-85 2-7780766.

The powers

student
can

should

notice that from

the

logarithmof

and

its

always be obtained

log2 ; thus log2

=

log5
Example
2.

log
"

log10
of

log2.

Find the number

in 8751C, digits given

=

log2

-3010300, log 7

-8450980.

16 log (7x125) log (87516)

= =

16

7+ (log

log5)

16(log7 + 3-31og2)
16x2-9420080

=47-072128;
hence the number
of is 48. digits

210.] [Art.

LOGARITHMS.
3.

185
to two

Example
value of
x

from

Given log 2 and the equation

log 3, find

places of decimals the

we Taking logarithmsof both sides,

have
=

(3 4a)logG
-

(x+ 5)log4

log 8
3

.-.

2 (log (3 4.r)
-

log3)+ (x+ 5)2 log2

+ 2

log 2
-

.-.

.r

log2

log3

log2)
10
=

log2

log 2

log 3

10

log 2

.r

log2 + 3 log 3 log 2 + 4 log 3

4-4416639
_

~2-al054a2
=

1-77...

EXAMPLES.
1.

XVI.

b.
the

the characteristics of Find, by inspection,

logarithmsof

-875. 21735,23-8,350, '035,% -87, 7623 is '8821259 log 762300,'000007623. 762-3,-U07623, 7-623,

2.

The mantissa

of

; write down

the

logarithms

of

3.
whose

there in the integral are part of digits are respectively logarithms

How many

the numbers

4-30103, 1-4771213,3-69897, -56515 1

4.
whose (Jive the of position

in the numbers the firstsignificant figure

are logarithms

2-7781513, -6910815, 5-4871384.

Given value of 5. 8.

log2

-3010300, log3 ='4771213, log7

-8450980,find the

log64. log-0125.

6. 9.

log84. log14-4.

7. 10.

log-128. log4^.

11. 14.

log^l2.
Find the seventh

12.

logW
\

"

13.

logN4/:0l05.

-i

root of

havinggiventhat -00324,
=

log44092388
15. Given
194*8445 log
=

7-6443036.
root

find the eleventh 2'2896883,

of

(39-2)2.

186
Find the

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

16.

product

of

37-203, 3-7203, -0037203, 372030, having log!915631

3

given

that

log 37-203
17.
Given

1-5705780, and
and

6:28231

20.

log 2

log 3, find log

/(

//325**\

)
.

"y

18. 19.

Given

log 2 and

log 3,

find

log(#48 1081-f ^6).

x

Calculate

to six decimal

places the value of

/294
x
x

V
given log 2, log 3, log 7;
20. Calculate
to six

125\2
32

42

J
=

'

also

log 9076-226
decimals

3-9570053. the value of

places of

(330^-49)4^\/22x70;
given log 2, log 3, log 7 log 11
21.
Find
=

; also

1-0413927, and
number
/21\100 of

logl7814-1516
312
x

4-2507651.

the

digitsin

28.

22.

Shew

that

"

is

greater than

100.

23.

Determine
the first

how

many

ciphers
(
-

there

are

between

the

decimal

/1\1000

point

and

digitin significant

j
log 7.
+

Solve 24. 27. 29.

the 3*~2

followingequations,having given log 2, log 3, and

=

5.

25.
+

5*

10l 28.
30.

26.
2*. 6*-2=52*.

55~3*=2*

2.

2F

22*

1.53-.

71"*.

2x

6" ' 22,

+

"I

3l~x-y=4-y 22x~l

3*

=3

ij=

=33j/_a;J

31. 32.

Given

log102 -30103,
=

find

log25200.
=

Given

and logV27. log107 -84509, find log7N/2 log102 -.30103,

188
hence the seizes

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

(1)is the

xih power

of the series

(2);that is,

1 +

+
,"

rz

and

this

is true

however
we

great
have

may

be.

If therefore

be

increased indefinitely
x2 1+*
+

|2+]3+|_4+ =(1 1+^+^+U

+

x3

xA

/-'ill
+

1 The
series

1
+
"

1
+
"

"

is

denoted usually

by

; hence
"5

x-

,=l+"+

Write

ex

for

x,

then

cV
6**
=
-

cV
+

CX

tjj-

-ry

Now obtain

let ee

",

so

that

for log/* ; by substituting

we

a'

l+x\ogea +

"

Vo

+
,"

If

lr

This

is the

Theorem. Exponential

Cor.

When

is

the limit of ( 1 infinite,

e.

Art. 266.] [See

Also when
n

it may preceding investigation, is indefinitely increased,

as

in the

be shewn

that

(, 1+n)=1+X+Y2 ]3+\i
-

x\n

X2

x3

x4

EXPONENTIAL

AND

LOGARITHM!*!

SERIES.

180

tli.ttis, when

is
x

the infinite, 1

limit of

(1
V

nj

"

cT.

l"yputting
"

= ,

we

have

H)--K)~={K)7
Now
m

is infinite when

is

infinite;
"

Hence

the limit of

J (x\n (1 ) ("-.')'
1
"

*.

e~\

221.

In

the

article preceding also since

-

no

restriction is

placedupon

the value of x;

is less than

the expansions we unity,

have used
But deserves

giveresults arithmetically intelligible. [Art. 183.]

is another We

there

point in
assumed

the

foregoingproof which
when
n

notice. /

have

that

is infinite

1\7
nj \

2\
nj
,

:)"""(" J
\
n
.

r-V

xr
-r-

the

limit

or

is

\r
for
all values Let
us

\r

of r.
the value of

denote

iB(a!"3(a,~3 "{x-r-^r)
by
u
"

ur.

",

Then

H(*^)
z=

-lx
r

1 /
\

r"

1\

as
=

1
+
"

1
nr

)
J

Since

is

we infinite,
U
" "

have
X
.

x u
~ "

=
,

; that

is,

ur
r

r
a

It is clear that the limit of

ft"
x
r-

is r^-; hence
x

the

limit of u3 is

,-x-;that of uA is ."

; and

that generally

of ut is

."

190
222. The series

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

ii111

E
which
we

~@

'

importantas it is the base first calculated. to which are Logarithms to this logarithms the Napierian base are known as system, so named after Napier from the their inventor. They are also called natural logarithms into which fact that they are the first logarithms come naturally consideration in algebraical investigations.
have denoted

by

e, is very

When

logarithms
that work the

are

used
e

in theoretical
is

work

it is to
as

be in

remembered
arithmetical From
to any

base

the base

10 is

always understood, just invariably employed.

of
e can

the series the

value approximate accuracy

; to 1 0

be determined decimals it is

required degreeof

of places

found to be 2-7182818284.

Example

1.

Find

the

sum

of the infinite series

1 1 1

-,

We

have

l + l+

--

"

-rg

and

x by putting

1 in the series for ex,

+ "1=1-1+i2-i3 n-

hence the

sum

of the series is

(e+ e~x).

Example
1
-

2.

Find
o

the coefficient of xr in the

expansion of
ex

ax

"

x
=

(1
-

ax

e~x x2)

(l-a,-^)|l-, -^-n n

fi

""

"*

(-l)rxr ...+L_L_ +

j.

EXPONENTIAL

AND

LOGARITHMIC

SERIES.

101

The

coefficient required
"

(-!)"" (-l)'-ia (-1)'-r

r-1

r-2

-l)r

{l+ar-r(r-l)},

223. From

7V" expand log, (1 + Art.

a"
=-"

iraascending tt) powers

of \.

220,
1
+

y 1" "ger6

"

/r

4' a)8 y3(log. (loge v '

-

^ +

L2
+
x

|c

lii this series write

for a;

thus

(1 +x)'J
=

+ y

(1 + *)+ log,
the Binomial

{log, (1 f2

" {loge + + (1 + a;)}3 (1). *)}"

...

Also

by

Theorem, when

"

we

have

(2). (i+"y-i+"+g^*+yfr-1"fr-8)rf+
Now

in
,+

(2)the

coefficient of y is
+
+

1.3*+1.2J
r**^ %K/

1.2.3.4
rp"
\K/ "C"
" -

'

""""*

that

is,

"

"

--

"

2i

"

Equate this

to the coefficient of y in
=

(1) ;
-+

thus

we

have

l0gt,(l +Ct')t7J--+
This is known
as

--

the

Series. Logarithmic
of
see
.t.

Example.

If

x "

in ascending powers 1, expand {log,, (1+ x)}9

we By equating the coefficients of y2 in the series (1)and (2), is the coefficient in of double requiredexpansion y'2

that the

____.x

?/(!/-!) r2

(y 1)(y 2)
-

1.2.8

,y(y-i)(y-2)(y-3) ^+
1.2.3.4

'

that is,double

the coefficientof y in

y-1

(y-l)(y-2)
+
*

1.2*

1.2.3

(y 1) (y 2)(y 3) "1.2.3.4
-

}. l)"*Thn8{log.(l+*)P=2{^-i(l+l)^
+

192
224.

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

is very small the series for calculations. We for numerical is of little use can, aid of which Tables deduce from it other series by the

Except

when

+ x) loge(l

however,
of

ithms Logar-

may

be constructed.

By writing

"

for

we

obtain

log.
1 1

hence

"

loS.(n+1)-lo"w S"2?+3^"
=

(1)-

1
;

By writing
on signs

for

we

obtain

loge

hence,by changing

both

sides of the

equation,
-

log8n loge(n
-

1)

s"

#7"

(2).

From

(1)and (2)by addition,

=

+ l)-log,(n-l) log.("

2(=

+_+__+

...J (3).
we

From that value is

this formula

calculation 2 ; and loge of log62- -69314718...; whence logeSis

=

by puttingn the by effecting

9

obtain
we

4 loge

"

2, loge
the

find that

known.
we

Again by puttingn
=

we

obtain

whence loge10 loge8;

"

findloge102-30258509....
To
we

convert

into logarithms to Napierianlogarithms

.

base

10 the

multiply by

, =-j=

which

is the

modulus 1

[Art. 216]of
,

common

system,and

its value

is
^' oOJjOoDk) J

"

or

'43429448...;

we

shall denote In the

this modulus

by

/x.

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Vol. xxvn. has given the values of e, /x, page 88, Professor J. 0. Adams of decimals. 5 than 260 to more 3, loge 2, loge loge places
225. obtain If
we

formulae

series throughoutby /x, we the above multiply logarithms. adapted to the calculation of common
-

Thus

from

+ 1) (1), /x loge(ra

/* loge?i
=

"
_

JL

-.

" ...

EXPONENTIAL that

AND

LOGARITHMIC

SERIES.

193

is,
n + 1) log, logI0(M
-

"
-

-t- + Jt.

from (2), Similarly

l^-log]"-l)^+^+^+
From either of the above results
of two one the other may
ot
we

(2).
logarithm
be

see

that if the the

"

consecutive numbers be found, and thus

be
a

known,

of logarithm

table of

can logarithms

constructed.
that the above formula "*""*"* onlyneeded Sl;0"ld+^e J2 of prime numbers, for the logarithm calculate the logarithms
are a

to to

ot

logarithms

number compose of its

may

be obtained

together the by adding

component factors.

In order to calculate the logarithm of any one of the smaller in either substitute the number prime numbers,we do not usually value some which be division that and such by easily performed, may either 7^+ 1 or n-l factor. We contains the givennumber a as then find log(n+l)or log(w-l)and deduce the logarithm of "
we

of the
n

formula

but (1)or (2),

endeavour

to find

ot

the given number.

Example. Calculate log2

n By putting
=

and

log3, given ^=-43429448.

the value of

10 in
=

have we (2),

log10- log9;

thus

log3

-043429448 + -002171472 + -000144765 + -000010857

+ -000000868 + -000000072 + -000000006 ; 1-2

log3 =-045757488, log3

=

-477121256.

M Putting

80 in
-

we (1),
=

obtain
-

log81 -log 80; thus

-000033929 + -000000283
-

log3

log2

-005428681

-000000003

log2
log2

-908485024

-005395032,

-301029997.
we

series for shall give another is often useful in the construction of + l)-\0gen which iog9{7i For Tables. further information on the subjectthe Logarithmic In the
next

article

reader

is

referred to Mr

Glaisher's article

on

Logarithmsin the
I ""

Britannica. hncyclopcvdia
H. H. A.

194
226. In Art. 223

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

we

have

proved that
2 3

loge(l x)
+

x~2+
2

3"-~-"'

changingx

into

cc, we

have
3
~

log.(l -")=-"*" 2
By subtraction,
1
.

J"

"

{
+
x
a

x3

x5

Put

"

"-

=
,

so

that

"

-x

l-x

Zn

; we

thus obtain

los* (n
oeV

\) ;

"

n log. "e

2"

(2w +

777^

+ l)3 5(2w + l)5 3(2?i not

va

j-t=

^-r.

...}-.
J
always

so

This series converges Note. very convenient the series in Art. 224. as

is but in practice rapidly,

227.

The

following examples
If a, 8
+

illustrate the

subjectof

the

chapter.
Example
that
1.
are

the

roots

of the a2

equation ax2
,02

+ bx +

0, shew

\og(a-bx
+ 8

cx'1)loga+(a.+ p)x
=

-J"x2
-

a3
+
o

ffi

"^-

x3-...

Since

"

a/3
=
-

we

have

bx + cx2=a
=

{l+ {a + B)x + aBx2)

a

(1+ px). (1+ cur)

+

.-.

log (a
-

bx +

ex2) log a
=

log (1+ ax) + log (1+ Bx)

B2x2
+
a

a-x'2
=

a3x3
_-...

B3x3.

loga +

ax-

Bx-'^-+^--...
x3...

\oga + {a +
2.
"

B)x-a^^a*+^
x2 + the coefficient
as n

Example
log (1 +
x

Prove that 1 2
or n
-

of is not

xn
a

in

the

expansion
3.

of

x2) is

according

is

or

multipleof

1-x3

log (1 +

x2) log-=
"

"

=log (1 x'3) log (1 x)

-

X6
Q

X9

X3r

X2

X3

xr

19G
3.
Shew that

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

.+_+ hge(n+a)-logt(n-a)=2l+ ^
*\*" /""o %A/
-

a?

a?

""/

O"** *t/

4.

if

y=*'-2 +-3
2 x

4
3

+""""

shew

that

=y

+^-+ ^

5.

Shew

that +
a

(-

V~^" /

:)+^P +
3

'

) +...
"

logea-logeZ".
correct

6.

Find the

Napierianlogarithmof

"

to sixteen

places

of decimals.

7.
8.

Prove

that

e"1

/ 1
.-

.-="

nr

+....)
.

Prove

that

iog,d+xr"(i -"")'-'="
9. Find the value of
''-2 f
-

("
+

o+o

+"""")
" " " " "

H
10. Find

j2 (-'4#4)
-

^ |i

+ -//,m

the numerical
=

values
=

of the

common

of 7, 1 1 logarithms

and 13; 11.

given ^
Shew

-43429448,log2
"

'30103000.

that if ax2 and

are

each less

unity

12.

Prove

that
=

+ 3a-+2^2) logc(l

3.r-

"

"

"

...

and

find the

term general

of the series.

13.

Prove

that
,

1 + 3.?

5x2
"

S5X3

65.iT4

and find the

term general

of the series.

14.

Expand

"

^"

in

series of

ascendingpowers

of

x.

EXPONENTIAL

AND

LOGARITHMIC

SERIES.

197

15.

Express
Shew

in ascendingpowers + e~ix) (eix

of .r, -where i'= "/

"

1.

25

16.

that

17.

If

and

/3 be the

roots

of x2 -jtxr +

tf

0, shew
n3
4-

that

a2 4- ft2

ft3

18.

If

.r"l, find the

1
"

Bum

of the series
2
,

4
.

19.
i

Shew

that
i
-,

i\n A log, (1 + -) =1 nj
20.
If

2(" + l)
De

2.3("4-l)2

3.4("t+ l)3
a

""

log, .,

,3 ^,^^,2^ x l+.r + .^ + .t-3

expanded

in

series
1

of

ascending odd, or
of

powers

of #, shew
4m

that
3

the

coefficient of o:n is

"

if

be

the form

+ 2. and

if n

be of the form

4m.

21.

Shew

that 23
1+ +,

33
+

43

]2 J3 (4+-=5e+

22.

Prove
2

that

n log,

log, ("+ 1) log, (" 1)=_

"

23.

Shew

that

"

1
"

"

ft

+ 1

2(?i+l)2
1
n

+'

"

3(7i+I)3
1

1_
2?i2

3n3
81

")

24
=
-

24.

If

log, Yq
7a
-

",

loge

25
=

1()S" ?;'
go
-

C' sheW

that
1 6a

2 log, and

26 + 3c, log, 3

1 1a

36

5 5c, log,

Ah + Vc ;

calculate

5 log, 2, log, 3, k"ge

to 8

of places

decimals.

CHAPTER

XVIII.

INTEREST

AND

ANNUITIES.

In this connected questions 229.

we chapter

shall

explainhow

the may

solution of

by

the "We

use

Interest and Discount formulae. of algebraical with

use

be

simplified
Value in
the

shall

the

terms

Interest, Discount,Present
sense on

their

arithmetical ordinary convenient

to take

; but
on

instead
one

of
we

takingas
year.

rate of interest the interest

more

,"100 for

the interest

"1

year, for one

shall find it

230.

To
at

given time

find the interest and interest. simple

of years, I the for
one

amount

of a givensum

in

Let P be the year,

n

in pounds, r principal

the number

the interest of "1 for and M the amount. interest,

one

The interest of P is Pnr ; that

year is

Pr, and therefore for

years

is,
/ =Pnr

(1).
+

Also that

I;

is,
and (2) we (1)

M=P(l+nr)
see

(2).
P, quantities
n, r,

From
or

that

if of the

7,

P,

?i, r,

M,
To

any

three be

giventhe

fourth may

be found.

231. due in
a

find the presentvalue and discount of a given sum given time, allowing simpleinterest. givensum,
for
one

Let P be the
r

V the year,
n

presentvalue,D the discount,

the number of years.

the interest of "1

INTEREST

AND

ANNUITIES.

199
at

Since

is the
u

sum

which

time will in

years amount

put out to interest have to P, we

the

present

P=

V(\+nr);
1
+
nr

P And D
=

1 Pnr
'

'

nr

nr

The value of D given by this equation is called the true discount. Note. when a sum is paid before it is due, it is customary in practice of money the interest on the debt instead of the true discount, and the to deduct deducted is called the banker's discount; so that so money But

Banker's Discount
True Discount

Pnr.
Pnr

1 + nr'

The difference between the true discount and the banker's "1900 paid 4 months before it is due is 6s. 8d.; find the rate interest being allowed. cent., simple per

Example.
on

discount

Let

denote the interest on

"1

for one 1900r

~~

year;

then the banker's discount

"

1900''
" "

^~
,

is

and

".

the true discount

a-

"

is

"

i*
1900r 1900r
"""

~3~

~3~

7~T~3; l+ir
1900r2=3
+ "-;

whence
1
*'" r~

"Jl +
3800
,

22800
_ ~

1"151
'

3800 152
1
=

Rejectingthe negative value, we

.-.

t,

"

"

nave

f"aSui
=

o?

"

rate per cent.

100r

4.

232. time given

To
at

find the interest and compound interest.

the

amount

of

given sum
in

in

Let P denote
n

7? the principal,

amount M

of "1

one

year,

the number

and of years, I the interest,

the amount.

200
The
amount

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

of the firstyear is PR ; and,since at the end of for the second year, the amount this is the principal PR2. the amount at the the second year is PR x R or Similarly end
n

of P

at the end

of the

third

years is PR"

year is \ that is,

PR3,

and

so

on

; hence

the amount

in

M=PR";
.'.

I=P(Rn-l).
on

Note.

If

denote

the interest
R
=

"1

for

one

year,

we

have

l+r.

233. fraction

In
a

business

transactions
to

when allow
amount

the

time

contains

fraction of of 1
+

year it is usual the year. Thus

v
-

interest simjyle of ,"1 in

for the year is

the

reckoned
interest

; and

the

amount

of P

in

4f years
amount

at

compound
of P in

is PR*

(1

^
"

Similarlythe
.

"

years

is PR"

(In
\

)
m/

If the interest is distinction between

payablemore

the nominal

than once a year there is a annual rate of interest and that

which may be received, actually if the interest is payabletwice annual

rate of

called the true annual rate ; thus a year, and if r is the nominal
r

the interest, in the whole

amount

of "1

in half

year is 1

+-^

and

therefore r2

year
true

the amount

of ""1 is (1

-J,
is

or

1 r2

r +

"

so

that

the

annual

rate

of

interest

234.

If the

interest is

payableq
of P in
n

times
on

the nominal
r
-

annual

rate,the interest

year, and if r is ."1 for each interval is

a or

and
,

therefore the amount

years,

qn

is intervals,

In this (ftimes
a

case

the interest is said to be "converted

into

principal"

year.

INTEREST

AND

ANNUITIES.

201

If the

interest is convertible

into To

then q becomes 1 r

infinitely great.
that q
-

principal every moment, find the value of the amount,

put

"

so

rx

thus

the amount

(l+-Y

i)T' =P(l-Y" P {(l

+
=

220, Cor.,] Penr,[Art.

since

is infinite when

q is infinite.

235. due in
a

find the present value and discount of a givenstun comjwund interest. giventime,allowing
To

Let P be the R the amount Since

givensum,
for
sum
one

V the year,

D the discount, present value,

n

of "1

the number

of years.

V is the
n

time,will in

years

which, put out to have to P, we amount P=VRn',

interest at the

present

it

and

P(l-R-).

Example. The present value of "672 due in a certain time is "126; if compound interest at 4" per cent, be allowed,find the time; having given

log2
Here Let be the number

-30103, log3
=

-47712.

Hol)iI' *"**=!'
n

of years ; then

672=126
25
=

y
672 16

"'"?ll0g24 1"gi26-'
.

100 96

or

?ilog
.-. n

=logy;
=
-

100 (log

log96) log 16
4
n
=

log3,
-

log2 log3 5 log 2 log 3

-

"72700
"
=

-01773

'

Veiy

nea

'

thus the time is very nearly 41 years.

202

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

EXAMPLES.
When

XVIII.

a.

the following logarithms required may be used, log2 -3010300, log 3 '4771 213, log7 -8450980, log11 1-0413927.
=

1.

Find the amount

of "100 in 50 years, at 5 per cent,

=

compound

interest; givenlog114-674

2-0594650.
sum

2. At simple interest the interest on a certain for the same and the discount on the same sum ,"90, rate is "80 ; find the sum. same 3.
cent,

time

of money is and at the

In how

many

compound interest
4.

years will ?
to
a

sum

of money

double itself at 5 per

of "10000 due

Find, correct

8 years hence

at 5 per cent,

the present value farthing, compound interest ; given

=

log67683-94
In how many compound interest ?

4-8304856.

5.

years will "1000

become

"2500

at 10 per cent,

mean

6. Shew that at between the sum 7.

Shew

simpleinterest
due and

the discount is half the harmonic the interest on it. than

a

will increase more that money century at 5 per cent, compound interest.

hundredfold

in

8.
amount

What

sum

to "1000

of money at 6 per in 12 years ? Given

=

cent,

compound
4-6963292.

interest will

106 log

2-0253059, log49697

borrows "600 from a money-lender, and the bill is 9. A man at an increase of 1 8 per cent. : what time will renewed every half-year 1 18 before it reaches "6000 1 Given log 2-071882. elapse
=

10.

"What

is the

amount

of

a
=

in farthing

200

years at 6 per cent,

=

compound

interest? Given

log106

11 5-0270 2-0253059, log

2-0611800.

Annuities.
*

236.

An
at

annuity is
more

fixed

sum

under paid periodically be made Unless either once it is otherwise

certain stated conditions ; the

a

payment may

year stated An

or we

frequent intervals.
the
an

shall suppose

payments annual.
of
an

annuitypayablefor a fixed term contingency ; a life annuity is years independentof any annuitywhich is payableduring the lifetime of a person, or
the survivor of
a

annuity certain is

of

number

of persons.

204
239. In

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

the present value of annuities it is always finding the results obtained customary to reckon compound interest; and unwhen trustworthy. simple interest is reckoned being contradictory the On this pointand for further information on

subjectof

annuities

the reader

may

consult

Jones

on

the

Value

Payments,and ofAnnuities and Reversionary Britannica. in the Encyclopaedia

240. To

the article Annuities

find t/iepresent value of an annuity to continue for (jiven number compound interest. of years, allowing
Let A of ""\ in be the annuity, R the amount V the of years, required present value. of A due in 1 year is AR~l in 2 years in 3 years
;
one

year,

the number The the the and

presentvalue

present value

of A of A

due due

is AR~'J ; is AR~3
;

present value
so on.

235.] [Art.
V
;
.-.

Now

is the

sum

of the

present values
AK-3+
tow

of the

different

payments

V=AR-1+AR-3
1
=
-

terms

R~"

AR~l
l-R-1 1-R-"

A R-l

also be obtained This result may in Art. Rn. 238, by [Art.232.] given

Note.

by dividingthe

value

of M,

Cor. of
a

If

we

make

infinite

we

obtain

for the

present value

perpetuity
R-V
241. If mA is the
m
'

presentvalue

of

an

annuityA,
; hence

the

annuity

is said to be worth In the

case

years'purchase.

of

annuitymA perpetual
1
m
=
-

"
"

100
=

rate

per cent.

INTEREST

AND

ANNUITIES.

205

the number that is, obtained As income

of

years' purchase of
annuities

perpetualannuityis

100 by by dividing instances of

the rate per cent.

we mention the may in irredeemable Stocks such as

perpetual
investments

from arising

Government many Debentures. A

Securities, Corporation Stocks,and

Railway
is furnished

good test
of
at

of the credit of

Government

by

the number
at at

2| p.
4 p.
c.

c.

Consols

Stock Stock

96

years' purchaseof its Stocks ; thus the 96} are worth 35 years'purchase; Egyptian is worth 24 years' purchase; while Austrian

5 p.

c.

80 is

only worth

16

years' purchase.

the present value of a deferredannuity to at the end of p years and to continue for n years, allowing commence compound interest. 242. To

find

Let A be the

R annuity,

the amount

of "1

in

one

year,

V the

present value.
The first

payment

is made

at

the

end

of

+ l) (;"

years.

[Art. 236.]
Hence
are

the

present values of the first, second, third... payments

respectively AR-{*+l\AR-(p+2\AR-(p+3\
...

.'.

V=AR-(p+l)
AR~
(p+1)

AR-{p+"+AR-(1,+3"+
7?~"
" "

ton

terms

1
=
-

AR~V

AR-p-"

Cor.

The

present value of

to deferred perpetuity

commence

after p years is

givenby

the formula

V~R-V
243. A freehold
estate

is

an

estate

which

annuitycalled

the rent ; and thus the value of to the present value of a perpetuity equalto the rent. It follows from Art. 241 that if we know

a yields perpetual the estate is equal

the number

of
we

years'
obtain

that a tenant purchase pays in order to buy his interest is reckoned the rate per cent, at which

farm,

100 by dividing

by

the number

of

years' purchase.

206 Example.
The

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

after 6 years of a freehold estate is bought for "20000; what rent ought the purchaser to receive, reckoning compound interest at 5 per cent. ? Given log 1-05 = -0211893, -1271358. log 1-340096
=

reversion

The

rent

years, which Let "A

equal to the annual may be purchased for

is

value "20000.

of the
'

deferred perpetuity,

for 6

be the value of the

annuity; then

since .R =

l-05,we

have

20000^* ^"5'-6;
"0o
.-.

~6= 1000; (1-05)

log A logA
.-.

-6
=

log 1-05

3,
=

3-1271358

log1340-09G.
rent

1310-096, and the

tenant

is "1340.

Is. lid.

244.

Suppose that
a

a an

by paying down
for p
to must
+ renew

certain

sum

lias obtained q years

p +
n

lease of

estate

have

elapsedhe
sum

wishes he

q years, and that when the lease for a term

years ; the

that

pay

is called the

fine for

renewingn
Let
tenant

years of the lease. be the annual value of the

n

A has

paid for

to the

present

p of the p + value of a deferred for

n

estate ; then since the be equal years, the fine must to

commence

annuityA,
is,
AR-p~n
.

after

p years and

to continue

years ; that AR-*

n the fine

-=

"

"

"

[Art.242.1

EXAMPLES.
The interest is 1.
A

XVIII.

b.

supposedcompound

unless the

is stated. contrary

stalment person borrows ,"672 to be repaidin 5 years by annual inof ,"120; find the rate of interest, interest. reckoning simple of
an

2.

Find the amount

interest at

annuity of ,"100 in
Given
=

20 years,

allowing

compound
3.
be let
so

4|
=

per cent.

log1-045

-0191163, log24-117 1-3823260.

A freehold estate is bought for "2750 ; at what rent should it that the owner may receive 4 per cent, on the purchasemoney ? A

4.

freehold estate worth

"120

year is sold for

"4000; find the

rate of interest.

INTEREST

AND

ANNUITIES.

207

5.

How interest If of

many

estate,
6.
amount

years' purchase being calculated at 3i

should
per

be

given

for

freehold

cent.?
25

a
an

perpetual annuity
annuity
of "625
to

is worth continue is worth which

can

years' purchase, find

the

for 2 years.
20

7.

If
to

perpetual annuity
for 3 years rate
a

annuity
8.
be

continue the
to

be

years' purchase, find purchased for "2522.

the

When

of

interest

paid now having given log 104

9.
interest Find what

receive
=

freehold

2-0170333,
will every amount

is 4 per cent., find what sum of "400 10 a year years -8296670. log 675565estate

must

hence;

sum

to "500

in 50 e_1
=

being payable
If and
rate 25

moment;
be
an

given

years '3678.

at

2 per

cent.,

10.
n

years,

30

years' purchase must years' purchase for

cent.

paid for annuity

an

annuity
continue

to

continue
2?i

to

years,

find the 11.

find the

per

man

borrows interest of
1-04

principal

and

amount

interest ; if the compound annual are repaid by 10 equal instalments, each instalment having given ;

"5000
to

at

per

cent,

be

log
12.
at 5

=-01

70333

and

log 675565

5-829667.
receives that he interest will be

man

has

ruined

per before

cent.

; if he the end
=

for which he capital of "20000 shew spends "1800 every year, of the 17th year; having given

log 2
13.
of 20 have The

'3010300,
rent

log 3
an

'4771213, log 7
is "500
to
cent.
renew

'8450980.

annual calculate

of

estate

if it is let the lease

on

lease

years,

the

fine to be
at 6
=

paid
per

when

7 years

elapsed allowing
=

interest

having given log3'118042

an
=

logl06
14.
n,

2-0253059,
If
a,

log4-688385

'6710233,
be

'4938820.

2/i, 3?i years

b, c years'purchase must respectively; shew

a2
"

paid for

annuity

to

tinue con-

that
=

ab + b2
worth year, and so per

ac.

15.

What
at

is the end

the

present
of the
at

of

perpetual
at

annuity
of the each

of

"10

payable
"30
at

end of

the

first

"20
on,
annum

the

end

second,
year;

the

third,
5 per

increasing "10
?

interest

being

taken

cent,

CHAPTER

XIX.

INEQUALITIES.

245.

Any when

quantity a
a

is said

to

be

greater than

another

quantity b
-

thus 2 is greater than -3, positive; is b Also said to be less 2 because (-3),or 5 is positive. is thus less -5 than is ba than a when -2, because negative; 3 is negative. 5" (" 2),or -b is
"

In

accordance
any

greater than

zero definition, negativequantity.

with

this

must

be regarded

as

shall suppose the (unless that the letters alwaysdenote real and is directly stated)

In the present

chapterwe

contrary positive

quantities.
246.
If
a
"

b, then

it is evident
a

that
c

"

b b

; ;

"

"

"

ac

"

be ; b

that

will still hold after each is,an inequality divided by the or multiplied, increased, diminished,

side has
same

been

positive

quantity.
247.
If
to each

a-ob,
side,
a"b+
c; term

by adding c
which

shews
one
a
"

that

in

an

inequality any
"

may

be

transposed

from
that

side to the other

if its sign be changed.

If

b,

then

if the must inequality

is,

evidently b a ; the sign of be transposed, sides of an inequality

be reversed.

INEQUALITIES.
If
a
"

209
b-a is

"

is,

"

b is positive, and b, then a is a nd therefore ("b) negative,

"

negative;that

"

"

b; be changed, inequality

the

hence,if the signsof all must signofinequality

the terms of an be reversed.

"
"

Again,if a

"

b, then

"a

b,and
"
"

therefore

"

ac

be ;
same

be multiplied inequality by the the signofinequality be reversed. must negative quantity, 248. that al + a2 and If
+

that

is,if the sides of an

If

a."b,,

a.

"

boi a^"b.,,

"b

it is clear

a3+...+

am

"

+ b^+ba+ 6,

...

bm;

a:a2a,--'a,n"hAK-'-b,"r
249.
11

a"b,

and

if p, q
V

are
V

then ^/a"^Jb, positive integers,

a'1 is,
"

or

a1

"

b9 ; and

therefore

a'1"

b' ; that

b'\where

is any

positive quantity.
Further,
250. The
"

"

=-

; that is a~n

"

b~".

square therefore greaterthan

.

of
zero.

every real Thus (a

-

and quantityis positive, is b)2 positive ; 0 ;

"

a2
" .

"

2ab
+

b2 "
2ab.

a2

b2 "

Similarly
that

^
-"

"

Jxy ;

is,the

arithmetic

mean

is greater of tivo positive quantities

than their geometric mean.

The

becomes inequality

an

when equality

the

are quantities

equal.
article will be preceding in which in the of case useful, especially inequalities involved symmetrically. are
H.
H.

251.

The results of the

found

very the letters

A.

li

210 Example
1.

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

If a, b, c denote

quantities, positive prove

+
ca

that

a2 + b2+c2"bc and For

2 + (a3

ab;
ab

b3 +

c3)"bc(b+ c)+ ca(c+ a) +

"2 + c2"2bc c2 + a2"2c"; a2 + b2"2al);

(a + b).

(1);

whence

by addition
be noticed

a2 + b2 + c2 " be +

ca

+ a".

It may

that this result is true for any b2-bc

.-.

real values of a, b, c.

Again, from (1)

c2"bc

(2);

b3 +

c3"bc(b+c)
obtain

(3).

By writingdown
2

the two b3 +

similar
be

and adding,we inequalities

ca

+ (a3

" c3)

(b+ c)+

[c+ a) + ab{a+b).
the (2)by introducing inequality (3)will no

It should be observed that (3)is obtained from factor b + c, and that if this factor be negative the hold. longer

Example
.r3+l
or

2.
x.

If

may

have

any

real value

find which

is the greater,

x2 +

x3+l-

+ x)=x3(x2
=

x2

(x 1)
-

(x2-l)(x-l)
+ l). (.r-l)2(*

Now

is positive, hence [x l)2

-

x3 + 1
as according x

"

or

"

x2 +

1 is positive or

accordingas negative;that is,

an

"

or

"

1.

If

x"

becomes 1, the inequality

equality.
sum

252. and P

Let

and

b be

two

their

product ;

then from 4a6

=

$ their positive quantities, the identity

-

(a+ bf

(a b)\
-

we

have iP
=

S2
is

and (a b)2,
-

S2

"P+(a- b)2.
a
"

Hence, if S given,S is least

that

P given,

is

greatest when

b\

and

if P

is

when
a=

b;

if the is,

sum

is greatestwhen they are is their quantities given,

is given, their product of two positive quantities and the if productof two positive equal ; is least when sum theyare equal.

212
254. To

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

is constant; Since be
"

when find the greatestvalue q/'amb"cp. positive being integers. m, n, p,

.

c +

...

...

m,

n, p,...

are

ambncp... will constants, the expression

greatest when

"

\mj

) (-)

( ) \nj \pj
-

...

is greatest. " p b
+ +
...

But

this last
sum

is the product of expression

m

factors whose
.

is
con-

"

\mj
stant.

)+

(") +
\nj

( )+
"

..

.,

or

c +

and
.

\pj

.,

therefore

Hence

ambncp... will be
a ni

greatestwhen
o n c

the factors

are

all

when that is, equal,

a m

b
n

c +

m+n+p

Thus

the

greatestvalue is mmnnpp. (
.
.

/a + b + c+

...\M4*4*+"

Example.
of
x

Find

the

for any real value greatestvalue of (a+ x)s(a-a:)4

a.

less than numerically

The the

is greatest when givenexpression of the factors of this

"

"

J
3

(
"

j"

j is greatest;
"

but

sum

is expression

( "^- J+ 4 I
,

^"
.

or

2a;

hence {a + Thus

is greatestwhen x)3 (a x)*

-

"

^"

"

^"

or

x=

63. 84 value is the greatest

*

a7.

255. may this

The

determination
more

of maximum the

and

minimum
a

values

often be

simply effected by
the

equationthan

have alreadyoccurred illustration.

by methods. foregoing in Chap. ix. ; we

two

solution of

ratic quad-

of Instances add further a

Example.
is
a

Divide

an

odd

into integer

integralparts whose
and
2n + 1

product
and

maximum. Denote

the

integer by
;

the

product by y

then

(2n+ 1)x
2x
=

2/i+ 1 ; the two parts by x* = y ; whence

-

(2n+ 1)" V^h

I)2-^

INEQUALITIES.
but the

213
and therefore positive, since y is
y cannot

quantityunder the radical

11
-

must
+
x
-

be
;

be greater than value must and n+1. be

n-

or + l)2, (2/t

n'2 +

and
n+

its greatest integral

+ n\

in which

case

1, or

thus the two

parts are

256.

Sometimes
Find
;

we

may

use

the
of

method. following
'
" "

' '
.

Example.
Put c+x=y the expression
..
.

the

minimum

value

then

(a-c
=

+ y) y){b-c ^-^
-

y
_

(a c)(b c) +y+a-c+b-c
-

2j(a-c)(b-c). ( a~CJyb~C)-^yy
+
a-c

+ b-c

Hence
is when Thus

expressionis y=J(a -c)(b- c).

the minimum

the

minimum

when

the square

term

is

zero

that

value is
a-c

+ b-c

+ 2

*J(a c)(b
-

c);

and

the

value corresponding

of

is

*/(" c){b c)-c.

EXAMPLES. 1. 2. 3.
Prove Prove that that

XIX.

a.

" (ab+ xy)(ax+ by) 4abxy.

+ a)(a+ b)" 8abc. (b+ c) (c

Shew is reciprocal

of any that the sum less than 2. never

=

real

positive quantity and

that
ax

its

4.
5.

If a2 + b2

l, and x2+y2

l, shew
z2
"
=

by"\.

If "2 + 62 +

c2=l,

and
ax

x2+y2+ by+ cz

l, shew that

1.

6. 7. 8. 9.
10.

If

"

b, shew
that which that that

that

aabb " abba,and

loe

"

losr = 2. D.'-'-V
-

Shew
Find Prove Prove Shew

+ z2x) + y2z (.r2^ (xy2 +yz2+ zx2)

"

is the a36
+

greater 3"62
"

or

aP+263.

ab3
"

"4

64. ab

6abc

be

+ ca(c + a)+ (b+ c)

"

(a+ b).

11.

that b2c"+ c2a2 + a2b2

abc

(a+ b + c).

214
12. 13. 14. Which
Shew is the that the

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

greaterx3
"

or

x2+x

+ 2 for
"

values positive
a.

of x%

x3 + lSa2x

hax* +
x

9a3,if x
in order

Find

greatestvalue of
value

that

7x2 + 11

may

be

greaterthan
15.
Find
-

x^ + Hx.
the minimum 9x2. 8
-

of x2-

12#+40, and the

2?i"

maximum

value of 24?

16. 17. 18. 19.

Shew

that that that

(\nf
"

"" +

and

6.

(w+ l)n.

Shew
Shew If
?i

(x+y
n*
"

" ,s)3 27^^.

.(2n
-

1 ).

be

than 2, shew positive integer greater

that

2ft"l+?iV2,7_1.

21.

Shew

that 27

(1) (x+y +z)3"

(y +
+

z-

+ x)(z

y)(x+y

z).

(2) xyz"(y+z-x)(z
22. 7 and
no

x-y)(x+y-z). (7 x)A(2+ #)5when

-

Find
-

the maximum

value of

liesbetween

2.
T7v xu Find the
" "

23.

minimum

1 value

f of

(5+ x)(2+ x)
=-*-*
.

1+*

*257. am+bm
"

To
/a +
"

prove b\m

that

if
"

and
.

b
a

are

and positive

unequal,
action.

(
"

"

exceptwhen

xs

positive proper jr

We

have

a1" + 6m

-y" "

-^-J
+
we

-^

g-J;
each of

and

since

"

~"

is less than

,
-

may

expand
.

these

in ascending powers expressions a"

+

of

"

"

[Art. 184.]
fa
-

6m

/a

b\m
+

(m
1.2

"'""~2~ =v~2-J
m

1)(a +

b\""-

b\*
bV"-4

\~r)

\~r)
J
fa
-

(m

\)(m -2)(m-3) fa + 1.2.3.4 "A 2

b\4

12 j+'"

INEQUALITIES.

215

(1)

If

m on

is

all the terms

the

or positive integer, negative quantity, any and therefore rightare positive,

a"

+
=

b'n
"

fa fa

bs V" 6
'

\2~)

the

(2) If m rightafter

is the

and less than positive and first are negative,

am
"

1, all the
therefore

terms

on

+
-"

bm
"

fa fa

fr b\m

(3)

If

on

"

1 and

positive, put
i
i

where

"

1 ; then

76

{-"2) (-2-)
=

fam

bm\m bm\m

fd" fan

b7l\H bn\n
;

'am
"

bm\m
"

(a*)m (b")H
+
o
i

o"

]jy(2)

/ox

i
"

b'"\"1
"

a
"

+
"

.*.

"

"

"

fi-7
If
m
=

Hence

the

proposition is
an

established.

0,

or

1, the

becomes inequality

equality.
n

*25".

If there
am+bm

are

'positive quantities a,
+
...

b,

then c, ...k,

cm +
n

km
"

/a \

c+...+k
n

)"
0 and

unless

"

rt

positive proper fraction.

to

Suppose on
Consider that
a

have

any

value
am

not

lyingbetween
+

1.

the b
are

expression

bm

c"1 +
a

...

k"\ and

and
a
"

....

+
"

b
,
i

unequal ; if a + b
..
"

we

replace
"

and
+

by

suppose the two equal

remains un-

quantities

the
,

, value

or

c+...+fc

-j

but altered,

the value

of a"1 + bm

cm

...

k'" is

diminished, since

216
Hence

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

any two of the the expression am + bm + cm + the value of a + b + c + altering

so

long as

quantities unequal a, b,c,..."are

+

...

km

can

be and

diminished therefore all the

without the value

...+k;

of a"1 + b'n+ cm
a,
are b,c,...k

km

will be
case

least when each of the

...

quantities

equal.

In this
a

is equal quantities

c + n

k
;

to

and

the value of am

bm

cm

+km
...

then
+

becomes

n{
Hence when am
+

fa

c +

k\m

"

"

a,

are b,c,...k

unequal,
"

bm

cn+...+lem
n

/a + fa

c+ c +

...+fc + k\m
...

If

?n

lies between

that the The The

signof

may in a similar in the above result must inequality 0 and 1

we

manner

prove be reversed.
:

proposition may
arithmetic
mean

be stated

as verbally

follows

is greater than the mth except when m lies between 0 and

quantities of the mth powers of n positive in all cases of their arithmetic mean power
1.

the series

of consisting

1 terms

; and

('^""""("-^"("-{)("
the series of b + consisting the second 1 terms.
term

After
is

term, each
of

of in

(1)is greater than

of terms the in

the

term corresponding

(2) ;

moreover

the number

(1)

greaterthan

the number

of terms

(2) ; hence

proposition

is established.

INEQUALITIES.
X

217

*2G0.

To prove

that

+ /I 'I"^"

/lhV
v
i-y5
x
"

i-x'

if'xand

are

proper

and ])ositive, and fractions

y.

For

.71"f"flr"//g*|
1 1
.

x/l+x

,.

a
"

1
or
"
-

1 log

according

as

-lo"?-n l-x

"l-2/'
+

But

+? ?+""")" tAAM^ S^lzS"2^

Ilog^2(l+!\ 5 \ 1-2/
"

and

2/

'

1
.
-

4- a;
"
-

1
.

\+y
" -

log *

l-x

log "

, '
-

and

thus the

is proved. proposition

"261.
777

To

prove

that

(1-x)1_x"l,if x"l, (1+ x),+x

aabD
,

and

to

i' "

luce that

/a
"

+
_

b\a+b

J
then

Denote

(1 +jb)1+* (1-a)1-*by P;
=

logP

+ x)+ (l-aj)log(l-a;) (l+a)log(l + log (1+ x)+ log(l"x) (1+x)- log(1 x)) {log
-

2x^+3 ^+...)-2^ 1
r\
_

**s

JO

*C

i//

SI/

-6

...)

--.

"*/

JC

Jit

Hence that

log P

is

and positive,
+

therefore P"

1;

is,

(1+*)1 r(l-*)'-'"!.

218

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

f9

In this result

put

"

where
, Z

"

; then
Z

sY+w/,
+

{1 u) ^-i)
'u +

z\l~u

%1;

z\

\
.'.

y-^Y-"r"rl. J \
u

(u+ z)u+*(u-z)u-z"u2u.
a,
u
"

Now

put

+ z

b,so

that

"

"

"

(TJ
*

EXAMPLES.
+ (a4

XIX.
b+

b.

1. 2. 3.

Shew

that 27 that
n

"4 +

" (a + c4)

c)\
...

Shew
Shew

" (n+ l)3

+ (l3

23 + 33+

n3).
even

that the sum is greaterthan n (n+ If

a

of the mih powers l)m,if m " 1.

of the firstn

bers num-

4.

and /3are

and positive quantities,

"

shew that /3,

"-SM-jr(
Hence shew that if
n
"

1 the

value

of

(1 +

lies between

and

2-718... 5.
If a,

b,c

are

in

order descending /a + c\a

^.

of

magnitude,shew

that

\a-c)
6. Shew that 'a + (a
'
~v

+ c\b fb \b-cj
b
+ c +
--

'

c+...+k\a +
v~

+ ,i "

aabb"*..""*.
.

7.
8.

Prove

that

log(1+ am) "

log(1+ an),if m
x
"

"

n.

lib

Ih

If

ii

is

and positive integer

1
_

1,shew

that

#n

1
"

A.n
n

?"

+ 1

CHAPTER

XX.

LIMITING

VALUES

AND

VANISHING

FRACTIONS.

262. be made

If
as

be

constant
we

finite

the quantity,

fraction

--

can

small make
-

as
a

x increasing pleaseby sufficiently

; that

is, we

can

approximate to
this is
-

zero

as

nearly as

we

please

by takingx largeenough ;
"

abbreviated usually is zero."

by saying,

when

is infinite the limit of

Again, the
x as

fraction

increases

as

and by making decreases,

small

as

we

pleasewe
zero
-

can

make
x

"

as

largeas
this is

we

please ;

thus

when

is

has

no

finite

limit;

usuallyex-

JO

pressed by saying,
263.
or

"

when

is

zero

the limit of

is infinite."

When

we

is

mean we infinite,

say that that we

quantityincreases without limit to become can suppose the quantity

name.

greater than limit, we

smaller The which denote

any

quantitywe
we we

can

Similarlywhen
mean

say
can

that

that any

quantity decreases without the quantity to become suppose

a name.

than

quantitywe

can

symbol go is used to denote the value of any quantity is indefinitely increased,and the symbol 0 is used to of value nished. dimithe quantity which is indefinitely any

LIMITING

VALUES.

221
may
now

204.

The

two

statements
:

of Art. 2G2

be written

as symbolically

follows if
x

is

co

then

is 0

if

is 0

then
x

is

co

But
must

in

making

use

of such

concise

modes

of

it expression, abbreviations

be remembered

that

they are

only convenient

of fuller verbal statements.

26~". the but

use as

The

student

will have

had

no we

of the word
a

wherever limit, the

in understanding difficulty have already employed it;

clear

of conception

ideas

conveyed by

the

words of and

limit and
Mathematics

limitingvalue
we

is necessary

in the

to explain more proceed

higherbranches their use precisely

meaning.
266. value
we

Definition.

If y

=f(x),and

if when
to

be made a, the function f(x) can from a fixed quantity b, then please
x
"

differ

a approaches little as as by

b is called the

limit

of

y when For

a.

if S instance,
+

denote then 'S'

=

the

sum

of

terms

of the

series

1+2

22 S

2~J
is
a

'";

2~2^and that
^"
,

tArt 56*1
can

Here
as
n

function

of n,

be

made

as

small

we

n ; pleaseby increasing

the is,

limit of S is 2 when

is infinite.

267.
some common

We
a

shall often such letter, a0

+

have

occasion

of consisting

series of terms
as

expressions of to powers arrangedaccording

to

deal with

axx

aax"+ a3x3 +
...

where

the

coefficients
x, and

o0, a,, a2, a3,

the number

are

finite may

quantities
or

independentof
unlimited.

of terms

be limited

It will therefore connected with the certain conditions.

be convenient values limiting

to discuss

some

propositions

of such

under expressions

222
268. The limit a0 when
x

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

of the
+

series
+ + a3x3 + a2x2

axx

is

diminished indefinitely

is a0.
an

Suppose that
Let let
us

the series consists of

number infinite
alf asi o3,

of terms.
...

b be

the the

greatest of the coefficients

; and

denote

given series by
S"bx
+

a0

S ; then
+
...

bx2 + bx3
bx
"

and

if Thus

"

we

have
x

-=

.
"

x as

when
we

small

as

diminished,S can be made indefinitely please ; hence the limit of the givenseries is a0.
is of have number finite hence considered,
a

If the than

series consists
case we

in the

of terms, S is less the proa fortiori position

is true. 269. In the series a0

+

a,x

a2x

,3

a3x

small enough ive may make term x as by taking largeas we any all that it and pleasecompared with the sum by taking of follow ; x large enough we may make any term as largeas we please it. compared with the sum of all that precede The it is
a

ratio

of

the

term

a
n

xn

to

the

sum

of all that

follow

xn
'"

a or

an+1xn+l+an+2x"+'2+
...

an+1x

au+2x*+..
can

When
as as

x as we

is

small
we

small the denominator indefinitely that is,the fraction can be please ;

be made
as

made

large

please.
ratio of the
term

Again, the it is precede

a
n"l

anxn to

the

sum

of all that

xn
or
n
"

l+a ,ccn

2+...' "xn 2

a
n
"

+ ,y lts

n"2"J

ay2+...'

where

y u

LIMITING

VALUES.

223

as we

small ; hence, largo, y is indefinitely indefinitely be made in the previous case, the fraction can large as please. When
x

is

as

270.

The is very

following particular form

useful.

of

the

foregoing proposition

In

the

expression
H-i

a
ii

a
H
"

,x
1

a.x
1

a
, 0 "

of terms in descending powers of a finite number of x, consisting be made as large by taking x small enough the last term a0 can all of the with the that terms as we sum please compared precede and first the be made ax* term can it, by taking x largeenough of all that follow it. as largeas we pleasecompared with the sum

Example
n4
-

1.

5/i3 -7/i + 9 as terms ; that is,we

By taking n large as we
may
error an

with expression, enough.

make the first term of can large enough we of all the other please compared with the sum ?i4as the equivalent of the whole take the first term small as we as please provided n be taken large

3.t3
"

2x'2
:

"

4
"

Example
zero.

2.

Find

the limit of

=-=

"

when

(1) x is infinite

(2) x is

(1)

In

the

numerator

and
^-s
OXr

denominator
3
,

we

may

disregardall

terms

but

3a;3

the first ; hence

the limit is

or

-4

1
,

(2)

When

is

small indefinitely

the limit is

"--

or

Example
Let have
P

3.

Find

the limit of

/
V

/1
"

+
"

x
-

when

is

zero.

denote

the value

of the

given expression ; by taking logarithms

we

log P=i {log (1+ x)-log (1-x)}

X

^(l ^' '^+.-.V

+ +

[Art. 226.]
value of the limit

Hence

the

limit

of

log P

is 2, and

therefore

the

required is e'2.

224

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

VANISHING

FRACTIONS.

271.

to Supposeit is required

find the limit of 2a2

x2

ax

"

x2 when If
x
=

a2

a.

we

put

h, then
a.

h will

approachthe

value

zero

as

the value approaches

a + Substituting

h for x,
ax"

x2 +

2a2
=

3ah 2ah

+ +

h2
=

3a

x2-a2 and
.

h2

2a~+h'
this

when 3
-. a

h is

small indefinitely

the

limit of

expression

is

There

is however x2
+
ax
"

another
-

way
-

of

the question; for regarding

x x

2a2

x2 and
^r
-j

a2

(x a)(x+ 2a) (x a)(x+ a)

"

+
+

2a
'

if
as

we

now

put

the

value

of

the

expressionis

before.
2 fi 2

If in the

given expression
x

^
"

"

we

pat

before
0
-

it will simplification value form of which in

be

found

that

it

assumes

the form
see

0
; also
Ave x -a

the this both

is indeterminate of the

that divide
a

it has

numerator

consequence and denominator.

as

factor Now
we

appearingin by
a

cannot

zero

but factor,
x
-

long as
the

is not and
we

absolutely equal to
then
nearer

the factor
nearer
x

may

be
to

removed,
value 3
^

find that does the

the

approaches
fraction
Art.

", the
,

value

of

the

to approximate

or

in accordance

with

the definitionof

266,
when
i

a, the limit of
x~

ax
^

"

Jia
"

o
-

is

-^a"

VANISHING

FRACTIONS.

225

272. becomes fraction Fraction.

(x)are two functions of x, each of which f(x) and "f" value a of x, the particular equal to zero for some
If

^~
"f) (a)

takes

the

form

Ki
v

and

is

called

Vanishing

Example 1. If x

S, find the limit of

"T3-5:r2 + 73-3
.T3
-

'6

x-

"

ox"

When

reduces to the indeterminate form 3, the expression

from
x
=

^; but by

removing the factor x-3

becomes

numerator

and

denominator,the fraction
-

~2x+1
,

When

S this reduces to

x2 + 2x + 1 limit. required

which

is therefore the

Example
To

2.

The

fractionJ'^-a-Jx
x-a

becomeg
0

when

%_a

find its
to

numerator limit, multiply

a;

and denominator

by the surd

jugate con-

Jx + J'dx-a-

the fraction then becomes

2
^

(Sx-a)-(x+ a)

+ "Jx + Jx + a)' J'6x-a+ [x-a)(Jdx-a

or

whence

x by putting

we

find that the limit is

"j=

21x

Example

3.

The

fraction

becomes 1_%x
l + h and

when

x=l.

To find its limit,put Thus the fraction

expand by

the Binomial

Theorem.

(1+ fe)*
_

l-(l

/0i

l-(l+J*-^"F+-.)
1
+

3 1
+

9;"-2

1,

-5
Now
h
=

25/l5
-

0 when

limit is *ael; hence the required

273.
between

Sometimes

the

roots

of

an

assume equation

an

determi in-

form in consequence of some the coefficientsof the equation.

relation

subsisting
lo

H. H. A.

226
For

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

example,if

ax

ex

d, b,

(a c)x
"

"

d-b
x
=

"

But
a

if

a, then

becomes

"

"

j-

or

go

; that the

the is,

root
x

of is

great if simpleequationis indefinitely small. indefinitely

274.
The solution of the
ax

coefficient of

equations
a'x +
+ b'y
c
=

by +

0,
-

0,

be' ab'
If ab'
" "

b'e ab1
y
are

ca'

"

c'a
'

"

ab'-a'b both

a'b

0, then
;

and

infinite.

In

this

case

"

suppose

for by substituting
c

a', b\

the

second

becomes equation

ax

by +

"

0.

cIf
"

is not

equal to
0

c, the two

ax equations

by +

0 and

c'
ax ii H + bJ
=

differ only in J be satisfied

their

absolute

terms, and
x

being
y.

Ml

inconsistent cannot

by

any

finite values of

and

If
are now

"

is equal to ^
m

c. we

have

-=-=-,
a

and
b
c

the two

equations

identical.
be

Here, since
each
assume

"

b'e
-

0 and and
,

ca'
the

"

c'a

"

0 the values of

and

y In

Q the form the solution is indeterminate.

fact,in by
an

two involving

we present case unknowns, and

have such
an

reallyonly one equation equationmay be satisfied

unlimited number
reader who is

of values.

138.] [Art.

with Analytical acquainted Geometry will in interpreting these results in connection with have no difficulty line. the geometry of the straight The

228

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

EXAMPLES. Find
the limits of the when #=oo,

XX.

followingexpressions, (2)
when
x
=

(1)
-

0.

(2s-3) (3-5*)

(3r?- I)*
#4 + 9
'

y^-r^^

j \f-

"j

(a?-3)(2-5.v)(3a7+l)

(2a? -I)3
_^_^:L^r
'

2^-1

'

2#2

'

(3 -*?)(*+ 5)(2-7*) (7.r-l)(#+ l)3

'

Find

the limits of

7.

'-a
"

when
,

x"

"

1.

8.
#

when
,

0.

#2-l
gjc
_

g
/n

ginx

Qtna

9.

-"

when
,.

0.

10.
.r-"

when
,

#=a.

log(l+#)

v/#-\/2a+ V^-2a
11.
V #2
.

when
,

a?=2a.

4a2

log(l+#2+#4)
12-

l^(i-sto)-'whena,=ft
\/2x
,
"

l-a?+loga?
13.
1
-

when

a?=l.

x2
3

,. 14.

(a2-x2)2+ (a-xf ^, ^
"

when

x=a,

(a?-afi)*+(a-xf
\fa2 +
15.
ax

+ x2
x

"

*Ja2
" . "

ax+x2
.

when
,

0.

\Ja +
16.

\j

"

-{

when
,

00

17.

log

i_1

when
,

cc

18.

A'

/
a
"

when
,

0.

CHAPTER

XXI.

NVERGENCY

AND

DIVERGENCY

OF

SERIES.

076
^ by some some

^ t^m assigiMgl
reguJ"
is the

Ax ! lrlaw

in expression is w
lt: lb

which
a

the successive terms

are

formed
at

called

^e

series ; if the
a

series

terminate ^

ca'iea
an

number

q{

terms

unfimitfd,it

is called
we

infinite shall

B^J. series.
a

In
an

preset chapter
"ue

usually denote

series

by

expression c-

form
+

ux

n2

+ i/-3

Suppose

that

we

have

series consisting of

terms.

of n; if n of the series will be a function The sum either tends to become the sum equal to indetinitely, finite An of the
or fcmi*,

increases
a

certain

else it becomes

infinitely great.
to

infinite series is said

first
n

be

convergent

when
some

the

sum

terms

cannot may

numerically
be.
to

exceed

finite

however quantity An

greatn

infinite series is said

n

be

divergent

when

the

sum

of
finite

the first

terms

can

be made

numericallygreater than

any

by taking n quantity
978

sufficiently great.
find the
the
sum

If
we

we

can

of the first
it is

terms
or

of

given
finite, in-

series
W

may

ascertain
whether is made

whether series

convergent
finite,or

divergent

examining
when For
n

remains

becomes

indefinitely great.
sum

example, the
1
+

of the first

terms

of the series

1-*"
x

x2

x*

...

is
".

"

_a.

230
If
x

HIGHER is

ALGEBRA.
sum

less than 1, the numerically

-

appro.

; -,0 the

finite limit If
n

j"

and

the series is therefore

converge,
thus ""
*"""

is is

terms

"

of t" first greater than 1, the sum numerically n and by taking great,tk can sufficiently y
,

cUve?gednet.greater serie's rdi^entUm

*

""*

"Y

"n*e

l""*^

is

**

"

"" *"d

**"*"

If

x=

1,the series becomes 1-1+1-1+1

-1+

of terms is I and thiw +\L of terms is 1 odd number of an Ac between the values 0 and 1. Thi

The

sum

of

an

even

number

,;L the
""

T
^1

sum

"

which may

be called o-iBo^
are 0ases

or

A^c^
in

X ^ t,fe
5

"

^
,".

,many /^' ?ihere of the first of finding

f sum the.

which
of
a

we'haic
series.
can we

terms

rules by which therefore to investigate

test

S:
280.
4n

"f

"*"

-*Hout

We p" the cTt its effecti

hod

series tra/mfe

w*

taAicA *Ae ferw

are

alternately

Let the series be denoted

by
u, +
u
-

M,
where

%
*

w1"^"^a"w,"M
o

....

for,"6

giVe" SerfeS may

be

Written

in each

of the

following
^

+(".-",) K-",)+(",-"0
+

".-K-"J-("4-",)-K-"r)a

(2).

that the positivequantity;and from From

(1) we

of terms

is

of terms is of any number (2)that the sum of any nnmber less than ", ; hence the series is convergent.
see sum

CONVEltGENCY

AND

DIVERGENCE

OF

SERIES.

231

281.

For

the example, 11111

,

series
1

f-

2
is
sum

4
-"

convergent. By puttingx
is 2. loge the series

1 in Art.

223,

we

see

that

its

Again,in

23

4
+

_5

6
+

T~2
each
term

3"4

_7 ~6+
the

'

is

less numerically

than

series is therefore

convergent. But the

11111
i

term, and preceding givenseries is the sum

m
'

the of

1-2+3-4
and Now 1-1+1-1

5"6+
1-1
+

(1)'
(2).
1

is equalto loge is equalto 2, and (2) (1)

or

or

according'

of terms is even as is convergent, and its sum the number 2 if an log,, if

an even

number

of

given series approximatestowards continually 2 1 + log8 terms is taken,and towards

odd. Hence the

odd 282.

number An

is taken.
are

seizes in which all the terms infinite is divergent \feach term is greaterthan some sign however For the
sum

of the same finite quantity quantitya, and this,by

any finite

small.
if each of the
term

is
n

greater than
is be

some

finite
na

first

terms

greater than
made
to

taking n sufficiently great,can quantity.

283. vergency I. if If Before and
we divergency,

exceed

further to investigate proceeding shall be may almost

tests of

con-

which principles,
a

two lay down axioms. as regarded

important

series is

convergentit

will remain
we

convergent, and
add
or remove

it will remain divergent

when divergent,
; for the
sum

number of its terms any finite a finite quantity. II.

terms

of these

terms

is

If

series in which the series is

all the is

terms

are some

is positive
or

vergent, con-

then
are

convergent

when

all of the all

the terms We

negative ; for the sum have the same sign.

that all the

greatest when clearly

are

shall suppose contrary is stated.

terms

unless positive,

the

232
284. An

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

is convergent iffrom and aftersome term is numerically fixedterm the ratio of each term to the preceding less than unity. zuhich is itself numerically less than some quantity series infinite Let the series from beginning
u,12 +

the fixed term

be denoted

by

+ uc" + u^3 + u^ 4

and

let
r
"

U0
"

U1
"

r,

"

"

r,

UA -*

"

U: where
1.

U2

Us

Then

u,12 +ur, + u+uA 3 /_.

1

+
4

u9

u.

ua

^
r

"fa ux
+

u3

u2

Ul

"

(1+ it,
r
"

r2 + r3 +

);

u.

tliat

is,"

~1
-

since
,

1.

Hence 285. should

the

givenseries

is

convergent.
of the article preceding words
"

In the enunciation notice the

the student and after

a

of significance

the

from

fixed term."

and
to

largewe can make this ratio apby taking n sufiiciently proxima of each and ratio term the to x as nearly as we please, if x 1 the the preceding be x. Hence term will ultimately
"

series is But

convergent.
the ratio
"

"

will not
,

be less than

1, until

=-

"

1:

u
n"1

n"\

that

is,until
Here
we

"

"

x case a

have up

of

convergent series in which

may For

increase

to

certain then

pointand
1
=

then

the terms begin to decrease. the terms do not

99

example, if

x^^-r", 100

100, and

"

beginto

decrease until after the 100th term.

CONVERGENCY

AND

DIVERGENCY

OF

SERIES.

'2Xi

286.

An

infiniteseries in which
and
some after

all the terms

are

of the

same

it if from signis diverge) to the 'preceding term term

fixedterm
t*

the ratio

is greater than

unify,or equalto
.

of ea"-li unify.
sum

Let the fixed term each unity, of

n

be denoted

by

If the ratio is
,

equal to

terms

is equal to u and the terms succeeding is equalto nul ; hence the series is divergent.

of the

If the ratio is

fixed term
than

each of the terms after the greater than unity, is greater than ux, and the sum of n terms is greater

nu} ; hence the series is divergent.

In of these tests, to avoid practical application after which each term is ascertain the particular term less than the preceding term, it is convenient to find the
" -

287.

having to
greater or

the limit of be denoted If X" If \" If and

" "

when

is

increased;let indefinitely

this limit

n"\

by

A.

1, the series is convergent.

284.] [Art.
divergent,
that
n

1, the series is divergent. [Art. 286.]

the series may test will be be either

X=l,
1 but

convergent
1

or

further

required ; for it may

as

happen

"
"

to continually approaching
m

its limit ivhen

name

is

increased. In this indefinitely quantityr which is itself less

Hence the test of Art. 284 1
as

case

we

cannot

than

1 and

yet
"

any finite greater than X.

"

fails. its

If,however,

"
I

1 but

con-

u
H
"

to tinually approaching

limit,the series is divergent by

Art. 286.

We
"the

shall

use

"

Liin

"
"

"

as
, 1

an

abbreviation

of the

words

u
n
"

limit of

"

"

when
.

is infinite."

u
n
"

Example 1
or

1.

Find

whether

the

series whose

nlh term

is

"

"

is

.,

con-

vergent di-

divergent.
?/n ('"_!

"

(n+ l)a:n
n2

ru^1

(n +

l)(n-l)n*

{h 1)2
-

him

"

"

"x\
I

"n

234
hence if x if x
u
"

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

1 the series is convergent ; 1 the series is

a

"

divergent.

If

l, then Lim

"

"

=1, and

further test is required.

Example

2.

Is the series l2 + 22x + 32x2 + 4?xs+

convergent
_

or

divergent?
T Lim
.

Here Hence

un
"

n2 xn~l

7jL=Lim-.

un-i if x if x" If
x
=

(n-l)-xn2
"

".0

9=x.

"

1 the series is

convergent ;

1 the series is

divergent.
. . .

1 the series becomes

l2 + 22 + 32 + 42 +

and

is

divergent. obviously

Example

3.

In the series
+

a+(a

d)r+{a
, Lim
.
"

+ (a + 2d)r2+...
a
.
"

n-1

+ d)rn~1

...,

wn

"=Lim T

-t(n
".

"*-i
thus if r"

1)d (n-2)d
-

-^--.r
sum

r;

1 the series is convergent, and the

is finite. [See Art. 60, Cor.]

series in each of which all the infinite in and if the ratio of the corresponding terms terms are ])Ositive, both convergent, the two series are the two series is alwaysfinite, 288.

If

there

are

two

or

both

divergent.
infinite series be denoted ux
+

Let the two

by
,

ua

ua + w4
v.
4

+
+

and The

+ v, + v, + v, 3 12

value of the fraction ui

+

u,

ua^

+nn

lies between

the

greatestand least of the fractions

\
and is therefore
a,

-*,

-",
say ;

14.1 [Art.

L finite quantity,

Hence

if

one

series is finite in

value,so is the other;if

one

series is infinite in

value, so

is the

other; which

proves

the

proposition.

236 Example.
Prove

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

that the series

2 3 4

n+1

is

divergent. Compare the

Thus
given
series

with

1 +

"

"

"

"^
"

""""""

if "*n and vn denote series respectively, we auxiliary

the nth terms have

+

of the

given series and

the

un_n
i'n
7/

l
.
'

1
_

+ 1
?i

n2
two

re

hence

Zi-m,

"

=1, and therefore the

series

are

both convergent

or

both

therefore also the given series is divergent, divergent. But the auxiliary is series divergent. This the solution completes of

Example

1.

Art. 287.

291. limit of
"

In the should

of application be

Art.

288

it is necessary the
case

that find

the
our

finite ; this will be

if

we

series auxiliary Take

u

in the

following way
of the Denote
v

the nth term of

n.

given series
by
may

and

retain

onlythe
of

highestpowers
u
-

the result

vn) then
as

the limit of

is finite by Art.

270, and

be taken

the 7ithterm

the

series. auxiliary

3/2n2
-

1
=

Example r

1.

Shew

that

the

series whose

nth term

is

is

Z/S?vi + 2n+5

,,

divergent.
As
n

increases,un approximatesto the value

l/w
Hence, if
1 v"=-r,we
~

'

or

4/3
u

n12

3/2
=

have

Lim

"

^r,
v/3
1
"

which

is

finite

quantity;

n1therefore the series whose nth term

vn is

may

be taken

as

the

auxiliary

series. But

this series is divergent [Art.290]; therefore

the

given series is

divergent.

CONVERGENCY
2.

AND

DIVERGENCY

OF

SERIES.

237

Example

Find

whether
vn=

the series in which

-n ^/;":}+l

is

convergent
Here

or

divergent.
""="

\\/
//

* +

tf

*J

(1"-"+-;"1)
+
+

~3n2
If
we

9""5

take vn=

we

have

vMN

9n'J

Luti

"

=x.

v"n

But

the

series auxiliary

JL + JL + Jl
P 22 is convergent, therefore the

32+

'"

n1+"-

given series

is convergent.

292.

To

shew

that the

expansionof (1 + x)n by
x
"

the Binomial

T/teorem is convergent when Let ur, ur+l ; then

1.
terms (?-+l)th

and represent the ?*th

u w
r

of the

pansion ex-

n-r+1
.

When

r"?6+l,

point the terms and is positive,

Now since
same

negative;that is, from this and are negative when x alternately positive always of the same sign when x is negative.
this ratio is
7/
"

when
x
"

Lim is infinite,

"

numerically ; therefore
of the
some

1 the

the

sign;and and terms are positive

293. To shew

if all the terms series is convergent are therefore a fortiori it is convergent when
some

of

negative. [Art. 283.]

in

that the

of ax expansio?i

ascendingpowers

of

is convergentfor every value

W #
*=
"

of
"

x.

Here

^ 1"#"
"

"

; and

therefore Lim

7-

"

"

=-

11

"

1 whatever

be

""_,

n-1

"*__,
tlie series is convergent.

the value of x; hence

238
294. To shew

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

powers

of x

of log(1+ x) in ascending expansion less than 1. is convergentwhen x is numerically

that the
-i
ni n't

Here is

the numerical
x

value of

"

"

x. n

which
x

in the limit is less than an^ is 1.

u
,

equalto
If
a5
=

\ hence

the series is convergent when 1"

k

l, the series becomes

77-t+--" 4 3

con"

vergent.
If
x~

[Art. 280.]
"

1,

the

series becomes

"

"

-"

q_t" 4:

an(^
""""

*s

of zero is [Art. 290.] This shews that the logarithm divergent. is otherwise evident from the equation infinite and negative, as e-""=0.

295.
and

results of the two in the course will be required The

Find

are following examples important, of the present chapter.

Example 1.
Put
x
=

\q"jx the limit of "2-- when

is infinite.

ev; then

logs
~

y eV

y*

yi

i y also when
x

y'2
^

\2
n

3+"
the value of the fraction is
=

is infinitey is infinite ; hence 2.

so

zero.

Example
Let
x=if

Shew
that

that when

is infinitethe limit of nxn

0, when

x"l.

y"l; n\ogy
fu^="
=

also let yn=z,

so

that

logz;
=

then
=
"

i ^^

logz.
z
"

yn
Now therefore when
n

z'logy logy'
and infinite,
nxn
=

is infinite z is Lim

s_ z

0;

also

logy

is

finite;

0.

296.

It is sometimes
an

productof

whether necessary to determine infinite number of factors is finite or not. consist of

n

the

to Suppose the product

factors and to be denoted

io

by

uMAia

then

if

as

be

order that

mately u ""1, the productwill ultiindefinitely in hence will be infinite ; zero, and if un " 1 the product tend to the limit 1 the product must umay be finite,
n

increases

CONVERGENCY

AND

DIVERGENCY

OF

SERIES.

239

Writing 1

vn for un, the

productbecomes

(l+*1)(l+*,)(l+*8) (l+ODenote the

=

productby

P and

take

logarithms j then
+ vJ log(l

logP

+ log(l+v8) +...+ log(l+v1)

(1),
be

and in order

that

tlie

productmay

be

finite this series must

convergent.
Choose
as an

series auxiliary

v,+v2

v3+
/

+vn

(2).
.

Now

r. Lim-2-l

log(l+ t;) ^
v
n

r-

_1 2**+"
v
n

Lim\

_.

\
u

/==1,

since the limit of Hence if

v
n

is 0 when

the limit of

is 1
n

(2)is convergent,(1)is convergent,and

when that the limit, 13
3

the

given

finite. product Example.

Shew
n

is

of infinite, 2n + l

2n-l

2' 2 '4*1*6' 6
is finite. The

~JT~'~2ir

product consists of 2n factors; denoting the successive pairs by

Uj, m2, Ug,...and the

productby P,
P
=

we

have
u
n"

uxv2u3

2n-l where but and

we

2"+l
"

**n= "

"

"

2m

-5

"

, 1

2n

1 t-?; 4"-

logP

+ logM3 + ...+logMn + log"2 logM1

(1),

have to shew that this series is finite.

Now

log"n log
=

(l -^)=- ^
~

32/i-1

'"'

therefore is finite.

as

in Ex. 2, Art. 291 the series is

and the given product convergent,

297.

In

mathematical

infinite investigations

series

occur

so or

of determining their convergency that the necessity frequently is and unless take care that we divergency very important ; series
we use are

the

convergent,we

may

be led to absurd

conclusions.

Art. 183.] [See

240
For
we

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

if we example,

by the expand (l"x)~2

=

Binomial

Theorem,

find

(1
But if
we

a;)-2 1
the

2x

3ar
n

4a3

obtain

sum

of that
n-l

terms

of this series

as

plained ex-

in Art.
in

60, it appears
+
...

9 O 2.*; + 3ar

*"
=
t=
-

^ ra
"

^^
"=

nx

:
-

(1 x)
whence
I +'2x+

(l-x)2
By J making "

-'"'""

3x~

...

nx
-

4-

7z

(1-a?)9
i -a

1-*

we infinite,

see

that

-z

can

only be

re-

(l-x)2
of equivalent 1
+

gardedas

the true

the infinite series

+

2x

3x2

ix3

nx
ri

when

-rz

="

vanishes.

(1 -x)~
If
or
n

l-x infinite when that

to inf.j

is

this quantitybecomes infinite, diminishes when indefinitely 1 that 2x

we can x
"

x=l,

aj"l,

and

so a,*"l, [Art. 295],

that

it is only when

assert

Ta

=*

3x2

4#3

and the
true

we

should

be led to
-

erroneous

conclusions

if

we

were as

to

use

of (1 x)~2 by expansion for all values

+

the Binomial other into

we

Theorem
can

if it

were

of 2x
+

x.

In
+
...

words, we
our

introduce when

the
error

infinite series 1 if the series is is

3x2

without reasoning do
so

convergent,but

cannot

the series

divergent.

of divergent The difficulties series have compelled a distinction between its algebraical For to be made a series and equivalent. we can example, if we divide 1 by (1 x)2, always obtain as
-

many

terms

as

we

of the please l
+

series
+

2a;+3"2+4a;3
so

whatever called its

may

be, and

in

certain
we

sense

-p. seen,

niay be

algebraical equivalent ; yet,as

not

have the

the

valence equicon-

does

exist really

except

when

series is

CONVERGENCY

AND

DIVERGENCY

OF

SERIES.

241

vergent. It is therefore
as

more

to speak appropriate

of

"

"

(l
the

"

X)

generating functionof the

1 +2a,- + 3a2+ function which Avhen rules will givethe series in

series

being that

developed by ordinaryalgebraical question. The use of the term generating will be more function fully the in Series. chapteron Recurring explained

EXAMPLES.
Find
.

XXI.

a.

whether
Ill

the
1

series are convergentor divergent.: following

1
_

1#
x x x

4.

x-^-2a

.v

+ 3a

and

beingpositive quantities.
1 1 + 1 + 1 +

1.2

273

371

475

6x

_1_
xy

1
'

(*+3)(y+3)+ (*+i)(y+i)4"+a)(y+*)
x2
1 1

and y
4

quantities. being positive

x

x3
1

x*
h
.

1.2^2.3^3.4^4.5
/"" tf

/)"2
\Mj

o"o
\Mj

%A/

o***

T72
n 6,

3T4
32

576
42

778+

22

1+I+I+I+

78.
y*

\/l+\/i+\/f+\/1+
1 + toe+ bx2 +

la? + 9af* +

"i^ 2/'
1 +

1 2__ +

i.+ A
3p

4p+

ia

2+5+Ib+-+,^TT+
3
-

11.
H.

x2 +

.,

-x* , +
10

15
"

n2-\ xA +
.
. .

5
H. A.

17

-.,"-..

xn +

nl + 1

16

242
2
-.n

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

6
,

14
,
".

2'l-2

12.

-,

l +

+ g*+5*"+I^P

"

*p-i+

1
" " "

14.

2.r+"
8

--

+ 2 7

..+

-,"

?t3
/44

1C

15'

/4_4_4\ =" +"=" (p-l)+(2-3-2) \34 3^

22

/22

2\-!

/33

3\-2

4\-3

33
+
-

44
+
-

16.

1 +

--

17.

Test the series whose

generalterms (2)

are

(1)
18.

Jn*+l-n.

jtF+l-Jnt-^i.

Test the series

1
/1N

.r

A+l
r-+"

a+2
1

x+3
1
^

(2)
x

/on

11 -+
A#

1
a

-1

A+l

"-+

5+" -2

+ 2

T5+

fraction. beinga positive 19.

Shew that the series
2" 3^
4"

1+I+I+E+
is convergent for all values of p.

20.

Shew

that the infiniteseries

ux + 2i2+ u3
is

+ u" +
or

as convergent or divergent according Lim^funiti"1,

"1.

21.

Shew

that the
2
*

product
4
'

6 5

2ti-2

2tt-2

2n

"

1
n

3' 3' 5

271-3'

2"-l"S^Ti

is finitewhen 22. Shew

is infinite.

that when
n

x=\,
is

no

term

infinite, except when

and negative

expansion of (1+#)" is numerically greaterthan unity.

in the

244

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

that is,

"

"

+ (vl v2 + v3

...).

Hence, if the

^-series is

divergentthe
a

vergent it-series is also di-

*300.
or

We

have

seen
as

in Art. 287 that

series is

convergent
In
to

to the

divergentaccording is less than 1, or greater than 1. term 'preceding convenient remainder of the chapterwe shall find it more
:

the limit of the ratio of the ?ithterm the

use

form this test in the equivalent

series is

as according convergentor divergent

the limit of

the ratio of the nth term

or

to the

term succeeding
"

is
"

greaterthan
"

1,

less than

that

is,according as Lim
of the

"

1, or

1. may be

Similarlythe
enunciated
The
:

theorem

preceding article
the v-series is the

w-serieswill be convergent when

u v
"
"

convergent
di-

provided that Lim vergent when

"

Lim

"

"

; and

it-series will be

the v-series is Lim

that divergent provided

^^

Lim

^.
is un is

*301.

The

series whose Lim the

v

term general
" "

vergent or diconvergent

as according

\n (

1 \ ""

1, or
the

"

1.

Let whose

us

compare

given series
"

with

auxiliaryseries

general term
p
"

is

"When
case

the

series auxiliary if
or

is

convergent, and

in this

the given series is convergent un Un+l

(n+iy
n?
,

(l

iy.

thatis,if

JSB."l+g+-J"CP-lV+"
un+i
/
u

2n~

,\

(p-l)

nKCrlrp+
that
if is,

^+
J)

Lim

\n (
"

I Wh

1 )1"")".

CONVERGENCY

AND

DIVERGENCY

OF

SERIES.

245

series is convergent if y; is greater than 1 auxiliary by a Unite quantityhowever small ; hence the first part of the is established. proposition 1 the auxiliary When series is divergent, and by proceedp" ing before the second as we part of the proposition. may prove But the

Example.

Find whether
a;

the series L3
+

1
+

x=
5

1.3.5

2* 3

2.4*

+2~i.d'T+'"

x[

is convergent Here Lim

or
it
"

divergent.
"

1 =-;
x"

hence

if x"l

the series is convergent, and

if x"l

un+l the series is If

divergent.
u
" "

x=

1, Lim

1.

In this

case

un+l

1-3-5
M" wn
_ ~

4
. .

......

1 (2w- 3) (2n 2) 2~/T=T

'

'

and

un+1
'"

2n(2n+l) (2n 1)(2n 1)

-

'

"Urn

J" (2n-l)2'

hence

when

a;

1 the series is convergent.

*302.

T/ie serieswhose
as according

term general
"

is un is
"

convergentor

vergent di-

Lim the

(n log

j 1, or
"

1.

Let
term

us

compare
.

givenseries

with

the series whose

general

is When

"

nl p
"

the

series auxiliary is
u
-sn+
I

is

convergent, and

in

this

case

the

givenseries

convergent if
"

/" 1

ij
;
h

lv

[Art. 300.]
):

that is,if

log
!

"

"

"

log (1
'

** or

if

log

P
"

"
"

"

^-5 +
2n2

7J

'u
., 1 71+

"3

246

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

that

if is,

Lim

In log

"

"

)"p.

Hence When

the first part of the

is established. proposition similar

manner

p " 1 we series is auxiliary

proceedin a divergent.

; in this

case

the

Example.

Find whether

the series 3sx3 4*r4 55x5

22z2

is

convergentor divergent.
"

Here

un *"

nnxn
'-

n+l (n + l) v
.

/pW+1
l

7^

"

'

wn+l

|n_
.-.

+ [n

(n+l)** A

lyV H)'
[Art.220
Cor.l.

Lim

3l
wn+1

-1
.

"?*

Hence

if a?"-

the series is convergent, if

#"-

the series is

divergent.

If:r=-,then
e

^St"
un+l

".log

-n"

loge-wlog( 1 +

_1 J_
~2n
.

3n8+"

'

un

".

Lim

[n

log

"

"

hence

when

the series is

divergent.

*303.
tests

If Lim

-^=

1, and
are

also
not

wn+1

Liminf-^- l)) ) \un+i J)

-

1, the

givenin

Arts.
a

300, 301

applicable.
use

To

discover

further
term

test

we

shall make
-

of the
to

auxiliary
establish

series whose

general

is

"

r-

In
we

order need

(log n)p
the theorem

the convergency of this series or divergency in the article. next proved

CONVERGENCY

AND

DIVERGENCY

OF

SERIES.

247

values of n If $ (n)is positive integral for all positive diminishes a nd be ive as n increases, if a continually any posit then the series two infinite integer, *304. and
+ + "/"(3) + ""(2) "/"(l) + + a3"/" + a2""(a2) (a3) a"" (a)
...

+ +

+ "/"(n)

...,

and
are

+ an"" (an)

both

both divergent. or convergent,

us

In the firstseries let

consider the terms

+ S), + 2),"f"(ak "/"("*+ "M"i+1) 1),"f"(ak with the term which follows "/"("*). beginning

0)

The of them

number is

of these terms

is ak+l

and or ak, ak(a-1),

sum

each

hence their greater than ""(a*+1); than

is

greater than

that is,greater ak(a-1)"f"(ak+1);

to By giving

ak+lcf" (ak+1).
have

k in succession the values

we 0, 1, 2, 3,...

+ + 4"(3)-f"M4) 4"(2)

++W"^x"*W;
Co

+ 1)+ ""(" + 2)+ "f"(a+ "]"(a 3)+

""("*)"

a2"f"(a2) ;

therefore, by addition,
where first.

$!

"

" ""(1)

S2,
ct

", S2 denote
,

the

sums

of the firstand

therefore

if the second

series tively; respecseries is divergent also is the so

second

Again,each
sum

term

of the series
to By giving

and therefore (1)is less than ""("*), is less than (a" 1) x ak"j"(ak). the values
"

of

the

k in succession
+

0, 1, 2, 3...

we

have

+ ""(3) + 4"(4) + "j"{2)

""(") (a- 1)x ""(1);

+ I)+ "f"(a + 2)+ "f"(a + 3)+ "f"(a

1)x a"f"(a); +"f"(a2)"(a-

therefore, by

addition

4-+(l)"("-l){4 + *(l)};
hence if the second
To

series is convergent "'

so

also is the first.

Note.

generalterm

obtain the generalterm of the second series we take "/"(") the of the firstseries, write an instead of n and multiply by an.

248

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

*305.

The serieswhose

term is general
=

"

n(logn)p

r"

is convergent u

if p

"

if p 1, and divergent
the
same

1, or p
the of p 1

"

1.

By
term

precedingarticle
values

series will be
as

convergent

or

divergentfor the
is
ft"
\l

the series whose 11

(\V X

general

1
c\y

a)' a"(loga")p' (n\oga)p' (log

The fore the values
constant

np'
term
; there-

factor

7=

r_

is

common

to every

givenseries
p
as

will be convergent or

for divergent is
" -

the

same

of

the series whose follows.

general term

Hence

the

result required *306.

[Art. 290.]
term general

The series whose Lim

is un is

vergent dior convergent

"

as according

\\\(

"

"

"

"

logn

1, or

"

1.

Let
term

us

compare
-.

the

givenseries

with

the series whose

general

is

"

(log ny
in this

When
case

series is convergent, and j) " 1 the auxiliary the givenseries is convergent by Art. 299, if un

M,+i
Now when
n

(w + l){log(n+l)}' n {log n)v large,

+

"(!)"

is very

log(n + l) logn
=

log(1 +

J logn
=

nearly;

Hence

the condition

(1)becomes
V

u
n
, + l
.

nj V
' N

log n
O

,
'

thatis,

uH+l
u

^"(l \
i
-

nj \
1
+ +

l)(l+P log n)
nlog
n

'

that

is,

"

"

u
., n + l

?i

wlogw
o

CONVERGENCY

AND

DIVERGENCY

OF

SERIES.

240

)" 1

P
+
.

l0g?4
or

"n

CSr1)-1}10*"^
is established. The part of the proposition

Hence second

the

first be

part may

proved in

the

manner

indicated

in Art. 301.

Example.

Is the series 22 22.42 22.42.62

^32^32.52^32.52.72
convergent
Here
ti .-. or

divergent?

A.
*"

*"*

1 +

I+

(1).

Lt"i

=1, and

we

proceedto

the next

test.

Fromfl),
.-.

"fe-l)=l+5
and -1)1=1,
we

"2"-

Lim

In ( -1-

pass to the next

test.

*-"

ffe-1)-1}108^'^
^"
"

"""^"[ffe-1)-1}108"]30'
since Lt/u
=

295]; hence the givenseries [Art.

is

divergent.

*307.
But
even

We when

have

shewn

in Art.

183

that the lead

to

use

of

divergent
results.
to

series in mathematical exercise caution For

reasoning may
are

erroneous

the infinite series

convergent it is necessary

in

usingthem.

instance,the series
-

JC

%)C

Ou

Jb
'""

4/2~J/3 474~^5+
x=l.

is

convergent when

[Art. 280.] But

1
+

if

we

multiplythe
1
+

series 1

by

the coefficient of x2n in the itself, 1 1

productis

250
Denote this

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

by

a2n ; then 1

since 1

J^
is infinite.

a"2"

"

"

"

and
, '

is therefore infinite when

Jn
If

x=l,

the

productbecomes
+a3-

%-ax
and
no

aBf

...

agJ1 a2n+1 + a2"I+a

._

...,

since the terms arithmetical This leads

a02/i+ ol, affl .,. 1' 2;i+2 2h'

...

are

the series has infinite,

'

meaning.
us

to

enquireunder
the two
+

what

conditions the

product

of two

infinite Let

convergent
us

series is also

convergent.

*308.

denote

infinite series
+
. . .

a0

axx

4-

a2x

a3x

+ +

a2x

.,

+ + b3x3 + b2x2 bQ+ b^x

+ b2nx2n
.

by

A and If
we

respectively. multiplythese
series
we together

obtain

result of

the form

a"A + (a A
denote

a(A)x
to

x2+ + afiz) + afii (aJ"o

continued
to examine
to

...

Suppose this series it by G ; then we be regardedas C may productAB.

First suppose Let 2w
+

be

and infinity what

let

us

have the

under

conditions the

true

arithmetical

of equivalent

that all the terms

, '

in A and

are

positive.

A"

, 2/1 "

B" 2"
of

denote the series formed C" 2"

by taking the first

JO

1 terms
we

A, B, C respectively.

If

of each

the two series A2ai the coefficient multiply together B2ni of in their is coefficient of the to x product equal power x2" ; but the term of x higherthan in

of x in C as far as the like power there are terms containing powers x2n is the

A2nB,n

x2n,whilst

highest power

of

in
2/i

C0n;hence
"

^o B* 2/1
If
we

C2

2/1

form

the

product A B
in the C. "A
%n

C2nincludes

all the terms

last term is a b x2n ; but and other terms some product B

ii

the

besides ; hence
.

ii

252

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

^EXAMPLES. Find whether

1

XXI.
are

b.

the

series following #*

convergent or divergent

.r2

1.3.5

1.3.5.7.9

1.

1+2*4+2.4.6'8+2.4.6.8.10' 12+
3

""

3.6

3.6.9
2 ^

3.6.9.12

2.

1 +

+ ^+7. 10^ +7.10.13*+7.10.13.16A

22
o 3.

22.42
a G

22
.

42

^+374^+3.4.5.6^+3.4.5.6.7.8*"+
2#

62

o
"

32.?2
^1 ^1

43^
1

54^
h

4 *'

|2

|3
12

|4
13

,5 14

l2
*

12.32
+

12.32.52
2

22

+* + 22.42'r 22.42.62^

7 '"

"T

g(l-a)
~

12

, "*"

(l+ a)"(l-g)(2-g)
l2 22
.

(2+ q)(l+a)q(l-a)(2-,a)(3-q)
I2 22
. .

32

beinga
8*

proper

fraction.

a+x

(a+ 2#)2 (a+ 3ai)3

IT*"

12~

+"13""

9.

1+^+^MM, (y+1)
1
.

a(a + l)(a+ 2)/30+l)(/3+ 2)

'

1.2.3.y(y+l)(y + 2)
10.
x1
+ + a?4 + a?3 (log (log (log 4)* 2)* 3)i

"*"

11.

i+a+__^+"
If
=

_-^

12-

^; '^r^w^S^'
that the series
+ w1 + ?^2
-

"

where is

* is

positive

integer,shew
^
_

"3+
-

convergent if
zero

and i js positive,

if A divergent

1 is

or negative

CHAPTER

XXII.

Undetermined

Coefficients.

309. that

In Art.

230

of the

it Elementary Algebra, of
x

Avas

proved
x
=

if any rational it is divisible by x

"

function integral
a.

vanishes

when

a,

[Seealso Art.
"

514.

Cor.]
+pn

Let be
a

+ pxxn p0xn

'

pjf

"

rational when

vanishes

integralfunction x is equalto each

"!" "*, %i function

of

of

dimensions, which

of the

unequalquantities
""" since

Denote

the
we

hy f(x);

tlien

f(x)

is divisible

by
the

al ,

have

f(x)=:(x-al)(p0x"-i+ ),
quotient being of
n
"

1 dimensions. divisible
=

since f(x)is Similarly,

by

-a,7,

we

have

2Wn~X+
the

(x-aj-(pjf-+
dimensions; and

)"

beingof quotient

"

Proceeding in

this way,

we

shall

obtain finally

after

visions di-

f(x)=p0 (x a) (x-a}(x-aa)
-

(x- aH).

310.

If a
than

rational
n

for more
of
Let

values be

integral functionof\\dimensions vanishes the coefficient of the variable, of each power

zero.

the variable

must

the function

be denoted

hyf(x),where
+pn
;

f(x)

+p,c'-'+ !"x" +p)x"~x

254
and

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

vanishes when x suppose tha,tf(x) unequalvalues alt a2i a3 an ; then

~ ~

is

equal to

each

of the

(x a2) (x "0 f(x) =Po (x ai)

Let
c

(x a,)~

be
=

another

value

of

which

makes

f(x) vanish
=

; then

since f(c)

0, we
Po
~

have
~ ~

(c ai) (" a*) (G as)

p0
=

(c-"J
to

0;
of the other

and

therefore

none 0, since,by hypothesis, zero.

factors is

equalto

Hence

f (x)reduces

+ 2)3X"~3+ +p2xn-2 2\xn-x

+Pnfor
more

this expression vanishes By hypothesis of x, and In

2"o,P3,
a

than

values

therefore px
similar
manner

0.
we

may

shew
zero.

that each of the coefficients

Vn must

be

equalto

This result may

also be enunciated

as

follows

If
more

rational
n

than

integral functionof n values of the variable, it must

dimensions vanish

vanishes

for

for

every value

of the variable.
Cor. of x, the Hence
roots it is
an

than function f(x) vanishes for more than n roots. f (x) 0 has more equation
"

If the

values

also,if an
Prove

of equation identity.
that
-

dimensions

has

more

than

Example.

(x

b)(x c) (a-b) (a- c)

-

(x c)(x a) {b-c) (6 a)
-

(x a)(x b) 1 (c-a) (c-b)~

" _

satisfiedby each This equation is of tivo dimensions,and it is evidently of the three values a, 6, c ; hence it is an identity.

311.

If two
more

rational
than
n

for equal
every value

integral functions of n dimensions are values of the variable, they are equal for
functions

of the variable.
the two

Supposethat

2)0xn+p1xn-1+2"2x"-2+
+ q^"-1+ q2x-2+ qoxn are

+pH,
+

qmt

equalfor
-

more

than
-

values of
-

; then the
+

expression
+

x"~l + (p" ad x"~2 U"" %) x'1 + (Pi ?i)

(p* ?.)
-

UNDETERMINED

COEFFICIENTS.

255

vanishes

for

more

than

values

of x;

and

therefore, by

the

article, preceding
that

is,
*

2\ Hence the

%"

Pi=9li" Pi^Vv
are expressions

l"n

"ln" therefore
are

two

and identical,

equalfor every value of the variable. Thus are we functions identically equal, if two rational integral the like the variable. of equate the coefficients powers of
This Art. 227. Cor. of lower This still holds proposition than
l

may

is the

we principle

assumed

in the

ElementaryAlgebra,
of the functions is

if For

one

dimensions

the other.
+

if instance,

p0x"+ pff~
=

+ pjf~2 + pjf~*

+pn

+ q3xn~3 + q2xn~2

+qn,

we

have
=

only to
then

0, and

suppose that Ave obtain

in the above

investigation 0, qo
=

^o="" Pi="" P2=vs"

312. The theorem of the

Ps=q3"

p,,

q"-

to

of

article is usually referred preceding The application the Principle as of Undetermined Coefficients. this principle is illustrated in the following examples.

Example,1.

Find the

sum

of the series
+

1.2 + 2.3

3.4+

+n(n+l).

Assume

that
...

1.2 + 2. 3 + 3. 4 + where
to be determined.

A, B, C, D, E,...are
into

+ Dn3 + Eni+..., n(n + l)=A + Bn+Cn2 quantities independentof n, whose values have

Change
1. 2 +

+ 1 ; then

+ l)(n + 2) 2.3+...+?i(;i+ l)+ (?t

=

A+B(n
{2n+ l)+

l)+ C(n+l)* + D(n

+ 3}i+ l)+ (3}v"

+ E(n l)3

iy+....
l)+

By subtraction, (n+ 1)[n+2) B+C

=

+ 6ri+ {"-n*

"n +

..

This equationbeing true for all integral values of n, the coefficients of the each side of be thus and must E on n all respective equal ; powers succeeding must be equal to zero, and coefficients 3D
=

1;
1) =

3D + 2C
1
"

3;
B

D + C + B 2
=

2;

whence

(7=1,

256

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

Hence

the

sum

=A

"

+
o

n2 +

n3.
to its first term, and

To find A,

put

l;

the series then reduces

2
=

A +

2,
+

or

0.

Hence

1 .2 + 2

3 + 3. 4 +

...

+ l) n(;i

(n+ 1)(n+ 2).

Note. rational function series.

is a the nlh term It will be seen from this example that when the for sum a function of n, it is sufficient to assume integral of n which is of one dimension higher than the wth term of the

Example

2.

Find the conditions that x3 +px2 + qx

x2 +
ax

may

be divisibleby

b.
ax

Assume

x3

+px2 +

qx +

+ r=(x + k)(x2

+
we

6).
have

Equating the

coefficients of the like powers

k + a=p,

of x,
=

ak + b

q, kb

r.

From

the last

equation k
r
r

hence by substitution
and n and
ar
"

we

obtain

b
,

a=p,

+b
=

q;

that which

is,
are

(p-a),

ar

(q-b);

the conditions

required.

EXAMPLES.
Find 1. 2.
3.

XXII.

a.

by the

method

of Undetermined
n

Coefficients the

,sum

of

l2+3* + 5*+7*+...to

terms.
..

1.2. 3 + 2. 3. 4 + 3. 4. 5 +

.ton
n

terms.
terms.

1. 22 + 2.32 + 3.42 + 4.52+... to

4. 5.

I3 + 33 + 53 + V3 + l4 + 2* + 34
+

.to

terms.

44 + ...to?i terms.

6. Find the condition that factor of the form a?+%ax + a2. 7. 8.

x3-3px + 2q

may

be

divisible by

Find the conditions that ax3 + hv2 -\-cx+ d may

Find the

be

cube. perfect
may be
a

conditions that

a2AA + bx3+cx2 +

dx+f2
a

perfect square.
9. Prove if b'1 ac, d=
=

that e2 a/,

ax2 +

+ 2tlv + 2ey +/ 2bxy+ cif-

is

perfect square,

cf.

UNDETERMINED

COEFFICIENTS.

257
that "id
=

10. 11.

If a.":i + bx2 + If 3tP

"

cx

+ d is divisible

by x2 + h2, prove
"

bc.

shew f"qx+4ris divisible by (x c)2, the identities : b2 (x-c)(x

"

that

g*=r*,

12.

Trove

( }
/0n

a2(x-b)(x"c)
(a-6)("-c)

a)

~Jc^aJ(c-b) ~(b-c){b-a)~

c2 (x

a)(x b)
_

2
"

(.?-") ("y-^")(^-c)".y-cQ (ff-c)(#-eg) (rt-6)(a-c)(a-J)"t" (b-c)(b-d)(b-a) (x d)(x a) (x~b)

-

(x a)(x b)(x c)
-

{c-d){c-a)(c-b)
13. Find the condition that ax2 + may be the

\d-a){d-b)\d-c)*
'

+ by2 -f 2gx + 2fy + 2/ixy

productof two

factors of the form

+ ^'y + r'. jfctf+gy+r, jt/.t'

14.
same

If

"

lx

+ my

+ nz, r)

nx

ly+

mz,

"=mx
z

+ n// +

equations

are 2

true

with xt y,

for all values of x, y, shew that respectively,

=

when

and if the l~, changed ",77," are inter-

l2+2mn
15. Shew
that the

l, m2
sum

+ 2ln

0, n2 + 2lm=0.
-

of the

products-//

/"

of together

the

,..an is quantities a, a2,a3,

+ + 1-l)(tt*a-l)...(a"-l)i("-r)("-r+l). ("y a .(a*-'-1) (a-1) (a2-1)..

series a0 + a2x + a.,x2 is equal + a3x3 + If the infinite value of x for which the series is convergent, to zero for every finite be equalto zero identically. tit each, coefficient must en 313.
pression S\ stand for the exthen S and therefore, al + a2x + a:ix2 ; a0 + xSt, for 0 all finite values of But since S + x. xSt l"y hypothesis, a0 is convergent,#, cannot exceed some finite limit; tlierefore by

Let the series be denoted

+
=

by S,

and

let

takingx
In this aQ must

small be

case

enough xSx may be made as small as we please. the limit of " is a0 ; but S is alwayszero, therefore
zero

equalto
+

identically.
a0,
+
we

Removing the
x; that

term
+

have

xSx

is, ax

a2x

ajc2
prove
is

vanishes in

0 for all finite values of for all finite values of x. that

we Similarly,

may

succession
zero

each

of

the

coefficients an
H. ir.A.

a.,, a0

equalto

identically.
17

258
314.

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

series If tivo infinite

are

equal to

one

another
are

value finite

of the variable
the two a0
+

for which
series

both series

every convergent,the

for

of like powers coefficients

Suppose that

of the variable in the two

are

series are

equal.

denoted

by

axx A xx
+

and then the

A0 + expression
"

+ a3x3 + Aj? + A2x2

a0x2+

"o
vanishes

Ao + ("i
"

A
i

)x
x

"f + (a2 -A2) ""2+ ("" Aa)

-

for all values of

within

the

limits assigned

; therefore

by

the last article

a0-A0
that which

Ot a.-A^Q,
=

aB-Aa
a2
=

0, a3-Aa
=

0,
;

is,

"0

^0" "i-^n

A2, a.d A3,

proves the

proposition.
2 + x2
-=

Example
as

1.

Expand

in
"

series of

ascending powers

of

as

far

the term

x5. involving
2 + X2
'-

Let

r"

"

"

a0 + ax

+ a.jx? + a2x'2

...,

where

are a0, fla,a.2,a:i,...

constants
x
-

whose

values

are

to be

determined; then
.

2 + x2

"

(1+

+ Oj a; + x2)(aQ

+ a2 ar + oa re3

)
.

of x on In this equation we may equate the coefficients of like powers is coefficient of side the xn the On each side. right-hand an + au_1 an_2 , of x on the left, for all values of since x2 is the highest and therefore, power ?t"2 we have
-

been

this will suffice to find the successive coefficients after the first three obtained. To determine these we have the equations
a0
=

have

2, a1 + a0
a0
=

+ a1-a0 0, a.2

l;

whence
Also

2, ^=-2,
=

a2=5.
a3= a4 a5
=

a3 + a2-a1

0, whence 0, whence 0, whence

-

-7;
12 ;
-

a4 + a3

~~

a2 =
=

and
2 +

a5 + a"-a3
X~
=

19 ; 19a5 +

thus

l + ic-a;2

2x + 5x2

7.t3 + 12x4

"

260

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

EXAMPLES.

XXII.

b.
of
x as

Expand

the

in ascendingpowers expressions following

l-"g
0
"'

far

1+2^; 1_^_^.23 +
*

l+x
"*

i_#_6#2l-

2+.r + .r2'

5
"

'

x2

1 +

ax

"

ax2

"

.r3
a

-4-b

v
--,

6 may

Find

"

and

so

that the nth term

in the expansion of

(l-.r)-

7-

be 7.

(Sn-2)xn~1.
Find
"

a,
J

b, c
,

so
0
,

that the coefficient of

,

xn

in the

expansion of

a
"

+ bx + cx2

(l-.r)3
8.

may

be

n-

+ l.

If y2+

%
ax

=#

shew that + 1), (3/ + s.r-jsSA |.r

=

one

value of y is
+

9.

If cxz +

-y

0, shew that
y
a

one

value of

i"

e?/3 3c2;/512c3;/7
a4 a7
an

"'"

shew that x= equation x3 + 100.? -1

Hence result correct ?

is -00999999 0. To how

approximate solution placesof decimals many a\c) (1 + a\v)

of the is the

10.
number
.

1 + ax)( 1+ 1 + x) ( In the expansion of ( and a " 1, shew of factors beinginfinite,

the that the coefficient of

,

I
(l-a)(l-a2)(l-"3)
When
a
"

\
(l-O
xn

1S

nhr(r-l)
in the

11.

1,find the coefficient of

"

expansionof
'

(1 ax) (1"a2x) (1 dAx)

-

to inf.

12.

If

is

shew integer, positive

that

(1)

nn+1-n(n-l)n+1+n^~1' (n-2)*+1K

=jn\n+.l;
=1;

(2) nn-(n+l)(n-l)n
the series in each
case

^"

"

(n-2)"to
n

beingextended

terms

; and

(3)

=(-l)w \n; l"-"2"+7t^~1"3a^"

"

(4) (n+p)n-n(n+p-l)n+
the series in the last two
cases

'
"

(n+p-2)nto
n

\n;
'"

l"

beingextended

+ 1 terms.

CHAPTER

XXIII.

Partial

Fractions.

Algebra,a group elementary by the signsof addition and subtraction simple form by being collected into one
315. denominator fractions.
a

In

of fractions connected is reduced of

to
a more

fraction single the

whose

is the But the

lowest

common

denominator

given

group

converse a fraction into process of separating of simpler, or jwtial,fractions is often required. For

3 if example,
we

"

5a;
^--

wish
we

to

expand
1
"

in
"

series of ascend-

iX

-r

OXT

ing powers
so

of x,
as

might use

the method

of Art. if we

314, Ex. 1, and

wish
to find the

terms as we please.But many of the series this method is term general

obtain

simplerto
1
1I
can
"

express
"

the

given

fraction

in

and it is inapplicable, form the equivalent

"

2 Each
.

of the

and (1 3aj)-1 expressions (1"a;)-1

x now

"

ox

be

expanded by

the Binomial

Theorem, and

the

general

term

obtained. 316. In the

present chapterwe
a a

shall the

give some

the illustrating fractions. For

of decomposition

rational fraction of

into

examples partial

subjectthe reader is to treatises on referred to Serret's Cours d'Algebre or Superieure, In these works it is proved that any Calculus. the Integral of partial resolved series rational fraction may be into a fractions;
fuller discussion and that to any
a

linear factor

"

in the denominator form

" -

there any

responds cor-

fraction partial

of the

; to

linear

"

cc

factor
two

occurring twice in the denominator

7? 7?
-.
" "

there
x
"

correspond
occurs

partial fractions,
x
"

and l-j
b

*__
.
"

If

three

(x

by

times, there is

an

additional

fraction
.

(x-b)"

hnl

aud

so

on-

To

262

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

any

factor x2+px quadratic Px

+

there

a corresponds

partial
q
occurs

Q
: +

fraction of the form

"

if the

factor x2
P
x +

vx

x'

+])x
r

twice, there is
'

second

fraction partial

Q L"
s

+ q) (x-+2)x

y"~

; and

so

on.

Here

the

Av Blt P2, B3, quantities

x. use

P, Q, Pv Qx
the

are

all

of independent We follow.

shall make

of

these

results in

examples that

5x

"

11
^

Example

1.

Separate=-^
2.r2+
x
-

into

fractions. partial

Since the denominator

we (x+ 2)(2x 3),

-

assume

5.r-ll 2x2 + x-"

A and where determined. B
are x

A
+ + 2

2.c-3'
x

quantities independentof

whose

values

have

to be

Clearingof fractions,
5x-ll Since this equation is of x ; thus powers
=

(2x-S) + B(x

2).
equate coefficients of like

identically true, we
=

may

2A+B whence
'"'

5,
3,

~SA

2B=-U;

B=
3
x

-1. 1

5.r-ll 2x2 +

x-6~

+ 2

2x-B'

Example

2.

Resolve
.

";

r~.
-

(x a)(x+ b)
mx

r,

into

fractions. partial
B
h
x

+
z-.

n
=-r

A
=

Assume

-.

(x-a)(x+ b)
.'
.

x-a
=

b'

mx

{x + b)+B

(x-a)
of A and

(1).
B, but it

is

might now equate coefficientsand manner. simpler to proceed in the following

We

find the values

Since A and B
In

are
=

of independent

x,

we

may

to give

any value

we

please.

(1)put

x-a

0,

ov

a;

then
ma

n r-

+ b

nib-n

putting x

+ b

0,

or

x"

b,
+
n

-r, B"

"

CI

"T*

mx
-

1
~

/ma

mb-ii\
x

(x a) (x+ b)

+ b

x-a

+ b

PARTIAL

FRACTIONS.
11 r'2
" "

203

23

Example

3.

Resolve

7^7"

-.-rrx"

y"x

I) (J

^
j

mto

fractions. partial

23x-ll.r2
Assume
=

ABC
r
=
n

(2.c-l) (3+ x)(3-.r)

" . .

^-^

rm

2.c-l
-

r+

3 +
-

H
x

3-x

i1) 5 w
-

23x

lLc2

.1

(3+ x)(3-x)+B (2x 1) (3 x)+

2^-1
4 23.c
= =

(2x 1)(3+ x).

find that

in By putting

succession

0,
=

3 +

x"

0,
-1.

0, we

1,

i,
1

C=

lis2

4
+

"'"

1_
3 -a:'

(2.c-l)(9-x2)~2x-l
3.t2+
'

3+x

x
'
"

"

2
^"
:

Example

4.

Resolve

-.

"

into

,
"

fractions. partial
B
G
"

[x

")" (J.

"

"x\

3s2 + s-2 Assume

"

^
s-7
"

(x
."
.

"z-^-n
-

"

2)-(1 2x)
-

~k

k~
-

+
-

2x "
-

x-2

(x 2)2
-

'

%x- + x-2

+ (x 2)2
-

(1 2x){x
-

2)+

(1 2x).
-

Let

2x

0, then

let a; -2 To

0, then

C=-4.

find B, equate the coefficientsof x2 ; thus

3
=

2B ; whence

^
o

3.r- +
' '

2
-

(1 2x) (x- 2)a

42
-

3(1- 2x)
19a;
-r

3 {x

2)

(x 2)2
-

'

Example 1

5.

Resolve

"

"

-r-,

[x2+l)(x-4]
42-19.C
-7-3
"

into L partialfractions.

Ax
r;
=

+ B
"

C
+

Assume

+ 1)^-4) (.^
-

tt,

"3

x-+l

r-

.i--4'
C
+ l). (x*

.-.

42

19.r =

(Ax +B) (x- 4)+

C=-2;
0
=

Let

4, then

equating coefficients of x'2, equating the

absolute

A +
-

C, and .4=2;
B
=
-

terms,
42

42
-

4Z? + C, and 2s -11

11,

19a

"'"

p+l)(x-4)"^TT employed in
the

*-4*

317. sometimes

The

artifice

following example will

be found

useful.

2G4
9x*
"

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

24rc2+ 48#
7^t~.
=rr-

Example. r

Resolve

-;

into

(a:-2)4(a:+l)
A
"
"

fractions. partial

9z3-24;r2+48;c
Assume where A is some he determined.
"

f(x)
+

".

(x-2)*(x+

^tx~?

rrv

l)

n x+1

{x-2)4'
of
x

a function constant, and / (x)

whose

value

remains

to

.-.

9x3-24"2

48x
A

,l
=
-

(x-2)*+(x + l)f{x).
1.

Let

x=

1, then
^4
=

for Substituting

and
-

transposing,
-

+ 9a3 (x+ 1)/ (a) [x 2)4

24s3 + 48x
=

x4 + x* + 16* + 16 ;

.'./(*)
To

"3 + 16. "r3 + 16

" "

determine

the

fractions correspondingto partial

+ 16 (2+ 2)3

\x"2)

put x-2

2;

.r3+16
then

23 + 6^2+122 z*

+ 24

(x-2)4
1

Z* 6
+ 12

24

~z

+ z^+~z^ ~z4~

1
~

6
+
/. nva

12 +'
/_ n\n

24
+

x-2^(x-2)'2 (x-2f^ (x-2f 1,1,

=
"

9x-3-24j;2+ 48*
"

6
"

12
Svi

24
^-J

+ l) (x-2)4(x

+ 1

-i

-\

x-2

(x-2)"

+,

TZ

(x-2f

(x-2)4*

318. of lower
we

In all the dimensions

examples the preceding

than the denominator

divide the numerator

by

has been numerator if this is not the case, ; until a remainder is the denominator than the denominator.

obtained which
Example.
*

is of lower

dimensions
into

6r3 + 5#2-7 Resolve

-zr-=
" -

=-

fractions. partial

ox-

2x

By division,
3a:2 2.x
-

v-

2x + 3 +

Sx2
,

2x

8a; -4 and
^-=
"

5
^
=

1
="

3x2-2x-l

pr

3.c + l

x-1'
5
1
-

6^
'*

5^-7
=
0 0 2.r + 3 +
-

3x2-2x-l

3.T+1

*-l'

319. fractions

We

shall

now

explain how

resolution

into
a

partial
rational

be used to facilitate the may in fraction ascending powers of x.

expansionof

PARTIAL

FRACTIONS.

265
_

;;,"'-|- ;"

2
"
.

Example 1.
series of

Find

the

generalterm
of
x.

of

"

"

"

"

when

(*- 2)-(l 2x)

-

in expanded l

ascending powers 4, Art. 316, we

3.r2+ .r-2

By

Ex.

have 15 4

(*-2)2(l-2*)

3(1-2*)
15
+

3(*-2)

(*-2)2
4

3(1-2*)

3(2-*)

(2-a?)a

Hence

the

generalterm
/

of the

expansionis
6 1
"

r
+

r+l\
sr

V
Example
the 2.

2r

y
of
*

7+

Expand

(1 + *) (I

r-^r" +

in
.

ascending powers

and

find

*~)
.4

generalterm.
Assume
.

7+
H
-"

*
-

JB* + C
+
-

"

(1+ *) (1+*J)
.\

1+x

1 + *2

7 +

J(l

*2)+ (E*+C)(l
=

*).

Lctl

*=:0,
absolute

then A

3;
whence whence
C
=

the equating

terms,

7
0

A + A +

C,
B,

i ;
-

the coefficients of *2, equating 7 +

*

B"

3.

4-3*

(1+ *)(1+*2)_1 +
=

*^

1+*2
-

+ (4 3(1 + .r)-1

3*)(1+
+

x2)~l
+

3{l-*

*2-

(_l)P;CP+...j
(-1)p*'^+...}.
r

+ (4-3*) {l-.r2
:

*-"-

To

find the coefficient of xr If

/"

(1)

is even,

the coefficientof *r in the second

+

series is
r

4(-l)2;

therefore in the expansion the coefficient of xr is 3

( 1)2.
-

r-l

(2)
and the

If

is odd, the coefficient of *r in the

r+l

second

series is

( 1) '-

requiredcoefficientis

( 1) 2
-

3.

EXAMPLES. Resolve into lx-\

,

XXIII.

fractions : partial
46+13.r

l+3.r

+ 2.r2

l-bj;

+ 6jf-

'

12.t2-lU--15'

(1-2.r)(1-.//-')'

266
.y2- 10a; +13
'

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

2x*+x2-x-3

(x-l)(x2-5x+6)'
9
"

x(x-l)(2x
x*7*

3)'
+ 10

3x* -3a;2

6*

+ 2)2' (a;-l)(^

(#+l)2(#-3)
2^2-lLr
Q + (^--3) (^2

26^2 + 208o;
+ l)(^+ 5)' (a;2

+ 5 2^-

5)

3^-8x2+10
*

5^
,,

6.r2+ 5.r

(07-1)*
Find in the
term general

(^2-l)(^+l)3'
of the when following expressions

expanded

ascending powers
l + 3# 12#

of

x.

5a; + 6
'

#2 + 7;f+ 3
u

l + llo; + 28^* 2#-4

(2+a?)(l-#)'
."

tf2 + 7a-+ uy

4 +
-

3^+2a'2
x
-

15.

t^

(1 x2)(1 2.r)
-

5tt^

"

" *

16.

(1 x) (1 +
no

2x2)

3 + 2x-x2

17.

"

7,

(l+a?)(l-4a?)2*
.

w,

ttx*

"

18.

4 + 7x

(2+ 3a;)(l+.r)2' 1-*+i*

20.
3 (1-tf)

*"* 19.

(^-1)(^2+1)"
1
"
*
-

"-""" 22.
'

21.

(1 cw?) (1 te)(1 co;)

-

(2
-

3.r +

a2)2

'

23. (l) [ }

Find the

sum

of
+

terms

of the series

I
(i+^)(i+^2)
x
-

(i+^2)(n-^)
+

"

(i+^)(i+^4)
ax
-

^
24.

(1 ax)

'

(1+x) (l+ ax)(1+ a%)

When
a?
"

(1 a2x) + + (1 ax) (1+a%) (1+ a3.r)

of the infiniteseries

1, find
+

the

sum

x2
+

xA
+

(l-x) (l-x3)
25.
Sum to
n

(1-a?) (1-.r5) (1-tf5) (1-^)

terms

the series whose

pthterm
+

is

xp(1+xp + 1) (l-^)(l-.^ + 1)(l-^

2)'

of n dimen26. Prove that the sum of the homogeneous products sions which can be formed of the letters a, b,c and their powers is
an
+

(b-c) + bn + 2 (c-a)+ cn + 2 (a-b) + b2(c-a) + c2(a-b) a2(b-c)

268
terms however

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

are

known. many
terms

As

the

method

of

procedureis
may

the

same

the

scale of relation be sufficient.

-

consist

of, the

illustration will following

If 1

px

qx2
-

rx3

is the scale of relation of the series

a

a"x

+ ajc3 + aax2

we

have
+ rx3 + "lx" an-2x'l~2 an-3x'l~3i anx*=px an-ix"~1
"

or

am =pan_,
any coefficient
can are

"".-" + m"-3 5
when the coefficients of the

thus three

be

found

terms preceding

known. sufficient number of the

terms

323. series be

if Conversely, the scale given,

Find

of

of relation may

be found.
series recurring

Example.

the scale of relation of the

2 + 5x + 13x2 + 35x3+

Let the scale of relation be 1 -px the

then qx*-,
-

to obtain p and

we

have

equations
p
=

13
q=

5p
-

2q

0, and 35

13p

5q

0 ;

whence

5, and

6, thus

the scale of relation is

1
-

5x + 6a;2.

2
at

it involves If the scale of relation consists of 3 terms termine have 2 equations to demust constants, p and q ; and we 324.
p

and

least 3 have

know must To obtain the first of these we q. and second of obtain the the to we terms series,
one more

must

term

given.
we

Thus
must

to

obtain
at

scale of

relation given. If these

two involving 'O

constants

have

least 4 terms

the

scale
we

of
must

relation have 3

be

3 constants
we

qx2 rx3,to find the equations.To obtain the first of

1
"

px

"

must

know

at least 4 terms

of the

and series,

to obtain to find

terms have two more must the other two we given; hence 3 constants, at least G terms scale of relation involving a series must be given.

of the

to Generally,
we

find

scale of relation consecutive

terms

m constants, involving

must

know

at least 2m

terms.
are we given,

if 2m Conversely,

consecutive

may

assume

for the scale of relation 1

~

l\x

l\x* lhx*
~ ~

-PJ**

RECURRING

SERIES.

2G9

325.

To

find the

sum

ofn

terms

series. of a recurring

of findingthe sum is the same The method whatever be the shall scale of relation ; for simplicity it we to contain suppose

onlytwo

constants.

Let the series be au and

so +

axx +

+ aj" + a2x2

let the

sum

be

that for every

S ; let the scale of relation be value of n greaterthan 1, we have

"

px

"

(1) qx*;

Now
"

S"ait+
0

a.x
1

a,x2+
2

...+

a
/""

,x"~\ 1
'

px

S=

"

pa0x

"

paxx*
"

"

...

2^"ciH_2xn~ pa
"

x*t
+

qa?S=
_

qajt?
-

...

\ -qaH_3x*-1 -qaH_ixn-qaH_lxu
-

...

(i-px

S qtf)

a0

x -pa0) {ax

xn + qan_a) {pan_x

qa^x**1,

for the coefficient of every other power of the relation

of

is

zero

in consequence

Thus

the

an-Pan-l-"2a"-2=0' x" + qan_}xH+l + qan-3) -P"-Qx (Pa,t-, % + (", 1 px 1 -px" qx2 qx2 of a recurring series is a fraction whose sum
"

nominato de-

is the scale of relation. 32G. decreases If the second fraction in the increases reduces
to

result of the last article of

an

as n indefinitely

the sum indefinitely,

"

infinite number If
we

of terms

"

"

!
"

"

^
qx"

"

"

px

"

develop this fraction in ascendingpowers of x explainedin Art. 314, we shall obtain as many terms of for this reason series as we please; the expression original
1 "px is called the 327.
an +
"

as

the

qx2
the series.

of generating function the result of Art.

From

325, we
o

obtain
+a
"-1

-",

(a, "Pa.) X v '

"

""%"
qx'

1 -px

+ alt "

a.x
'

ax2

xn

.xi + l

...

"

px"

qx

270
from which
we see

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

that

the generating function although

"

px

"

qx2
of the series
as we

may be used to obtain as many the true it can be regarded as a0

+

terms

please,

of the infinite series equivalent

+ a2x2
,

alx

only if the

remainder
+ (2an-^"+l (I**,.-, +qan-2)xn 1 qx2 poj increased ; in other is indefinitely
" "

vanishes when

when

words

only

the series is convergent. ov 328. When the

functioncan be expressedas a generating of a recurring fractions the general term series group of partial found. function be easily Thus, suppose the generating may fractions be decomposedinto the partial can
ABC
h h

1" Then the " general term

ax

bx

(I" ex)2'
x\ (r+ 1)Ccr} may be found without

is
+

Mr + (-l)r {Aar In this

case

the

sum

of

terms

using

the method

of Art. 325.
the Find the generatingfunction, of the recurring series 1
-

Example.
to
n

general term, and the

sum

terms

Ix

x2
-

43.-C3
-

Let the scale of relation be 1 -px -l + whence

p
=

then "/.r2;
-43
+ 2"+

7j"-"z 0,
=

7"/ 0;
=

l, 5

6; and the scale of relation is

1
-

6.r2.

Let S denote

the

sum

of the series; then S -xS= -Qx2S=

=

l-lx-

x2-4Sxs+

7x2+

x*+

-6x2 + 42.r3+
=

.-.

(l-x-6x2)S

l-8x,
J"8*
-

s-

which

is the

generatingfunction.

RECURRING

SERIES.

271
2

8.r
^-"

1
-

If whence

we

separate
the

into

we partial fractions,
"

obtain

"

1-x-U.r-

1 + 2a;

1-305'

term is or general (r+l)tU {(-lyw^-v

r
=

]."""".

Putting
the
sum
=

0, 1, 2,...n-1,

to

?i

terms
-...

{2
2 +

22x + 2%2
-

2" (- I)""1
3* 1__

a;'1"1 }

(1+ 3a

3%*

3"-1 xn~

l)

2n+1 ( I)'1"1 l+lte

xn

xn
'

3x~

of n terms of the sum series have find to + the + we a_,+ recurring ai only a0 , and sum of the series a0 + alx + a2x2 term and put + general , 1 in the results. x
"

329.

To

find the

generalterm

and

Example.

Find

the

generalterm

and

sum

of

terms

of the series

1 + 6 + 24 + 84+ The and the This scale of relation of the series 1 + 6.r+ 24x2 + 84x3 + function generating is
1 +
" -

is 1
. . .

ox

Ooj2,

x
*" "

"

"

OX

OX"

is equivalent to expression 4
1
-

the

fractions partial
3
'
-

Sx

2a;

If these term is Hence of

n terms

be expanded in ascending expressions powers

of

the general

(4
2

3r

xr. 2r)
.

the generalterm is

of the
-

given series is 4
-

3r-3.

2r; and the

sum

(3'1 1)
the

(2'1 1).
-

330. the series

We

may

remind

student
cannot

that

in

the
as

preceding
the
sum

article the

function generating 1 +6x

+
a

be taken

of

24:x2+8"x3+
as

except when
Hence the But when

x x
=

has such

value

to make

the series

convergent.

which case 1 (in function is not generating the

term general

the series is
a

true

obviously divergent) of the series. equivalent

of 1
+

24

84

+
x

is

qfx, and independent

1 We therefore
+

whatever value
Gx

may

have it will

always

be the coefficient of x" in

+

24*2
as

+
a

84a3

treat

this

convergent series and

then

find its

term general

in the usual way,

and

put x

1.

272

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

EXAMPLES.
Find series
:

XXIV.
and the

the

function generating

general term
2-.v
+
+

of the

following

1. 3. 5.
Find

l + 5.r +

9.r2+13.r3 +

2.
4.

5.r2-7.r3 +
9x2 + 27x4 +

2 + 3x + 5x2 + 9x3 + 3 + 6a? + Ux2

7 -6x

+ + 36.r*+ 98.^ + 276.1-5

the nth term

and

the

sum

to

terms

of the

series following
+ 30.v3 +

6. 8.
9.

2 + 5 + 13 + 35+ 2 + 7^ + 25^ + 91^+

7.

-l+6.v2

1 + 2.v + 6x2 + 20#3 + 66x* + 212^

10. 11.

-^
+

2 + 0 +

8+

Shew

that

the series 12
+

22 + 32 + 42 +

n2,

13 + 23 + 33 + 43 +
are

+n3,

and recurringseries, 12. Shew series how

to

find their scales of relation. the

sum

deduce

of the

first

terms

of the

curring re-

a0 + axx + from the

sum

+ a2x2+ a^v3

to

infinity.
sum

13.

Find

the

of 2n + 1 terms
3-1 + 13-9

of the series

+ 41-53+

14.

The

scales of the

recurringseries
+ a3.r3+ a^x2
,

a0+ avv+

b0+ b1x+b^c2-{-b3.v3+
are

+px+qx2,
is
l +

l +

rx

shew sx2, respectively;

a

that

the

series whose

generalterm

("xn+6n)^"is

recurringseries whose
s

scale is
+

(p + r)x + (q+

+pr)

x2

(qr+ps) x3

qsx*.
of
a n

15.
of
a

series be formed having for series,shew that recurring given If

a

the sum its nih term it will also form of

one more

terms

recurring
than that

series whose of the

scale

of relation

will consist

term

given series.

CHAPTER

XXV.

CONTINUED

FllACTIONS.

331.

All

expression

of

the

form

+
a

is called
c +
-

e +

...

fraction ; here the letters a, b, c, whatever,but for the present we quantities continued the form simpler

may denote any shall only consider

ax +
2

where

an

a2i "3,... are

positive

a3+
1

...

This integers.

will be

written usually 1
+

in the

more

compact form

a, +

a2+ a3
332. continued When the number of

fraction is

is unlimited quotients

quotients a0 a0, "3,... is finite the said to be terminating of ; if the number the fraction is called an contirmed infinite

fraction.
to reduce every terminating continued fraction possible fraction by simplifying the fractions in succession to an ordinary from the lowest. beginning

It is

333.
tn

To convert be the

into fraction given fraction ; divide

; thus
p
"

continued

fraction.
a

Let

"

tnven

in

by

n,

let

be

the

and quotient

j" the remainder

m
"

1
=a,
+
"

a.

+n

P
si. H. A

18

274
divide
n

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

by ^", ^

"" be the
n
-

and quotient
q

q the remainder 1

; thus

a
.

+
'

a
s
'

P 9.

divide p by q, let a.6be the Tims on.

rn,
"

and quotient

the remainder

; and

.so

1
=

1
=

1 a3
+

a.
i

a.

1
"o +

a2+

a3+.
If
m

is less than

?t, the first quotientis zero, and

7)1 n

we

put

1
ti

"m

and

proceedas

before. that as process is the same of m and n ; hence if m shall at lengtharrive at a stage the Thus process terminates. and denominator are positive

It will be observed that the above the greatest of finding common measure

and
where every

are

commensurable
division whose

we

the

is exact into

and

fraction

numerator
a

can integers

be converted
251 Reduce

continued terminating

fraction.

Example. Finding
process,
we

^^

to

continued fraction.

the have

greatestcommon

measure

of

251

and

802

by the

usual

and the successive quotientsare 251

~

3, 5, 8, G; hence
1 3+ 1
1 1

802

5+

8+

6'

334.

The

fractions obtained
a

at by stopping

the

third,

of quotients

continued

fraction

are

first, second, called the first,

in convergents, because, as will be shewn second, third, Art. 339, each successive convergent is a nearer approximation
to

the

true

value

of

the

continued

fraction than

any

of

the

convergents. preceding

27g
The
the

HIGHER

ALGEBRA. the

convergent differs from (*+ l)th

+

ft*

only in having ("+ 1)-"*

quotient an

"

in the

placeof aj

hence

the

vergent

^n-n ^"+^"-i
?

"n+1 ?"

?"_!'
put

by supposition.

If therefore we

we

co. ^

^ftttVs
hence

and ^* the ^^numerator which

th"t

of the (" + l)th conthe of hold in to case was supposed of the third conhold vergent, case therefore * it holds for the fourth, and so on;

denominator

inPthe

holds universally. 337.

the We It will be

convenient to call aH the n*

this stage being an
+

partial quotient;

a"+1+ ""+24 at'any denote the complete shall usually quotient stage by ft.
We have
seen

at quotient complete

that

let the continued fraction be denoted by

; then

differs from

" only in takingthe completequotient ft instead

of the

partial

quotient a"

; thus ftj^i-l+ ff"-2

X~kqn_x qn-2'
+

338

// Eb 6e
Q

tfl6nth

to convergent

then continued fraction,

Let the

continued fraction be denoted by

111
a,1 +

aQ+

a3+

a4

CONTINUED

FRACTIONS.

277

then

(" 1)2 (P.-9"-a-iV,

2

similarly, ^-2)1

But hence When is zero.

Note.
work.

p2 qx -]\ q,

("h %

1)
-

"x

"

a,

(- l)2 J
result will

/""g^, -#,_, g, = the continued

we

(- 1)".
this unity, that the first convergent

fraction is less than that ax =

stillhold if

suppose

0, and

When

we

are

the numerical calculating furnishes

an

value

of the

convergents, the above theorem

easy test of the accuracy

successive of the

Cor.

1.

Each

convergent is in its lowest

terms
"

; for

iipnand
unity;

divisor it would qn had a common which is impossible. Cor.

a

divide pn qnl

pn_l qni or

2.

The

difference between
numerator

two

successive

convergentsis

fraction whose

is

unity;
qnqn^

for

q"

?"_i

q,,qn-i'
XXV.
a.

EXAMPLES. Calculate the successive

l * l

to convergents ' l 2

1.

2 +

6+
1111111

1+

1+

11+

2. 2+ 3.
3 +

2+
111111

3+

1+

44-

2+

3+

1+

2+

2+

1+

9"
continued fractions and find the

as quantities Expressthe following

fourth

convergentto each.
729
7. 11.

2318'
4-310.

278

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

shew by the theoryof continued 12. A metre is 39*37079 inches, is metres fractions that 32 equalto 35 yards. nearly the to "24226, 13. Find a series of fractions converging 365 days. days of the true tropical year over
excess

in

14.
A,
.

A
..

kilometre
5
-,

is very
23
,
==

equalto nearly
64
.

"62138

miles; shew

that

18
^

the fractions ratio of 15.

a

^z

are

successive

""*""* the approximations to ".

kilometre to scales of

mile.

divided into 162 and 209 equal if their zero pointsbe coincident shew that the parts respectively; with the 40th division of the other. coincides 31 st division of one nearly Two

equallengthare

16.
that the

If

"

n3 +

is converted
+
n

into

continued

shew fraction, find the

cessive suc-

nu

+ l
n
"

are quotients convergents.

1 and

n+l

and alternately,

17.

Shew

that Pn 2n
+

(!) (2)
If

\~Pn

1
_

Pn 9.n X

+ 1

9.n
-

(^-O^-fH-vr-2-1
\ Pn
/ \

g"-l

Pn

cJn

18.

"

is the nth

convergent to
that

continued

and fraction,

an the

shew quotient, corresponding

Each convergentis nearer 339. convergents. any of the 'preceding

Let
x

to the continued

than fraction

denote

the

continued

and fraction,

*" ",

^-*"J
?" +
*-a"l
!

""-"2

9*
three consecutive

^+2

convergents;then
+Pn ?n+l

differs from the of place

only in

in quotient (n+ 2)th takingthe complete this

; denote

by k: thus

and

Pn+1 ^^
"
+ 1

Pn^l^n-Pn^l
~

a;

?"+

+ 7.) (%"+l

y.+ ,

(%"

"

+ ,

?")

CONTINUED

FRACTIONS. is less than

--"
' '

270
q
;

Now

k is

greater than

unity,and qm

lience

on

botli accounts

the difference between

and

is less than

the

difference between
to

"
"

and

x:

that

is, every
next

convergent

is

nearer

tlie continued therefore

a

fraction than any

the

precedingconvergent,
it .""3.",

and

than fortiori

preceding convergent.

Combining
follows that

the result of this article with that of Art.

tli^ convergent

of an

odd

order

hat increase, continually

are

alwaysless than the continued

tin' covrergents of an
even

fraction ;
order hut decrease, continually
are

alwaysgreater than the continued

340. To

fraction.
made in

findlimits
p p

to the

error

taking any convergent

for

the continued Let

p
"

fraction.
r_n"2

Y-^1
,

])0 three consecutive

convorgents, and

let

k denote then

the

complete(n + 2)th quotient;

x
=

^^t
k
1

"ln

"ln(k"ln+"+nJ

+9i) '.(*""
x

Now
.
"

k is

greater than 1, therefore the difference between

i and
,

and

p..is less than

"

greater than

..

Again, since
1 less than
"

the "7,1 + l""7",

error

in

taking

-"

instead

of

is

1
5

and

greater than
the

77-0"

?. 341.
From
"

v.+,

last article it appears

that

the

error

in
1
,

taking
or
"

instead

of the continued

fraction is less than the

qm
a

?.?.+,
;

(a
(I

that is,less than

"
11+
.

3:
"

hence

larger

., II +1

7 ill

+q 2

Ft"

,) 1/ does "2
/"

.7 I ili

the ai+l is,

nearer

approximateto

the continued

fraction;

280

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

therefore, any
is a quotient
near

convergent which

a immediately precedes large the continued t o approximation fraction.

Again,since
to find
a

the

error

is less than

"

it follows that in order

,

convergent which
a

will differ from

-

the continued

fraction

by

less than

givenquantity
a

we

have

only to

calculate the

successive

convergents up
The

to

"

where

is greaterthan qn2

a.

of continued fractions enable us to find properties to that of small integers whose ratio closely two approximates incommensurable two to that of two or quantities quantities, whose exact ratio can integers. by large onlybe expressed

342.

Example.

Find

to 3* 14159. series of fractions approximating

of 14159 In the process of finding the greatest common measure are 7, 15, 1, 25, 1, 7, 4. Thus 100000,the successive quotients 3-14159
=

and

3+1
7+
22
'

111

15+

1+

25+

1+

7+

The successive convergents are

3 1

333
'

355
'

106

113

'

this last

convergent which
error

precedesthe large quotient 25

^,

is

very

near

the approximation,
"

being less than

and

therefore less than

25TP5)343. any

""00004-

Any convergent other fraction whose

be
r

is

nearer

to the continued

than fraction that

denominator

is less than

of

the

convergent.
Let
x

the

continued

fraction,
"

V
,

P '-*=*"

two

consecutive

"n

?.-,
s

convergents,
"

fraction whose
r

denominator

is less than
r
,

8
v

"

If

let possible,
to

be
"

nearer

to

than

"

then

must
P
--

be

?"

nearer

than

7) -Ji^1

339] ; [Art.
-

and

since

lies between

and

In
"-5=?

I"

it follows that

must

lie between

"

and

'
"

9.-X

?"-!

CONTINUED

FRACTIONS.

281

Hence
r

P"-*P.

Pn-i

l
fWi"5^
"

.'.

rqn_x

spn_x"
a

";
is
r

that

is, an
p
"

less integer
must

than

fraction ; which

impossible.
-

Therefore

be

nearer

to the continued

fraction than

"
P
-

344.

If

P'
"

be two

consecutive

conver

gents to

continued
is

fractionx, then
greater
Let
"

"

is greater or

less than

x2,accordingas

or

less than

"

q k be the
to complete quotientcorresponding
"

the

vergent con-

succeeding immediately J "

q"

then

"

-f". '
"

+ lcq

q
+

'

''

"

WW^YY

+ qY "' w {hq'
"

pY]

(tfp'q,-pq)(pq'-2"'q) + q)2 qq'(kq'

-

The lience

factor pp'
"
,

ky'q'
"

pq is

since p'"p, q'"q, positive,

and k"

I;

"

or

or as ]iq' negative x2,according ; "p'q is positive

that

is, according as

"

or

"

"

Cor.

that the expressions investigation have the same q'2x2"p'2 ]iq'"2)/qi p2 q2M2, VP ~cLcL^-" It follows from the above
-

sign.

EXAMPLES.

XXV.

b.
222

1.
a

Find limits to the

a

error

in

taking

"

to yardsas equivalent

metre, giventhat

metre

is equal to 1-0936

yards.

282
2. Find
an

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

to approximation +

JL J_ J- JL
3+ 5+

JL
11+
-0001. 99

7+

9+

which differs from 3.

1*41421

the true

value

by

less than

Shew

by

the

theoryof continued
than
.

fractions that

=-

differs from

by
"

less quantity

a3 + 6a2 + 13a+10

4.

Express 1

a4+6a3+
,

,A

1K 14a--+15a
,

"

+ 7

rs

as

and continued, fraction,

,.

,.

find the third

convergent.
the firstand nth

that the difference between to is numerically ecpial

5.

Shew

convergent

1
+

1
...+

(-l)n
9n-l2n
p

Mi

Ms

Wh

6.

Shew

that if an is the

to s-5 quotient corresponding

'

Pn-1~
qn-1

a"

'"

"n-l+ "u-2+

0"-3+

"3+

a2+

'

"1
,

(2)
7.

_i-=an+_L_ ^2
an-l+ ""-2+
1111
"

L_
...

J_
"3+

1.
"2 shew that
,

ttn-3+

In the continued fraction

"+

a+
1+

"

+
2"

"

(1 ) Pn +P\ (2)
8.
If
"

+ 1

=Pn

lPn +

"""""" +

Pn

qn-lfraction

is the ?ith convergent to the continued 111111

"+

b+

a+

b+

a+

6+
a

shew

that

q2n =p2n

+ u

q2n

=
-

#".. br-n"

9.

In the continued fraction 1111

a+

6+

"+

6+

'

shew

that Pn
+

2~

(ah+ 2)Pn+Pn-2

"i 9n +

(ab+ 2)?u +

"?"*2

"-

CHAPTER

XXVI.

INDETERMINATE

EQUATIONS

OF

THE

FIRST

DEGREE.

345.

In

Chap. X.
shall
now

we

have

shewn

how

to obtain

the

positive

solutions integral
we

of indeterminate

apply the

to obtain

the

generalsolution first degree.

the

with numerical efficients; coequations of fractions continued properties of any indeterminate equationof

346.
x

Any
and y

equationof
can

the

first

two degree involving

knowns un-

be

reduced

to the form

ax"by
of

"

c, where

a,

6,c
and

are

This positive integers.

admits equation

an

unlimited

number
x

of solutions ; but if the conditions of the problem require of solutions may be the number integers, y to be positive

limited.
It is clear solution integral
to
ax

that

the

by
If

"

ax
"

"

by ; and c) hence it will be sufficient to consider

"

equation ax + by that the equation ax

"

c
=

has
"

no

positive equations

is equivalent

the

"by
a

c.

and

b have

a
=

factor

which

does not

the and

be satisfied by c can equationsax"by y ; for ax " by is divisible by m, whereas

divide c, neither of values of x integral

c

is not.

If a, b,c have a common factor it can that we shall suppose so a, b, c to have that a and b are prime to each other.

be removed
no

common

by division; and factor,

347.

To

find

the

equation
Let
-

solution general ax by c.
"
"

in

integers positive of

the

be converted

into

continued

and let fraction, "l.

"

denote q

6 the

convergent just preceding j

; then

aq"bp

[Art. 338.]

INDETERMINATE

EQUATIONS

OF

THE

FIRST

DEGREE.

285

I.

If aq

"

bj) 1, the givenequation may

"

l"e written

ax

"

by

"

(aq b]j) ;
"

.-.

a(x

"

-b (y c/"). cq)
"

Now divisible

since

and

b have
x
"

no
=

common

by

b ; hence

cq
x-

where bt,
cq

x factor, cq must is an integer,

"

be

"

cP.
a

b that from

is,
which

bt + cq, y

"

at + cj) \

to t any

solutions may be obtained by giving positive integral value value,or any negative integral positive integral than the less of the two

smaller numerically
also t may

quantities -j,

en

cd
"

be zero; thus the number

of solutions is unlimited.

II.

If aq

"

bp

"
"

1, we
ax
"

have
"
"

by

(aq bji) ;
"

.'.

a(x + cq)
=

(y+ cj))
',
"

x
" "

+
="

cq
-

y + cp
= =

t, an
cp;

integer;

lience from which

bt

"

cq, y

"

at

"

to t any two

solutions integral positive value which positive integral

CO

may be obtained by giving exceeds the greater of the of solutions is unlimited.

CD

quantities -=-,";
o
a

thus the number

III.

If either into
a

or

b is

the unity, with

fraction unit

j-

cannot

be

verted con-

continued

fraction

numerators, and

the

fails. In these cases, however, the solutions may be investigation becomes thus if 6 written down 1, the equation by inspection; and the solutions may be found by ax c; whence ax"c, y y
=
"

to x ascribing
Note.
two

any

value greaterthan positive integral

It should be observed that the series of values for x and y form in which the common differences are b and a arithmetical progressions

respectively.

286 Example.
In is Find the

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

solution general continued

in

of integers positive

29.r

42*/ 5.
=
"

converting
"

into

fraction the convergent

justbefore

13 -jr ; we

have

therefore

29xl3-42x9
.-.

-l;
-

29x65-42x45

5;

combining this with the given equation,we

29 (* +
x "*"

obtain
+

65)=42(#
65
=

45);
=

45

-"j-

29"

*"an

mte8er

hence

the

solution general

is
a:
=

42"-65,

ij=

20t~4o.

348.
ax
"

Given
=

one

solution in

of positive integers
c; then
-

the

equation

by
Let

c, to jind the

solution. general

h, k

be

solution of
.'.
.'. a ax

ax-by
"

ah

"

bk

c.

by
"

ah

bk ;
"

(x
"

h) b(y k);
"

x"h
.'.
z
"

y"k
=
=

t.

an

b
.'.
x
=

integer ;

bt, y

"

at ;

which

is the To

solution. general

349.

equation
a

solution Jind the general ax + by c.

=

in

integers of the positive

D
"

Let

be converted

into

continued

and let fraction,

be the

b ; then
aq
"

justpreceding convergent j
I. If aq
"

bp

"

1.

bp=l,

we

have

.'.

(aq bp); a(cq x) b(y + c2));

ax
=

+by
"

"

cq
.'
.

"

x
"

y
=
"

+
"

cp
"

-=-=

an

b
x
=

integer ; ' "

'

cq

"

bt,y

' "

at

cp ;

INDETERMINATE

EQUATIONS

OF

THE

FIRST

DEGREE.

287

from
to t

which

solutions integral positive

may

be
CI)
"

obtained and

by giving
CO

values greaterthan integral positive

the number of solutions is conditions

less than

j-

Thus

and if there is no limited,

no

integer

these fulfilling

there is have
=
"

solution.

II.

If aq

"

bp

1, we
ax

by

(aq bp);
"

.-.

a(x+ cq) b(cp-y);

=

x
"
"

+
"

co
=

en
" "

y
=

t.
'

an

JL

integer 0
at ;

"

x=bt

"

cq, y

cj)

"

from to t As
no

which

solutions positive integral

may

be
co
-~

obtained and

by giving
c

values greater than integral positive number of solutions is

less than there may

the before, solution. III.

and limited,

be

If either

or

b is

the equal to unity,

solution

may

be

found

as by inspection

in Art. 317.

350.
ax

Given
=

one

solution in

of positive integers

Ike

equation

by

c, to find the

solution. general
ax -f

Let

A, k

be

solution of
'

by
"

"

; then

ah

bk

c.

ax

by

ah b

bk ;
-

.'.

(x h)
"

"

(k y);
"

"hk"y
7
o
"

.'.

"

=-

-"

t,an
"

integer;

.'.

bt, y

at ;

which

is the To

generalsolution. find the

number
ax

351.

of solutions
+

in

of the integers positive

equation
Let
T

by

c.

be converted

into

continued

b
; then aq
"

and let fraction,

be the

convergent just preceding j

bp

at

1.

288
I.
Let aq

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

-bp

l ; then
x
=

the
y

generalsolution
=

is

cq-bt,

at-

ep. obtained

[Art. 349.]
by givingto
,

Positive

solutions integral
not

will be

values positive integral than

greater than

"f
o

and

not

less

"

a c
c

(i) Suppose that

Let

and

are

not

integers. "

"

m+f. J

-"

a. y'

where

m,

are

the least value

and J\ g proper fractions ; then positive integers is have t can m+ 1, and the greatestvalue is n; of solutions is
-"-

therefore the number

n-vi

cq

cp
"

b Now this is
an

+fg=-"+f-g. J J J
ab
may

j.

and integer,

be written

"

or fraction,

ab

"r-

as /is greateror according fraction,

less than g.
to

Thus

the

number

of solutions is the
or

nearest integer

"

greater or

less

as/ according

g is the

greater.
an

(ii) Supposethat
In this
case

z-

is

integer.
value of
c x

0, and

one

is

zero.

If
must

we

include
an

this,the number teger. Hence

C C or
-j
,

of solutions

is

-r+f,
ao

which

be

in-

the number
as according

of solutions is the greatest integer in

we

^7+1

include

or

exclude

the

zero

solution.

Supposethat (iii)
In this

is

an

integer.
value
m

cc

case/=0, and
of solutions

one

this,the
the number

least value

of t is is
71

If we of y is zero. include hence and the greatest is n;

+

"

l.

or

"r

ab

q +

1.

Thus

the

INDETERMINATE

EQUATIONS

OF

TJIE

FIRST

DEGREE.

289
c

number

of solutions is the
we

greatest integerin
the
zero

ab

-7

or

"=".

ae-

ab

as cording

include

or

exclude
c

solution.

(iv) Supposethat
In this
case

and

are

both

integers.
zero

0 and y 0, and both x and y have a If we include these, the least value t can have is m, value. of solutions is 11-111+ the greatestis n ; hence the number

f"

and

1, or

ab

-y

1.

If

we

exclude

the

zero

values the number

of solutions is

4-i.
ab

II.

If aq

-bp=

solution is 1, the general

x
=

bt

"

cq} y"

cp

"

at,

and similar results will be obtained.

352.
ax

To

find the solutions in

cz
"

by +

d, we

may
=

of integers positive follows. as proceed d

"

the equation

+ by ax By transposition

cz

; from

which

in succession the values 0, 1, 2, 3, we the form ax + by c, which may be solved as

=

to z by giving of equations already explained.

obtain

353.

If

we

have
ax

two

simultaneous
ax

by + cz=d,
of the
=

equations + cz d\ b'y
=

say, we obtain an of the form Ax + By C. Supposethat x "f, y g is a solution can be written then the general
one by eliminating

unknowns, z

equation
solution,

"

x=f+Bs,
where
s

g-As,
of the + Gz
=

is

an

integer.
given
II, of

these values of x and y in either Substituting obtain an we equations, equationof the form Fs which the general solution is h + Gt, z k Ft say. 8
= =
-

for s, we Substituting x=f+Bh and the values of x, y,

obtain
+
z

BGt,
are

g-Ah-AGt;
by givingto
t

obtained

suitable

values. integral
H. H. A.

19

290
354. If

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

one

solution in
ax

of integers positive
=

the

equations

by +

cz

d,

ax

b'y+

c'z

d',
as

can

be

solution may found, the general h be the solution particular ch

=

be obtained ; then
=

follows.

Lety, g,

af+ bg + By subtraction,

+ ch d, a'f+ b'g

d'.

a(x-f) + b(y-g)+c(z- h) 0,
=

a'(x-/)
whence

b'(y-g) + c'(z-h) 0;
=

x-f
=

y-g
_

z-h
_

be where be
"

"

b'c

ca

"

c'a

ab'

"

a'b

'

is
"

an

ca b'c,

integerand ab' a'b. c'a,

"

k is the Thus the

H.C.F.

of the

denominators is

solution general
z
,
=

=f+ (be' b'c) j /c

"

"

(ca' c'a)
"

="

fc

(ab' a'b) ?. fc
-

EXAMPLES. Find the 1. 4.

crowns

XXVI.
solution, of the least positive integral

j
3.

solution general
=

and

775.r-711y
In how

l.

2.
can

455#-519y=l.
,"1. 19s. 6d. be

436#-393y
florins and

5.

many

ways

paid in

half-

? 5.
Find the number

of solutions in

of positive integers

lLe+15y=1031.
6.
such Find two fractions having 7 and that their sum is 1 "-"-. Find
two 9 for their

and denominators,

7.
and

proper

fractions and

in their lowest

terms

having 12
"

8 for their denominators

such that their difference is

24

8.
of y

certain
x

sum

consists of
the
sum.

and pounds y shillings,

it is half

pounds shillings ; find

Solve in 9.

: integers positive

6#+ty
lhr +

21 4s=122\ 6^=145

10.

1 \y + 4z 1 2x 4^=22221 12.r-lly
-

8y-

5J

'

-4.v+

5y+

z=ll)

CHAPTER

XXVII.

RECURRING

CONTINUED

FRACTIONS.

that a terminating tinued conChap. XXV. rational quotients be reduced fraction with to an can and denominator,and numerator ordinaryfraction with integral shall prove that a be equalto a surd ; but we therefore cannot continued fraction be expressed surd can as an infinite quadratic numerical We shall first consider a whose quotientsrecur. example. 355. We have
seen

in

Example.
fractions

Express ^19

as

continued

fraction, and

find

series of

to approximating

its value.
4 +

x/19

(v/19-4)
=

4+Tl93-+-;
v

v/19+ 4_
3

2,x/19z_2_
+

5
,

V19
2
, =
"

2'

+ 2_1j_ ^19-3 N/19 =1+^

1 +
.

5 + ,/19 2

\/19
5

3'

^"9-8
2

\/19 +
3
+,

3'

v/19+ 3_11 1V19-2_1 ~1 +

5

N/
1
0i
~

/L9

+ 2

2 +

iN/19-4
3

\/19 +
=

4'

+ N/19

8 +

(N/19-4)
recur;

8 +

after this the

quotients2, 1, 3, 1, 2, 8
1 1

hence
1

V19-4

Jl_"
3+
1+

2.
""""

2+

1+

2+8+
soon as we come

as It will be noticed that the quotients recur In 361 first. Art. we the of quotientwhich is double

to

shall prove

that this is

always the

case.

RECURRING

CONTINUED

FRACTIONS,
same

293
series of
the

[Explanation.In each of the lines above we perform the operations.For example, consider the second line : we
in integer greatest is ^" We
"

first find
"

"

; this is

2, and the remainder

and

is

2, that
the surd

^ o

"

then

multiply numerator
that after

denominator 5

by
,

to ^19-2, conjugate
new

so

the inverting

result

we

begin

line with The

rational

denominator.]
as

first seven

convergents formed
4
1
'

explainedin
170
'

Art. 336

are

9
2
'

13 3
'

48
11
'

61
14

1421
'
'

39

326
'

The

eiTor

in

taking the
or
,

last of these is less than

,

and
,

is therefore Thus the

less than
.

"

and

fortioriless

than

-00001.

seventh

convergent givesthe value

to at least four

placesof decimals.
one

356.
roots

continued fraction is equal to Every periodic the

of the

of a quadratic equation of which

x

rational. are coefficients

y the

Let and

denote that

the continued

and fraction,

periodic part,

suppose

and

"

+
n

y'

where

a,

b, c,...h, k, m,
p
-

n,...u,

are

positive integers.
to
x

Let

p
,

-,

be

the

convergents

to corresponding

the

then h, k respectively; quotients p'y+p

.

since y is the
-V qx-p
"

quotient, complete

we

have

x"

wlience

p-qx ""
,
.

qy+q
r r
"

Let

be

tlie

convergents
y=

to
r

y
i/ +
r

to corresponding

the

quotients u,

respectively ; then
y in terms

-~

for Substituting of quadratic which

of

and

we simplifying

obtain

the coefficients are

rational.

294
The

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

+ {s s'y2 r)y equation

"

"

0, which

y, has its roots

ii

real and in
x
=

of opposite signs ; if the

givesthe value value positive

of of

v'y +
be substituted
" "

p
,

-,

on

the denominator rationalising where

,

qy+q the value of B

x

is of the form

~-

"

A, B, C

are

integers,

since beingpositive

the value of y is real.

as
...

Example.
Let whence The
x

Express

,1111
l + s
" "

~"

^-"

surd. 1 1
" "

be the value of the continued 2x2 + 2x continued

-

fraction ; then

1=

"

""

+ \X

"

1)

7 = 0. fraction is
^"
"

equal to
.

the

root positive

of this

and equation,

is therefore

equalto

EXAMPLES. surds Express the following

sixth
as

XXVII.
continued

a.

and fractions,

hnd

the

convergent to each
1.

v/3.

2.
6.

^5.
x/13. 4v/2. V33error

3. 7. 11. 15268

y/6. x/14. 3^5.

4. 8. 12. 16-

s/8.
V22.
4

5.
9.

v/11. 2^3.

10. 14-

N/10.

13-

j"-

\/sis taken for is taken for

\/n-

17.

Find limits of the

when

"

"

N/17.

65

916

18.

Find limits of the

error

wThen

'"-

v/23.

19. Find of decimals. 20. Find of decimals.

to the first convergent

N/101that VI 5

is correct to five places

the first convergent to

that is correct

to five

places
of the

Express as a continued : following equations

21. 24. 25. x* + 2x-l
=

fraction the

root positive

of each

0.

22.

a8 -4*?-

3=0.
=

23.
a

la?- 8x-

3=0.

Expresseach
Find

root of x2

5^ + 3

as

continued fraction.

Ill

the value of 3 +

5"

x"

x-

6+

6+

6 +

26.

Find the value of

,

"

"

1+

3+

1+

3 +

RECURRING

CONTINUED

FRACTIONS.

295

111111

27.

Find

the value of 3+ 1+
2 +

3+

1+

2 +

3 +

1111

28.
29.

Find Shew

the value of 5 that

+
,

1+

1+

1+

10 +

*+i+6+
30.
Find 111111

i+

e+""~*\1+a+

2+

3+

2+

"

the difference between

the infinite continued 111111

fractions

1+

3+

5+

1+

3+

5+

""'

3+

1+

5+

3+

1+

5+

""

*357.
Let and

To convert

surd quadratic

into

continued

fraction.
square,

be

let ax be the

which is not an positive integer contained in J N greatestinteger

exact

j then

N/iV
=

", +

(Jff-a,)
=

", +

-j""
,

if r,

W-

",\
'

Let b be the

contained greatestinteger

in

"

; then

ri

JM+al
=

JN-bxrx
|

ax^h
and

JN-a2^h +
=

where

"2

bir1 ax
"

rx r2

"

a"2.

Similarly
2

r2 where and
so on

"*2
=

JN
N
"

a./

"3
; and

bf2
"

as and

r2r3

"

a32;

generally
.

JN+a -s=i
"

, =

b
M-l
,

JN-a v
"

"

b
"-'
,

+
"

"

H"

'

jy
-

'

a
it

(1-1

where

an

""_,/""_, a"_1 and

-

?""_,*"" N
=

a/.

1111 Hence and thus "We

*JN= a, + JN
shall
can

be

as expressed

an

infinite continued

fraction.

any

curring presently prove that this fraction consists of reever periods ; it is evident that the periodwill beginwhenis firstrepeated. complete quotient

296
We

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

shall call the series of

quotients
+

JAT.
the

JAr+
rx

a,

JN

a2

a JJST+

3 )

r2

r3

fourth second, third, first,

completequotients.
that the tities quanshall now prove also

*358.
av

that the

article it appears preceding are we positive integers; b3 rv bv b0, are quantities a2, a3, a4, r8,r3,r4, the
,
. . .

From

integers. positive

Let

p
"

p
,
"..

p
"r.

be three

consecutive

convergents "

to

q let

and JN. x

P"
"

be the

to the partial convergent corresponding quotient bn.

The

at quotient complete

this

stage is
p

"

; hence

"

v^=

r,t

=P JW+a"P+rvp

Clearingof
parts,we
whence But the
same

fractions

and

equatingrational
ck"l + rnq =p ;
=

and

irrational

have

"y
an

rnP
~

^Y"

(pq

pq) =pp*

'^j rn {ptf "p"i) "Z"7

ATq'2 "p'2.
"

and pq' "p'qssdslf sign [Art. 344] ;

"qq'N, Nq2 p2 have pq "pq-, pp' hence an and rn are positive integers.
-

Since this

two

convergents precedethe complete quotient

r*

holds investigation To prove

we

for all values of

greaterthan 1.

*359.

that the

and partial recur. complete quotients

rnrn_l
must

In Art. 357
rn_l
are

provedthat positive integers ; hence an

be

have

Also rn and thus be less than ^/JV,

=

N"a2.

have any greater than av and therefore it cannot values of that is, the number values except 1,2, 3,...ax'} ofdifferent
an cannot an cannot

exceed ax.
=

that is rnbn an + Again, an+1=rvbu-ah, rnbn cannot be greater than 2al ; also bn is hence values
rn cannot

an+v
a

and

therefore

integer positive ;

be

greater than

except 1, 2, 3,...2a1 ; that

exceed

2av Thus rn cannot have any values the number is, ofdifferent

ofi\cannot

2ar

RECURRING

CONTINUED

FRACTIONS.

297

Thus 2a*

the

completequotient
"

"

cannot

have

more

than

rn

different values ; that

is,some
must
recur.

one

and completequotient,

all subsequent therefore ones, Also

in bnis the greatestinteger

"

"

; hence

the

partial

r
n

quotientsmust
each

also recur, and

the number
2

in of partial quotients

cannot cycle

be greater than 2a ']

"

*3G0. We

To prove that a, ",_,

au

rn

have

an
+

; bH_1rn_l
or

""_i

a"=

"?,t,-i5

since

is a posit ive integer 6"_l ;

But

N"-a;=rnrn_l-i
ai an
"

rn ,

which

proves

the

proposition.
that the

*361. and quotient

as Since,

To shew

terminates ivith a
we

periodbeginsloith the second partial double of the first. partial quotient

359, a
recurrence

have

seen

in Art.

must

take
at

suppose then the (*+l)th;

a.
we

let us place,

that the

recurs complete quotient (n+ l)th

r,

and
,

b. b
=

shall prove

that
a, 4
.
"

=a
n
"

, 1'

rm ""

=
,

r
ii
"

, 1'
,

b,
*"

b
ii
"

, 1

We

have
r.
*
"

r
, i

=
*

-a,2
"

'

"

iV
v

2
"

a
it

r
H
"

,r i

"r
ii H
"

r, ; *
'

Again,

.-.

"

, '

a*
~

-b

7
"

7
,

om

=
.

zero,

or

an

integer.

n-1

298

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

But, by Art. 360, al-an_l".rii_x, and

'

al-as_l"rs_i;
-^
"

that

is

a. -a.

"

therefore therefore ""_!, and

a
,

aa

"
,

; hence

is less

n-

than

and unity, Thus Hence

",_!
=

must

be
=

zero.

also

6#_1 6fl_i.

plete comcompletequotient recurs, the ?^th (n+ l)th therefore the complete (n- l)th quotientmust also recur;

if the

must quotient

also recur;

and

so

on.

This hence

358], proof holds as long as n is not less than 2 [Art. second with the the completequotients recur, beginning
" -

quotient 1

It

follows

therefore

that

the shall

recurrence

beginswith

rx the

second with the

that it terminates Let "be

quotientbx; we partial a 2ax. quotient partial

now

shew

the which justprecedes completequotient when

1

second

completequotient
-

it

recurs

; then

a
"
"

ancj

l are

two

consecutive

completequotients ; therefore

"",

but N-

a*

r, ; hence
"

rn

1.
"

Again, ay

aH

"

?'", that is ""

1 ; hence

ax

an

0, that

is

","

Also

an +

rn bn
"

bn;hence

bn

2ai; which

establishes

the

proposition.
*362. To shew that in any the beginning and

from beingexcluded. quotient

Let the last

distant equiquotients periodthe partial the last end are partial equal,

be completequotient

denoted

by

*
"

; then
r.

rn=l,
We shall prove that

cin

ax,

bn=2ar

^-2=^2)

"h-2="3"

^.-2="2^

300
and is therefore

HIGHER

ALGEBRA,

equalto

ax +

J 'N

; hence

Clearing of
parts,we
obtain

fractions

and

equatingrational
+

and

irrational

*iP.+JV-i

ai9,H 9rn-i=^" -jfy"i from

"

(!)"

Again

"

can

be obtained

and

-^

by taking for the

quotient
1 1 1

2*1+
which is

V?V^
Thus

equalto

+ rtj

"

in

"
**

1
=

U+%)qnq^
+
.

2^
?2"

"
,

from

(1);

P"

%.qn
(2)"
is the

l(A *")
+

In

like

manner

we

may

prove

that if

"

penultimate

icn

period, convergent in the cth recurring

"i ^c" +Fcn-i
=

Nqmi

a, qcn + qm_l =#*,

and

we by usingthese equations,

may

obtain

""
"

suc,

cessively.
It should of
n

be noticed

that

equation (2)holds

for all

multiples

; thus

Ol

the

proofbeingsimilar
*365.
In
can

to that

given. already
seen

Art. be

356,

we

have the

that of
a

fraction with

expressedas

root

continued periodic equation quadratic

rational coefficients.

RECURRING

CONTINUED

FRACTIONS.

301
of Art. 357
are

we Conversely,

might prove by
the form
"

the method
"

that

an

of expression B

tt~~

where
can case

-"4" B, C
be the

positive
into
a

and integers,
not

not

perfect square,
In this second the

converted

continued recurring the

fraction. with

periodic part

will will

usuallybegin last partial be quotient

For further information
we

nor partialquotient,

double
on

the first. of recurring continued subject Serret's Cours cVAlgebre Supe-

the
to

fractions

refer the student

to
a

and rieure,
as

Continued

pamphlet on Fraction, by
^EXAMPLES.

The

Expression ofa Quadratic Surd

Muir, M.A.,
XXVII. b.
and fractious, find the

Thomas

F.R.S.E.

surds Express the following

fourth convergent 1.
to each
:

as

continued

N/a2 + l.

2.

J a*

-a.

3.

N/"--l.

4. 7.

V/T7T.
Prove that

5.

y""^f
.

6.

^l

J9a*+
and

3a+

-i
" "

2a +

6a +

2a +

6a +

find the fifth convergent.

8.

Shew

that
2 1111
i""
"

r-

p 9.
V

i+

p+

i+

Shew

that
\
=Pa\

/111 a\-\
\

111 +
"
"

P9Cl2 + If

+ tt3

P9Ct4 +
as expressed

aCLl+ PaZ continued

1,

OCl\+ that

10.

1 Ja'2+

be

shew fraction, qn_l + qn

+

2(a*+l)qn=pn_1+pn
1111
11

2pn

l.

11.

Tf If

.%'=

"

ax +

"2+

ai+ a2 +

...,

1111

"?/~2a1+ 2"2+
1111

2ax+ 2a2+
+

""'

~3tf1+~3a2+ 3^
shew
that
x
-

3"2+
-

'"'

+ 2y (z2 .r2) + 3z {a? y1) {f- z-)

=

0.

302

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

12.

Prove

that

(
13.
U

JL J_
b
+

Jl J_
b +
a+
1

a+

V"""" '")\b+ a+
J_
b+

b+

a+

^ '")"b
=
-

J_
a+

J_
a+
""'

X~a+

b+

y-b
shew that

J_
+ a+

J_
a+

J_
i+
a

J_
b+
"""'

(ab2 +
"

b)x-

(a2b+
to

b)y
+

a2-b2.

14.

If

be

the

nth convergent

Ja2

l. shew

that

P22+P32+'"+P2n

l
=

Pn

lPn

2-PlP2

15.

Shew

that
1
"

("
\a+ va+
16.
If b +
'

1
a+

1 c+

\
/

l +

bc

c+

"/

^+

l+ctb'

"

denote qr

the

rih convergent
"

to

^"
" "

shew
,

that

Pi+Pi"+
17.
Prove

"~+P".n-l=P2n-p"L,
that the difference

?3 + of the
i
"'

?5 +

"

""

=
-

?8"

ft.

infinite
i a+ i

continued

fractions

_i_j_2_
a+

b+

c+

b+

'""'

c+

is

equal

to 1 +
ao

="

18.
number

If of

s/JV is converted quotients in the

into

continued shew that

fraction, and

if

is the

period,

19. denoted

into a continued \/^ De converted fraction, and if the penultimate convergents in the first,second, ...kth recurring periods be that by nlt n2i...nk respectively, shew If

*CHAPTER

XXVIII.

INDETERMINATE

EQUATIONS

OF

THE

SECOND

DEGREE.

integersof indeterminate positive of a degreehigherthan the first, though not of much equations because of its connection with is interesting importance, practical shall confine In the present chapter we the Theory of Numbers. second of the two attention to equations degree involving our
*366. The solution

in

variables. *367.
x

To

shew

Iww

to

obtain

the

values of positive integral

arid y which

the equation satisfy ax2

+

2hxy + by2+ 2gx + 2fy+

0,

a,

b, c, f,g, h beingintegers.

Solvingthis equationas
have
ax

in quadratic

x,

as

in Art.

127, we

hy+g

"J(h2-ab) y2+
that the be values the

(hg af)y+(g2-ac)...(l).
-

Now kv

in order

of

and

may
we

be may

positive
denote

the integers,

expressionunder
r, must
a

which radical,

py2 + 2gy +

perfect square
r
=

; that is

py2 + 2qy +
this equation as Solving
a

z2, suppose.
y,
we

in quadratic

have

py

"

Jq2-jjr+pz2;
the radical must be
a

under the expression and, as before,

perfect

square ; suppose

that it is

equalto t2; then

-

t2 where
t and
z are

pz2 q2
=
-

pr^
r are

and variables,

j\ q,

constants.

304
Unless this

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

the integers, equationcan be solved in positive solution. does not admit of a positive integral equation original 374. shall return to this pointin Art. We If of the
a,

b, h

are

all

it positive, for
be

is clear that of
x

the and

number
y the

of

solutions is

because limited, the left

cannot

largevalues
zero

sign

on expression

dependsupon
for

that of ax2 +

2hxy + by2

and 2G9], [Art. values of

x

thus
y.
"

large positive integral

and

Again, if h* and by negative,

Example.

the negative, similar reasoning we

ab is

coefficient of
see

y2 in (1)is
of

that the number

solutions is limited.
Solve in the equation integers positive a;2
-

4xy + "y* 2x
-

20*/
=

29.

Solving as

in quadratic
x
=

x,

we

have
"

2y +
-

^30 +

24// 2y\
-

102 2 (y G)2 than cannot be greater = 30 + 24?/ 2j/2 (y 6)2 ; hence under radical the the becomes that find a 51. expression By trial we values of y integral (y-6)8=l or 49; thus the positive perfect square when are 5, 7, 13.

But

When
x
=

?/=

5,

21

or

1; when

7,

25

or

5; when

13,

29

or

25.

*3G8. of the

We

have

seen

that

the solution

in

positive integers
0 of equation the

equation
ax2
+

2hxy + by2+ 2gx + 2fy+

upon x2

can

be made

to

depend

the solution of

an

form
"

Ny2

"

a,

where The

iV*and

are

integers. positive
=
"

equation x2 + Ny* equationx2 + Ny2 a has a

=

has

no

real of

roots, whilst
our

the

limited

number

which solutions, attention

may be found by trial ; we of the form x2 to equations

shall therefore
-

confine

Ny2

"

a.

To sJiew that the equationx2-Ny2=l *369. solved in positive integers. Let

can

always be
let that

JN
'"

be be
any

converted three

hito

continued

and fraction,

2_
q

lq

consecutive

convergents; suppose

INDETERMINATE
t 17"a,/

EQUATIONS

OF

THE

SECOND

DEGREE.
,n

305

is the

to complete quotient corresponding

"

; then

*. (/"/
~

V'q) W
JVq

-P"2
"

[Art. 358].

But r"

1 at the end of any

..

[Art. period .'3(51]

"

]"

"

]}(1
"

])(2) any

convergentof beingthe penultimate

If the number of

recurring period.
-,

is even, in the period quotients

i.s an

even

convergent,and is therefore greater than greater than

and therefore Since the period,
p
"

and v/iV,
case
"

therefore
=

P ;

thus
=

pq

"pq

1.

Jn

this

p'* N"q'aJ,
"

x=]"\y
is the

q is a solution of the

xr equation

Ny*

1.

convergent penultimate

of any

recurring

number

of solutions is unlimited.

in the period is odd,the penultima If the number of quotients 11 is odd but the an tirst in the period convergent, convergent is second the in period an even convergent. convergent penultimate solutions will be obtained by putting Thus integral x=p', y q\
"

where

"

is the

convergent in penultimate

the

second, fourth,
case

sixth,

periods.Hence recurring
To obtain

also in this

the number

of solutions is unlimited. *370.

a

solution,in positive inte"iers of the equation

As

in the

we article, preceding
f"

have
'
I

-Jq

~KT

'2

=pq-pq" the

If the number is an odd

of

in quotients

periodis odd, and

"

if
"1

penultimate convergentin
'

any

period, recurring -,-"-,

and therefore pq In this x2 equation

case
"

"pq
"

" "

1.
-

p'2 Nq2
y1
=
"

-\, and

solutions integral
x =p\ by putting

of the y
"

1 will be obtained

',

where

"

is the

third,fifth... penultimateconvergent in the first,

nappeu
i.H.10

periods. recurring
we can

discover
"

11. n.

,,

"

,irv

A.

1:0

2fc U

306 Example.
We
can

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

Solve in
that

integersx2 positive

13y2 "1.
=

shew

11111

^13-3
Here the number of

1+
18

1+ITl+

6+
;
a

is odd quotientsin the period

-=-

the

penultimatecon-

vergentin the first period is

hence

a; =

18, y

is

solution of

x2-13y2=-l.
convergent in the second recurring periodis By Art. 364, the penultimate
1

2U
hence
#
=

/18
+

18Xl3J'thatlS'180'
13y2=l.
the

io\

,u

"

649

649, y

180 is a solution of x2-

By

forming the successive

can

penultimate convei'gents of
of solutions of the x2
-

recurring

we periods

obtain any x2
-

number

equations
1.
"

13?/2= 1, and
solution in may obtain

lSy2
=

*371.
lias been

When

one we

found,

of x2 Nif positive integers as as wre by please many

th

method. following h and k beingpositive h, y k is a solution, Suppose that x is any positive then (A2 Nk2)n 1 where n integer. integers;
=
=
"

Thus
.

x2
".
-

-Ni/= (h* m?y

-

(x+ yjN) (x yJJST) (h+ kJN)n (h ks!X)\

=
-

Put

yJN

(h+ kJX)'1,x-y
2x
=

JN
+

(h kJN)" ;
-

.-.

(h+ kJN)n
=

(h-kJJYy;
(h kjNy.
-

2Usin
Tlie values
to ascribing
can
n

(h+ kjiry
y
so

of

and

the values

and by positive integers, solutions as we please as 1, 2, 3,..., many

are

found

be obtained.

x2

"

Similarlyif x 1, and Xy2

=
"

hi
x*

if n

k is y is any odd
=
-

solution

of

the

equation

positive integer,
-

Ntf
and y

(h2 Nk2)\
are

Thus
n

the values of

the

same

as

found,but already
"

is restricted to the values *372.

=

1, 3, 5,
=

become solve.

of2
"

x ax', By putting y d= 1, which IFyf*

=

ay
we

the have

x2 Ny2 equations alreadyshewn how

" "

a3
to

308

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

solution integral positive is not When

one

of the

x2 equations
=

"

Ny2

=*=

a, when
we

of the above the solution be in

mentioned

denominators 53 is satisfied

; thus

easily
=

find that
one

equation#2-7?/2

solutions may *376. x2 x2

_

has been integers in obtained as explained

by y=2, # found, any number

article.

9. of

the next

Supposethat
=

=f, y
-

g is

solution of the solution of the

Ny2 a JSfy21
=

and

let

h, y

k be any

equation equation

; then

x*

Ny2

(f2 Kg2)(h2 Nk2)

-

(fh"Ngk)2-N{fk"gh)\
"

By putting
and
we

-fh

Kgk,

-fk

"

gh,
in explained
Art.

to h, k ascribing

may

obtain any

their values found as of solutions. number

371,

*377.
square ; form x2

Hitherto

it has been N is

however, if,

n2y2
=

a, which
a
=

that N is not a perfect supposed takes the a perfect square the equation solved as follows. may be readily b and
c are

Supposethat
of which b is the

be,where

two

positive integers,

greater; then (x + ny) (x

"

ny)

be. of
x

Put from

ny

b, x

ny

; if the

values

and
one

have obtained we are integers equations be of the equation ; the remaining solutions may values. to b and c all their possible ascribing these

y found solution

obtained

by
is

Example. equal to 60.

Find

two

the integers positive

difference of whose

squares

Let x, y be the two Now 60 is the

integers ; then

,xr

y2 60
=

that

+ y) (x y) 60. is, (as

-

product of any of the pair of factors 2,30; 3,20;

obtained

1,60;
and

4,15; 5,12;
from the

6,10;

the values requiredare

ic

equations
#

+ y

30, 2;

+ y

10, 6;

x-y=

x-y=
x

the other equationsgivingfractional values of Thus

the numbers
are

and y.

16, 14;

or

8, 2.

INDETERMINATE

EQUATIONS
manner
we

OF

THE

SECOND

DEGREE.

309

Cor.

In like

may

obtain

the solution in

positive

of integers
ax'

+ c 2hxy + by1+ %jx + *2/'y

can

k,
rational linear

if the left-hand member factors.

be

resolved

into

two

generalequationa, or b, or both, are explainedin Art. 3G7 employing the method in the following to proceed as example. simpler
*378. instead of

If in the

zero,

it is

Example.

Solve in

positive integers 2.ry

-

4a-2+ V2x
we

5y

11
.

Expressing y

in terms

of x,

have 6

4a;2- 12* + 11 V=
" "

^r-r 2x
-

=2tf-l+; 2x
n =
"

"

In order that y may

must

be
"

an

integer
2iX
"

must

be

an

integer ;

hence

2.r

O "

be The

equal to
cases

"

1, or

2, or

3, or

G. the admissible values

"2, "6
from

of

are

obtained the values

may 2x
.x- are

be rejected; hence clearly 5 5 " 1, 2x " 3 ;

=
-

whence

of

3, 2, 4, 1.
we

Taking
x

these values in succession

=

obtain the solutions

#
=

S, y = ll; s=2,

-3;

4, ?/

9; ar=l, y=

-1;

and

therefore the admissible

a;
=

solutions

are x
=

3, y

11;

4, y

9.

enable us to discover principles already explained values of the variables given linear or for what quadratic of this Problems functions of x and y become perfect squares. Problems because called DiopJiantine kind are sometimes they mathematician first investigated were Diophantus by the Greek

*379.

The

about

the middle
1.

of the fourth

century.
integerswhich positive
of their squares

for two Find the general expressions from the sum such that if their product is taken are difference is a perfect square.

Example

the

Denote

the

integers by

and
x-

y ; then
+

-xy

y'2 z'2suppose
=
=

.-.

x(x-y)
by
the

z2-y-.

This

equation is

satisfied
mx= n

suppositions
n

{z+ y),

(x-y)

(z

y),

where

and

are

integers. positive

310
Hence From these
mx
-

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

ny

nz

0,

nx

(m-n)y-

mz

0.

we equations

obtain by
V
_

cross

multiplication
2
.

2mn

ri2

m2

n2

m2

mn

+ ri1
we

'

and since the given equation is homogeneous solution

x
=

may
-vin

take for the

+

general

2mn-n2,
any two
x

m2-n2,

m2

n2.

Here
?n
=

m
=

and

are

if "i being the greater; thus positive integers,

=

7,

4,

we

have

"0, y

SS,

37.

Example
arithmetic
square. Denote

the general expression for three positive integersin of is two a the such that and sum perfect every progression,
2.

Find

the

by integers

x-y,

x,

+ y;
=

and

let
+ y
=

2x-y=p2,
then
or

2x

q2,2x 2q2,

r2;

p2 +

r2 =

i*-q*=q*-p".
This

equation is satisfied by the suppositions,

m

(r q)
-

n (r + q) (q j"),
-

(q+p),

where

and

are

integers. positive
obtain

From

these

we equations

by
"l

cross

multiplication
r

V
=

w2 + 2mn-m2 Hence
we

m2 + n2

m2 + 2mn-

n2'

may

take for the

+

solution general
q
=

p=n*
whence

2mn-m*,
x
=

m2 +

n2, r
inin

)u2+ 2mn-u2;

{m2 + w2)2, y
be found.

(m2 w2)
-

and

the three

integerscan

From the value of x it is clear that m be such that odd ; also their values must

and n are either both even or is greater than y, that is,

both

(m2+ n2)2"8mn{m2-n2),
or

mz(m

Sn)+

2inn2 + 8m n* + n4

"

0 ;

which
If

condition is satisfied if m"Sn.

m
=

9, w=l, then
sums

a-

3362, y =2880, and

in

the numbers

are

482, 33G2,
are

6242.

The squares of

of these taken

pairsare

3844, 6724, 9604, which

the

62, 82, 98 respectively.

INDETERMINATE

EQUATIONS

OF

THE

SECOND

DEGREE.

311

*EXAMPLES.

XXVIII.

Solve

in

: positiveintegers

1. 3. 5.
Find

5a-2-10.iv/ + 7?/2 77.

=

2. 4.

7^-2^+3y2=27.
xy
-

y2-4.ry +
3.y +

5.r2-10.i=

4.
6.

2.v

S.

3.ry-4j/

14.

4^2-y2=315.

the smallest

solution

in

positiveintegersof
9.
=

7. 10.
Find

.r2-14y2=l.
x2the

8.
0.

^-19^=1.
11.

.t-2
=

4iy2-l.

61/

+ 5

x2-7y2-9

0.

general solution
13.

in

integersof positive

12.
Find

.r2-3/=l.
the

x2-5y2=l.
x

14.
make

.v2-

17y2

1.

general values of expressionsa perfectsquare :

15. 18.

and

y which

each of the

following

x2-3xy
Find
two

3y2.
other

16.

afi+2xy+ 2f.
that

17.
the square

5^+y2.
of
one

positiveintegerssuch

exceeds

the square

of the
a

by

105.

19.
to

Find

represent the
20.
Find that
a

general formula lengths of the general formula

result
a

for three sides

to

of

integerswhich may be triangle. right-angled

two

taken

express

integerswhich positive product

to

are

such

the

obtained

by adding

their

the

sum

of their squares

is

perfectsquare.
three Dutchmen of my wives

21.

"

There

came

acquaintance
with

to

see

me,

; they brought Geertruij, Hendriek, Claas, and Cornelius; the women's man's wife. and Anna of each name They : but I forgot the Catriin, told me had each as market to been at bought buy hogs ; they person Hendriek 23 for one bought hogs hogs as they gave shillings hog; many than Geertruij than Catriin; and Claas bought 11 more more ; likewise, I desire to know the laid out 3 guineas more his wife. each man than of each man's Mathematical wife." (Miscellany Problems, 1743.) name of

being

latelymarried
were

their

them.

The

men's

names

22.

Shew

that

the

sum or

of the
k'2even

first

natural
k is the

numbers
numerator

is

square, if n is equal to k2 and k' the numerator of an

1, where

of

perfect an odd,

convergent to N^2.

CHAPTER

XXIX.

SUMMATION

OF

SERIES.

of certain series have occurred Examples of summation here to give a in previous chapters ; it will be convenient been which have already of summation of the methods synopsis explained. Chap. IV. (i) Arithmetical Progression, Chap. Y. (ii) Geometrical Progression, are Series which metrical, partlyarithmetical and partly geo(iii) 380. Art. 60. of the powers 68 to 75. of the Natural Numbers and allied

(iv) Sums
Arts. Series,

(v)
Art. 312.

Summation

by

means

of Undetermined

Coefficients,

(vi) Recurring Series,Chap. XXIY.

We
but
now

proceedto
course

discuss

methods

of

; greater generality
seen

in the

of the present chapter it will be may of

a

that

some

methods of the foregoing 381. that If the rth term of two the other found. For is of

stillbe series

employed. usefully
can

be

as expressed same

ference the difof

r

one quantities

of which
sum

is the

function be

1 , the

of the series may

readily

let the series be denoted

by

and

its

sum

by

S
,

and then

suppose

that

any

term

ur

can

be

put in

the form

vr-vr_1;

^.=("i-0+(w.-"i)+(*.-"f)+"-+(w.-i-0!+(
=

vn.

SUMMATION

OF

SERIES.

313

Example.

Sum
1

to

terms

the series
1 1
.

+ s)(l+2s) (l If
we

+ 4ar) + 3.r) (l+ 3j-)(l (l+ 2u-)(l

. .

""v"

"

denote

the series

by

*-"("-"\ 1 2x
-

a;\l+

3*/'
1

_!/
Ws

a;\l+ 3#

1 +

4*,/
'

"

x\l
I^

nx

i+n+i.x/
"

b}' addition,

SL=-

ar\l +

a;

l+w
n

l.a?/

(1+ x)(1+
382. Sometimes into
a

+ l

..r)
may be obtained the methods explained

suitable transformation

u by separating in Chap. XXIII.

fractions by partial

Example.
1

Find

the

sum

of
a

a2
z~r

(l+ x)(l + ax)

nu, The

(l+ ax)(l+a*x)
"n_1
"
.

n,

x~n

t-,

(1+ a-x)(1 + a3x)

A B
". t-

.,

"

,,

5"

to
. . .

terms.

ft* nth term=

"

"

+ anx) {l+ an-1x)(l

n

w,

l + a"-1^ B

l + anx

suppose: **

.'.

an~x -A
aux

(1+ a**)+
equal to
an-l
B= 1 -a'
,

(1+ a7'-1*).
in
nn

By putting1

1 + ""_1.r,

zero

we succession,

obtain

A=-

"

1 -a'
a

1/1
Hence
u, 1
=
"

\1 +
/
,

a:

1 +

ax

J
\
5
.

1
....

a
"

a2
-5
"

similarly,

t**=;

a"-1

aw

Wn~l-a Vl+a*"1*l +
'""

anj/

*~l-o\l

l +

anx)'

314
383. To

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

jind the sum of\\terms of a series each term of which in arithmetical progression, the first is composed of r factors factors arithmetical progression. of the several terms beingin the same
Let the series be denoted where u"
-

by

ux + u2 + us +

un

(a + nb)(a+

b)(a +
have

b)

...

(a+

"

1
.

b).

n Replacing by

n"

1, we

"" k"-i !

(a+
.'.

"

1
"

")(a+ nb)(a+
.

1
"

6)
.
.

..

(a+
=

"

b) ;

("+

?i

b)un
+

(a+

/"

b)?."."_!

vn, say.

n by Replacing

we

have
+ r.

(a+

6)tf" "Il+1j
=

therefore, by subtraction,

(r+l)b Similarly, (7+1)6.

un

vn+i-vn.
=

wB_,

r/(

/""_,,

1 "

(a 4=

"A un

(r+l)i
where C is
a n

+6'S'ly;
n, which

to ascribing

of quantity independent value. some particular result

may

be found

by

The

above

givesus

the

convenient following

rule

Write down

by

the number and It

may

the nth term, affix the next factor at the end,divide thus increased and by the common offactors ence, differa

add

constant.

be

noticed

that

"

(r+l)b
but quote this result,

-,

\
"

"

-,

(r+l)b
C

5t-t

m,lf ;
as

it is

however

better not to

to obtain

above

indicated.

316
386. To

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

of\\terms of a series each term of which metical in arithis composedof the reciprocal of the productof r factors the first of the several terms being in factors progression, arithmetical progression. tliesame
find the
sum

Let the series be denoted where

(a

by

ux +

it, +

u:i+

un

"

nb)(a +

(a+ b)

b)

(a+

r-l

.b).

4i

Un
n by Replacing n
-

1,
n

"

(a +

b)(a+ nb)(a+
.

+ n b)...(a

r"2

b);

M"_i ln-l
.'.

(a+

r-l
n

b)un
1, we

(a+

b)un_x

vni

say.

n Replacing by

have
=

(a+nb)un
therefore, by subtraction,

vn+1;

(r-l)b. Similarly (r 1)b

-

un

vn-vn+1,
vll_l
-

un_x

vn

(r l)b
"

u.2
Wj

v.2
"

vSt
"

(r" 1)b By addition,

,
"

vx
vx

v.2
.

(r 1)b Sn
.

"

vn+1 ;

tnatis

(a + nb) un *"-(r-l)6~U (r-l)6

Q

^i

?W

'

where

C is

a n

to ascribing

of independent quantity value. some particular *

n, which

may

be found

by

Thus

Sn

C-,
sum

(r-l)6 (a+ n+L.b)... (a+

may be found

r-l.
:

b)

Hence

the

by

the

rule following

Write doivn the nth term, strike off a factor from the beginning, diminished and by the common divide by the number so offactors

change the sign and difference,

The each
case

add

constant.

value of C=

-,

Vv~7
"

(r
to determine

1) (r to C by ascribing
o
"

tti

1) 6

ui
n

'""

but ** is advisable
some

in

value. particular

SUMMATION

OF

SERIES.

317

Example

1.

Find

the

sum

of

re

terms

of the series

1.2.3.4

2.3.4.5
1

3.4.5.6

The

re'1' term

is

+ 2)(n + 3)' "(n + l)(n

hence, hy the rule,we

have

+ 3) 3(n+l)(w+ 2)("

rut

"=1,

then

^=0-3^;
X
"

whence
*

(7=1;

5
"

18

+ 3) + 2)(re + l)(re 3(re

By making Example

indefinitely great,we
Find the
3 to

obtain

fi^

"

2.

sum

terms

of the series
5

4
+
a"

1.2.42.3.5

T7"

3.4.6

rt

"

r"

because although 1,2,3, Here the rule is not directly applicable, , the firstfactors of the several denominators, are in arithmetical progression, not. In this example we the factors of any denominator are one may proceed as follows :
n
"

+ 2

+ 3) re(re+l)(re
re

(n+2)2 + 3) n{n+l) (n+ 2) (re

(re 4-1)+ 3re + 4 :re(re + l)(re + 2)(re + 3)"

1
+ 2)(w + 3) (re

3
+ l)(re + 2)(re + 3) (re + 2)(re + 3)' w(re+l)(n

Each to which

of these expressions may the rule is applicable. l

"

now

be taken

as

the ?ithterm

of

series

3
+ 2)(re + 3) 2(re

4
3
+ 2) (re + 3) (re+1)(re
'

-c
n

+ S

put re=l,

then 3-13
4 C
"

17271=
0
n

"

"4
1
re +

27174
3 3 2

372.3

Whence .4' 4
3

29
C
=

36;

_29
36

+ 2) (re + 3) (re

+ 1) (re + 2)(re (re + 3)'

318
387. In
cases

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

the methods of Arts. 383,386 are directly the rules we instead of quoting may always effect the applicable, called ' the in the following summation way, which is sometimes where

Method

of Subtraction.'
Find the
sum

Example.

of

terms
+ 8.11

of the series
+

2.5 The

+ 5.8

11.14+ is

arithmetical

in progression

this

case

2, 5,8, 11,14,
factor the next term of the given series introduce as a new In each term and the given series this series denote "", by ; of the arithmetical progression by S; then S'
.-.
=

2. 5. 8 + 5. 8. 11 + 8. 11.

14+ 14.17+...

+(3w-l)(3n+2)(3"+5);
to

"'-2.5.8

5.8.11

+ 8. 11.14

+ 11.

(u-1) terms.

By subtraction,

_2.5.8=9[5.8
-

+ 8.11 + 2 5
.
.

11.14+...to("-l)terms]-(3n-l)(3n+2)(3n+5)
9

[S
-

5] (3/i 1)(3n+2)(3n+5),
-

9S

+ 5) -2. + 2)(3/i (3/i 1)(3/i

5. 8 + 2, 5.0,

fif=n(3n3+6n+l).
388. When the nth term of
a

series is

rational

integral
us

in a form which be expressed function of n it can to apply the method givenin Art. 383. readily suppose dimensions,and For

will enable

"j" (n) is
assume

rational

function integral

of

of p

cf)(n)A
=

+Bn+

+ 1)+B)i(u+ l)(n+ 2)+ Cti(n

are

where number.

A, JB, C, D,

undetermined

constants

l in

This

identity being true

for all values of n; we 1 constants.

terms

the coefficients of like powers the p to determine equations

of n, we may thus obtain ^" + 1

equate

simple
is

Example.
Assume

Find

the

sum

of

of the series whose

+ 5w2.

term general

n*+6n3
7i4 + 6/i3+ 5/t2 A + Bn+
=

Gn [n +

1)+
=
=

Dn

[n+ 1)(n+ 2)+

=

En

(n+ 1)(n+ 2) (w+ 3);

=
-

it is at

obvious that obtain C we successively,

once

1 ; and by putting n ,4=0, 2? 0, E 6, J) 0. Thus

-

2, n

"4 + 6"3

+ l). + l)(n+2) (?i + 3)-6/t(/i 5/"2=//(n

SUMMATION

OF

SERIES.

310

Hence

Sn

sn
o

+ 4) + 3)(?i + l)("+ 2)(n + 2) 2n(n+ l)(n (/t

-

\n(n+l)(n+2){n'i 2).
+ 7n +
o

Polygonal
389. of and
we
n

and

Figurate

Numbers.
"

If in the

terms
common

n+ expression \n(n" l)b, which is the sum of an arithmetical whose first term is progression difference b,we give to b the values 0, 1, 2, 3,

1
""

get
u,

\n

(n+ 1), n*s\n (Bn

the orders; The
are

"

1)
n

which

are

the uih terms is

of the Polygonal Numbers first order called numbers polygonal sometimes of the

of the

second,

fourth, fifth, third,

each term

beingthat in which
second,third,

unity.
)

fifth, fourth,
square, 390.

orders

linear, triangular

pentagonal
To

find the

sum

n of the first

terms

of the

rth order

of

numbers. j"olygonal
The

nih term
.-.

of the rtb order is

+

\n (n

1)(r 2);
"

$i=$n
=

l(r-2)%(n-l)u
1

\n (n+ 1)+

(r-2)(n-l)

(n + 1) [Art. 383]

+ $}. in(n + l){(r-2)(n-l)

391.

If the

sum

of

terms

of the series
,

1, 1, 1, 1,1,
be taken
as

term the ?*th

of

new

we series,

obtain

1,2,3,4,5,
n

in
-j

1) which
,

If again last

we

take

"

is the

sum

of

terms

of the

the ?tthterm as series,

of

new

we series,

obtain

1, 3, 6, 10, 15,
this way, we obtain a succession of series of the such that in any one, the nih term of n terms is the sum known series. The successive series thus formed are preceding in By proceeding
as

Figurate Numbers

of the

second,third, first,

...

orders.

320
392. order To

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

find the nth numbers. offigurate

nih term order is n; of the

term

and

the

sum

of n

terms

of ilierth

The

second

of the first order is 1; the nth term of the third order is Hn, that is the nth term of the fourth order is 2
.

\n
-"

(n

1); the
"

ntYlterm
..

"V
1
.

"

tnat

is

n(n+l)(n+2) 'L"
1.2.3
xl

tIl term the uth

,

~M , order of the fifth

,
. .

is

2,

(n+2) n(n+l) *-= ^5 1 2

"
"

"

that

w(w+l)(n
"

+
"

is

^-n

2)(M + 3)
"

4
see

; and

so

on.

Tims

it is easy to

that the nth term

of the rth order is

+ r-2) w(?*+l)(w+ 2)...(n

.

|rc+r-2
01
i

r-1 A"rain, the

sum n

"

1 Ir

"

of

terms

of the rth order is

. . .

(n+ 1)(n + 2)
of tlie (r+
rule

(w +

1)

which

is the wth term

In of

order. l)th
to

Note. any order

zero.

applyingthe

of Art. 383

numbers, it will be found figurate

find the sum of that the constant

terms

of

is

always

393.

The
on

of figurate numbers properties

account

are

interesting
his Traite du The

of the

use

made

of them

historically by Pascal in
its

in arithmetique, published triangle exhibits the Arithmetical

1665. in Triangle

table following form simplest

...

SUMMATION

OF

SERIES. in the

321
the ing follow-

Pascal rule Each

:

constructed

the numbers

triangle by

number

is the

sum

of
28
=

that

above immediately 56 70.

it and

that

to the immediately

left of it;
5
+

thus From numbers A the Thus bases

15

10,

21, 126
vertical
. . .

the mode of the

of

it construction,
rows,
or

follows that the numbers

in

the successive

horizontal

columns, are

the

hgurate

first, second,third,
so
as

orders.

line drawn
row

to cut

off

an

equal number
is called
a

of units from and base, the

top
are

and 6th

the

left-hand

column

numbered base

the

beginning from the top is a line drawn through the

left-hand numbers

corner.

1, 5, 10,
bers, numpansion ex-

10, 5, 1 ; and it will be observed that there are and that they are the coefficients of the
of The

six of these
terms

in the

(1+ x)5.

of these numbers discussed were properties by Pascal skill in Arithmetical used his he : great Trianyle particular to develop the theory of Combinations, and to establish some in Probability.The interesting propositions subjectis fully treated in Todhunter's Historyof Probability, Chapter n. with

ambiguityexists as to the number of terms have used the symbol % to indicate summation in a series, we ; modified notation, which indicates the following but in some cases
304.
"Where
no

the limits between found

more

which

the summation

is to be

will effected,

be

convenient. function obtained from I to

m

Let

(x)be cf"
'a1

any

of x, then from

2
x=l

"f" (x)denotes
x

the all

sum

of the series of terms

"f" (x)by givingto

tive posi-

integral values
For
terms

inclusive.

instance,suppose

it is

to required

find the

sum

of all the

of the series obtained

from

the

expression

(p-l)(p-2)...(p-r)

by givingto
H.H. A.

p all

values integral

from

r +

1 to j" inclusive. 21

322

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

Writing the
.

factors of the numerator

*=*
=

in
-

order, ascending
+

the

required sum

(p r)(p
"
"-

1)

...

(p 1)
"

i{1.2.3.. ..r+2.SA....(r+l)+...+(p-r)(p-r+l)...(p-l)
l(p-r)(p-r
+
r

l) "(p-l)p
+

\r

[Art. 383.] J L

y~(-l)(y-2)...(^-r)
=

jr+1
i

Since the
r

is zero givenexpression may

we inclusive,

for all values of p from write the result in the form

1 to

%p (p-l)(p-2) """(p-r)
v-\

p(p-l) (ff-2)...(p-r)
_

\r

r |

EXAMPLES. Sum
1. the series following + 2.3.4
to
n

XXIX.
terms
+
:

a.

1.2.3 1.2.3.4

+ 3.4.5

2.
3. 4.

+ 2.3.4.5 + 4.7.10 + 2.5.8

+

+ 3.4.5.6 +

1.4.7 1.4.7
1.5.9

+ 7.10.13

+ 3.6.9 + 3.7.11 to
n

+ + terms

5.
Sum

2.6.10

the
I

series following
1 1

and to

: infinity

1.2^2.3
II 7'

3.4^
1

174
1

+ 4.

7+77l0+
1 +

+ 1.3.5
1

3.5.7

5.7.9+
1

1_

1.4.7+4.7.10 7.10.13
4 5
1
1-

1_

10

1.2.3^2.3.4

.3.4.5^

4-

11
*

J_
3.4.5 1

_1_
4.5.6
3

5.6.7+
5
"

_JL

*""'

7
i u

io

\9,

"

"

"

-l

1.2.3

2.3.4

3.4.5

4.5.6

324
From this series

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

may orders third, fifth,... fourth, these

proceedto form the series of the general terms of differences, series beingA3ur, AAur, A5?tr)... respectively.
we

the of

From

the law
Ujt

of formation
u3,

of the series
u",

u.2,

u5,

u6,

Attj, Au.2, Au3, A.y^

.

Aw4,
,

Au5,
,

A2w2

A.m3

A2ui A3u3,

A3Wj,

A3u,,

it appears

that

any

term

in

any

series is

equal to
it
.

the

term

it added immediately preceding Thus

u.2 =

to the term
=

below
+

on

the left.

"j

4-

Auly and Ait.2 Aui Au.2 u3

=

A.m^

since By addition,

u.2 +

we

have
+

= t^ + ii.j

2Au"

A.2ux
.

In fourth

similar manner by using the second,third,and exactly series in place of the first, obtain we second,and third,
an

Au3
since By addition,
?f4
-

Aux
+

+ A^. 2A.2u1

u3

Au3

u4i
+

we

have
+

ux

ZAux

SA^

A^

So far the
same

as

we as

have those

the proceeded,

numerical theorem.

coefficients follow We
case.

law

of the Binomial

shall For

now

prove

by
that

induction

that this will

always be

the

pose sup-

un+i then

"i +

mAmj

v 9
X
"

A,ul+

...

"CVA^j

AnWj i
the

-J

first to the

series by usingthe second to the (n + 2)th have we series, (n+ l)th

in the

of place

Aun+1

A%!

+ -A. jr-fnA.2u} A3Wj+

"

it (11

"

+ BCfr_1A^w1
.

An^uY

since By addition,
M"+a
=

un+l
+
.

Aun+1
.

un+2i

we

obtain
...+

Mj

fa + 1)Awj

+ *Gr_j) Arux + (nCr

A"+1",
.

SUMMATION

OF

SERIES.

32.",

But

*Cr + HJr-i

(" ^

l) "Cr_x
x

?i"i
=

"C,,.,

(n + l)w(w-l)
1.2. Hence if tlie law it is true of formation
case

...(w+l-r+1) 3... (r-l)r

holds

f"n+8, hut
therefore

in the

for un+l it also holds for of w4, therefore it holds for urn and

universally.Hence
=

""

Ui +

, (n

1X
-

1) A?^

(w-l)(w-2) *" ""*_

"

A2?^

...

An.iWi.

39G.

To

find the

sum

of

terms

of the series

in terms

of the differences

of ul. is the first order of differences

Suppose
of the series

the series u^, u.2, u3,...

Vl, then vn+1

=
-

v.2)

v3,
...

v4,...,
+

+ (vn+1 vn)+ (vn vn_t)

'"

(v2 vx)+
-

vx

identically ;

"

^"+l

ua + un-l

"""

u2 +

u\ + vl

"

Hence

in the series

0,
1 )

va1
2 )

v3i
3

v4,
J

v5
4
J

Aw1?
the law of formation is the

Aw2,
same

Aw3
as

in the

precedingarticle;
+
.

"'"

""+i
+

"Wi

-4

"

s"

Awx

A"?^

that

is,Wj
nux

w3
n

uz

...

un

(n"\)
y"r
"

n(n"l)(n-2)"

"

AWj
of this

-"

-^
the

A2M!

A"?f ,

The

formula) in
a

and

preceding article
:

term

of

different form, as follows slightly (Ix, d2, d3,...the first given series, of the nth differences,
term

if

be expressed may is the first of the

cessive suc-

terms

orders obtained from

of the

given

series is

the formula

326
and the
sum

HIGHER

ALGEBRA,

of

terras

is

^i"^"1)^
2

n("-l)(tt-a)(n-3) ,"("-l)("-2)f/
j3
4

Example.

Find the generalterm

and the

sum

of

?*

terms

of the series

12, 40,90, 168, 280, 432,

The

successive orders of difference

are

28, 50, 78, 112, 152,

22, 28, 34, 40, 6, 6, 6, 0, 0,...

Hence

the nth term

", 12 + 28
,c

(re 1)+
-

,x

22(re-l)(re-2) ' K"

~P
l"

-3) 1) M (re-2)(re M ' -v(re-

II

?i3 + 6"t. + 5re2

may
now use

of n The sum 62re. 2re3 + 52re2 + obtain

terms

be

found

by writing down
of the

Or

we

may
+

the formula
+

the value of present article and

22"'"-1)("-2" S^ia^28"'"-1'
+ 26re + ^(3re2

"M"-D

("-2) (-8)

69re +

46),

in(re+l)(3n2 23re 46).

+ +

397. succeed differences

are

It will be when
we

seen

that this method that

a

of summation

will

only
of

the This

series is such
come

in

forming the orders

if the nth term

equal.
a

eventually will always be

to

series in which
case

all the terms of the

the

series is For the

function rational integral ^"j

of

n.

will consider a function of three dimensions; we simplicity of proof, method however, is perfectly general. the series be
u.
1

Let

ua2 + ua+ 3
u
"
=

u
ii

+u
n

.,+u
+ \

n+2

+
"

u
u

+
+ 3
, "

where and let

v w %
ii

An3 the

Bn2

Cn

D.

denote

?ith term

of the

n'

, ii*

second, third first,

* *

orders of

differences;

SUMMATION

OF

SERIES.
+ 1)+C: l)+ 2?(2" + +

327

then

vh- mm+1" un

A(3n*+
+ v
=w
H

3n+

that

is,

vn
w

3Au2
=

(3A + 2B) n
=

11

C ;
+

Similarly
and

"

3A

(2n
iv
ii

I) + 3A

211

." "ti

=6-4.
of differences
are

Thus
and the terms

the

terms

in the third of the of

order

equal;

if the nih term generally, in the

pthorder

givenseries is of p dimensions, differences will be equal.

in the
a

if Conversely, the utu term equal,

ii

the terms

of the series is

order of differences ]jth rational integral function

are

of

of p dimensions.

Example.
The

Find the "th term

of the series -1,

3, 3, 23, G3, 129,

successive orders of differences are

-2, 6, 20, 40, GO, 8, 14, 20,20,

6, 6, 0,
Thus
assume

the terms

in the third order of differeLces are itH=

equal;

hence

we

may

A+Bn+Cn2

Dn3,

where

A, B, G,

have
4

to be determined.

Putting 1, 2, 3, from which equations,

hence the

for

7i

in

we

obtain A =3, B
-

succession, we -3, C
=

have
=
-

four
D
"

simultaneous

2,

\ ;

generalterm

of the series is 3

3n

2n2 + n9.

ari is in n, the series 398.

If

rational

integral function of
ajx2+
...

dimensions

+ a, 0

ax
12

a
"i

xn is

is

ivhose series, recurring Let S denote the

-

scale

ofrelation

(I

"

x)p+1.

sum

of the series ; then

-

(1 x)
-

--

ao a0
"a

+ + {a, ajx* (ax a0)x

..

(a,
-

,_""
in

ax"

btx+ bjc2+
, , ' 1

...

bx"
x

ax"+\

say;
n.

here b
n

=a
h

so

that

6n is of
""

1 dimensions
x,
we

it

"

Multiplyingthis

last series

by

have

S(i-xy
+ ai:c,+% + cix^...+cX-{ai+biy,^ say; c^+{b-a0)x+c^2

=s+(^-a")*+(^-^K+..-+(6n-6"-iK-("J,+6""+l
=

here cn

-bn-bu

so

that

cn is of p

2 dimensions

in

n.

328
Hence
1
are
"

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

it follows that after the successive multiplications by the of in xn coefficients first, the second, third, products x, orders of differences the in third, terms second, first, general
. . . . . .

of the coefficients.

By hypothesis an
dimensions arrive at
terms
a a

is

rational of

function integral
-

; therefore

after p
terms

series the

multiplications by with the which,

of p 1 shall we x exceptionof p of
n

form and p terms at the end of the series, beginning, each of whose coefficients is the same. progression, geometrical
at the

397.] [Art.
Thus where the k is
a

(1 xf
-

k(xp+

x"'+1+

...+

+/(a?), x")
for the p
terms at

constant, and
p terms

f (x) stands
of the

and beginning

at the end

product.

r.Sil-xyJ^l^K/ix);
kx"(l-x"-^) + (l-x)f(x)^
that

is,

(1 -x)p+l
series is
a

'

thus

the

series recurring

whose

scale of relation is

(l-x)p+1. [Art. 325.]

If the

generalterm
by
Find

is not

found readily

the method
the

given,the dimensions in Art. 397. explained

of the series

of an

are

Example.

function generating

3 + 5a;+

9a;2+15a;3 + 23a;4+ 33a;5+

have we Forming the successive orders of differences of the coefficients, the series

2, 4, G, 8, 10, 2, 2, 2, 2,
;
are

in the second order of differences thus the terms function of n of two dimensions rational integral We have of relation is (1 a;)3.
-

equal; hence

; and

an is a therefore the scale

S
-

3 + 5x +
-

9a;2 + 15.r3+ 23a;4+ 33a;5+

15a;2
-

SxS

9.r

27.x-3 45a;4
-

69^

Sx2S
-xsS=

9a;2 + 15a;3+ 27.r4+ 45a;5+

-

3^=

5a;4-

9a;5
-

By addition,

(1

S a;)3
b~

4a;+ 3a;2;
+

3-4.r
"*"

3a;2
*

(1-a;)3

SUMMATION

OF

SERIES.

329
that the

399. function

We of
a

have

seen

in

Chap,
a

xxiv.

generating
nator denomi-

series is recurring

rational fraction whose

is the scale of relation. Supposethat this denominator can be resolved into the factors (1 ax)(1 bx) (1 ex) ; then the into fractions be function can of the separated partial generating
" " "

ABC
-

to rm

1,

ax

1
can

"

bx be

ex

Each

of these fractions of
a can

in the form

series

expandedby the Binomial Theorem hence in this case the recurring series; geometrical of a number of be expressedas the sum
scale of relation contains

series. geometrical
ax any factor 1 factor there will be than once, corresponding to this repeated more A A : which partial fractions of the form -^ r=, -7,

If however

the

"

"

...

(1 -axy

(1

ax)

when the

expandedby
sum

the Binomial
case

Theorem

do not form

hence series;
as

in this
a

the of

series cannot recurring

be

geometrical expressed

of

number

series. geometrical

400.

The

successive

orders of differences of the

geometrical

progression
a,
are

ar,

ar2,ar3,ar\ arn,

"(r-l), a(r"l)r,a(r-l)r2, a(r"\)r?' a(r-l)2,a(r-l)2r, a(r-\fr2,

which
common

are

themselves ratio Let

r
as

geometrical having the progressions

series. original

same

the

401.

us

consider the series in which

of p dimensions, and from this series let us form the successive orders of differences. Each term in any of these orders is the sum of two parts,one from of the form arn~\ and the other from terms of terms arising
n

where

is a rational integral function "/"(rc)

of

the

is of ;; series. Now since "f"(n) original the part arising from "f"(n) will be zero in the (p+ l)th dimensions, and succeeding orders of differences, and therefore these series will be whose geometrical progressions
common

form

in ""(?i)

the

ratio is

r.

400.] [Art.

330
Hence

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

pth order

of a series are if the first few terms form of differences of these terms
whose
common

and if the given, geometrical progression that the

ratio is r, then we may assume is ar""1 term of the given series +f(n),where general 1 dimensions. function of n of p rational integral
-

f(n)

is

Example.

Find

the nth term

of the series

10, 23, 60, 169, 494,

The

successive orders of differences

are

13, 37, 109, 335, 24, 72, 216,

Thus the
common

the second order of differences is a ratio is 3 ; hence we may assume

in which geometrical progression for the generalterm

c.

un"a
To then whence Thus un
=

Sn-^ + bn +

determine
a

the constants
+ b+

a,

b, c, make
=

equal to 1, 2, 3 successively;
+

c=10,

3a + 2b+c
a
=

23, 9a
c
=

3b +

60;

6, 6=1,
n

S.

3'1"1+

+ 3

3" +

n +

3.

series that we examples on recurring on have justgiven, forming the successive orders of differences have obtained a series the law of which is obvious on inspecwe tion, have thus been enabled to find a general and we expression of the original series. term for the ?4th 402. In each series is equal to the sum of a recurring whose of geometrical ratios are number common progressions of form Aa"'1 Bbn~l is the term its + + Ccn~\ general ", b, c, therefore the and generalterm in the successive orders of

of the

If, however,
...,

the

differences is of the follow the same

term find the general
more

same

form
as

; that

all is,
must

the have

orders

of differences
case

law

the original series. In this

we recourse

to

of the series in explained

to the

generalmethod
are

Chap.

xxiv.

But found

when

the

coefficients while whether evident. 403.

to

largethe
down
a

scale of relation is not few

without

considerable arithmetical
write
we

labour ; hence it is generally worth of the orders of differences to see

a

shall arrive at

series the

law

of whose

terms

is

We

add

some

examples

in

further

illustration of the

principles. preceding

3.32
Hence

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

""=("
=

+ 2) {2m(m+3)+ 1} 1)(a
+ 1)(m + 2); + 2)("+ 3)+ (n [n+ 1)(?i

2m

"'"

S"=ln("+l)("+2)(n+3)(n+4)+|(n
Find
2.2

Example 4.

the
+ 6.4

sum

of

??. terms

of the series
+ 30.32+

+ 12.8

+ 20.16

In the series hence Assume

2, 6, 12, 20, 30,

un
=

the ?ith term

+ n) 2n. {n2

is n2 +

+ + m)2'1 (rc2 (An2

=

Bn+

C)2n-

{A (n-l)2+
+

(n 1)+ C\ 2"-1
-

out by dividing

2'1_1 and 2
=

coefficientsof equating

like powers

of n,

we

have

At 2

2A+B,
B=
-

0=C-A

B;

whence
.-.

A=2,
wn
=

-2, 0=4.

(2?i22n
-

4) 2n
+

{2 (n l)2
-

2
n

(n

1)+
-

} 2"-1

and

Sn

(2m2 2m
-

4) 2n

(na
-

2)2*"

4.

EXAMPLES.
Find the nth term and the
sum

XXIX.
of
n

b.
of the series

terms

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Find

4, 14, 30, 52, 80, 114,

8, 26, 54, 92, 140, 198, 2, 12, 36, 80, 150, 252,
8, 16, 0, -64,

-200, -432,

30, 144, 420, 960, 1890, 3360,

the

functions generating
+

of the series

6. 7. 8.
9. 10. Find

1 + 3x + 7x2 +13.^

21a4 + 31a6 +

1 + 2a + 9a2 + 20a3 + 35a4 + 54a3 +

2 + 5a + 10a2 + 1 7a-3 + 26a4 + 1
-

37a-5+
+

3a + 5a2

7Xs + 9a4

11a6

I4 + 2% + 34a2 + 44^ + 54a4 + the

sum

of the infinite series

+

11.

+ 3

32

33

g4

12 1Z"

i2_?-2 + + ??_iV2_62 + 5+52

*

53

5"

5*+"

SUMMATION

OF

SERIES. of
terms of the series

333
:

Find the
13. 14.

term general

and

the

sum

9, 16, 29, 54, 103,

-3, -1, 11, 39, 89, 167,

15. 16. 17.

2, 5, 12, 31, 8(i, 1, 0, 1, 8, 29, 80, 193,

4, 13, 35, 94, 262, Tr"5
sum

Find the

of

terms

of the series

18. 19.

1 + 8* + 3."/+ 5.t-1 + + 4./,-';

+ 6x2 1+ 3.i-

+ 1 5.r* + + lO.f'5 4

onJLi

1
+

1
+

4.5'24 1.2*2+2.3 "2:2'f3.4'2!

21' 22. 23. 24.

oC

i-4S+4^ 2T3-4+i" 5-4'+0-44+

3.4 + 8. 11 + 15.20
+

+ 24.31+35.44+

1.3 + 4.7 + 9.13 1.5 + 2.15 1 2

1 A

16.21+25.31
+ 5.81
+

+ 3.31+4.53
3

4
k
"

25
'

4-

1.3^1.3.5
1.2

1.3.5.7 3.23
+

1.3.5.7.9

2.2-' +

4.24

nn

26'

^-

14-+-T5- -T6-+
+ 7.8 + 11.16+16.32 + 3" +

27. 28.
rtr.
'

2.2 + 4.4
1
.

3 + 3

32 + 5
1.3

33 + 7

34+9.

...

1.3.5 6. 82.

1.3.5.7
4. 6. 8. 10

2. 42.

4. 62.4.

30 ^

-"
1.2

+" +

ll 2+i5L 92, +4.5"2 23+ + 2.3'2+3.4'2

1

_4_
1.2.3*3
32

_5_
2.3.4'

(J

32

3.4.

5" 33

"+A + H ^ (3^ |4 |5 |6
+

19
33
'

'

I+
4
2
.

28
"

1
+
.

_39_
*

J_ +
16
4
.

52
'

1
+ 32
.

4
.

334
404. There under of the Avill be
no are

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

many

series the summation In may

as some

of which
a

can

be

brought

rule. general the

cases

cation skilful modifi-

methods foregoing
that

found

summation

be necessary ; in others it of dependson the properties

certain known

such expansions,

those obtained

by the Binomial,

Theorems. and Exponential Logarithmic,

Example

1.

Find the
2

sum

of the infinite series 12

+

28

50

78

|I+|5+ [I+ |2 |3_+

term of the series 2,

12, 28, 50, 78. ..v.

is 3n- +

-2; hence

3h2+j"-2
a

3h(h-1)+4"-2

""

]n
2
+

|n
n-1

;i-2

In"
then
3 +

Put

in succession equal to 1, 2, 3, 4,...

2 ",
=

we

have
4
-

4 "2
=

4--;

3 +

ri-r2; "3=ji ^
i

-gj

and

so

on.

Whence

,Sf"
=

Se + 4e

{e 1)
-

5e + 2.

Example

2.

If

(1+ a;)nc0 +
=

crr +

+ c2.r2

cnxn,find

the value of

+ 22c2 + 32c3+... + n\v l-c1

As

in Art. 398

we

may

shew easily

that n-xn~l +
=
. . .

l2 + 22.r+ 32.r2 + "x3 +...+

Also

cn + cn_xx +

+ c^11'1 + c0xn (1 + .r)n. .c.2"n-2

=

Multiplytogetherthese
the coefficient of x11
x

in

two results; then the given series is equal (l+ .r)n+1 (2 1 x)n+1
-

to

(1 x)A
-

,.,

."

that

is,in

"

(1 x)3
-

7-

J=
"

The

only terms
2"+!
-

containingjcn-1 in
-

this

expansion arise from

+ (1 .r)-3 (n + 1) 2"l (1 .t)"2

\!l"Jll %*-i

(i

^-l.

.-.

the

given series

2"+i fL^+3

"

("+ 1)gn

l) ?ii"": 2h-i

-n(w+l)2"-!.

MISCELLANEOUS

METHODS

OF

SUMMATION.

335
the value of

Example
IP
_ _

3.

If b
-

l, and

)i

is

find integer, positive

.
_

(n 1)",,.

"-""("-""
+

rfj.

C-3)("-4)("-5)
\6

|2

By the Binomial

Theorem,

we

see

that

(n-8)(n-2)

(n-5)(n-4)("-3)
expansionsof (1 x) ',
sum

are

the coefficients of xn, .r'1-2, .rn_4, .r'1-*5, in the

(1-.t)-2,(1-x)-*, (l-.r)-4, respectively.Hence the the coefficient in the to x* of e"pial expansion of the scries
1

required is

ax*
+'

a-x4

a*x6
'
-

1-bx

{1-bx)3 (1-fcc)8 (1 bx)*

and although the given expressionconsists only of a finite number this series may be considered to extend to infinity. But
the
sum

of terms,

of the series=
,

""

1-bx

"

(1 +
\
i

1-bx

J
,

"

1-bx

+ ax"

since b

"

a+1.

(a + l)x

ax-

Hence

the

given series

coefficient of xn

in

(l-x)(l-ax)
=

coefficient of xn in
a H+l
_
-

\1

-ax

1"x)

1
"

a-1

Example
1+
,

4.

If the series

x3
+

xe
+
'

X*
"r

X7
'

x'2

X5
+

X8

J3 JG
by
a,

|8_+ ]5+|7+ |2_+|5

that a8 + 63 + c8-3o6c=l. of

are

denoted If
w

shew b, c respectively,
root b +

is

an

imaginarycube
-

unity,
wb + w'-c) (a + w-b +

a3 + b3 + c3 Now

Sabc

{a +
1+x

c)(a+
.t2

ojc)
.

xz

.t4

Xs

'lA~h +

+ ~\9+\3

Tl

~\5

w-.r-

ur\r+
-r^-

w4.c4
+
"T-

w'.r'
-r=~

and

"/

+ lob +

OJ-C-1+
I

C0X+

"

\
=

similarly

0)=X
a
".
,

+ io'-b +
,
.,
,

wc
,

c
o ,

bc

X
=

uX

co2X

(l+u" + w!)x

1, since

l +

ur

0.

336
405. numbers. Let the To

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

find

the

sum

of the

rth powers

n of the first

natural

sum

be denoted

by Sn; then
+

SH=V+2r
Assume that
+
1

3r

...

nr.

S
n

=Annr+i+Anr
0

A0nr-1+Anr~2+ 2
3
...

+An
...

+
r

A
r + + 1 1

(1), / \
'

where

A0,A^ A2,A3,
n

are

whose quantities

values

have

to

be

determined. Write
=

1 in the

placeof
-

and

thus subtract;
-

+ Ax {{n + l)r+1 nr+1] + 1)' nr] (n+ l)r A0 {(n + iy~2-nr-2} + + A3{(n + A2{(n+ l)-1 -n'-1}

...

+Ar...(2).

efficients (n+l)r_1, and equate the coExpand (?i+l)r+\ (n+ l)r, of of like powers the coefficients of nr, n. By equating
...

we

have 1 l=A.

(r+ 1), so

that

Aa
we !,

the By equating A
r
"
=

coefficients of nr

have 1

(r+ l)r
" "

Axr;

whence

Ax

Equate the coefficients of nr p,substitute both sides of the equation by multiply

for

A0

and

AJfand

\P {r-2)+ 1) r(r-l)(r-2)
...

we

thus obtain

i~p
In

+ +

A'r
w
"

^ A'r(r-l)
+

r(r 1)(r-2)
-

"^

(1)write

1 in the

placeof

and

thus subtract;
...

+ + A2{nr'1-(n-iy-1} nr=A0{nr+l-(n-iy+i}+Al{?ir-(n-l)r}

Equate the
o p
+

coefficients of nr~p,and

substitute for

A0,A1; thus

'4+^-^gzi)+i/^;);^)-....w (?" 1) (r 2) (?" )

1
2
2

MISCELLANEOUS

METHODS

OF

SUMMATION.

337

From

(3)and (4), by
"r
*

.addition .and

subtraction,

p + 1

r(r-l)(r-2)
"

o^/_^)^/0'-i)(p-g(^-3)+ (6). (r 1) (?" 1)(r 2) (r 3)

3

to By ascribing from (G) that each

to zero;

and
r

from

}" in succession the values 2, 4, 6, , we of the coefficients A.^ A5" A.,... is (5)we obtain
. . .

see

equal

6"

1^

___1_ r(r-l)(r-2), 30' li _J_ r(r-l)(r-2)(r-3)(r-4) ; 8~42" |6

absolute
terms
+

the By equating

in

we (2),

obtain

\=A^AX
and
n= by putting

A% + AZ+

+Ar-

1
thus

have we (1), equation +Ar A0 + Al + Aa + A9 +

1 in

Ar+l;

Ar+1
=

0.

406.

The

result of the the

,

article preceding

is most

conveniently

expressed by
nr+x
"
"

formula,
r
"
r_x
_

1
2

r(r-l)(r-2)
3

r_3

r+1

l2

r(r-l)(r-2)(r-3)(r-4)
'6
w}lprp
7?
i
"-

7?-1

7?

7?

7?

5
"

The for the

quantities Bx,B3,2?5, are known as Bernoulli's Numbers; of other series to the summation examples of their application advanced student may consult Boole's Finite Differences.
...

Example.
ttt We , have

Find the value of l5 + 25 + 35

n6
r.

-f

+ n5.

n5 +

S" ^-+ ^
=

^ -^n*
5?i4 n2

^,5

_5
. -

.
"

3 n* + C,
"
_

Ba

j"

_?t6
the constant

n5

~6+"2+l2~r2'
being zero.
22
II. ii. A.

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

EXAMPLES.
Find the
sum

XXIX.

c.

series: of the following

^ JL

^ A

5.

l +

^+-\T'T
pr-i
q

|1

ii
-3

6.

pr *rz

""
X +
_

"

f^l.2+

r/3

to

1 terms.

7- TX^" 1+tm;

(1+ .r)
"' _

"^"2)
12

""(1+^)"
1+3a? ?i(?i-l)("-2)
-

2^

to

terms.

2n + l
,

+ xY /2/i

...

to

terms.

9.

(ft212)^2^2) 12) 7i2 + 12.2*.32 i-j[i+-ii7?

o,2

W2 (7l2
_

to

+ 1 terms.

1 + 23

1L

r2T3+3^T5+5T677
+

12.

ji

]|+[3+|4 |5
2a8 ^
+

3^6

11 +

18
+

23s5

121s6
_

is.

1+-J2-|3 "[7-'|r 16
Without

14

fuming

the

find the formula,

sum

of the series:
+
"-

!"+*+*+

+"""

"

17 + 2; + 3? +

340
24.
If Ar is the

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

coefficient of
2/

xr

in the
*A2
/

expansion
^.\2
+
;

of

(i+,f(i+|)2(i+|)2(i 2~3J
'

2s,,
prove that

1072

^lr
=

2^

(^4 r-i

^r-2)"

andj

^4

"3^5

"

25.

If

is

multipleof 6, shew
"

that each

of the series

n-^~\i
w(w-l)(w-2)
11

-3+

-3

"

[5
n(n-l)(n-2)(n-S)(n-4)
+
,

[3
zero.

*3

|5

""'32

"-

is

equal to
26. If

is

shew integer, positive

that

pti
is

1
_

qn

1
.

equal

to

27.

If

Pr=(w-r)("-r+l)(n-r+2)
"=r(r+l)(r+2)
(r+^-1),

(n-r+^-1),

shew

that ho k

\n-l+p
g+l|n-2

+ q

P"
28. "-3
,

P2Q2
is

P3Q3+

P"-i^-i=
that

|" +

If

?i

multipleof 3, shew

(m-4)(w-5)
+
"~

(w-5)(w-6)(w-7)

1"^"

|3
^

H
(n-r-l)(w-r-2)...(tt-2r+ l)
u.

(-!)

"'""""'

1
or
"

is equal u

to

according

as

is odd

or

even.

29.
x

If

is

proper

shew fraction,
x5
1

that
x

xz

x3
'

Xs

1_^2

l_#6Tl_a?io

+.v2^1+^

l+.r10

CHAPTER

XXX.

Theory
407. In this

of

Numbers.
the word number

chapter we
to

shall

use

as

valent equi-

in A
number and
common

meaning

positive integer.
number

number which

which

except itself and

is not exactlydivisible by any unityis called a prime number, or a

prime;

unity is called
35 24

thus

besides itself and by other numbers n umber thus 53 is a prime number, a composite \ Two numbers is a compositenumber. which have no factor except unityare said to be prime to each other ; is prime to 77. We shall make

is divisible

of the following use frequent elementary of which arise of definition the o ut some so propositions, naturally be regarded axioms. of a prime that they may as 408.

(i) If
factor For since
a

number

divides

productbe
c.
a

and

is

prime to
in

one

b,it must
since is
a

divide the other factor divides

to
are

be, every factor of

factor of in
c a

is found in

be; but
all

prime
a a

b, no
found

is found
a is, a

b;
c.

therefore

the factors of

; that

divides

(ii)If
divide
one

prime
of the
a

number

divides

factors

of that

prime
must

number

divides

b", where

it must product bed..., therefore if a product ; and is any positive it n integer,

divide b.

b and c, it is prime If a is prime to each of the numbers (iii) divide b or c ; therefore factor of a can to the productbe. For no the productbe is not divisible by any factor of a, that is,a is prime to be. Conversely if a is prime to be,it is prime to eacli of the numbers Also if
a

b and is

c.

it is b, c, d, prime to each of the numbers is to if a prime any prime to the productbed... ; and conversely number. it factor of that is number, prime to every
...,

342

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

(iv) If a integral power

This follows at

and of
a

prime to each other, every positive is prime to every positive integral power of b.
b
are

once

from
to

(iii).
b, the
fractions
=-

(v) If

is

prime
and
m

and

bo

j-

are

in their
ft

lowest terms,
two

Also beingany positive integers. is in its lowest b

if

and

are

any

and equalfractions, be of a equimultiples

terms, then

and d must 409. For

and

respectively.

The number

ofprimesis infinite.

if not, let p be the greatest prime number; then the ber, product2 3 5 7 11 .p, in which each factor is a prime numis divisible by each of the factors 2, 3, 5, .p ; and therefore
.
.

the

number

formed

by adding unity to

their

divisible number
p
:

it is any of these factors ; hence itself or is divisible by some prime number

by

product is not either a prime

greaterthan
and fore there-

in either

case

the number 410. numbers If No

prime p is not the greatest of primesis not limited.

number,

rational

formula algebraical
+

can

represent prime

only.
bx
+

let the formula a possible, and suppose prime numbers only, is ]), so that the expression
p
"

ex2 + dx3
x
=

+
m

...

represent
of

that when

the value

bm

cm2

dm3

when

+
a

np the b (m bm
+ +

becomes expression

+ +

np)
+ +

+ {m + np)2
+
.

(m

+ np)3

...,

that
or

is,

cm2
p

dm3
a

of p, multiple

of p, multiple is therefore not

a

thus the number. 411. way. Let

a,

is divisible by "", and expression

prime

A number

can

be resolved into

in only one prime factors

,

N
...

denote

the

number;

suppose

abed..., where
=

are b,c, d, Suppose also that JV prime numbers. Then other prime numbers. where a, /3, are y, 8,
...

a/3yS...,

abed...

a/3yS... ;

THEORY

OF

NUMHEHS.

343 factors of this duct proof them, a suppose. be

hence But

must
a

divide; abed... ; but eacli of the

a

is

prime,therefore
both
. .

must

divide

one
a

are a a prime ; therefore Hence bed. =/3yS.; and as before, must /? factors of bed... J and so on. Hence the

and

must

equal to

a.

be

equalto one only be

of the

factors in
can

are a/3y"$...

and equal to those in abed..., into prime factors in one way. 412. Let
a,

therefore

iV

resolved

To N

find the

number

number. of divisors of a composite and

denote
are

b,c,

...

different

integers.Then

where N"=apbg"f..., suppose and p, q, r, are positive of the product it is clear that each term

the

number,

prime numbers
...

...

(l+a
is
a

a' +

+ b2 + ...+a'')(l+b

V) (I+
that
no

c2 +

...+cr)...

divisor of the

givennumber,

the

divisor ; hence the number that is, product, This includes 413.
can

other number is a of divisors is the number of terms in

and

+ l) (f"+l)fe+l)(r
as

both unityand the number divisors, number

itself.

To

find the

be resolved into two Let

of ways factors.
number, and

in which

number composite

N" denote
are

the

a,

b, c...

different each
...

integers.Then

prime numbers term of the product

b
+

N suppose and ]), q,

a'tyc'
. . .

where

r...

are

positive
.

(I+
is
a

a2

(1+ of)

b2 +

(1+ b'1)

c +

c2 +

cr)
.

divisor of

iV;
is

each way

in which

divisors corresponding but there are to two iV can be resolved into two factors ; hence the

number required

}(!"+l)" l)(r l)
+
+

This supposes

not
...

perfect square,
number.
one

so

that

one

at least of the

of resolution into factors way is x/iVxJNj and to this way there corresponds only one divisor of ways of resolution is the number JX. If we exclude this,

is an odd quantities^, q, r, If N is a perfect square,

l)(r l)...-l}, !{(p+l)(?

+
+

and

to this

we

must

add

the

one

way

JN

thus N/iV;

we

obtain

for the

number required

l)!)("/+ !)(""+ lj \{(P

+ +

344
414. number other. As
one a can

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

To

find

the

number

be resolved into two

of ways in which factors

=

which
are

composite
to each

prime
the
two

let before, contain

the

number

avbqcr

....

Of

factors

must

ap, for otherwise

some

there would
a

in

one

factor and in

the two
must

factors would
one

power not be

of

power of in the other factor, and thus be

some

occur

of the is be

factors the

prime to each only; and

number into
two

other.
so on.

bq Similarly Hence in which the the

number required abc... product number of ways of To

equal to -(1
+

of ways

can

resolved

factors;that is,the
where 2""1,
n

is

or + 1)... 1)(1+ 1)(1

is

the number 415. Let

term

different prime factors

sum

in N.

find the

of the

divisors

of a

number. Then each

the number

be denoted

before. as by apbqcr...,

of the
+

product ...+ar)(l+b+
b2 +
sum
...

(1 +a
is
a

a2+

(1 + b'1)

c +

c2 +

...+cr)...
equal to
this

and therefore the divisor, product ) that is,

a.
"_

of the divisors is

i ""+'_!
*

cr+1-l
"

the

sum

required
=

-1

b-l

c-1

Example
Since

1.

Consider the number

21600
=

21600.
.

63

102

23

33

22

52 = 23

33
=

52,

the number
..

of divisors
,.
.

(5+ 1)(3+ 1)(2+ 1)

26-1 3*-l
?
" "

72 ;

the

sum

of the divisors

...

53-l
" "

"

"

2
=

5
o
"

"

63x40x31 78120. factors

Also 21600
or

can

be resolved into two

prime

to each

other

in

23_1,

4 ways.

Example
We have
n

2.

If

is odd

shew

that
=

(n2-1) is divisibleby

24.

n(n2- l)
-

7i

{n- 1) (n+1).
even

Since
one

of them
-

is odd, n 1 and n+1 two consecutive are is divisible by 2 and the other by 4.

numbers

hence

Again n 1, n, n + 1 are three consecutive numbers ; hence is divisible by 3. Thus the given expressionis divisible by the 3, and 4, that is, by 24.

of them product of 2,
one

THEORY

OF

NUMBERS.
of 3 which is contained

34".
in
100. J

Example

3.

Find

the

highest power

of divisible by 3 as the number Of the first 100 integers, are as many 99. are times that 3 is contained in 100, that is,33 ; and the integers 3, G,9,... contain the factor 3 again,namely 9, 18, 27,... Of these, some 99, and their number is the quotient of 100 divided by 9. Some again of these last of integerscontain the factor 3 a third time, namely 27, 54, 81, the number the contains One number of 100 27. the them only,81, by quotient being factor 3 four times. the highest Hence power This article.
= required

33 + 11 + 3 + 1

48.
the next

example

is

case particular

of the theorem

in investigated

416.

To

'power find the highest

of a prime
n iii
"

number

which

is

contained in In.
n
"

Let

the

contained greatestinteger

in

-,
Cv

2,

tJ

...

respectively
the numbers

Ct

CL

be denoted

by /
n.

--

Then /(-"),... ] /(-,],

,

among

3, 1,2,
the

...

there

are

( jwhich
-

contain

at least once,

namely

numbers

a,

2a, 3a, 4a,

and

...

there Similarly I

are

I[-A which
at least once;

contain and
so

a2 at least once,
on.

"

) which contain "3

of
a

Hence

the

highest power

contained

in \n is

'""'")*'6)+~
417.
In the remainder
a

of this
n

chapter we
the

shall find it

venient con-

to express

of multiple that the

by

symbol Jl(n).
r

418. divisible Let

To

prove

prodicctof

consecutive

is integers

by |r.

Pn

stand is
n

for the
; then
=

product of
...

consecutive

the integers,

least of which

and
"

Pn n(n+l)(n + 2) (u + r-l), Pn+l (n+l)(n + 2)(n+3) ...(n+r); nPn + rPH ; nPm+i (n+ r)P
=

.-.

1"

-P

=lsxr
=

times the

product of

"

1 consecul ive

integer-.

346
Hence \r
"

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

if the have

product of

"

1 consecutive

is divisible by integers

1, we

Pm+1-Pm

rM(\r-l)

M(\r).

Now also P. the

,

P,
P
,

and |?',
. .

are

P2 is a multipleof \r \ therefore of (r. We have thus proved that if multiples

therefore
"

is divisible by \r 1,the productof r" 1 consecutive integers ; but the product of r consecutive integersis divisible by \r 2 ; is divisible by 1 product of every two consecutive integers of every three consecutive integers is divisible therefore the product 3 ; and so on generally. by 1 This

proposition may
means

also be
can

proved thus
shew
as

By

of Art.
in \n leave
+
as

416, we
as
an

is contained This 419.

we

often at least exercise

every prime factor it is contained in \n \r.

that

to the student.

the

of every term If p is a prime number, the coefficient and last, is divisible by + b)p, exceptthe first q/*(a expansion
"With the of exception the first and

in p.
efficient co-

last, every
+

term

has

of the form

p(p-l)(p-2)...(p-r
'where this is
a

l)

may

have

any

is an expression divisor of

1. value not exceeding integral p also since p is prime no factor integer;

"

Now of
r \

it,and

since p

is
"

greater than
"

r
-

it cannot
r +

divide be

factor of \r ; that any divisible by |r. Hence the last is divisible 420.

-is, (p

1)(p

2)... (p

1) must

every

coefficient

except the first and

by p. prime number,
d
.

If

p is

to prove
+

that dp
+
. . .

(a+
Write

+ c + + c +

a5 ...)p=
.

b1'+ cp the

M(p).

ft for b

; then
=

by
a*
. .

article preceding

(a+ py
Again
J3p (b+
= =

p' + M(p).
=

+ +

d+

)p (b+ y)psuppose
establish the

bp +

M{p).
we

in By proceeding

this way

may

result. required

348

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

EXAMPLES.
1.
Find the least of multipliers

XXX.

a.

the numbers

3675, 4374, 18375, 74088

which respectively, will make the

perfect products squares.

the numbers
539539

2.

Find

the least

of multipliers

7623, 109350,
which respectively, 3. will make the

cubes. productsperfect
is even, shew that

aud if x"y If x and y are positive integers, a?"y2 is divisible by 4. 4.

is
even.

Shew

that the difference between

any

number

and

its square

5.

If

of 3,shew that 4x2+ 7xy -ix-y is a multiple

2y2is divisible

by

9.

6.

Find

the number many

of divisors of 8064. ways

can

two

7. In how factors ? 8. 9.
10. Prove Prove Shew

the

number

7056

be resolved into

that 24'1 1 is divisible

-

by

15. 6.

that

of + 1)(n+ 5) is a multiple (?i number

that every

and its cube when

divided

by

6 leave

the

same

remainder. If
n

11. 12. 13.

120.

is even, that is
n

shew
-

that

+ 20) is divisible by (;i2 24.

48.

Shew If
n

(?i2 1)(Sn+ 2) is divisible by

that

greaterthan 2, shew
a

n5

"

5n3 -f 4?i is divisible by

14. 15.
a

Prove If
n

that 32n + 7 is is 24.

"

of multiple

8.

prime number
n

greater than

3, shew

that ?i2 1 is
-

of multiple

16.
240

if n

Shew that n5 is odd.

is divisible by 30 for all values of n, and

by

17. Shew that the difference of the squares numbers greaterthan 6 is divisible by 24. 18. 19.
Shew Shew that
no

of any

two

prime

square

number

is of the form is of the form

3?i

"

1.
or

that every cube number

9?i

9n"L

THEORY

OF

NUMBERS.

349

20.
is 0, 1
or

Shew
6.

that

if

cube

number

is divided

by 7, the

remainder

21. If a number form 7n or 7?t+l. 22. Shew

that
no

is both

square

and

cube,shew

that it is of the

number triangular

can

be of the form
that

3u

1.

23. If 2" 4- 1 is a prime number, shew divided by 2"i+l leave differentremainders. 24. Shew may be. 25. Prove form 8r + l. 26. Prove 13ft+l. 27.
or

when l2,22,32,...n2

that ax

+ a

and

a*

are

always even,
of every
odd

whatever

and

that every

even

power

number

is of the

that the 12th power

of any

number

is of the form

I3)i

or

Prove

that

the

8th power

of any

number

is of the form

I7n

I7n"l.
a

28. If n is divisibleby 240 29.

nG" If
n

prime

number

greaterthan

5, shew

that

n4

"

1 is

is any

prime

number

than 3,except 7,shew greater

that

1 is divisible by 168.

Show 30. and 37.

that ?i36- 1 is divisible

by 33744

if

is

prime to 2, 3, 19

31. "**
"

When both p + l and 2p + l are 1 is divisible by 8(p + l)(2/) + l),if

prime numbers, shew that is prime to 2, "" + l,and x

that

2p+h
32. If p is divisible by pr. 33.
prove If that
m a

prime,and

prime

to p, shew

xp1~pV

1 is

is

prime number, and

+

a, b two

numbers

less than

m,

am-2 is
a

am~3b + am-4b'i+

+ bm~2

of multiple

m.

is any number, then any other number N may expressed in the form N q is the integral aq + r, where when N is divided quotient by a, and r is a remainder less than a. The number to which the other is referred, is sometimes called a, the modulus to any given modulus there are a different a ; and
a

423.

If

be

350

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

forms
value

of of

number Thus

iV, each
to modulus
more

form

to corresponding
we

different

r.

3,

have

numbers

of the form since 5 any

3q + l, 3q + 2; or, 3"7, equalto 3 (q+ 1) 1.

-

simply, 3q, 3q"l,

manner

3q +

2 is

In like

to modulus

numbe^

will be

one

of the five forms

5q,5q " 1, 5q "

2.

424. leave the

If
same

6,

which integers, remainder,they are said

are

two

when
to

divided

by

respectto the modulus

the following
as

a.

In this

case

"

is

be congruent with of a, and a multiple express this

notation b

of Gauss

we

shall sometimes c=0

a

follows

:
=

(mod.a),or

(mod.a).

Either

of these formulae

is called

congruence.

425.

If b, c
pc
are

are

congruent with

respect to modulus

a, then

pb

and

congruent,p beingany integer.

-

b For, by supposition, therefore

?za, where

is

some

integer ;

])b
"

pc

"

pna

; which

proves

the

proposition.

426.

If

is

prime
a,

to

b, and

the

quantities
"

2a, 3a,
are

(b

1 )a

are

divided For if

by b,

the remainders that the

r,
=

all

different.
ma quantities

ma

when

possible, suppose divided by b leave

ma
=

two
same

of the

and

remainder
=

r,

so

that

qb +
-

m'a

+ q'b

then therefore it is less than Thus

terms

(m
b divides
a

a 7/1') (q-q')b ;

(m

"

m')a

; hence

it must

divide
m

"

m', since
are

prime to
b. the

; but

this is

since impossible

and

m'

each

remainders

are

all

is exactly divisible quantities of the series

1, 2, 3,

of and since none different, by b, the remainders must be in b 1, but not necessarily
"

the the this

order. Cor. of the

a.

If
p.

is

prime
c +

to

b, and
2a,

is any
c

number, the b
"

terms

c,

a,

c +

(b

1)a,

THEORY

OP

NUMBERS.

351
remainders
as

when

divided

by

b will leave the

same

the

terms

of the series
c, c+

1, c+

2,

(b- 1),
therefore
the
mainders re-

though

not

in necessarily

will be 0,
427. wn7A
(o-tf

1, 2,
...

this order ; and b- 1.

b.jb3, -(/"b.,
modulus

are

regard to
also For

a,

respectively congruent to cn //te "/te?i products b,baba

...,

c", c},

...

^c.c.^

...

congruent.

by supposition,

b1-cl
where

nxa,
...

nlt n2, n3
.

are

b2-c2 u2a, b3-c:i u./i, integers;

=

...

".

+ w:ja) + rc2") + ",") (ca (ca bxbaba =("?! + M (a), c,c2c3

... .
.

...

which

proves We
a

the

proposition.
now

428.

can

giveanother proofof
number and N

Fermat's Theorem.
p, then N1'-1
"

If
a

p be

prime
are

prime

to

1 is

of p. multiple
Since JV and p

prime to

each

the other,

numbers

if, 2tf,3.V,
when divided

(p-l)iV (p-1)

(1), (2),

by p

leave the remainders

1, 2, 3,

in this order. Therefore the product of though not necessarily in (1)is congruent to the product of all the terms all the terms in (2), p beingthe modulus. That

is, |^"1

N''~i and

\p
-

1 leave the

same

remainder

when

divided

by p

; hence

but

i^"l

is

prime

to

p ; therefore

it follows

that

JP"1
429. number
=

(j").
of less integers than
a

We
a

shall denote

the

number

and

""(13) 12;

(a) prime to it by the symbol "f" ; thus less than 18 and "/"(18)G; the integers
=

1 ; = "f"(2)

prime to
we

it being 1, 5, consider unityas

7, 11, 13,

17.

It will be

seen

that

here

prime to all numbers.

352
430. each To shew that

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

if the numbers
=
.
.

a,

b,
.

c,

d,
. .
.

...

are

prime

to

other,

(b) ""(c) (f" (abccl.) ""(a) "/"

.

Consider written

the

product ab
line

; then

the first ab numbers numbers

; thus

can

be

each in b lines,

a containing

1, a+l,
2a
a

2,
+ +

k,
a

a,
a

2, 2, 2,

+ +

k, k, k,

+ +

a, a,

+1,

2a

2a

2a

("_ \)a+ 1, (6- 1)a

Let k is
us

...

(b-l)a

...

(b 1)a
-

a.

consider the vertical column

a a

which

prime to

all the terms have

to
a.
a common

of this column
no divisor,

beginswith h ; if will be prime to a ;

in the column in each that the

but if k and will be

number contains

prime
to
a

Now

the first

row

""(a)numbers

prime

of which is

""(a)vertical columns \ therefore there are is prime to a ; let us term suppose every
which

vertical column
an

beginswith
of which 426 [Art. b. when

k is

one

of these.

This column contains

A.

p., the terms

...

divided

by

b leave remainders column

0, 1, 2, 3, prime to integers ""(b)

"

hence Cor.];

the

each Similarly, is prime to a term table there

are

"/" (a)vertical columns in which every contain ""(b) integers prime to b ; hence in the which are prime to a and (a) cj" (b)integers "f"
of the
.

also to

by and therefore

to ab ; that is
.

""(ab) ""(a) ""(6).

Therefore

(bed .) (a) "j" cf" (abed...) "f"

=
.
.

"j" (cd...) (a) (f)(b) cj"

. .

"f"(a)."t"(b)."t"(c)."}"(d)....
less of positive integers than
a

find the number givennumber, and prime to it.

431. To Let where JV
a,

denote

the
are

number, and
different the

suppose

that

JV

apbqcr
r

...

b, c,
...

...

prime numbers,
not

and

positive integers.Consider
1, 2, 3,
ap"
a,

factor a1'; of the

p, q, natural
a are

...

bers num-

1, ap,the
...

only ones
-

prime to

2a, 3a,

a, (a*-1 I)a, (a1"1)

THEORY

OF

NUMBERS.

353

and the number

of these is a''~i ; hence

4"(av) a"
=

a'-'

=a?(l- -^
.

Now
.

all the factors

\
. .

c\ ap,b'\
.

...

are

primeto
. . .

each

other ;

"/" "/" 0 (cr) (a)Vcr.) "j" (a1') (b1)

=
.

that

is,

^W

-H)-H)-H)^""K)H)H)iir(i-i)(i-J)(i
=

and

Example. Shew that the prime to it is ^N"p (N).

If
x

sum

of all the

which integers

are

less than

is any integer less than N and less than N and integer prime to it. Denote the S
=

prime to it,then
and their
sum

N-x

is also

an

integers by 1,p,
l+p
+ q + r+... +

q, r,

...

by S; then
+

(N-r) + {N-q) + (N-p)

{N-l),

of 0 the seriesconsisting

(N) terms.
the
reverse

Writingthe seriesin
S
.-.
=

order,
+

{N-l)

(N-p)
=

(N-q) + (N-r)+...+r
...

q+p

l;

by addition,

2S

N + N + N+
.-.

to "p(N) terms;

$N"p(N).
the not primeto it is that number of

432.

From

the
are

last article it follows J" and

which integers

less than

'-'(".4"("-i)(":3("i)
tli at

is,
N
a

N
b

N
c

N
ao

N
ac

N
. . .

N
+
+
....

_++_+..._

be

abc

N Here the term

"

givesthe
a,

number

of the

integers

la, da,

" ...

.a
(t

N which
H.

contain
II. A.

as

factor;the

term

"

givesthe number
23

of

ao

354

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

N
the and

ab, 2ab, Sab, integers

so on.

...

-j ao

ab, which
ab

contain reckoned

ab

as

factor,
once

Further, every
each

is integer

once,

and

only; thus, of a, once multiples among of ab, the multiples among

of Again,each multiple
terms

multipleof

will appear once of b,and once the multiples and is thus reckoned the
"

among

the

negatively once only.

iV N
,

N
"

abc will appear

among

jo

which "
"

are

of a, multiples which
are

b, c respectively; among

the

JV
"

iV
, =-

terms

ab'
and

ac'

be the -jabc

of ab, ac, be respectively multiples ; r r ' J ' 3-3+1

among

of abc;that is, since multiples

occurs

1,

each
cases

of multiple may

once,

and

once

other only. Similarly,

be discussed.

433.
"

Theorem.] If [Wilson's
have

-p

be

prime number, 1

\p

is divisibleby p.

By
=

Ex. 2, Art. 314

-

we

Ijp-1 (P~ i)""1 (P i)(P 2r

-

'

^z^ipD(p
tlie 1

$y-"

Jp-l)(p
and

2)(p-3){p_irl+ top_lterms.
each of is of the form
...

by

Fermat's

Theorem

(p-2)p~\ (p-2"y~\
p-l
=

expressions (j) l)p~l, thus +M(p)-,

-

M(p)

(P~l)(P~2) +fl-(p-l)
+ +

-...top-

terms!

=M(p)
=

{(i-iy-"-(-iy-"}
1, since p
+
"

M(p)

"

1 is

even.

Therefore

I p

(p).

This has 1
+
a

theorem is only true when p is prime. For suppose p factor q; then q is less than p and must divide \p 1 ; hence of q, and therefore not a multiple of p. \p 1 is not a multiple
" "

Wilson's result

Theorem Art.

may

also be in the

proved

without

using

the

from quoted

314, as

article. following

356
435.
can

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

be

to Many theorems relating induction. provedby

1
x
.

the

of properties

numbers

Example
Let
xp
-

If p is

prime number,
by f(x); then
=
-

xp

is divisible

by p.

be denoted

/ (x+ 1)-/ (x) {x + 1)p (x+ 1)

{xP

x)
. . .

=pxp~l
=

*p"2 +P"f~01)
+
J.
"

+px

of p, multiple
a

ifp is

prime [Art.419.]

.-.

f(x

1)=f(x) +

of p. multiple also
+ l); but is/(.r

If

is divisibleby^i, so therefore/^)

/(2)

2*5~ 2

(1+ 1)^-2,
is divisible 419]; therefore / (3) [Art. is true so on; thus the proposition

of p when p is prime and this is a multiple divisible by^, and is therefore /(4) by p,

universally.
This furnishes another 1 is a it follows that xp~J
-

proof of

Fermat's

theorem,for by

if

is

prime to

p,

multipleof p.
-

Example
Let 52n+2 then
-

2.

Prove
-

that 52,l+2

24/i

25 is divisible

576.

24?i

25 be denoted
=

by f(n);

+ l)-25 /(?i+l) 52n+4-24(w

=

52.52w+2-24n-49;
(24n+ 25)
-

.-.

f(n+l)

=25 25/ (n)

=

24u

49

576 (n+ 1).

see

if f(n) is divisible by 576, so also is /(u + 1); but by trial we Therefore is true when fore that the theorem n = l, therefore it is true when n=2, thereit is true when ?i 3, and so on; thus it is true universally.
=

The

above

result may

also be
-

provedas
25M+1 25
-

follows
-

52n+2

2in

25

24;i

25

-24rc-25 + 24)" (1
.

25 + 25

24 + M

(242) 24n
-

25

576n +

iW(576)

i)/(576).

EXAMPLES.
1. 2. 3. Shew Shew Shew Shew that 10n + 3 that 2 that 4 that 8
. .

XXX.
+ 5 is divisible
5 is a

b.

4"
.

+ 2

by

9. 24. 9.

7n+ 3
6n + 5n

5H
+

of multiple

when

divided

by
24

20 leaves remainder

4.

7n + 4"

+ 2

is of the form

(2r 1).
-

THEORY

OF

NUMBERS.

357
a

5. 6.

If p is prime,shew

that 2

\p-3+

l is

of p. multiple

Shew Shew

that av, + l-a that the

is divisible 1"y 30. of

2

7.
2''-;--l.

highest power
+* is a + 52'1

contained

in

2r

is

8. 9.

Shew Shew

+ that 34'1

of multiple
243

14.

that 3**+6+160"a

56n-

is divisible l"y 512.

of the coefficients of the odd powers of x 10. Prove that the sum when is a prime number in the expansionof (l+"r+#2 + #3 + .r4)n""1, n than is other 5, divisible by n.

11. If n is divisible by 504. 12.

If
n

prime

number

greater than

7, shew

that

n"-l

is

is

an

odd

number,

prove

that

?i*5 + 3"i4+ 7"i2- 11

is

of 128. multiple 13.

of If p is
are

prime number,

shew

(H-a?)*-*
of p.

greater and alternately

that the coefficients of the terms less by unity than some tiple mul-

of the (p-l)th powers If p is a prime,shew that the sum of wherein the numbers arithmetical in ence differcommon progression, any p of p. is not divisible by p, is less by 1 than a multiple

14.

15.
to 91.

Shew

that a12- b12 is divisible by 91, if

and b

are

both

prime

16.

If p is

prime,shew that

-2r 2r 1 \p

1 is divisible by p.

17. If n" 1, n + 1 are both prime numbers greater than 5, shew that n(?i2-4) is divisible by 120, and ?i2("i2 Also shew + 16)by 720. that n must be of the form 30" or 30^ + 12. 18.
,

Shew
.

that the

highestpower
nr"
nr
n-

of
r-

which

is contained

in

\nr~1

1
.

is

equal
19.

to 1

number
l(p-D a2
-

If p is a prime number, and be found such that c2 c2 can

1 is divisible

a
"

prime
a

to ]), and if a square is divisible by pt shew that

by p.
of the congruence

20.

Find

the

solution general
98a;1=0

(mod. 139).

358
21.
a

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

given

that the Shew N and number

sum

of the

squares

of all the numbers

less than

prime

to it is

?(i--30-J)0-9-+?ci-."a-.)
and the
sum

of the

cubes

is

?(i-3(x-])(t-9-+?a-^ci-"a
a,b,c...being the different prime
22. divisible
If jt? and q
are

factors

of iV. that

any

two

positiveintegers,shew

\pq is

by (|"")". |#and by (\q)p. \p.

Shew
the that

23.

the square
of the

given by

squares
r-

numbers which coefficients of the the

square of

are

also

triangularare
of
x

powers

in the
are

pansion ex-

of
L
"

an"^ ^hat
2"

numbers
x

which

also

\)X -f"X

pentagonalby

the

coefficients of the powers

in the

expansion of

1_

24.
less than

Shew
N

that

the

sum

of the

fourth

powers

of all the

numbers

and

prime

to it is

-"*)..., -gg(l-"*)(l-i")(l
a,

6, c,... being the

25.
If to

different

prime

factors

of A".

prime

of integerswhich (iV)is the number (f" and if x is prime to JV,shew that it,

are

less than

JV and

^^26. If

(mod. JV).
of
...

dv d2,ds,

denote

the

divisors

...

number
=iV.

JV,then

+ ""(d3) + (dj + 0 (c?2) (f"

Shew

also that

(!)r-; "t"

"

9~0(3) r1;
"

fi

0(5)T^

"

"----

odinf.
=

"

-?~l

kJ.

CHAPTER

XXXI.

The

General

Theory

of

Continued

Fractions.

*-436.
Continued
are

In

Chap. xxv.

we

have

the properties of investigated

" -

We

where a a 2' 3' ",+ %+ and a^ is either a positive positive integers, integeror zero. shall now consider continued fractions of a more general
a, +
. . .

Fractions

of the form

type.
*-i37.
~'

The

most

general form
where

of

continued

fraction

is

a1

=*=

"2

"

"i rZl
*

'

ai" a2" a3"

""""

*,"K

"""

represent

a3

=*=

any

whatever. quantities The fractions called

our

"

"

"

are

components
to

of

the

a,
continued fraction. in which in which To the

a2
We

a3 shall confine before

attention

two

cases;

(i)that
that (ii)

the

sign signis negative.

each

component

is

positive ;

*438.

convergents to

the law of formation of investigate the continued fraction

the successive

bi
The first three

b2

b3

convergents ergents are

6,
AVe formed a3, and
manner.
see

a2bx

a3.a2bi+b3.bl
convergent may be of the second convergent by numerator the first by b3 and adding the results
denominator may be formed in like of the third

that the numerator

numerator

the by multiplying the of the also that

together ;

360

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

Suppose that

the

successive
numerators

convergents
be
...

are

formed

in

let the similar way; denominators and the Assume that the

denoted

by pit p2, p3...,

for the

by
law

qlt q2, q3, of

formation

holds

nth

vergent con-

; that
In

is, suppose
-a
nl

p
n
"

+
, \

b p n-l

"

", 2"

q J- n

=a

n-Ln

+
"

, 1

bq h-Ih"2

_.

The
a

(n+l)thconvergent
" "

differs from
; hence

the

wth

only

in

having

in the
+ \

place of

a
n

the

convergent (n+ l)tb

If therefore
?" ^,=a
we see

we

put
+b
,,p
,,

nP

= +,

+,q

+b

,,q

,,

and denominator of the (u+ l)th that the numerator convergent of the follow the law which was to hold in case supposed of the third convergent ; ?tth. But the law does hold in the case fourth and holds the it for hence on so ; ; therefore it holds

universally.
*-439.
In the
case

of the continued

fraction

b,
"1
we
-

b2
a2
~

b3
CC3
~

may

prove Vn

that
=

anPn-l

kPn-*

Qn

""?"-!

k"ln-2
',

result which

by

may be deduced changingthe signof bn. *440. In the continued

from

that of the

article preceding

fraction

h
a1
we

K
a2
+

K
"3
+

have

seen

that
J-

=a
n

nl

ii

"

,+bp

n-L

"

", 2'

q J-n

^a

n-ln

"

,+bq n-J-n"2 1

a.

GENERAL

THEOHY

OF

CONTINUED

FRACTIONS.

Ml

?"+
but

\9n

Qn-J'

and is therefore
less than

proper

fraction:

hence

"

1
"
"

is numerically ft

".+1
"

"

"

"

and
,

is of

sign. opposite
335, we

In

In-}

as By reasoning

in Art. order

of and

an

odd

shew that every convergent may is greater than the continued fraction,

order is less than the continued every convergentof an even fraction ; hence every convergentof an odd order is greaterthan order. every convergent of an even Thus

2--'^ ^
-

is

and positive
1

less than

"ss=l ^2"
-

; hence

32/1+] 9 an
2 2/1 + 1 2/1
"

2ft*-J 2*2/1
1

2/1 +

2 2/1-1

Also

?*=i
-

2---1 is
22/1

and positive

less than

^=*
-

"=s
1 22/1-2

"

hence

22/1

"

22/1

"

2/1

2/1

"

2/1

2 2/1

"

Hence the but of

the

convergents of
fraction
even

an

odd

order

are

all

greater than
the
vergents con-

continued
an

but
are

and decrease, continually all less than the continued

order

fraction

increase. continually

Supposenow
the

that the number

of

then components is infinite,

to
some

convergents of an odd order must tend and the convergents of an order must even

finite limit,
to
some

also tend

finite limit ; if these limits are equalthe continued fraction tends definite limit ; if they are not equal, the odd convergents to one tend this
two to
one

and limit,

the

even

convergentstend
be said to be

to

different

and the continued limit,

case

fraction may
fraction is the

the continued

in oscillating; of symbolical representation

that

of which is the one quantities, of the even convergents.

limit of the

odd,and

the other

362

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

*441.

To shew

that the continued

fraction
ax
+

a2 is

a3 +

has

value if definite
zero.

the limit

when of rf""n+I

is infinite

greaterthan
The

continued

fraction will have

definite value and

"

when

is

infinite if the difference of the limits of -^

is equal to

zero.

9n+l
Now
fPn n+lffn-l

?"

Pn-1
_

?"+!
whence
we

W"

""-!"

obtain

Pjt+X ""
_

(_ 1 )-l

"ng"-3 KV* KVl (P* Pl\ 6"+^"-l

_

"2n+l

But

k.-i?

k.-M? n+lin-1
+ li+1 !7u

^B+lS'n-l an+l Qn
k^g

an+lqn
an(

a.

"i

K?-i

""""-*)"*""+!
_

^n+A^-2
.

"n+lSn-l

^n+lSn-l
can

^n+1

b^xqK
if the limit of
"+

also neither of these terms

"

be

hence negative;

n+1

is

greater than

zero

so

also is the limit of

; in which

case

the limit of

-J**^
Qn+i

is less than
m

and

therefore
of proper and

^"i_ -^ "a
q"+i
qn

the limit of the and the

must
same

productof

an

infinite number
zero :

fractions,
-"-

therefore be equal to
limit ; which proves

that

is,-^
?"+:

tend

to

qn

the

proposition.
fraction
n~
" "

.For

in example, V

the continued T3-

3+5
a. a

2n+l

"

Lim

-f-^-1 Lim*"+i
=

7\,2 (n+iy
.

-' =

and

therefore the continued

fraction tends to

definite limit.

364
Cor. order of tend
to
a

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

If the number
an

vergents form

of the components is infinite, the coninfinite series of proper fractions in ascending

and in this
case

magnitude;

the continued exceed

fraction must

definite limit which From Pn

=

cannot

unity.

*443.

the formula
+ "*nPn-i

hPn-t*
in

9n

a"n-,

"."_""
many of the
a vergent^ con-

we

may

always
as we can

determine

succession

as

please. In
be found

certain

cases,

however,

general

expression
Example.

for the 11thconvergent.

c c
c

To find the wth convergent to

"

5-

5-

5form a recurring series the relation

We have pn ; hence Sp,^ 6pn_2 any three consecutive terms of which

=
-

the numerators
are

connected

by

Pn
Let

"

+ "Pn-2' 5p"-!

S =p1 +p.2x +Prf? +

"

"

"

+pnxn~1+

then, as in Art. 325,

But

we

have

S=

Pl +
1
-

(P2~5Pl)X
5x + 6a;2 =-^ ;

the first two convergents

6
1
-

are

18 l-3x 2'1"1= 6
1
-

12
2x
'

hx + Qx-

whence
if Similarly
we

pn

18

3"-1

12

(3" 2").
-

S'

qx + q" +

+...+ q3x*
=

+ qnxn~x

find

^=___ gn= 9
3*-1 4

i___r_;J
2*-1
=

whence

S'^1

2'l+]
.

"""

yw_
~

6(3"-2w)
3n+1
-

ffn

2?l+1

'

This

method of

will
n.

only succeed
Thus in the shew the
7-2

when
case

a"

and

bn

are

constant

for all values

of the the

continued
numerators

fraction
of the of
are x

...

we

may

that

a+

a+
are convergents

successive the

coefficients of the and

,

powers

in the

expansionof

the

denominators
ft

-I- ti/Y*

coefficients of the powers

of

in the

of expansion

^ 1

7-2
~ ~

OjX

"

ox

GENERAL

THEORY

OF

CONTINUED

FRACTIONS.

305

*444.
the student in

For the is

cases special

of the general values of pn and qn investigation Finite works to referred on Differences ; it is only be found by Algebra. The that these values can will sometimes
12

following method
Example.
The
same

be found
3
="

useful.

Find

the value

of

-"

1 +

z +

5"
o

law of formation
; then

holds un
=

for pn and
+ nun_2,
-

qn;

let

us

tal"e i*nto denote

either of them
or

nun_x
=
-

un

(n+ 1)""_!
i^j
-

(uB_, ?wn_2).
-ra("u_2

Similarly,

RUtt_s=

"n_3).

whence

obtain we by multiplication,

un-(n
The first two

l)un_1 (-iy^(u2-3ui).
=

2
,

convergents
+

are

T ;

hence

-A

pn-(n
Tims ^n
7i

l)Pn^=(-l)n-\
Pn-1
m

qn-(n + l)qn-i (- I)""2=

(" !)?l-l
lra+1

0n

gn-1
_

(~

+ l

iw+l
ffn-1

to

I)""2 j"+ l
'

At!
_

Art
=

(~ l)"-8
In

9"-2
n
-

In

|n-l

In

In

Ps_Pi
13

?3
_

"h
2

|2'
1
2

[3'

3i
'2 2

2'

|2'

whence, by addition
|n + l

12
1
, =

|3+|4
1
i"77

Lit1.
jn+1
'

7a

1
+
,

n+1

1-7^+1

(- l)n~a
n

|2 |3 |1

+ 1

By making

we infinite,

obtain

2n which
is therefore the value

e)

e-V

of the

given expression

366

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

*445.

If every component of

"

"

"

"

"

"

...

is

numerator with integral fraction is incommensurable. fraction

+ 3jj and

ao+

a3 +

proper

denominator,the

continued

For

if

possible, suppose
and

that the where

,

continued
are

fraction

is

com-

mensurable
then

equalto

-^
XL

A and B

positive integers ;
fraction

-7

*"m , where
; hence

f,denotes the infinite continued

=

*
"

^...

f
is
,

*""

"

suppose.

Now
a

A, B, "x, 6X

are

and f integers

therefore positive,
where

C is
the

positive integer.

b
=
"

Similarly J
fraction
"

-=

*-=

B
"*"

a2+f
*. . .

fa denotes

infinite continued

; hence

"

S^
0

*
=

a3+

7*

suppose
so
on.

; and

as

before,it follows that D is a positive integer ; and

B
.

C
,
"=

D
, ,

5
,
...

Again, -7
than
"

jy
a

are

proper

tractions

..

, ; tor

-j
-*

is

less

which
,

is

proper

fraction

"=

is less than

ax less than
"

as

-^ O

is

; and

so

on.

Thus in

A, B, C, D,

...

order of descending givenfraction cannot be The

not

series of positive integers infinite Hence the absurd. magnitude; which is form
an

commensurable. if
some

above

result still holds

of the

components
a

are ponent com-

providedthat from and proper fractions, all the others are proper fractions.
For

after

fixed

suppose

that

"

and
n

all the have

-s a
n

succeeding components

are

proper fractions ; thus, as

fraction

we

the infinite continued just proved, is incommensurable

; denote
7)

beginningwith
the

k is ^

it

by k, then

to completequotient corresponding

n
"

in

and

therefore the value of the continued

fraction is ^-^ 9n-l +

"

"~2
.

hn-2

GENERAL

THEORY

OF

CONTINUED

FRACTIONS.

3G7

This

cannot

be

commensurable

unless

V
"

n_1
=

P l-^^

"

and

this

tfn-l condition
P

?"-"
=

cannot

hold

unless

?2=a *-=2 Pn=B

=

P^*t
9n-4

;ultl

?n-a
H= finally P
"

?n-3

Qn-z

; that must

is

""60 0, which
=

is impossible ; hence

the

%
.

?,
be incommensurable.
1
1
"

givenfraction
*446.

//*eirary component of

"

"~

"

*...
""

?'s

proper

with integral numerator fraction denominator,and if the the continued fraction value of with any component infinite beginning the fraction is less than unity, is incommensurable. The demonstration is similar to that of the article. preceding

ai and
""

aa

a3

EXAMPLES.

XXXI.

a.

1.

Shew

that in the continued fraction

\
axPn
=

_h
a22J

h_
'

a3Qn
=

anPn

~ -

^nPn
into

an9.n-\~

"?i?n
-

"

2.

Convert "

m
|

'^-

continued

fraction with

unit

rators. nume-

3.

Shew

that

"
(2)

V*+6="+^ ^
"r. V^="-2|_
fraction
" " " "

.......

4.

In the continued

"

"

....

if the denominator that

"1~ of every component exceed pn and qn increase with n.

a%~

a3~ shew by unityat least,

the numerator

5.

If alf a,, rtg,..^,, are

an
1

in harmonical
1 1

shew progression,
1

that

"2

^"2^

2^

2~="

2^

SJ'

368
6.

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

Shew

that
+

V
and

cc+

"

"

...

2a+
:
" "

2a +

J
-

[a V
1

2a1

2a-

...

2a2,

(
7.

\/
+
s

2"+

2a+"7\

...

) (a

"7T2a-

o^--)=a~ 2a"7

2a2-

2a'2

In the continued

fraction
b
a+

b
a+
,

b
a+

shew

that

pn
b that number

+ x

6an
b
-

bqn

1-

apn

+ 1

%n
8P

b
=

ax

"

8.
.v

Shew

"

a+

a+

a+

6.-^7 ax
"

"

px

^n

beingthe

of

components, and
k2
"

a,

/3the

roots

of the

equation

ak

"

0.

9.

Prove

that the

productof

the continued ,7

fractions

J_
6+
is

L
c+
"

_L
d+

A_
a+
'"'

_1_
-c

J_
-6+

J_
-a+

_x_
-0?+
'"'

equalto
Shew

1
.

that
1

4 5-

9 13-

64
25-

10.
1-

(?i2-l)2

+ 3) (n+ l)(w+ 2)(2/i 6

"2+("+l)2
^2~1
2" + l~

11.

-L JL
15-

_"_
7-

_?*fo+3)
'

12.

"- i ji- ""L 5"|-1+i+i"+|.+...+

234?i

+ l"

?i

+ 2

I"

!
"

L_

!" 13.
14 36

"*
48 5-

-2=1
w+l2/i + 2 n+

=.-1.

14.
1+
3.3

2(e2-l)
e2+l

2+
3.4

3+
3.5

15.
1+

3(n + 2)
n+

_'6(2e3+l)
"

2+

3+

5e3-2

16.

If

u,
1

v,

Ucy a

Uo
"*

e"

+ 26

"f

each successive fraction

bein" formed by takingthe denominator of the numerator and the sum and denominator of the preceding and denomifraction for its numerator nator shew respectively, that
u

"=**"=
"

CONVERSION

OF

SERIES

INTO

CONTINUED

FRACTIONS.

309

17.

Prove that the nih

J'

convergentto the continued fraction

f ")'

y'H+1

y.
'

is
r+lr+l-

r+l-

"*+1-l

18.

Find the value of

"

%
a.,+ l-

%
a3+l-

+ lcij

'

a19 a2" a3v

and greaterthan unity. positive being

19.
the (2m v

Shew

that the nlh

to convergent

"

is

equal to

"

to 1 )lh convergent ; 6

"

"

"

"

1+2+1+

2 +

20.

Shew

that the 3nth 1111111

convergentto
n
is

5-

2-

1-

5-

2-

1-

5-

3"i + l

3-d e-2
'

21.

Shew

that 2+ that
e

3+

4+

hence shew

lies between

2" and 2r8T.

Conversion
*417.

of

Series

into

Continued

Fractions.

It will be convenient here to write the series in the form

Put
+ lb) + xr) (ur (ur+
=

then

uur+

x ,

u u
r

r+

24

370

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

Similarly,
11111
"

1
+
"="

uy
" " -

"

"

ux

u2

u3

ux

us

x2
ux

uxUQ

ux
2

u2

xa

12
ux and
so on
-

'

ux

u2"

u2

u3

; hence

generally

Example

1.
1

Express
x

as

continued fraction the series

xn
+

x2
+

(-!)n
a0a1a2...an
1 an + Vn

,._

a0 Put

a0ax

a^a.^
1 an
x

anan+l
-

then

+ yn)(an+l x) (an

anan+1 ;

a"x *
"'"

Un= an+1
1

"

"
-

Hence a0
1
.

aux

a0ax X2 1
=

a0 + y0
X

a0+
1
X

a^-x

1
=
-

X
"

Again,
a0

a^

fl0"V2

a0

a0 \aj a0x

axaj

a0

+ Vi) a0(a1-

"o+

a1 + y1-x rt0.r axx

a0+
X

ax

a2-x'
^'^

X2
1
"

and

generally
a0

...+(- l)n
a0a1a.2...an a0x ao
+

o,q(Ii a^a-^ac,

a^
+

an-\x
x

"h

a2

an~x

Example
We
The fraction have

2.

Express log(l+") as log(l+ a;)

=

continued fraction.
/""3
" "

.T---

/y"2 +

"j*4 +

required expression is most to the series equivalent

x

simply deduced
xx
+

from

the

continued

x2
+

xs a3

"!

"2

a4

372

HIGHER

ALGEBBA..

^EXAMPLES.
Shew
1111

XXXI.

b.

that
1 + + u2 +

1.
UQ Wj

(-l)Jl
"

,.

m3
1

un

ic02
Mj
-

ut2
+ U.2 ?""!
-

u2n_ n-1
Un n
~

"0 +
1 -+"n

UQ +

lvn-l

X
"

X2
+ + +

a?
-iCt-v "JI CIqCC
"
" "

2.

ClfiCCt

Cl^Qz-tCto
J.

Ctry.0

iX-xJu

^n

*^

r"\

r
~~

r+1
r

?' + r

3.
?"
-

"~

+ 1-

+ 2...

.2^ 4.

1111
" " " "

^"^

-.

-.

"

to

quotients.
9

n+l
5.
r
,

1-4-1"41114
+

11 l+ s + + 3 2
"

n2

?i+l 1114
+

1-

3-

5-

7-

2n+l
?i4

11

6.

l2
ex

i"+oa+ ' 22
x
=

(n+ 1)2
x

1-

l2 + 223x

n*+(n+Yf'

2x 2x

7.

l+
1x

+ S-

x+4la

1111

8.
a

ab

abc

-i

abed

5",

...=

"

a+

b-l+
1
r

c"

1+

d"l
7-3

1
-

1 ...=i+
r

r5
"

9.

l+r

-i

?**

+ -a + -iB+ ?,J rlb

"

"

rn r3 + 1

"

,5 , , r5 + 1

yr-r 1 r +

"""
"

' '

'

ax+
u.
shew if that

a2+

a3

an

1+

"x +

"2-f "3+

"("_ H-l

p=4 a+

b+

,44c+
P

" '

q
c
=

b+
a

c+

d+

'

(a+
1

1 +
o

Q)

Q.
\...

12.
tinued

Shew
fraction

that
9i
9*
" "

is equal to the
q",
a*. are

con-

M2
/""

Ms
/""

Mt where
....

#.,

the

...

denominators

of the successive

convergents.

CHAPTER

XXXII.

PROBABILITY.

449.
b ways,
or

Definition. and each

If

an

event

can

of these

ways
"

is

happen in a ways and fail in the probability, equally likely,

z

the

chance, of its happening is

r r

and
,

that

of its failing is G

'

a +

b For

instance,if in
that
a

there lottery

are

and prizes
a

25

blanks,
7
"

the

chance

person

holding1
"

ticket will win

is prize

25 and his chance 450. The may If

an

of not

winning is
for clear the

Oa reason

mathematical the
a

definition of
:

bability pro-

be made
can

by
in

considerations following ways and fail to

event

happen

happen

in b

assert that the we can likely, ways, and all these ways are equally of its happening is to the chance of its failing chance as a to b.

Thus k is

if the
an

chance

of its

undetermined

happening is represented by ka, where then the chance of its failing constant,
=

represented by kb. chance of happening + chance of failing k (a + b) .-. Now is certain to happen or to fail ; therefore the sum the event of the chances of happening and failing must represent certainty. If therefore we take to a s our unit, we have certainty agree
will be 1
=

+ b), (a v '

or

"

.-.

the chance

that the event

will

happen

is
a

b b

and

the chance If p

that the event

will not

happen

is
a

+
an

Cor.
the

of of the happening probability of its not happening is 1 p. probability is the

"

event,

374
451.
an

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

Instead is
a
T

of
,

that saying

the chance

of the

happeningof
are
a

event

it is sometimes
event
,

stated that the odds

event.

to b

in

favour of the
452. The
a

or

b to

againstthe

definition of

in probability

in

different form slightly

a are

which

Art. 449 may be given is sometimes Useful. If c is the

total number these

event

of cases, each favourable to the

to occur, and of likely beingequally that the event, then the probability

will

happen
.

is

and
,

the

that probability

it will not

happen
with

is 1

Example 1.
an

is the chance of throwing a number from 1 to 6? whose faces are numbered die ordinary

What

greaterthan 4
of these two

are

There are favourable

possible ways in which to the event required ;

6

the die

can

and fall,

therefore the requiredchance

Example 2.
draws
3 at random

From
;

bag containing 4 white

are

what

the odds

and 5 black balls these being all black ? against

man

be drawn is 9"73, 3 balls can of ways in which and The total number is 3 black balls therefore the chance of of ways the number drawing 5C3; of drawing 3 black balls

~*C%~9.8.7
Thus the odds

=
'

42

againstthe

event

are

37 to 5.

Example 3.
throw with two

Find dice.

the chance

of

throwing at
x

least

one

ace

in

single

The

number possible

of

cases

is 6

6, or 36.

die may be associated with any of the 6 numbers An ace on one the on each other die,and the remaining 5 numbers die the first be on ciated assomay with the ace on the second die ; thus the number of favourable cases is 11. Therefore the

requiredchance is

" .

3b

Or

we

may

reason

as

follows

There are 5 ways in which each die can be thrown not to givean as so throws of the dice will That the chance hence exclude 25 two ace ; aces. is, 25 is ^ ; so that the chance of throwing one of not throwing one or more aces 36
ace

at least

is

do

or

^, oo

PROBABILITY.

375
than 15 in
one

Example
3 dice.

4.

Find

the chance

of

throwing more

throw

with

A throw amounting to 18 must be made up of 6, G, G, and this can occur in 3 ways; occur 16 may in 1 way; 17 can be made up of G, G, 5 which can in be made up of G, G, 4 and 6, 5, 5, each of which arrangements can occur
3 ways.

Thereforo

the number

of favourable

cases or

is 10.

1 + 3 + 3 + 3, And the total number of

cases

is 63,or

21G;
=

chance =^ therefore the required 21G

108

in which there are 3 Example 5. A has 3 shares in a lottery in which there is 1 prizeand 6 blanks ; B has 1 share in a lottery is to ZJ's as 1G to 7. shew that A's chance of success
A

and prizes
2 blanks
:

may

draw draw

in prizes
2

1 way

2
x
m

he may

and prizes

1 blank

in

"^" JL "

6 ways 5

6 he may the win

sum
a

draw

prizeand

2 blanks

in 3

-r-^r ways
JL
"

of these numbers

is 64, which draw

prize. Also

he

can

is the number 9.8.7 3 tickets in ,

' '

of ways
or

in which
;

can

84 ways

therefore -4's chance of

success

"

84

r=

"

21

Z""schance

of
1 C

success

is

clearly
-

therefore A 's chance

B's

chancer"
"

:
L

16

7. 6.5.4 A will get all blanks in 5

* '

Or

we

might have reasoned

the chance of which is

thus: 20

or

20 ways J

;
'

"-.

84

or

"

21

therefore A's chance

of

success

-"

=
"

-".

ZL

453. of which
a, to

Suppose that
one are

there

are

number
can,
occur

of events

A, B, C,...,
that these

must, and
the numbers

onlyone

; also suppose

b,c,
occur

...

events

in which of ways respectively is of that each these ways likely can equally of eacli find event. t o it is the chance required ;

happen, and

The and

total number

of

possible equally ways

favourable
to A

is

+ c+

...,

of these the number

is a;

hence

the chance

376

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

that A

will happen rr is
a

is
a

the chance that B Similarly

J

+ c+
:

...

will happen ri 454.

-.

and

so

on.

c +

...

given it will be seen that in Probability the solution of the easier kinds of questions requires than a knowledgeof the definition of Probability, nothing more tions. of the laws of Permutations and Combinaand the application
From the

exampleswe

have

EXAMPLES.
1.
In
a

XXXII.
two

a.

throw single

with

dice find the chances

of

throwing
; find the

six. five, (2) (1) 2. Prom are a pack of 52 cards two chance that one is a knave and the other drawn
a

at random

queen.

3. A bag contains 5 white, 7 black,and 4 red balls: find the all white. chance that three balls drawn at random are

two

4. If four coins are heads and two tails. 5. One of two

find the chance that there tossed,

should

be

one

is two-thirds

events must happen : giventhat the chance of the that of the other, find the odds in favour of the other.
are

If from a pack four cards will be the four honours of the same

6.

drawn, find the chance

suit.

that

they
that

7.

Thirteen persons
one

take their

it is five to

two against
are

shew at a round table, places particular together. persons sitting

8.
one

There

can,

the odds

happen; C. against Compare

12 with

three events the odds are

A, B, C, one of which must, and only 8 to 3 against B: find A, 5 to 2 against

of

9.
and dice,

the chances three dice.

throwing 4

with

one

8 die,

with two

10.

In

four a pack of cards, shuffling that the

are

dropped; find accidentally

one

the chance

missingcards

should

be

from

each suit.
9 blanks ;
:

has 3 shares in a lottery and 3 prizes containing B has 2 shares in a lottery blanks 2 and 6 containing prizes their chances of success.
A

11.

compare

12.

Shew

that the chances

as

of

throwing six

with

4, 3,

or

2 dice

are respectively

1 ; 6 ; 18,

PROBABILITY.

377

There are three works,one of 3 volumes, of 4, one consisting the other of 1 volume. They are placed on a shelf at random ; works are all together prove that the chance that volumes of the same

13.

and

3
18

140

'

14.
of

-1 and B

throwinga
15.
The what In
a a

throw with two highernumber.

dice ; if A

throws

9, find i"'s chance

row

letters forming the word is the chance that the two

are Clifton

vowels

come

placedat random ? together

the
4

in

16.
held

hand

at whist

what

is the chance

that

kings are

by

] specified player

17.
a

line

There are 4 shillings and 3 half-crowns placed at random in of the extreme shew that the chance coins being both halfis
-

crowns

Generalize this result in the

case

of

and shillings

half-crowns.

455. which When the

two

We

have

hitherto of these is called

in the
or

languageof
more

only those occurrences called Single events. are Probability

occur a

considered

in connection
event.

with

each

other,

jointoccurrence
For

Confound
have
a

and made of

5 white bag containing 8 black balls, and two each of three balls,are drawings, from it successively. If we wish to estimate the chance
we

example, suppose

chawing
In such

first 3 white
a

and
event.

then

3 black

w^e balls,

should

be

with dealing

compound
case

the

result of the

second

drawing might

or

the result of the first. If the balls on might not be dependent after not are replaced beingdrawn, then if the first drawinggives the ratio of the black to the white balls remaining 3 white balls, is greater than if the first drawing had not given three white; of drawing 3 black balls at the second trial thus the chance is affected by the result of the first. But if the balls are placed reafter beingdrawn, it is clear that the result of the second drawingis not in any way affected by the result of the first. We
are

thus led to the

are

definition following

Events the
occurrence

said to be dependent or independent according as of one does or does not affect the occurrence of the
are

others.

Dependent events

sometimes

said to be

contingent.

378
456.

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

If there of which

are are

the respective events independent babilitie prothat both will known, to find the probability
two

happen in a ways and fail in b ways, all these cases beingequallylikely ; and suppose that a' in and fail in b' ways, the second event happen ways may all these ways beingequally likely. Each of the a + b cases may be associated with each of the a + b' cases, to form (a + b) (a! + b') to occur. compound cases all equally likely In aa' of these both events happen,in bb' of them both fail, and in a'b in ab' of them the first happens and the second fails, of them the first fails and the second happens. Thus
the may
aa

happen. Suppose that

first event

is the chance

that both

events

(a+ b){a'+b')
bb'
is the chance that both
events

happen
fail ;

(a+ b)(a+b')
ab'
is the chance

(a b)(a'+b')
+

that the first happens and

the second

fails ; a'b is the chance that the first fails and the second

(a b)(a'+b')
+

happens.
Thus p and if the chances respective that the both
case

of two will

p\ the chance will apply in reasoning

events.

it is easy chances that a respective Hence

of any that if plf p2, p3, to see are of independent events number
...

events are independent is pp'. Similar happen of independent number

the will is

separately happen,
pxp2p3
...

the that

chance

that

they

will

all

happen

; the chance

fail is 2\Po
case.

(1
"

the two first will happen and the rest for any other ticular P3)(1 "pj'- " and similarly par-

457.
one

If p is the chance will happen in that an event in t he chance it will that cession trial, happen any assignedsucof r trials is pr ; this follows from the preceding article
'

by supposing
P1=P2=P3
To is of find the chance
we
=

=Pone

that

some

at

least of the

events
events
some

will fail
one

happen

proceed thus : the chance that all the and except in this case (1-px)(1-]).,) (1 -p3) the events must chance happen ; hence the required
-.-j

is

380
events
concurrence
can

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

is aa\ and happen together

aa is
"

the

of probability

their

-.

("+ o) (a +
Thus if p is the

tr o

"

of the first event, and p' the probability the probability that the second will follow, probability contingent of the
concurrence

of the two

events

is pp

Example 1. In a hand at whist find the chance holds both the king and queen of trumps.
Denote
13

that

specified player
king is clearly
fall
is

the

playerby A

;
can

then

the chance

that A

has the

^;

for this The

12
"

card particular chance

be dealt in 52 different ways,

13 of which

to A.

that,when
can

he has the

king,he

can

also hold the queen fall to A.

then
m

ol
*

for the queen

"

be dealt in 51 ways,
13 12
x

12 of which
1

Therefore

, the chance

required u

"

52

ol

---

17

Or
The

we

might reason

as

follows

of ways in which the king and the queen can be dealt to A is 12. number of permutations of 13 things 2 at a time, or 13 equal be of ways in which the king and queen And similarly the total number can is dealt 52 51. number
to the
. .

13

Therefore

the chance

* .

12
=
"

52.51

"

""

17

as

before.

made from a bag conTwo are taining drawings,each of 3 balls, 5 white and 8 black balls,the balls not being replacedbeforethe second that the first drawing will give 3 white and trial: find the chance the second 3 black balls.

Example 2.

At the firsttrial, 3 balls may and 3 white balls may be drawn

be drawn in

in

13C3 ways
5.4 13

5C3ways;
12
. .

11

5
143

therefore the chance of 3 white at firsttrial:

1.2"
When
2 white 3

1.2.3

and

white balls have 8 black balls ;

been

drawn

and

removed, the bag contains

in

therefore at the second and

3 black balls may

trial 3 balls may be drawn in

be drawn
;

10C3 ways

8C3ways

therefore the chance

of 3 black at the second

trial
m

8.7.6
.

10.9.8_ 1_
~

"1.2.3
therefore the chance
of the

'

1.2.3 event

15

'

compound
5
x
=-=

7
=

7 429
.

143

15

The

student should

compare

this solution with that of Ex.

1, Art. 457.

PROBABILITY.

381
ttvo
or

459.

which
the
sum

are

more different ways that it wilt happen is of the chances of its happeningin these different ways. an

If

event

can

happen in

the mutuallyexclusive,

chance

This is sometimes
out immediately

as regarded

self-evident

proposition arising
may, ever, how-

of the
follows

definition of
:

It probability.

be

provedas

Suppose the
concur

event

can

happen

in

two

Avays

which

cannot

; and

let

"=* be
,

the chances

of the

happening of

the

event

in these
are

there

Then of bfi2 out two cases respectively. ways the in which in the event first way, happen axb2 may in which the
event
concur.

and
and there

a0bJways
are

tlieseivays cannot that the

event

may Therefore
to

happen
in the
or

in the

second;
the
two

out of blb2 cases all,

event:

cases a,b"+ ak,b,

favourable

hence of the

chance

will

happen

in

one

other

ways is
+ a2bx axb2 a_x

a,

bh
12

6,

bf
the number of
clusive ex-

Similar ways Hence

event

be will applywhatever reasoning in which the event can happen.

event
can

if an

happen in

exclusive,and

if plt pa, p^ will happen in these

---Pn are different ways the prorespectively, bability of these that it will happen in some is one ways

which are mutually ways the probabilities that the

Pi+Pl+Pa*
Example
with two
9
can

+Pnthrowing 9
at

1.

Find

the chance

of

least in

throw single 4

dice.
be made up in 4 ways, and thus the chance of

throwing 9 is throwing
10 is

10

can

be made

up

in 3 ways, and

thus the chance

of

^ 2

11

can

be made

up in 2 ways,

and thus the chance

of

throwing 11 is-12 is

12 Now

can

be made the chance

;

up in 1 way, of

and

thus the chance

not

of

throwing
9 is the

-^

throwinga

number

less than

sum

of these

separate chances

.*.

the required chance

= "V/.
.

ou

lb

382 Example
and
1 2.

HIGHER

ALGEBRA. 1
out

One

purse

contains

sovereignand
a

and 4 shillings, and purse contains 2 sovereigns coin is taken a that it is a chance find the random,

shilling. If

of

one

3 shillings, second a third contains 3 sovereigns of the purses selected at

sovereign.
be

Since each
the firstis chance
-

purse

is

to equallylikely

taken, the chance

-

of

selecting
the

; and

the chance
a

of then far

is drawing a sovereign
as

; hence

of
,

drawing
.

sovereignso

it

depends upon
a

the first purse is far

as

j 4

or

=^

12

the chance Similarly 12 is

of

drawing
1
-

sovereign so
the

it
the

depends
chance

on

the second

purse

6
x

or

; and

from

9 1
or
-

third purse

13 of

drawing

is sovereign

.-.

the

requiredchance

"

+
x*5

-. tc

460.
the

In of
an

the

article preceding sometimes

or more

we

have

seen

that
as

the
sum

may of two probabilities notice

event

be

considered

the

probability of

separate events

; but

important to
a

series of events events onlywhen the

occurrence

of

of one or probability of the probabilities of the separate is the sum that is, when the events are mutuallyexclusive, of any with the occurrence is incompatible one that the

it is very other of

of the others.

Example.
drawn The

From
:

at random

with the first 20 numerals, 20 tickets marked find the chance that it is a multipleof 3 or of 7. is
a

one

is

chance

that the number

2

of multiple

3 is

"

and the chance

that

it is

of multiple
, ,

7 is

"

; and

these events 6
2
+ -^
,

are

hence mutually exclusive,

the

2
or
-

requiredchance
But if the
or

is

"

multiple of 3
Because

question had of 5, it would

that

been: find the chance have been incorrect to the

that
reason

the
as

number

is
:

follows
"

the chance

number

is

multiple of
4
"

3 is

and

the that

chance

that the number

is

multiple of
6
4
+ ^
,

5 is

therefore the chance

1
or
-

it is

multipleof
be

or

5 is

For

the number

on

the ticket

might
are

not

a multiple both of mutually exclusive.

3 and

of 5,

so

that the two

events

considered

461.

It

should

be

observed

that

the

distinction
a

between

simpleand

compound

events

is in many

cases

purelyartificial

PROBABILITY.

383
than
a

one

in fact it often amounts two

to

between

different modes

of

nothingmore viewingthe same

distinction

occurrence.

Example.
drawn what

A bag contains is the chance that

occurrence

one

5 white and 7 black balls; if two is white and the other black?
as
a

balls

arc

(i) Regardingthe

simpleevent,the

chance

(5*7H.=C2=6-6.
the

of the two

be regardedas (ii) The occurrence may following compound events :

happening of

one

or

other

(1) drawing a white and then

*

black ball,the chance

"r

of which

is

12

11
a

132

(2) drawing a

black and

then 7

the chance white ball, 5 35

of which

is

i2Xir0r132'
And since these events
are

the requiredchance mutually exclusive,

-132

j$5+ ^5__35
132~66'

two

that the chance of drawing It will be noticed that we have here assumed drawn taneously. simulif they were is the same balls successively as specified be the case. A littleconsideration will shew that this must

EXAMPLES.

XXXII.

b. in the firstonly of two

is the chance of throwing an 1. What die ? successive throws with an ordinary

ace

Three cards are drawn at random from an ordinary pack : find the chance that they will consist of a knave,a queen, and a king.

2.

3. The odds againsta certain event are 5 to 2, and the odds in of the former are 6 to 5 ; find the favour of another event independent
chance that
one

at least of the events

will

happen.

4 to 3, and A solving a certain problem are 4. The odds against 5 : what is the odds in favour of B solving the same to 7 are problem the chance that the problem will be solved if they both try 1

from a purse is the chance of drawing a sovereign and and 2 sovereigns, compartment of which contains 3 shillings ? other 2 sovereigns and 1 shilling

5.

What

one

the

with the numbers 1 to 17. 17 counters marked drawn is A counter and replaced;a second drawing is then made: and the second what is the chance that the first number drawn is even 6.
A

bag contains

odd?

384

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

7. Four persons draw each a card from an the chance (1)that a card is of each suit, (2)that equalvalue. 8. Find the chance
of

pack: find ordinary

no

two

cards

are

of

throwingsix

with

die single

at least

once

in five trials. will be favourablyreviewed by three is ; what independentcritics are 5 to 2, 4 to 3, and 3 to 4 respectively will be favourable ? that of the three reviews a majority the probability

9.

The

odds that

book

and 4 are successively 10. A bag contains 5 white and 3 black balls, the chance that what is not and drawn out they are alternately replaced ; of different colours % 11. In three throws doublets at least once.
with
a

find of dice, pair

the chance of

throwing

taken at random are 12. If 4 whole numbers together multiplied in the productis 1,3, 7,or 9 shew that the chance that the last digit
.

16

1S

625' 13.
In

all shillings 10 coins, a except one which is a purse are Nine coins are taken all in coins another ten are shillings. sovereign ; and the from the former purse and put into latter, then nine coins are taken from the latter and put into the former : find the chance that is stillin the first purse. the sovereign

14. will be 15.

one

If two 5 heads

coins

are

tossed 5

what times,

is the chance

that there

and 5 tails \
what tossed, is the chance that
one

If 8 coins are will turn up head?

and

only

16.

A, B, C in order

cut

them replacing pack of cards,

cuts
a

after each
: find prize

cut,on
their

condition that the firstwho

spadeshall win

chances. respective A

and and B draw from a purse containing3 sovereigns their find of first chances a : shillings drawing sovereign, respective the coins when drawn not beingreplaced. 17.
4

18.
two

party of n

^persons sit at

round
to each

find the table,

other.

odds

against

individuals specified 19.

next sitting

A is one of 6 horses entered for a race, and is to be ridden by of two jockeysB and C. It is 2 to 1 that B rides A, in which one all the horses are equallylikely to win ; if C rides A, his chance case is trebled : what are the odds against his winning? find the chance 20. If on an average 1 vessel in every 10 is wrecked, that out of 5 vessels expected 4 at least will arrive safely.

PROBABILITY.

385

462. trial

The

of probability
...

the

beingknown,
p be the

requiredthe
in exactly
n

happeningof an event in one of its happening probability once,

trials. the

three times, twice, Let

a

of probability
=

and let q 1 -p\ trial, single will happenexactly event r times in the expansion of (q+ p)*. For if number these
a

happeningof the event in then the probability that the in n trials is the (r+ l)th term

select any particular set of r trials out of the total will happen in every one of n, the chance that the event trials and fail in all the rest is prq"~ [Art. and as 456],
we r

set

of

trials

can

be

selected in
case

to the equally applicable

in

nCr ways, all of which the required chance is point,

.

are

Crp q
If
we

+ q)"by expand (/;

the Binomial

Theorem, we
...

have
+

2f +
thus the

+ nC0jS'-2q2+ +"Cn_rprq"-r + "C12)n-1q

...

qn;

this series will represent respectively the of the happening of the event exactly 1 n n probabilities times, 2 inn trials. n times, times,
terms
" " ...

of

463.

If

the

event

happens
happens r

times,
times
n

or more

fails

only

once,

twice,
chance

...

(n
"

it r) times,

or

that it happensat least r times in

; therefore the trials is

Pn + "Cy-*q
or

"CaPn-Y+
n
"

...

tv^r.
of the

the

sum

of

the

first

r +

terms

expansion of

Example 1. In four throws with throwing doublets twice at least ?

In
a

what pair of dice,

is the chanco

of

i
,

single throw the chance

5 throw doublets is

of doublets Now the

is

-^

or

do

^ o

and the chance

of

to failing
are

event required

follows if doublets

thrown
sum

four times, three

chanco times,or twice ; therefore the required

/l

is the

of the first three terms

of the

expansionof
19

h+d

5\4
.

Thus H.

the chance

"

(1+ 4.5

6.5-)=

-^

H. A.

25

386 Example
2.

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

of balls, of which are some A bag contains a certain number and is then drawn another replaced; white; a ball is drawn and replaced, find of drawing a white ball in a singletrial, and so on : if p is the chance in have been drawn trials. is to n most likely of white balls that the number

The

chance

find for what Now

so

and of drawing exactly r white balls is nCrprqn-r, is greatest. value of r this expression

we

have

to

nCrprqn-r"nCr-lpr-lqn-(r~l\
(n-r + l)p"rq,
(n + l)p"(p
+

long as

or

q)r.
r

But

p + 5

1; hence

the

required value of

is the

greatest integerin

p[n + l).
If
successes
n

is such and

is that pn qn failures.

an

integer,the

most

likelycase

is that

of pn

464. of
a

Suppose that

there

are

tickets in

for lottery the

prize

"x;

then

since each ticket is equally to win likely all the possessed

x
-

and prize, value of

sum

person who

tickets

must

win, the money

be
a

each pay

ticket is " for each

in other words
a

this would who

fair

to

hence ticket;
TX

person

r tickets might possessed

expect reasonably
any "n x one

"

"

as

the

priceto

be

paid for
is,he

his tickets

by

who

wished

to

buy them;

that

would

estimate
to

as

the worth the

of his chance.
:

It is convenient

then

in-

troduce

definition following

If p represents a person's in any venture chance of success and M the sum of money of success, which he will receive in case the
sum

of money

denoted

by pM
that

is called his

expectation.

465.
to
a

In

the
we

same

person,

may

is used in reference expectation value the phraseprobable use conveniently way

to applied

things.
1.
One purse

and 1 sovereign 5 shillings contains : a second first and placed in purse contains 6 shillings.Two coins are taken from the the second ; then 2 are taken from the second and placedin the first: find the probable value of the contents of each purse.

Example

The

chance

that the

sovereignis in the first purse is equal to the

twice and that it has not moved
at all ;

sum

of

the chances that it has moved

388
466. and We shall
now

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

givetwo

problemswhich

lead to useful

results. interesting
want

A and B Example 1. Two players their chances of set winning a ; games the of where sum p and respectively, his set : who firstmakes the player up

and n points of m respectively of winning a single are game p and q is is the stake to unity; belong to q determine the probabilities in favour

of each

player.

win the to do this he must Suppose that A wins in exactlym + r games; The chance of and m-1 out of the preceding m + r-1 last game games. this is "+^-10m_1p"-1 qr2h or m^~1Cm-1pmqr.
1 games, be decided in m + n and A may the set will necessarily Now 1 games, 1 games; or m+ or m + n win his m games in exactly m games, , that A wins the set by givingto r the shall obtain the chance therefore we 1 in the expression values 0, 1, 2, n m+r-1Cm_1pmqr. Thus AJs chance is
-

...

...

B's similarly

chance

is
n(nA-l\ 1.2
*

\m +
jm-1

n-2
ii

This

is known question

as

the

"

Problem

of

and Points,"

has

engagedthe

of the most eminent mathematicians attention of many It was to Pascal by since the time of Pascal. originally proposed discussed by Pascal and the Chevalier de Mere in 1654, and was

Fermat, but they confined themselves

were players

to the

case

in which
were

the also work tained obthe

to be of supposed

equalskill : their results

The formulae result and
we

exhibited of his

in

different form.
as

have

given are
a

to Montmort, assigned

they appear
The treated
same

for the firsttime in

was

in published

1714.

afterwards

in different ways latter the

problem
2.

was

by Lagrange under very fully

and Laplace, various

by

fications. modi-

Example

There

are

thrown at random, are exhibited shall be equal to p?

from dice with / faces marked that the sum is the chance what
n

1 to /; if these of the numbers

Since any
the number

be of the / faces may dice in which the of ways may

one

exposed on
fall is

any

one

of the

dice,
p for

/n.

thrown will have the numbers of ways in which Also the number is equal to the coefficient of xp in the expansion of their sum
+ {xl

x* + x3 +

...

xf)n\
n

for this coefficient arises out

1, 2, 3,.../can be taken

so

as

of the different ways in which to form p by addition.

of the

indices

PROBABILITY. x2 +

3-S!)
+ xf

Now

the above

expression

x11

(l+

...

')"

-("?)""
We
have therefore
to find the coefficient of xp~n

in the

expansion

of

(I x')n(I x)~n.
-

n(n-l)

.,.

n(n-l)(n-2)

.,,

and

-" "1 .r)

-

"

",
=

1+

nx

?t("+l)(w+ 2) "(n+l) * ' a;2

"

"

x3+...
in the

these Multiply

series obtain

and pickout together

the coefficient of xp~n

product ;

we

thus

n(n+l)...{p-l)
it

n(n+l)...(p-f-l)

\P -n

\p
-

-f
n

+ l)...(j"-2/-l) (n 1) M(;t
-

1.2

""

\p-n-2f
appear. The

where

the

is requiredprobability

series is to continue obtained

long as no negativefactors this series by/n. dividing by

so

This

problem is due
a

to De

Moivre of

in 1730 j it illustrates

method obtained ; he

published by frequent utility.

was same

and

him

Laplaceafterwards
more

the

formula,but
an

in

much the

laborious the

manner

existence

of

appliedit in cause primitive

attempt
has

strate to demonmade

which

to planets

direction may

in orbits close to the ecliptic, and in the same move On this point the reader the earth round the sun. as Todhunter's Art. Historyof Probability, 987.

consult

EXAMPLES.

XXXII.

c.

certain game A'a skill is to 2"'s as of .1 winning 3 games at least out of 5. 1. In

a

3 to 2

find the chance

2. A coin whose faces are marked is the chance of obtaining a total of 12 ?

2, 3 is thrown

5 times

what

it is 2 to 1 in favour of the winner 3. In each of a set of games of the previous what chance is the that the player who wins : game the first game shall win three at least of the next four ? There 9 coins in a bag, 5 of which are are the rest are unknown coins of equal value ; find what value of a draw is 12 shillings. the probable

4.

and sovereigns they must be if

390
5.

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

what is the chance A coin is tossed n times, odd number times ? itself of an present

that the head will

6.

From

2 sovereigns and bag containing 2

a shillings

person
pectation. ex-

is allowed

to draw

coins

find the value of his indiscriminately;

which is to be 7. Six persons throw for a stake, who first throws head with a penny ; if they throw in the chance of the fourth person.

won

by the one find succession,

one

1, 2, 3 are placedin a bag,and The replaced. operation being repeatedthree is the chance of obtaining a total of 6 ?
and faces the odds against the sum

8.

Counters

marked

is drawn withwhat times,

9.

A coin whose

are

are

marked 3 and 5 is tossed 4 times : what of the numbers thrown beingless than 15?

10.
3 dice.

Find

the

chance

of

throwing10 exactlyin

one

throw

with

A and B, are playersof equal skill, playing a set leave off playingwhen A wants 3 pointsand B wants games ; they If the stake is "16, what share ought each to take \

11.

Two

of 2.

12.
of

A and B throw

throwinga
13.

with highernumber

3 dice

if A throws

8, what is Z?'schance

A had in his pocket and four shillings out a sovereign ; taking coins at random he promises to give them to B and C. What two is the worth of (7'sexpectation ?

14.

In five throws
aces

with

die single
aces

what

is the chance

of

throwing

(1)three
two

exactly, (2)three

at least.

throw with 15. A makes a bet with B of 5s. to 2s. that in a single dice he .will throw seven before B throws four. Each has a pair of dice and they throw simultaneously until one of them wins : find B's

expectation.
the common cube,and the other the lowest face beingtaken in the the number on a regular tetrahedron, that the sum of the tetrahedron;what of the is the chance case numbers thrown is not less than 5 ?

16.

person

throws two

one dice,

17.
whose

bag contains
:

coin of value

J/,and
draws

number
one

aggregate value is

draws the coin 31

A person m. find the value of his

of other coins at a time till he

expectation.
1
are

18. If 6n tickets numbered 6n0, 1, 2, and three are drawn out, shew that the chance numbers on them is equalto 6?i is
3?"

placedin
sum

bag,

that the

of the

(6n-l)(6n-2)'

PROBABILITY.

3Dl

*Inverse
In allthe
our

Probability.
have hitherto considered it lias been
the
us causes

*467.

cases

we

that supposed certain event the

knowledgeof
as

which

is sucli

to enable

to

determine

produce a may the chance of problems

that
a an

happeningof the event. We have now to consider For example, if it is known of a different character. of of some in one has happened event consequence
of causes,

certain

to estimate the probability it may be required number of each cause bability beingthe true one, and thence to deduce the proof the the operation under of future events occurring
same causes.

*468. numerical

Before

the generalcase discussing

we

shall

give a

illustration.

and and

5 sovereigns Suppose there are two purses, one containing and 1 shilling, 3 sovereigns the other containing 3 shillings, lias been drawn : it is requiredto suppose that a sovereign that it
came

find the chance

Consider the event
assume
a

from

the first or

second

purse.

iV of trials ; then, since before number very large to be taken,we eacli of the purses is equally likely may be chosen in
^

that the firstpurse would 5 in of these 5

iV of the

trials,

and

sovereign would
1
x

be drawn

thus

8 5 times from would be drawn

-

sovereign "

~iV,or "N
1

the first purse.

lb

The 3
j

second

purse would

be chosen

in

of the

and trials,

in

of these

would sovereign times from

be drawn

; thus

would sovereign

be drawn Now

3 -JV

the second

purse.

number is otherwise an arbitrary ; 5 n times be drawn would let us put iV-16n; thus a sovereign from the first purse, and Qn times from the second purse; that is, it comes is drawn of the lln times in which a out sovereign JV is very

largebut

from

the

first purse

bn

times,and

from

the

second

purse

0?i

392
times. Hence 5 first purse
second A'

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

the
"

that probability and the

the

came sovereign

from from

the the

is 6

that probability

it

came

is

rr.

*469. directed the

It is
to the

that important
nature

the student's

attention

should made

be in

of the

that has been assumption

instance, preceding article. Thus, to take a particular die with it may throws in 60 a perfectly symmetrical although not exactly10 times, yet it will happen that ace is thrown
doubtless number
"

be at

once

admitted the will tend

that

if the number the number

more

of throws of
aces

is the

increased continually
of throws is
no

ratio of
more

to

and

to nearly

the limit

There

reason

6 another
; hence

why

one

face should

appear

oftener than of

in the

the six faces will have The which above is due instance
to James

long run the number of times that each appearedwill be approximately equal.
is
a case particular

of

Bernoulli,and was in 1713, eightyears published Conjectandi,

Bernoulli's theorem may

theorem general first given in the Ars

a

after
as

the

author's
:

death.

be enunciated

follows

that an event happensin a single trial, If p is the probability i t becomes is trials a then ifthe number increased, indefinitely of to the that the limit of the ratio of the number of successes certainty the number other number words, if of of trials is equal to p ; in be be taken number the to trials is N, pN. of successes may A proof Chaptervn. ofProbability, History in the is given in the article Probability of Bernoulli's theorem Britannica. Encyclopaedia See Todhunter's

*470.
number

An

observed

event

has

of mutually exclusive cause of any assigned

n

some through, Jiappened to find causes : required the being true one.

one
.

of a

the probability

Let there be that the

at

causes,

and

the before

event

took

placesuppose
'

that when the pr denote the probability the event has occurred exists the event will follow : after the it is required that the rth cause to find the probability was
...

of the probability Px, P2,P3, Pn. Let

existence of these

causes

was

estimated

r*1* cause

true

one.

PROBABILITY.

393

cry greatnumber JV of trials ; then the first cause and out of this number the event follows exists in PXN of these, there are p^^N trials in which the event in pxPxN j similarly

Consider

follows from
causes.

the second the number

cause;

and

so

on

for each

Hence

of trials in which

of the other the event follows is

;md

the number
',

in which is

the event the

was

due

to

the rth

cause
cause

is

the event 'P,.I\Nlience after

was

that the rth probability

the true

one

pJPjr+NUpP);
tli at the probability that is,
is

the event

was

produced by

the r"'

PrK
cause

Mvn
*471. It is necessary to distinguish between the proclearly bability of the existence of the several causes estimated before the

the event has happenedof any after probability The former are usually called cause assigned beingthe true one. and are a prioriprobabilities Pn \ represented by Px, P0, P and denote the latter are called a posteriori if we probabilities, have them by Qt1 Q", Q3, that we QHf proved the event, and
.

...

...

Qr

(PP)

'

of the event where pr denotes the probability of the existence of the rth cause. From of the We this result it appears that S (Q) evident as the event has happened from
=

on

the

hypothesis
is otherwise

lj which
one

and

onlyone

causes.

give another proofof article which does not depend on

now

shall

of the prethe theorem ceding enunciated the principle

in Art. 469. *472. member

happenedthroughsome one of a to find the proof mutually exclusive causes : required bability the true one. cause of any assigned being
An

observed

event

has

Let there be the

causes, and

the event before of these

took place suppose

was

that
at

of probability
...

the existence

causes

estimated

Pt, P2, Pz,

?-thcause

that when Pn. Let pr denote the probability exists the event will follow ; then the antecedent probability that the event would follow from the rth cause is prPr.

the

394
Let
true

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

Qr be

the

that probability posteriori

the rth cause

was

the

the true one that the rth cause was probability if this cause in existence, to the probability is proportional that, would producethe event ;
one;

then

the

. "

A._JL=
'"
_

"?"
.

pA

pA
"?,=

p.p,
Prpr
2

i s("?) s(PP)' Hpp)

.
_

(pP)

"

it appears that in the present class of problems the estimated as a first step; productPrpr, will have to be correctly are in many cases, however, it will be found that Plt P2, P3, Hence
...

all

and equal,

the work

is

therebymuch

simplified.

Example. There are 3 bags each containing 5 white balls and 2 black and 2 bags each containing1 white ball and 4 black balls : a black ball balls, from the first group. having been drawn, find the chance that it came
Of the five

bags, 3 belong to the firstgroup and

2 to the second ; hence

If

bag is selected from

-

the first group

the chance
4
-

of
=

drawing a black
2

4
,

ball is

if from

the second group

6
"

the chance is

thus px

p.2=
o

lh

^
lh

1_3o'

2~~25'
from
one

Hence

the chance that the black ball

came

of the first group

is

JL^/A
'

8\15
43*

35

\35"h25/
has
to
true

*473.
the the method

When of
cause

an

event

been

observed,we
the
we

are

able

by

Art.

472

estimate
one

of probability then

being particular may ; of the event happening in a probability of the occurrence find the probability we may
the
event.

any estimate other

second
of
some

or trial,

For from
cause

example,pr
rth
cause one

is the is

chance

that

the

event

will

happen

the

if in

and existence,

that the
causes

Qr; hence on a is prQr. Therefore the event will happen from the rth cause of the chance will happen from that the event some one
is the true
on a

that the rth the chance second trial the chance

second trial is 2

(2}Q)'

396
*474. be We shall
now

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

shew the

how

the

to applied

estimate

whose

truth of is assumed credibility

theoryof probability may attested by witnesses statements

to

be

known.

We

shall

what he believes to be the truth, suppose that each witness states is the result of observation, or his statement whether deduction, be or experiment; so that any mistake or falsehood must wilful deceit. and to not of attributed to errors judgment shall problems we the and although intellectual exercise, it will of any practical importance, as The class of the verdict of *475.
common
sense.

discuss be found

furnishes be that

useful

results cannot

regarded they confirm

When truth

speaksthe
made

it is asserted that the that is p, it is meant has

true

by

him

been

that probability number a large and that examined, p is number.

a person of ments statethe ratio

of those which *476. Two

are

to the whole

of

making
statement

bilities independentwitnesses,A and B, whose probaand truth the are p' respectively, agree in p speaking that the is the probability certain statement : what
is true %

the the observed event is the fact that A and B make Before the event there are four hypotheses statement. ; for same B falsely; A and B may both speaktruly speak truly, ; or A may both and B A B truly speak A may ; or may or speak falsely, four these of are The probabilities hypotheses falsely. Here

PP\ p(l~P\
Hence
same

P'Q-P)* (1-P)(1~P') respectively.

event,in which
as

after the observed

and

make

the is to that

statement, the
that probability

that probability it is false the

the statement pp
to
-

is true is

the

(1 p) (1-p');
is true

that the probability is,

statement joint

pp'

pp'+ (l-p)(l-p')'
of speaking the if a third person, whose probability Similarly that the the same truth is p", makes statement, the probability
statement

is true

is
./"//

ppp

ppY
and
so on

{1-p){i-p')(i-p")}
of persons.

for any

number

PROBABILITY.

397
it lias been other

*477.
have and taken
no

In the

article preceding of the event information

or

supposed that
made
as

we

knowledge
we

except
from

the statement
sources

by
to

B ; if

have

the be

of probability

the truth in

into account

of the statement, this falsity the probability of the estimating

must

various

hypotheses.
For the
a

instance,if A

and

is P, priori probability of the truth and

agree then

in
we

a fact,of stating

which

should

estimate

the

bability pro-

Ppp* and
Example. A, B, C, whose
There is

by (1 P) (1 p") (1 p') respectively.

"

of the statement falsity

"

raffle with 12 tickets and two prizes of "9 and "3. the truth of are ^, ", f respectively, probabilities speaking report the result to D, who holds one ticket. A and B assert that he has the "3 prize;what is D's the "9 prize, and C asserts that he has won won
a

expectation?
Three
C may
cases

all have

D may possible; spoken falsely.

are

have

won

"9, "3,
the

or

nothing,for A, B,

Now

with the notation

of Art.

472, we

have

prioriprobabilities

P-i
12
also

*i-12" *a-l2' ^3~12'

24
1133 1
X
~

P-A

P-".
'

1
*

Pi~2X3X5-30"
"

**~~2X 3
4 4 3 3

30

A_2

2_ 2 X5~3();

20

27'
="1. 13s. id.

hence

D's

expectation
With

="

of "9 +

"

of "3

*478. should made

respect to the results proved in Art.

that it
was

47G, it
can

be noticed

assumed

that the statement

be

in two ways only, that if all the witnesses so falsehood. the same they agree in telling If this is not that the the
two

tell falsehoods

witnesses

falsehood

; then

that c is the chance suppose will agree in telling the same that the statement is true is to the probability the
case,

let

us

and

that it is false as pp' to c (1"p) (1 p'). probability As a general rule, it is extremelyimprobable that two that c is so falsehood, independentwitnesses will tell the same c becomes usually very small; also it is obvious that the quantity
"

smaller
two

as

the number increase

of witnesses the

becomes

greater. These
asserted

siderations con-

or

more

that a statement probability independentwitnesses is true, even witness is small.

by
the

though

of each credibility

398

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

Example. A speakstruth 3 times out of 4, and B 7 times out of 10; they from a bag containing 6 balls both assert that a white ball has been drawn of the truth of the assertion. all of different colours : find the probability
There
are

two

their hypotheses ; (i)

coincident

it is testimony is true, (ii)

false. Here

Px

"1
=

6'
~

P-5P2
2~6'

^1-4X10'

"P2~25X4X10;
will

for in estimatingp.2 we must take into account the chance that A and B it has not been drawn ; this chance is both select the white ball when 11
X "r

1
*

5 Now therefore the

as

5
two

25

of the probabilities 35 to

hypothesesare

as

P^

to

P2po, and
35
"

that the 1; thus the probability

statement

is true is

*479.
of the

The

cases

we

have

considered

relate to the

probability
a case

truth

of concurrent

the testimony;

is following

of

traditionary testimony.
If A
account states that
a

certain event
or

took

place, havingreceived
from

an

of its

occurrence

non-occurrence

B,

what

is the

that the event probability The

event

did take

1 place

happened (1) if they both spoke the truth, (2)if did not happen if only ; and the event they both spoke falsely of them spokethe truth. one
Let
p, p

denote the

truth ; then

that A probabilities did that the event probability the

and take

speak the

placeis

pp'+ (l-p)(l-p)}
and the that probability it did not take
is place

p(l-2))+p'(l-p).
*480. The solution of the article preceding is that which has

but it is" been given in text-books; tions, usually open to serious objecfor the assertion that the given event happened if both A that is not correct except on the supposition and B spokefalsely be made the statement can Moreover, only in two ways. from his account stated A receives that it is expressly although for granted as it rests on be taken generally B, this cannot A'" testimony.

PROBABILITY. A

399
the interpreting

full discussion

and question, found

of the different ways of of the different solutions to which Times Yols. Reprint,

they lead,will
and
XXXII.

be

in the Educational

XXVII.

^EXAMPLES.

XXXII.

d.

four balls in a 1. There are ball is drawn colours they are ; one chance that all the balls are white.

bag,but
and

it is not

found

known to be white

of what find the

2.

In

bag

there

are

drawn and found are is left in the bag.

to be

six balls of unknown colours;three balls find the that no black ball chance black;

to have come either from London Clifton ; or the consecutive letters two ON are postmark only legible ; what from London is the chance that it came ?
on

3. the

letter is known

the chances of three runners, Before a race A, B, C, were to 5, 3, 2 ; but during the race estimated to be proportional A meets with an accident which reduces his chance to one-third. What are now the respective chances of B and C ?

4.

random

value ; a coin drawn A purse contains n coins of unknown at what is the chance that it is the is found to be a sovereign; in the bag ? only sovereign

5.

has 10 shillings and one of them is fcnown to have two 6. A man and tosses it 5 times and it always at random He takes one heads. the chance that it is the shilling what is with two heads ? fallshead :

and
are

colour; a ball is drawn bag contains 5 balls of unknown found to be red : if two balls is and in each case replacedtwice, find the chance that both are red. drawn simultaneously now
7.
A

8.
or a

purse

sixpence ; two
value of the

be a shilling contains five coins, each of which may drawn and found to be shillings are : find the probable

remaining coins.
of the three numbers a four. was

9.
thrown

and the sum A die is thrown three times, is 15 : find the chance that the first throw

A speaks the truth 3 out of 4 times,and B 5 out of 6 times : that they will contradict each other in .stating what is the probability the same fact ?

10.

400
11.
A

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

of 3 times,and B 4 times out of 5 ; from 6 balls of different a bag containing they agree in the assertion that that the statement colours a red ball has been drawn : find the probability is true.

speaks the

truth

2 out

12.
of the chance

One

of
two

pack of
are

52

drawn pack that the missingcard is raffle with A holds respectively.

a

cards

cards has been lost ; from the remainder and are found to be spades; find the
a

spade.

tickets and two prizes of value "5 ticket and is informed by B that C that he has the asserts while he has won the "b prize, won ,"1 prize : of B is denoted by ", and what is A's expectation, if the credibility that of C by f ? and

13. "1

There

is

10

one

four coins ; two coins having been drawn sovereigns find the chance (1) that all the coins another drawing will sovereigns, (2)that if the coins are replaced

14.

purse

contains

are are

found

to

be

give

sovereign.
15.

P makes a bet with Q of ,"8 to "120 that three races will be the three horses by A, B, C, againstwhich the bettingis 3 to 2, 4 to 1, and 2 to 1 respectively. The first race having been won by A, and it being known that the second race either by B, or by was won a horse D againstwhich the bettingwas 2 to 1, find the value of P's
won

expectation.
all either white or black,all From n a bag containing balls, ball is drawn which turns out numbers of each being equallylikely, a ball is drawn, which also and another to be white; this is replaced, If this ball is replaced, turns out to be white. prove that the chance

16.

of the next draw

givinga

black ball is

(n

"

1)(2n+ l)~l
.

coins have been distributed into m purses, n into each, find (1) the chance that two specified coins will be found in the same when and what the chance becomes r (2) purses have been purse; coins. examined and found not to contain either of the specified

17.

If

mn

A, B are two inaccurate arithmeticians whose chance of solving are respectively givenquestion correctly -"and y1^ ; if they obtain the their to 1 and if it is 1000 same making the same result, against find the chance that the result is correct. mistake,
18.
a

makes but one false statement in Ten witnesses, each of whom event in that certain took a six, asserting place ; shew that the agree odds are five to one in favour of the truth of their statement, even

19.

althoughthe

'prioriprobability of the event

is

as

small

as

^9

"

"

PRoUAl'.ILITY.

41 1 1

Local
*481. The

Probability.

Geometrical

Methods.

of Geometry to questions of Probability application aid of the the in Calculus; Integral requires, general, be which solved by can there are, however, many easy questions Elementary Geometry.

Example 1. From each of two off at random, and removed : what remainders is less than I?
Place the

equal lines of length I

is the chance that

portionis cut
sum

the

of

the

the lines parallel to one another, and suppose that after cutting, the questionis equivalent to Then right-handportionsare removed. is the chance of is what the the that sum right-handportions greater asking is than the sum of the left-hand portions. It is clear that the first sum the thus be than to less the or second; required equallylikely greater is probability Cor. chance Each
-

of two
sum

lines is known is not

to be of Z is
-

I: the length not exceeding

that their

than greater

Example 2. as likely as just

Of
two ; denote

If three lines are chosen at random, prove that not to denote the sides of a possible triangle.

they are

three lines one be equal to or greater than each of the other must of the other two lines is that its lengthby I. Then all we know to the lengthof each lies between 0 and /. But if each of two lines is known that chance their is it 0 be of random and sum even between an 1, length is greaterthan /. [Ex.1, Cor.] Thus the result follows. required

to a given circle : at random Three tangents are drawn the circle being inscribed in the triangle shew that the odds are 3 to 1 against formed by them.

Example 3.

lines P, (),11,in the same Draw three random plane as to these lines. draw to the circle the six tangents parallel
H.

and the circle,

H.A.

2G

402

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

it is evident that the circle will be formed of the 8 triangles so Then in 2 and this is true whatever be the original as escribed to 6 and inscribed ; result follows. directions of P, Q, R, the required

*4:82.

Questions in
solved

Probability may
aid of co-ordinate

sometimes

be

veniently con-

by
a

the
of

Geometry.
b are

Example.
random: find

On the

rod

length a

b+c, lengths a,

measured

that probability

no

point

of the

measured

at lines will

coincide.
AP = x and the line,and suppose PQ = a; also let a be must be less than b + c. measured from P towards B, so that x Again let from P' towards B, then y must AP' = y, P'Q' b, and suppose P'Q'measured be less than a + c.

Let

AB

be

Now hence

in favourable

cases

we

must
+ x,
or

have
x"b must ""
"a

AP'"AQ,
+ y

or

else

AP"AQ\ (1).

y"a for all the

cases

Again

we possible,

have
+ c)

x"0,

and

2/"0, and
Take
a a

c)
OX

pair of rectangularaxes
+
c.
=

and

make

equal

to

b + c, and

OY

equal to
Draw
x
=

the line y

+ x,

by represented

TML

in the

figure;and

the line

b+ y

represented by

KB.

Q
"A Then P'

W
are

B
c,

-0."Q
are

b-

K
a.

YM, EX

each

equal to

031, OT

each

equalto

ItXR,
.*.

The conditions (1)are only satisfied by pointsin the triangles and MYL while the conditions (2)are satisfied by rectpoints within the angle any

OX, OY;
the requiredchance
c2
=
"
.

{a+ c)(b + c)
*483. We shall close this

chapterwith

some

Miscellaneous

Examples.
Example
balls
r

are

1. thrown each

box

at random

is divided into m equal compartments into which n ; find the probability that there will be p compartments

compartments

containinga balls, q compartments each containingb balls, each containing c balls, and so on, where Z"a+qb +
rc

=n.

404
In

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

the

case particular

when

2,
S

the

chance required

=-

""

*-=

"

-4-

^ 3

(n+ 1)

~2(2n+l)'
If
n

is

the large, indefinitely

1

chance

is

equal to

the

when limit,

is in-

V^2
'
'

"*+!
fc + 1.'

of finite,
n

k + 2

fe + 1 and thus the chance is

"+2*
not
r

(ii) If

the halls

are

replaced,
r
"
-

r
'

2
-

r
" '

A; + 1
"

"

"

"

k+ 1

'

and

Qr=i
it

p,
r=K

(r-k
r

l)(r-k + 2)

(r-l)r

y
r=0

+ 2) ("--"+l)(r-ifc

(r-l)r

+ 2) + l)(n-Jfe (u-ifc

(n-l)n (n+1)
white ball= 2
r=0

The

chance

that the next

drawing

will

give a

Qr

"

Ii

(;i A)(u
_

/c+

1) l)

?i

(n + 1) r=0
*

s"(r-fc)(r-fc+l) (r-l)r
+ l) n("i

fc + 1

(n-k)(n-k

n(n

+ l) (/i-A-)(n-/v k~+2~ l)

Jfc+1
~k
which is
+ 2'

of independent

the number

of balls in the

bag at

first.

Example 3. A person letters are placedin the every letter goes wrong ?
Let un denote
. . .

writes

letters and

envelopes at random,

addresses n envelopes ; if the what is the probability that

let abed

the number of ways in which all the letters go wrong, and that in which all the letters are in their represent arrangement own envelopes. Now if a in any other arrangement occupiesthe place of an other. assignedletter b, this letter must either occupy a's place or some

of ways in which all the remaining n be displacedis un_2, and therefore the can numbers of ways in which a may be displaced with some one by interchange and the rest be all displaced 1 letters, of the other nis (n 1)""_2.
-

(i) Suppose

occupies a's place.

2 letters

Then

the number

PROBABILITY.

405

b does not occupy a's. Then in t he in since is fixed "'s conditions, a place, arrangements satisfying required must be all displaced, which can be done in h__j ways; the letters b, c, d, of ways in which a occupiesthe place of another letter therefore the number with that letter is (n 1)un-l ; but not by interchange

(ii)Suppose

i"'splace, and occupies

...

.-.

vn

+ ""_"); (n-l) (Mn_!

we 4-44,

from

which, by the method

n1
=

of Art.
we

find un

nun_1

( l)n(ttj Uj).
-

Also

0, tig
=

1 ; thus
,

obtain finally
i i

f1

(-1)'1!

in which the the total number of ways the is is therefore chance In required places ; Now
11 1

things can

be

put in

(- 1)"
_

[2
Tlie
some

|"+ |4

'""+

in

'

problem liere involved

is of considerable
a

modifications lias maintained of its many in works on It the Theory of Probability. and it was generalised by Montmort, by De

and in interest, permanent place

first discussed Moivre, Euler, and

was

Laplace.
*484. The here impossible methods. An admirable collection of problems,illustrating algebraical process, will be found in "NVliitworth's every algebraical Choice and with the Chance; and the reader who is acquainted Calculus consult Professor bility Crofton's article ProbaIntegral may in the Encyclopcedia JJritannica. A completeaccount of of the subject and development the origin is givenin Todhunter's Historyof the Theory of Probability from the time of Pascal to that ofLaplace. The commercial of the theory of Probability to practical applications transactions are beyond the scope of an elementary and of Probability is so extensive that it is subject to give more than sketch of the principal a

refer to the articles Annuities treatise ; for these we may Insurance in the JEncyclopcedia Britannica.

^EXAMPLES. L
throw What the odds in favour are with two dice ?

XXXII.
of

e.

throwingat

lea.st7 in

single

and 4 shillings. If theyare 2. In a purse there are 5 sovereigns drawn out one what is the that chance out by one, theycome sovereigns und shillings with ;t sovereign? alternately, beginning

406

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

what 9 ships out of 10 return safe to port, 3. If on an average at least 3 will arrive 1 is the chance that out of 5 shipsexpected all the tickets are blanks but one; each person 4. In a lottery retains it : shew that each person has an equal and draws a ticket,
chance of

drawing the prize.

and a second bag contains 5 white and 3 red balls, of and 5 red balls. From one them, chosen at random, drawn : find the chance that they are of different colours.

5.
contains

One

bag

4 white

two balls are

A, B, C, B, E throw a die in the order named throws of winning, of them ace : find their relative chances an one till the throws continue to an ace supposing appears.
6. Five persons
until

7.

Three

is the chance

squares that two

of
are

chess board being chosen at random, what of one colour and one of another 1
one dice,

8.
a

person

throws two

the regulartetrahedron,
case

the

compare

number on of the tetrahedron ; find the the chances of throwing5, 6, 7.

:

cube,and the other lowest face being taken in average value of the throw,and
the the
common as 3 : 2 ; and to Z)'s as 4 : 3 with each person, will succeed :

9. A's skillis to 2?'sas 1 find the chance that A in three twice at least. 10.
an ace

3 ; to Cs
one

trials,

chance

A certain stake is to be won by the first person who with an die : if there are 4 persons what octahedral of the last ? Two

throws is the

11.

players A,

of

equalskill are playinga

set,and B
wants

set of games

; A

to complete the wants 2 games their chances of winning.

3 games:

compare

and two shillings : a purse contains 3 sovereigns person draws one coin in each hand and looks at one of them, which proves to be a sovereign to be a sovereign likely ; shew that the other is equally

12.

or

shilling.
13.

A and B play for a prize and is to a die first, ; A is to throw win if he throws 6. If he fails B is to throw, and to win if he throws If he fails, A is to throw 6 or 5. again and to win with 6 or 5 or 4, and so on : find the chance of each player.

14. Seven persons draw lots for the occupancy of the six seats in first class railway find the chance that two specified : compartment (1) obtain that obtain opposite they seats,(2) adjacentseats on persons the same side.
a

15.

number

consists of 7

whose digits
.4
"

sum

is 59 ; prove

that the

chance of its being divisible by 11 is 16.

Find the chance

of

12 throwing

in

throw single

with 3 dice.

PROBABILITY.

407

with the numbers 0, 1, 2, ...G 7 tickets marked and replaced A ticket is drawn that respectively. ; find the chance of the numbers drawn is 8. after 4 drawingsthe sum 17.
A

bag contains

There are 10 tickets, 5 of wThich are blanks, and the others are marked with the numbers of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 : what is the probability when tickets in three the at 10 are trials, (1) replaced every drawing ? trial, (2)if the tickets are not replaced

18.

19.

If

taken integers

at random

are

shew multiplied together,

that the chance the chance

that the last

of digit
8 is + 4n

the
An
_

productis 1,3, V,or

9"i
"

9 is
Kn

"

; .pi

of its

being 2, 4, 6, or
10H-8'l-5n 10*

"

="

; of its

being 5

is

0 is and of its beinc:

and a metal two A purse contains two sovereigns, shillings form and size ; a person is allowed to draw out one dummy of the same at a time tillhe draws the dummy : find the value of his expectation.

20.

21.
to throw

persons A, B, C who

of money is to be given to the one of three first throws 10 with three dice;supposing them until the event happens,prove that their in the order named certain
sum

chances

are

respectively
/8\2
56

(ja)' W"
22.
2
-

and

[")'
truth
are

/7\2

Two
5
-

persons, whose

of speaking the probabilities that

a

and

assert respectively,

ticket specified is the

has been drawn

out

of a bag containing 15 tickets: what the assertion ?

of probability

the truth of

23.
two
are

bag

contains

"

of which counters,

one

is marked

1,

hand

marked 4, three are marked 9, and so on ; a person puts in his and draws out a counter at random, and is to receive as many marked it : find the value of his exthe number pectation. as shillings upon

24.
a

If 10

things are

distributed among
than

persons, is
_ ....

the chance
.

of

particular person having more

25.
If
a

5 of them

rod is marked in n points and divided at at random those points, the chance that none of the parts shall be greaterthan
"

th of the rod is

"

408
26.

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

and a three sovereigns two There containing are purses, one A and a t hree other and the sovereign. coin shillings containing shilling, and is not known droppedinto the other ; is taken from one (it which) and then on drawing a coin from each purse, they are found to be two this happeningagainif two more the odds against What are shillings.
are

drawn, one
27.

from

each purse 1

taken at random three points is formed by joining If a triangle odds the 3 to 1 against of a circle, are in the circumference prove that its beingacute-angled.

28. Three pointsare taken at random circle: what is the chance that the sum than the third ? determined is greater

of a the circumference on of any two of the arcs so

what into three parts, 29. A line is divided at random ? that they form the sides of a possible triangle

is the chance

and the contained 25 sovereigns, originally purses one and 15 shillings. One purse is taken by chance other 10 sovereigns is the : what and 4 coins drawn out, which prove to be all sovereigns the is and what contains this that chance able probonly sovereigns, purse value of the next draw from it?

30.

Of

two

taken at random line of lengtha two points On a straight are find the chance that the distance between them is greaterthan b.

31.

line of lengtha is divided A straight random taken at points ; find the chance that

32.

no

into three parts by two than b. partis greater

two

33.
measured shall not

If

on

at

line straight random, the chance

a

of length a + b that the common

c

lengthsa, b are part of these lengths

b
;

c2

exceed

is

"

ab

where

is less than the

or

also the chance is

that the smaller

lengthb

lies entirely within

a larger

"

(Jj

34.
measured

If

on

at

line of length a + b + c two lengthsa, b are a straight random, the chance of their having a common part which d is
+ a)(c+6)' (c
T
"

shall not exceed

7.

where

d is less than

either

or

b.

to each other, are passengers, A, B, C, D, entire strangers train which contains I first-class, m railway second-class, and n third-class compartments. A and B are gentlemen whose spective rechances of travelling a priori first, second, or third class are in each instance by X, fi, v, C and D are ladies whose represented similar a priori chances each represented Prove are by I, m, n. for all values of in the particular when that, X, fi, v (except case X : p : v=l. : m : oi), A and B are more to be found both in the likely of the same lady than each with a different one. company

35.

Four

in travelling

CHAPTER

XXXIII.

Determinants.

485.

The

present chapteris
and their
more

devoted

to

brief discussion of

determinants

elementaryproperties.The slight given will enable a student to avail himself of the advantagesof determinant notation in Analytical other Geometry, and in some parts of Higher Mathematics ; this branch of Analysis may fuller information be obtained on from Dr Salmon's Lessons to the Modern Introductory Higher and Muir's Theoryof Determinants. Algebra,
sketch introductory here 48G. Consider the two

homogeneous linear equations

a]x a2x
+

bly 0,
=

b2y 0;
=

multiplyingthe first equation by bsithe and dividing by x, we obtain

second

by

6
,

tracting sub-

This

result is sometimes

written ax
a"

bx -0,
b"
a

and

the

on expression rows

the left is called

determinant.

It consists form
each
be

of two
term

and

two

columns, and

in its

expanded

is the

product

of two

it quantities;

is therefore

said to

of the second order. The letters

"

b0

aa,

b2 are

called
are

the

constituents

of

the

determinant, and tile terms

ab. ",/",,,

called the elements,

410 487.
Since
a. a.

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

aA
of the

"A

a.

a"

it follows that the value the

rows

determinant the columns

into

columns,and

is not altered into rows.

by changing

488.

seen Again,it is easily

that
a, a"

a2

K
b,

6"
two

a.

that

is,if we
ive

two interchange
a

rows

or

obtain

determinant

ivhich

minant, of the deterdiffers from it onlyin sign. columns linear

489.

Let

us

now

consider
axx
+ + +

the

homogeneous
=

equations

bxy+
+ b2V + b3y

cxz

0,

a2X
a3x

c2z

o,
0.

c3z
as

By eliminating x,
a" (Kcs
-

y, z,

we

obtain
-

in Ex.
+

2, Art. 16,
-

+ bi Kc2) ("v*3vO

c,("A

aA)
=

""

or

a.

0.

This eliminant

is

written usually

o,

K h

c2 C3
determinant
a

and

the

on expression rows

the left

beinga

which

consists of the

of three

and

three

columns

is called

determinant

third order.

490.
the above

By

rearrangement of
may

terms

the

expanded form

of

determinant aX vV8
~

be written
" -

+ "a(6lC. + "2("3C1 hSC2) h2^\ KC3)

or

a.

412
492. The

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

determinant

ax

bl

cx

"** %
=

h2 b3
-

C2 C3
"

", (KC3
~ "

+ C,(" + hl "362) A (C2"3C/h) KC2) (C2b3CJ"")Cl(Ka3 6A) ""C")Cll bl(a2CB

~ ~ ~

"

hence
",

bx

ax
a

a2

b2
c.

(i
3

C3 the is

Thus

it appears
are

determinant

columns, or rows, of if two adjacent the sign of the determinant interchanged,

that unaltered. denote the determinant
we brevity

changed,but

its value remains

If for the sake of

ax

bt

cx

(l2

"3
then by (axb2c3), the result
we

h K
have
=
-

C2 "3

just obtained

may

be written

(VsO
we Similarly

("Acs)("AC3)of
tlie determinant
are

may

shew
=
-

that

(ci"A)
493.

(aAb3)
=

If
let D
two

two

rows

or

two

columns

identical the determinant For whose J)

=
"

vanishes. of the columns the have

+
2

be
rows

the
or

value
two

determinant,then
we

by

changing inter-

obtain is

determinant

value

is

"

D;
=

but 0.
a
1

determinant
we

unaltered; hence

D,

that is D

Thus

the
=

following equations,

A,1

"

aAn 2

aJLm 3
3

D.

If each constituent in any row, or in then the determinant by the same factor, multiplied by that factor.

494.

any

column, is

is

multiplied

DETERMINANTS.

413

For

tnax
ma2
ma
a

"

max
=

Ax

"

ma2

A2 +

maA

A3

+ a.iA,y, m(alAl-a2A2

which

proves

the

proposition.
of
one

Cor.

If each constituent

row,

or

column, is the
of another

same or

constituent the corresponding column, the determinant vanishes. of multiple

row,

constituent in any row, or column, consists of tivo he expressed the sum can as of tvio terms, then the determinant other determinants. 495.

If each

Thus

we

have

for the

on expression

the left
-

+ a^ A (ax

+ a2) + a3) + (a3 ^12 y12 (a2 +

(V,

M*

M3)

("v*i M2
-

aA)

which

proves

the

proposition.
if each constituent in any
can one

In like consists of
sum

manner m

terms, the

determinant

he

column, the as expressed

row,
or

of

other determinants. may shew that

we Similarly,

414
These

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

results may

thus be generalised; easily columns

can

if the

stituents con-

of the three the determinant determinants.

consist of m,

n, p

terms
sum

be

expressedas
Babe

the

tively, respecof mnp

Example 1.

Shew

that

b+
c
a

a-

"

-a3-

b3

"

c3.

b-c
c
"

b
a

+ b

The

given determinant
b
c
a

b
c
a

c a

b
c a

b
c

Of

these four determinants the first three vanish, Art. 493; thus the reduces to the last of the four determinants ; hence its value
=
_

pression ex-

"c
-

+ -ab)-b (ac "2) (c2

-

(a2 be)}
-

Babe

a3

b3

c3. 67 39 81 19 13 24
21 14

Example

2.

Find

the value of

26

We
67 39 81

have 10 + 57
0 + 39

19
13

21

57
39

19 13

21

14 26 19 13
24
2

14 26

9 + 72 10 0 9
=

24 10 0 9

72 19 + 2
13 + 1 10

24

19 13 24 13 24
1

21 14 26
+

19
13

2 1

0 9 -43.

24 + 2
=

24

10

19 13

20-63=

496.

Consider the determinant

as

in the last article

we

can

shew

that it is
+

equalto

qct

C2
6*

9C3

c"

DETERMINANTS.

415

and

494 Cor.]. of these determinants vanish [Art. the last two whose to a new determinant is equal one Tims we see that the given from the constituents of is obtained by subtracting firstcolumn of the determinant the first column of the original equimultiples constituents corresponding and of the other

columns, while the second

third columns

remain

unaltered.

Conversely,
a{
+ + qc} j)bx

b{

C2
a

a., +

PK

"7C2

^2
c"

c.

and is

what

has been

here

provedwith

true for any of the columns or equally that in reducing determinant a we may columns by a new column rows or or row

reference to the firstcolumn rows ; hence it appears

replace any
formed

one

of the

in the

following

way

Take and

the constituents
or

of of
one

the

row

or

increase

diminish

them

by
or

any
more

constituents columns. After may

or
a

replaced, responding equimidtij)les of the corthe other rows or of

to

column

be

little

often be columns

it will be found that determinants practice two more or rows by replacing quickly simplified for it is : example, simultaneously easy to see

that
ai
+

2}b} b}
~

qcx

c, "2 c3
as

"ll

+Ph2 K C1C2 a3+2jb3K-Qcs

% but in any modification of the must be taken to leave one row

Ct2
a..

b2
b"
c.,

rule
or

above

enunciated, care

column

unaltered.
the identity
stituents con-

Thus,
c,
+
ra

if

on

the left-hand

side of the last

were

of the third column

we respectively, by

replaced by
have the

cl+rali

c2 +

should

former

value

ra^ creased in-

ax

2"bt bx
"

qcx

rax
ra"

"a +

i'K K

vci

ra..

416
and of the four
one

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

determinants does not

into which

this may

be

resolved

there is

which

vanish,namely
ra,

pbs

qc2

ra
.

"9

Example 1,

Find

the value of I 29
25 ! 63

26
31 54

22

27
46

The

given determinant
3 -6

26-4l
31 54 -4 -8 1 26

-3x4x

9
-12

=:

-12

I -3
1

132.

0
0

[Explanation. In the first step of the reduction keep the second column diminish each constituent of the first column unaltered;for the first new column by the correspondingconstituent of the second ; for the third new diminish each constituent of the third column column by the corresponding
constituent of the second. In the second step take out the factors 3 and 4. In the third step keep the first row unaltered ; for the second new row diminish the constituents of the second by the corresponding ones of the diminish the constituents of the third by twice first; for the third new row the corresponding constituents of the first. The remaining steps will be
-

easily seen.]
Example
2.

Shew

that

a-b-c
2b 2c

2a b-c-a 2c

2a 2b c-a-b

(a+

b+

cf.

The
a

given determinant
+ b +
c a

+ b +

a+b+c
2b
c-a"

(a+

b+

c)x

11 2b b-c-a 2c

1 2b c-a-b

2b 2c

b-c-a 2c

b 0

2c

(a+

b +

c)x

1 2b 2c

0 -b-c-a 0

0
-c-a-b

(a+

b+

c)x

I -b-c-a

0
-c" a-

I
b

(a+

b +

c)3.

DETERMINANTS.

417

In the firstnew determinant the first is the sum row of [Explanation. of the original the constituents of the three rows t he second determinant, and third rows being unaltered. In the third of the new determinants the remains first column unaltered, while the second and third columns are the constituents of the first column from those of obtained by subtracting The remaining transformations the second and third respectively. ciently are suffi-

obvious.]
497.
Before
as a

shewinghow
we determinant,

to

terminan express the product of two deshall investigate the value of

+

"i"i

"A

^7,

"A

+ + +

Vi

a3ai +
From
as expressed

KPt + c*y, %% hA + Wi %%
495, we
the
sum

hA hA bA

ci?2 aia3 + c*y2 ^3y2

+ "2"*3

+
+

"3a3

bA hA "A

+
+
+

ri7-s

caya
c3y3

Art.

determinant can be of 27 determinants, of which it will be

know

that the above

sufficient to

: specimens givethe following

*1"S "2ft3 a3a2

these aia2a3
are

"3a3

respectively equalto
a.
"

"Ay,

a. "" a"

aAy2
C3

". a" ct"

a2

a. ct"

"3

*,

the first of which

out

it vanishes;similarly vanish.

of the 27 determinants
are

will be found that 21 The six determinants that

remain

equalto
ft a

Ay3 (a
that

Ay2

a2"yi
-

Ay3

aAy2
", "" ""

aAyd

a"" cc"

b.

is,

a. "x" a"

hence the given determinant other determinants. two 498. The

can

be

", "3 as expressed

is
a

the

product of

of two product
linear

determinants

determinant.

Consider

the two

equations
= =

axXx+ bxXa 0)
+ b^9 agXx

o]

(1),
27

H.

H.

A.

418
where

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

Xl
and

a^

a2x2\
we (1),

^=A*i+/W
for X, Substituting

.(2).
have
=

X2

in

(a^ + 6^) x, + (a^+bfij x2 + bfi2) + b2P}) x2 (atax xx + (a2a,

In values order that

0\
Oj

(3).
for

equations(3) may
than
+

hold simultaneously
must

of xx and

x2 other

zero,

we

have
=

a^

bfr
hold

axa2 +

bfi2

(4).

But

(3)will equations
case

if

equations (1)hold, and

0

this

will be the

either if

(5),

aa
or

b2 X2
=

if last condition

Xl

0 and

0;

which

that requires
a. a.

ft ft

.(6).
also
as

Hence hold ; and factors the the factor of

if

equations (5)and
the

(6)hold, equation(4)must
in

therefore

determinant in (5)and

(4) must

contain

determinants of the

dimensions

determinants

of (6) ; and a consideration shews that the remaining

(4)must

be numerical

; hence

"iai + " A

"ia, +

hA

the
on

numerical the two Cor.

factor,by comparing the coefficients of afyafl,

sides of the
a. "",

equations, beingseen
a*
aia2 of
+
+

to be

unity.

b*

a,a2 +
a'
+

bfi2
b:
holds

hh

The whatever Since

above

method

proof is perfectly general,and

determinant and be is not
as as a same

be the order of the determinants. the

rows

value
as

of

altered
rows,

when

we

write the of
two

columns,

the columns

the

product
in
pansion. exon

determinants ways ; but

several

expressed may these will all give the

determinant result

420
12.
Without
a x

HIGHER

ALGEBRA. that
z r

the determinants, prove expanding b y

c
z r

b
x
z a

1 P
r

P
a

13.

Solve the

equations
0.
^r

14.

15.

a"

(b-c)(c- a)(a b).

-

1
1

b
c

b2
i

16.

1
a

1
c

(b c)(c a)(a b)(a+

-

b+

c).

a?

c3
y
6
=

17.

x x
"2

(y-z)(z-x) (x-y)(yz +

zx

xy).

y2
zx

*2

yz

xy
a

18.

-la

+ b

+ a)(" + b). 4(b + c)(c

b+
c +

a a

-26

+ c

c+b

-2c
a-

19.

(b+cY
62
^2

2dbc{a+b+cf.

{c+ af

62

(a+bf
a

20.

Express as

determinant

f
c

b 21.
satisfied and shew

Find

the condition that the equation lx + be my + nz=0 may the three of values sets by b3,c3) (au blt c{) (a.2, 62,c2) (a3, ; that it is the same as the condition that the three equations
=

alx +

may

be

b1y+ ciz 0, a2x + b2y+ c2z 0, satisfiedby I, simultaneously m, n.

=

a3x +

b2y+

c3z

DETERMINANTS.

421

22.

23.

where

*j 1,can
"

be written in the form A-iB -C-iB C-iD

A + iB
to Euler
: can

hence deduce the

The
sum

following theorem,due
sums

productoftwo

each

offour squares

be

as expressed

the

offour squares.
Prove the 24. |1
1 1

identities: following bc + ad
ca

b2e2+ a2d2
c2a2 + b2d2

+ bd

ab + cd

a2b2 + c2d2
=
-

(b-c)(e a)(a-b) (a- d) (b d) (c-d).

-

25.
"

be be +

"

a2
ca

ca

b2
+

ab be +

c2
-

ab

bc

"

ca

ab

ca

ab

+ c)(b + a) (a+ b)(a+ c) (b

=

+ a)(c + b) (c
ca

3(b-c)(c- a) (a-b)(a + b + c)(be +

"

ab).

26.

(a x)2 (a y)2 (a z)2

-

(h-xf io-xf

{b-y)2 (b-zf (e-y)2 (c-z)2

=

(b-c)(e a)(a-b){y-z)(z-x)(x-y).
-

27.

Find

in the

form

of

determinant
2

the

condition

that the

expression
Ua? +
may
+ V@2+ Wy2+ 2u'Py two + 2 ic'aft c'ya
a,

be the
28.

of product

factors of the first degreein

ft, y

Solve the

equation:
u

+ a2x

w' + abx
v

v'+

acx

0,

w' + abx
c

+ b2x

u' + bcx
w

acx

u' + bcx
means

+ c2x

the expressing

result

by

of determinants.

422
499. in The

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

be usefully of determinants employed properties may linear simultaneous equations. solving be equations

Let the

axx a2X aja

them multiply A
,

+ + +

+ hxy + b2y bg +

cxz + c2z+
cji +

dx 0, d2 0, d^O;
=

and add the results, respectively by Alt -As, A.A A3 being minors of alt a2i aa in the determinant D
=

a, a"

*, ^3

"3
The

in Art.

coefficients of y and z vanish 493, and we obtain

in virtue of the relations

proved

(Mi

M*
may
-

M3)
shew 6 A)

(M

M2

Mb)

"-

we Similarly

that 2/+

(6,5, 6 A
and
-

("*A "*A
-

"*A) 0,
= =

+ c3C3) " + (dfi, dfia + d3C,) 0. fcff,e,C,

Now

"A

+ "A atA,

+ 6 A) (6,5, 6,5,
-

hence

the solution may

x

be written
"y
z

or

more

symmetrically
x

-y
a.

C3

Supposewe : equations

500.

have

the

system of four homogeneous linear

DETERMINANTS.

423

axx a2x a3x

ax
4

+ + + +

+ bxy + b2y + b3y + bAy W

c,s +

c2z + c3z +

dxu 0, d2u 0, d3u 0,

"

+ du cAz 4 4

0. in the article preceding

"

From

the last three of

x

these,we
"y

have

as

". %

"4
in Substituting
".

^2 ^ \ 4 64 "

the first equation, the eliminant is 0.

This may

be

more

written concisely

in the form
=

a2

bx h2
b.

c,
C2

C3
a. c.

dx (h "*3 d,

0;

the

on expression

the left beinga determinant that the

of the fourth order.

Also

we

see

their proper signsare contain and column which respectively 501. More if generally,
we

coefficients of "z,, bx,c,, dx taken with the minors obtained by omittingthe row these constituents.
n

have

homogeneous
=

linear

equations
axxx +
a2xx
+ + cxx3+ bxx2 + c2x3+ b2x2 + +

kxxn 0, k2xn 0,
=

a
"

x,1 +

b xa 2
"

+ ex, n 3

kx=
" n

0,
'

u involving

unknown and
a. a.

can

be eliminated

these quantities quantities xx, x2, x3, ...as,,, in form the the result expressed

0.

"
ii

c
n

424
The left-hand
n

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

member

of this
n

equationis

consists of

rows

and

columns,and

which determinant is called a determinant of

a

order. the IIthis of determinant here sufficient beyond the scope of the presentwork ; it will be which have been established in the that the properties to remark The discussion of this
more

generalform

case

of determinants
are

of the

second

and

third
to

orders

are

quite
of
1

and general, any order. For

capableof being extended

above determinant

determinants

example,the

of

the

nth order

is

equal to
or

+ (-l)"-1k1Kl, + c1C1-d1D1+... a1A1-b1Bl + (-1)"-1 + aBA3-a4A4+ anAn, ctlA1-a2A2

...

the first column. it from the first row or we as develop according letters stand for the minors of the constituents Here the capital and are themselves small letters, denoted by the corresponding be exof these may Each of the (n-l)thorder. determinants pressed of the (n 2)th of determinants of a number the sum as minant form of the deterorder ; and so on ; and thus the expanded
"

may

be obtained. of a determinant by means alwaysdevelop method, above,it is not alwaysthe simplest of find value the is much not to so object determinant, as to find the signs of its several

may the process described when our especially the whole elements. 502. The

Although we

expanded form

of the determinant

+ aAGi afi2G3afi3C2
~

+ a*hic2%h2Gx a2KC3 ;
~

and

it appears that each element is the productof three factors, taken from each row, and one from each column; also the one of half the of and terms the other half The signs + are signs
-

of the several elements element is element suffixes. in which cixb2c^ may The

The first may the suffixes follow the arithmetical order, be

as

obtained

follows.

positive ; we

be obtained

shall call this the from it

or
-

sign +

is to

leadingelement ; every other the interchanging by suitably be prefixed acto any element

DETERMINANTS.

425
the

cordingas
even or

it

can

be of

deduced

from

leadingelement
suffixes ; for

odd

number

permutationsof two

by an instance,

the element

3, therefore

is obtained by interchanging the suffixes 1 and a3b2c1 is obtained its sign is negative ajb1c2 ; the element

by

1 and

the suffixes 1 and first interchanging its 2, hence signis positive. 503. The determinant whose

3, and then the suffixes

element leading

is

axb2c3dA
...

may

thus be

expressed by

the notation
,

%^aJ"aeBdA
the 2
*

element indicating the aggregate leading of all the elements which be obtained from it by suitable can of suffixes and adjustment of signs. interchanges the Sometimes is used the determinant of 5 is still more within
"

before placed

element the leading enclosing

as an

simplyexpressed by thus (a^crf ...) brackets;

what

abbreviation

a,b"c"dA....
sign is
to be

Example.
the element From

In the determinant

(a^c^e^

prefixedto

a^c^e.,1

leadingelement by permuting the suffixes of a and d we get have a4b3c2d1e5 a4b2c3dxe5 ; from this by permuting the suffixes of b and c we ; by permuting the suffixes of c and d we have aib.ic1d2e5 ; finally by permuting the suffixes of d and e we obtain the required element rt4"3c1rf5?2 ; and since have made four permutations the signof the element is positive. we
504. If in Art. the the

the

501,

each

of the constituents
reduces
to
a

6
,

...

is

equal to zero it is equalto

and order,
we

determinant

; in other

words
"

productof ay and a determinant of the (n infer the following theorem. easily general
the constituents

l)th

column row or of the first of a determinant is zero exceptthe first, and if this constituent is equal is equal times that determinant to m, the determinant to m of lower order ivhich is obtained by omittingthe first column and first
row,

If each of

Also

constituent

any
zero,

row

the

and columns of rows interchange any into the first it follows that if can brought place, column has all its constituents or except one equal to determinant be expressed minant detercan as a immediately

since

by

suitable

be

of lower order. This is sometimes of determinants.

useful in the reduction and

simplification

426
Example.

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

each constituent of the firstcolumn Diminish by twice the corresponding constituent in the second column, and each constituent of the fourth column by three times the corresponding constituent in the second column, and obtain we

-3

5
4

505.

The

examples following
Prove
=

shew

artifices which

are

casionally oc-

useful.

Example

1.

that
b +
c

(a+

d)(a
-

b +

d)(a
-

d)(a+

d).

that a + b + c + d is a factor of the we see the and third rows first and subtracting determinant; by adding together from the result the sum and of the second fourth rows that we see a-b d is also factor i t shewn a-b-c be that a + c + d and ; similarly can d are factors ; the remaining factor is numerical, and, from a coma + b-cparison of the terms to be unity seen involvinga4 on each side, is easily ; hence we have the requiredresult.
rows
-

By adding togetherall the

Example

2.

Prove

that
:

(a 6)(a c)(a d)(b-c)(b- d) (c d).

-

a*

b*

d*
"

vanishes when b a, for then the first and second b is a factor of the determinant identical ; hence a [Art.514]. each of the expressions d is a factor of a Similarly d, b c, b d, c c, a the determinant; the determinant being of six dimensions,the remaining factor must be numerical ; and, from a comparison of the terms involving bc2d3 on each side,it is easily to be unity seen obtain the required ; hence we result.
are
"

The columns

givendeterminant

428
Solve the

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

: equations

12.

x+
ax

y+
+
+

0=1,
c2z l2.

13.

ax

by + cz=k,
b2y+
=

a2x + a?x +

a2x

by + cz=k, b2y+ c2z k2, b3y+ c?z= P.

=

14.

x ax

+
+

a2x + cfix+

u=l, by + cz+ du=k, b2y+ c2z+ d2u k2,

y+
z+
=

bsy+

c3z+ d3u

P.

15.

Prove

that

b+c"a"d

be
ca

"

ad
"

be

(a+ d)-ad(b-t-c)
"

c+a"b"d
a+b-c-d
=

bd
"

ca(b-\-d) bd(e + a)
ab

ab

cd

(c+ d) -cd{a

b)
-

-2

(b- e)(c-a) (a-b) (a-d) (b d) (c-d). \

16.

Prove a2 b2

that

a2-(b

"

c)2

be
ca

b2-(c-a)2
c2
-

c2

(a

b)2
=

ab

(b-c)(c-a){a-b)(a

+ b+

c)(a2+ b2 + c2).

17.

Shew

that
a

b
"

d
c

f
e

ABC CAB
B

f
e

b
a

d
c

f
e

b
cc

d
c

d
c

f
e

b
a

d
c

f
e

b
a

b
where

A=a2-d2

+ 2ce

-2bf,

B=e2-b2+2ac-2df,
C=e2

-f2

+ 2ae-2bd.

of its

is of the ?ithorder, and if the constituents of the first n figurate numbers ...nth rows are second,third, first, is shew that its value ...nth the first, unity,. orders, second,third,

18.

If

determinant

CHAPTER

XXXIV.

MISCELLANEOUS

THEOREMS

AND

EXAMPLES.

506.

We of

permanence
laws which

remarks the on begin this chapterwith some form, briefly reviewingthe fundamental algebraical shall been

have

established in the

course

of the work.

of algebraical we exposition principles proceed do the down and outset not at we new names : lay analytically our new ideas, but we begin from knowledge of abstract which Arithmetic are capable ; we prove certain laws of operation the general theory of of verification in every particular case, and constitutes the science of Algebra. these operations 507.
In the Hence it is usual
to

speak of
a a

Arithmetical

Algebra and
them.

bolical SymIn the

and Algebra., former and

we

to make

distinction
sense

between

arithmetically intelligible, in the latter operation ; of laws the Arithmetical assume we Algebra to be true in all of whatever the the nature symbols may be, and so find cases, out what meaning must be attached to the symbols in order that Thus transcend the we as gradually, they may obey these laws. limits of ordinaryArithmetic,new results spring up, new guage lanhas to be employed, and interpretations given to symbols in which not the definitions. At the were contemplated original from in the which the laws of time, same general Algebra way
our

define

symbols in

thence

deduce

fundamental

laws

of

are

we established, even

are

assured

of their

permanence

and

versality uni-

when

they are

not appliedto quantities

cally arithmeti-

intelligible.
508. the

Confining our attention the following laws are symbols,

definitions.

values of positiveintegral established from a priori easily

to

arithmetical

430 I. The Law of

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

Commutation, which
subtractions may b-c
=

we

enunciate in any

as

follows order.

(i)
Thus

Additions

and
a

be made b-c
+
a.

a-c

and (ii)Multiplications Thus axbxc ab-"-c II. The Law

=

divisions may

be made

in any

order.

axb=bxa;
bxcxa
a
x
=

axcxb'}

and b
=

so

on.

-=-

(a-f- c)x

(b+ c)xa.
enunciate
over
as

of

which Distribution, divisions may

we

follows additions

and Multiplications and

be distributed

subtractions.
Thus

{a
-

c)m
"

am

"bm
"

cm,

(a b)(c d)
"

ac

ad

"

bc

bd.

Arts. 33, 35.] [SeeElementary Algebra, And since division is the reverse law for division requires no The Laws of Indices.
amxan am
+
=

of

the multiplication,

butive distri-

separate discussion.

III.

(i)

am+n
3

aH

am-".
a

(n)

[a

[SeeElementary Algebra,Art.
These been laws
are

233

to

235.]

laid down

as

fundamental the

proved on the and and integral, positive above that the operations
If these conditions

that supposition that indicated

are

subject, having symbols employed are

to
our

they are

restricted in such

way

arithmetically intelligible.
Algebra
to be true

do not the laws

of Symbolical hold, by the principles of Arithmetical

to which interpretation

Algebra we

assume

and accept the in every case leads us. By this course

are Algebraical operation the particular their generality cases

this tion assumpassured that the laws of we are and that they include in self-consistent, of

Arithmetic. ordinary
we

509. Arts.

From

the and

law

of

commutation of brackets

deduce
we

the

rules

for the removal

insertion

Algebra, [Elementary
establish the law

21, 22] ; and

by

the aid of these rules

MISCELLANEOUS

THEOREMS

AND

EXAMPLES.

431

of distribution

as

in Art. 35.
"

For
"

it is provedthat example, ad"bc

are +

(a-b)(c d)~ac
with the restriction that
c

bd,

a,

b, c,

greaterthan b, and

greater than d.

and a positive integers, it is the province Now of

= =

all restricresults like this when tions Algebrato interpret Symbolical 0 and c Hence removed. a 0, we obtain are by putting is ("b)x ("d) bd, or the product of two negativequantities and obtain 0 6 c= a x ("d) 0, we ="a"I, Again by putting positive. is the two or ofopposite signs negative. quantities productof
= =

thus led to the Rule of Signsas a direct consequence and henceforth the rule of signsis of the law of distribution, laws of operation. included in our fundamental "We
are

laws are applied the way in which the fundamental of algebraical the reader is to establish the properties fractions, of the Elementary referred to Chapters Algebra ; xix., xxi., and xxn. 510. For it will there
cannot
to make

be

seen a

that
to

give any
them

definition priori

conform

to which we symbols and operations are so as always interpreted the laws of Arithmetical Algebra.

511. of the and

m

The

laws of indices

are

discussed fully
m

Algebra. Elementary
"

When

and

are

Chapterxxx. positive integers

an

in

n,

we

prove
=

from directly
am
-r

the definition of
am~n j

index

that

am xan

am+n ;

a'1=

(am)nam".
=

We
are

the indices the first of these to be true when free from all restriction, and in this way we determine meanings does definition not for symbolsto which our apply. original then
assume
p

The
are

for a\ interpretations found to be in strict henceforth the laws of

a0,a~"

thus derived

from

the first law

and with

laws ; with the other two conformity and be applied indices can consistently

perfect generality.
In

512.

Chapter vill.
i2
=
"

we

defined 1
.

the

symbol

or

J"

as

by obeying the relation of enabled laws the i are we to Algebra general making subject of the form a + ib, in of expressions to discuss the properties Such forms combined. which real and imaginary are quantities
From
are

this

and definition,

sometimes
to

called Articles

complex numbers,
92 to 105 that if

and
we

it will be

seen a

by

reference number and

perform

on

complex

addition,subtraction, multiplication, the result is in general itself a complex number, division,

the

operationsof

432
Also those since above every

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

rational is in

function follows

involves that
a

no

but operations function of

a

mentioned, it

rational

complex number

a general

complex number.
be

\og(x"iy) cannot Expressionsof the form ax+ly, treated without Trigonometry;but by the aid of De
theorem, it is easy to shew
that such A
+

fullyto

Moivre's

functions

can

be reduced

complex numbers
The form We but ax+i\ have

of the form

iB. included in the

more

ex+iyis of expression
another
seen

course

general

mode 220

of

it is treating

worthy

of attention.

in Art.

that

) (x\n
1
H
"

when

nj

is

infinite,
be

being

any

real

defined

by

means

quantity may ; the quantityex+i!/ of the equation

H
n

similarly

e*+iy Lini (1
=

\
x

when
,

is

infinite,

and

being any

real

quantities.
theory of complex Chapters x. and XI.
numbers of will be Schlomilch's

The found

development

of the

fullydiscussed in Handbuch der algebraischen Analysis.

513. We shall
now

give some
will often

theorems be found

and

methods and identities, 514. To

which in the

trating examples illususeful in proving

Theory of Equations.
ivhen any rational

of

is Let

find the remainder divided by x a.

-

integral function

fix) denote
until
a

f(x) hyx-a
x

function of x ; divide any rational integral remainder is obtained which does not involve
; then

; let

and R the remainder Q be the quotient,

f(x)
Since value R
we

Q(x-a)
x

R. unaltered whatever

does

not
x

involve
;

it will remain
a, then
=

giveto

put

f(a)
now

QxO

R;

Q is finite for finite values of

x, hence

.MISCELLANEOUS

THEOREMS

AND

EXAMPLES.

433

divisible by x exactly a, then function ofx f(a) 0 ; hence ifa rational integral a. x a, it is divisibleby x Cor.
=

If f{x)is

==

0, that

is

vanishes when

"

The 515. useful that we of

contained in the preceding article is so proposition giveanother proofof it which has the advantage the form of the quotient. exhibiting the function is of
n

Suppose that denoted by

then the

and dimensions,

let it be

+P-^""3+ p0xn+2\x"~}+P^"~2 -+P""

will quotient be of
n
-

1 dimensions
...

; denote

it

by

+qixn-2+q2xn-3+ +qH_l; q{fc"-x

let R be the remainder
not
x ; containing

then

+ +p.ax"~3 pjf +p1x-1+2"2x'-2 +P" + + q2x"~3 (x-a)(q0X^+ qix"~2

"""

...

+ R qa_x)

out Multiplying
we

and

the equating

coefficients of like powers

of x,

have

9.2-aQi=P2"
q3 R thus each
-

or

qs
" R

a4i+Pa'"
""i2+ ih ;

n2

ihi

or

oqn-%=Pn,

or

aqn_l +pn;

successive

coefficient in the

quotientis

formed

by

by a the coefficient last multiplying The coefficient in the dividend. next and of the quotient successive terms
thus arranged
:

formed, and

adding the

the process of finding the remainder be may

Po

Pi
"?0

P2

P3

Pa-X

Pa

Ct(lx Cl(l2 Cl(In-2 (l(2n-l %

-

% Thus R
=

qx +pn
"

v,

?.-,

x
=

+ P* +#.-i) (""?"-+ =P"P*+P^"~1+P/""n~2 +P,r

aq^

"""

If tlie divisor is x + a the this case the multiplier is a.

-

same

method

can

be

used,only in
28

H. H. A.

434
Example. divided by
Here the Find
x

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.
3a;7 a;6 + 31a:4+ 21a; + 5

the

and remainder when quotient

is

2.
-

is multiplier

2, and
14
14
-

we

have 00 -6 -6
21 12 12 5

3-10
-6
3

31
-28 3

-24
-

6
3

-7

11 the
mainder re-

Thus

is 3.r6 the quotient is 11.

7a;5 + 14a;4+ 3a;3

-

6a;2+12a;-3, and

516.

In the

example the preceding

representterms
This method
to
save

work

has been several

abridged
zero

by writingdown
of
x

only the coefficients of the

terms,

coefficients beingused to which

are

to powers corresponding

absent. used

be frequently

labour

the when processes, particularly is another The following rational and integral. are

Coefficients may elementaryalgebraical functions we are dealingwith

in illustration.
8.

of Detached

Example.

Divide 3a;5
1+ 2 +

8a;4

5a;3+ 26a;2

33a; + 26
+

by a;3 2a;2 4a;+

-

4-8)3-8-

5 + 26-33

26(3-2

+ 3

3 + 6 + 12-24

-5+2
Thus the
is quotient

3a;2
-

2;r + 3 and

the remainder

is

5a;+ 2.

the signof every It should be noticed that in writingdown the divisor, this been enables has us to replace the process changed ; term except the first of subtraction by that of addition at each successive stage of the work.

517.
Division.

The work

arrangement,

by the may be stillfurther abridged which is known Horner's Method as of

following Synthetic

3-2+

3+

0-

5+

of figuresto the left of the vertical line [Explanation. The column consists of the coefficients of the divisor, the signof each after the first being changed; the second horizontal line is obtained by multiplying 2, 4, -8 by 3, the first term of the quotient. We then add the terms in the second column to the rightof the vertical line ; this gives 2, which is the coefficient of the second term of the quotient. With the coefficient thus obtained
-

436
Put
z

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

0, then A

3, being the coefficientof x2y in the

we

pansion ex-

of Put B
=

(x+ y)3.
=

l, and

get 27

(3

6)+

B ; whence

6. Thus
=

(x+
x3 +
A

z)3
z3 +
+ + 3yz2 3x2y+ 3xy2+ 3y2z

y3+

3z3x

3zx2

6xyz.

with is said to be alternating when its signbut not its value is altered variables, Thus x of any pairof them. y and 520. function
"

respectto its

by

change the inter-

a2
are

(b-c)+

b2(c-a)+ c2(a
-

b)

functions. alternating It is evident that there

can

be

no

linear

function alternating

and also that the product of than two variables, more involving function and an alternating function must be an a symmetrical function. alternating

521.
the
a

functions Symmetricaland alternating denoted by writing down of the terms one

; thus

may and

be

cisely con-

prefixing

symbol %

%a stands for the

sum

type, %ab stands for the sum ab is the type; and so on. For instance, if the function involves
four letters a,

is the

of all the terms of which of all the terms of which

b,c, d}
^a-a
%ab
=

b
+

+ c +
+

d;
+

ab

ac

ad +bc

bd+ cd;

and

so

on.

if the Similarly

function
=

involves three letters a, b,c,

"
-

$a2(b -c) a2(b-c)" b2(c a) + c2(a b) %a2bc a2bc + b2ca + c2ab;

-

and

so

on.

It should be noticed that when there are three letters involved %a2b does not consist of three terms, but of six : thus

2"a2b a2b + a2c + b2c+ b2a

=

c2a + c2b.

The

symbol 2
two
or

may

also be
sets of

used

to

imply summation
xy

with

to regard

more

thus letters;
zx

%yz (b-c)
=

yz

(b~c)+

(c-a)+

(a b).
-

MISCELLANEOUS

THEOREMS

AND

EXAMPLES.

437
an

522. form the

The

above

notation powers
=

enables

us

to express

in

abridged

and products

of symmetricalexpressions : thus
+

(a+b + c)3
(a+
b
+
c +

%a3 2"3

32a2b 3$a2b i%cfb

%a2b
.

Gabc j

df
+

Gtabc;
6Sa"6fl + 1 2%a2bc;

(a+
%a Example 1.
Prove

b
x

c)4 %aA
=

2"2
that
-

2a3

(a+ b)5

a5

b* =

5ab

+ (a+ b)(a2

ab +

b2).

on Denote the expression 0 ; hence vanishes when a Again E vanishes when a"

; then E is a function of a which factor of E ; similarly 6 is a factor of E. = a a is is and therefore a factor of E; a + b b, that E contains ab(a + b) as a factor. The remaining factor must be of two dimensions,and, since it is symmetrical with respectto a and b, it must be of the form Act?+ Bab + Ab'z ; thus

the left by E
is

(a + b)5 a5
-

b5= ab
a

+ (a+ 6)(Aa*

Bab

+ A

b~),

where

and B
=

are

of independent
=

and b.
2A + B ;
=

a Putting

1, b 2, b

1, we
-

have 15

putting
whence
A
=

1, we

have 15

5A

2B ;
once

o, J5 =

5; and thus the requiredresult at

Find

follows.

Example 2.

the factors of
-

+ c3) + a3) ("3 + b3) (b-c)+ (c3 (c-a)+ (a3 (a b).

the expression Denote by E ; then E is a function of a which vanishes when a = b, and therefore contains a b as a factor [Art. it 514]. Similarly thus E contains (b c)(c a)(a b) as a contains the factors b-c and c-a; factor.
-

Also since E is of the fourth degree the remaining factor must be of the and since it is function of first degree; be of a sj^mmetrical a, b, c, it must the form M{a + b + c). [Art. 518];
.-.

(b-c)(c-a) (a-b)(a+
a,
=

b + c).
we

To

obtain M

we

thus by result. required

giveto may puttinga 0, 6

=

1, c

b, c any values that 2, we find M=l,

=

find most and we have

venient; con-

the

Example 3.

Shew
-

that z?= 5
+ y2 + (y+ z)(z+ x) (x+ y)(x2
z~

(x+
and

y+

-yb zjt-x5

yz + zx+

xy).

the left by E ; then E vanishes when Denote the expression on y=-z, therefore y + z is a factor of E; similarly and x + y are factors; z + x therefore E contains (y+ z)(z+ x) [x+ (/)asa factor. Also since E is of the

438
fifth degree the
in symmetrical

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

remaining factor
A

x, y, z, it must

is of the second be of the form B

degree,and, since

it is

+ y2+ z2) + (x2

(yz+

zx

xy)
.

Put"=2/=z=l;
put
whence
and
we

thus 10=^1+5;
2
=

x=2,

y=l,

0; thus 35

5A + IB ;
=

A=B have the

5,

result. required

523.
are

We

collect here occurred

"

for reference of

list of identities which

useful in the transformation in

=

of these have

algebraical expressions; many of the Chap.xxix. ElementaryAlgebra.

-

^bc (b

c) "(b-c)(c- a)(a b).

=

$a2(b-c) -(b-c)(c-a)(a-b). $a(b2-c2) (b-c)(c-a)(a-b).

=

2a3
as + b3 + c3
This
-

(b-c) -(b-c) (c-a)(a-b) (a+

=

c).

3abc

(a+

c2c)(a2+b2+ another

bc-ca-

ab).

identity may
=

be

givenin
+ +

form,

a3 + b3 + c3-3abc

l(ab

+ (c-a)2 + (a-b)2}. c){(b-c)2

+ (c-a)3 + (a-b)3 3(b-c)(c-a)(a-b). (b-c)3 + a)(a + b). (a+ b + c)3-a3-b3-c3 3(b+ c)(c
= =

Hbc

(b+ c)+ ab)

-

2abc 2abc abc

+ a)(a + b). (b+ c)(c

+ c) + %a2{b

+ a) =(b + c)(c (a+ b).

(a+

+ c) (be
+

ca

=(b

+ a) c)(c (a+ b).

2b2c2 + 2c V

2a2b2 -tf-fr-c*
=

(a+

+ c-a)(c+ a-b)(a+b-c). c)(b

EXAMPLES.
1. Find the remainder when
3^

XXXIV.
+ 1 1^

a.

+ 90#2

19# + 53 is divided

by

+ 5.

2.

Find the

equation a connecting
2xi-7x3+ax
3.

and
+ b

b in order that

may

be divisibleby

MISCELLANEOUS Find
_

THEOREMS

AND

EXAMPLES.

439

3.

the

and remainder quotient

_

when

jfi 5#4 + 9iV3

qxi

divided iqv + 13 j"s

+ 5 may
-

by x2
a

3v + 2.

4.

Find

in order that x3-7x

be

factor of
a.

tf 5.

2xA

4^ + 19.V2 Six + 12 + ^

Expand

^.^^.g

descending powers

of

to four

terms, and find the remainder.

Find the factors of
+ 6(c-a)3+ c(a-6)3. a(6-c)3

6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Prove

a4 (62
-

+ c2)

64 (c2
-

+ a2)

c4 (a2
-

62).
+

+ c-a)3-(c+a-6)3-(a (a+ 6 + c)3-(6

a

6-c)3.

(6 cf +
-

"

(c af
-

+ 8a6c. c(a- 6)2

+ c(ai- 64). + b (c4 a4) (64 c4)

-

+ (6c

ca

a6)3 J3**3 c%3

-

a363.
a4 + 64 + c4.
+

+ a)4-(a+ 6)4 + c)4-(c + (a+ 6 + c)4-(6

+ c-a)5-(c + a-6)5-(a (a+ 6 + c)5-(6

-

6-c)5.
-

(6 cf + (x b)s (c af + (x c)3 (a 6)3. (tf a)3

-

the
+ (6

identities : following
c
-

15. 2

2a)3 3(6+
=

c-

2a)(c+

a-

26)(a+

6-

2c).

a(b-cf
i0,

He-*)*
(a-6)(6-cr
2c
c

(c-a)(a-6r

c{a-bf _fl|M.g (6-c)(c-a)

17'"

J^
a

_?L
6+
c

(6-c)(c-a)(a-6)_3
a

+ 6

+ a)(a+6) + c)(c (6

18.

+ c-a)(c + a-6)(a + c)-2a3-2a"c=^" 2a2("

"-c)-

iy*

(a-6)(a-c)^(6-c)(6-a)^(c-a)(c-6)
+ c-2a)2 92(6-c)(6 + c-a)2. 42(6-c)(6
=

20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

ty+z)*(e+x)*(x+y)*=tx*(y+zY+2(^z)3-2^2z*'
^ ("6 c2) (ac- 62)
-

(26c 2a2). (26c)

-

"6c

abc 2a3 (2a)3 (26c)3

-

263c3 (a2 6c) (62 ca)(c2 a6).

=
-

5(6- c)3 (6+

2a)

0 ; hence

deduce 2

y)("+

2a)3
=

"-

440
25.

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

(b+ cf+(c + af+(a

If x=b+c-a,

bf-Z(b

+ a)(a+ b) c)(c
=

+ c3-3abc). 2(a3-\-b3

26.

c +

a-b,
=

b-c, shew that

63 + c3
-

#3 +^3 + #
Prove substitute s-".

g^g

+ (a3

3a6c).
if
we

27.

that
s-

the value of a3 + b3 + c3 3a6c is unaltered where b,s-c for a, 6,c respectively,

3s
=

2(a + 6 + c).

Find

the value of
"

28.

i (a-b)(a-c)(x-a) (b-c)(b-a)(x-b) (c-a) (c-b) (x-c)'

,

,w

/1

"_w_
c2
"

"

a2

"

b2
ft7

"

c2
;+77

b2

"

cz
wt

"

a2
x

a2

Z"2
'

29.

(a-b)(a- c)

(b-c)(b a)
"

(c-a) (c-b)
+

30.

(a+P)(a+ "l)
(a-b)(a-c)(a+x)

(b+p)(b+ q)
(b-c)(b-a) (b+ x)
32. s

(c+p)(c+ (J) + x) (c-a) (c-b)(c

'

'

31.

3__w^w
If
x

^. (a-b) (a- c)(a d)'

"

(a- b)(a c)(a- d)

"

33.

+ y +

s, and #yz

shew =""2,

that

'jp _y\(p__z\
,y"

p)\zs p)

fp__ A /".
_

#\
+

\zs

pj\xs p)

/" A /" y\ \xs pj\ys p)

_

4
'

"8

Miscellaneous
524. of the

Identities. established by making readily of roots unity;as usual these

Many

identities

can

be

of the cube use properties will be denoted by 1, w, o"2.

Example.

Shew

that
=

(x+ yf -x7-y7
The

+ + y) (x2 Ixy (x

xy +

y2)2.
x
=

E, expression,
contain xy
=

on

the

left vanishes
as a

when

0, y

0,

0;

hence it must

(x+

y)

factor.

Puttingx

coy, we E
=

have
+ ta)7 W7 {(1
-

1} y7= {(_w2)7 w7
_

!} yi

(_ w2-w-l)y7
as

0;
may

hence

E
x
-

contains
ury
as a

a factor ; and we similarly that is,E is divisible by factor; x

-

wy

shew

that it contains

x^ + xy or (x- ury) (x to2?/),

-

y2.

MISCELLANEOUS

IDENTITIES.

441

Further,E being of seven, and xy(x+ y)(x2 + xy + y2) of five dimensions, the remaining factor must be of the form A (x2 + y'2) + Bxy ; thus

(x+ y)7
-

x7
=

y7

xy

+ xy {x+ y)(x2 21
=

+ Bxy + Ay2). y2) (Ax2

Puttinga; putting
whence
x

l, y

l, we have 1, we

2^+5;
=

2, y=-

have 21
A
=

5^1 -2B;
=

7, B
=

7; xy +

.-.

(x+ y)7
-

x7

+ y7 Ixy (x+ y)(x2

y2)2.

525.

We

know
-

from
=

Algebrathat elementary (a+

b
+ + (a2 c)

aa + b3 + c3
also
we

3abc

b2 + c2 -be-

ca

"

ab);

have

seen

in Ex.
"

3, Art. 110, that

"

a* + b2 + c2
hence thus

be
"

"

ca

ab

(a+

ub

(a+ ore)

"a2b +

wc) ;
factors;

a3 + b3 + c3

3abc

can

be resolved

into three linear

a3

b3 + c3

3abc

(a+

+c) (a +

mb

(a+ arc)

"D2b+

wc).

Example. Shew that the productof

a3 + b3 + c3
can
-

dabc

and
-

a;3 +
SABC.

y3+

z3

Sxyz

be The

put into the form

A3 + B3 + C3

product

[a+ b + c) (a+ wb
+ (x

+ +

ore) (a+

w2" +

wc)

y+

z)(x+ uy

urz)(x+ w2y+ uz).

b+

By taking these (a+

we

six factors in the cry +

pairs(a+
and

c)(x+

y +

z);

u"b+

w2c) (x+

uz);

(a+

urb +

uc)(x+

wy +

urz),

obtain the three

products partial
A + B +

C, A
cz, B B +

+
"

wB + u-C, A+u2B bx + cy + az, C

wB +
=

+
cx

u)C,
+

where

ax

+
=

by +

ay + bz.

Thus

the

product (A +
=

C) [A +

u2C) (A +

orB +

"C)

A3 + B3+C3-SABC. to

526.
a,
a

In when

order these
we

find the

values

of

b, c
+

0,

are quantities substitution the might employ

connected

involving expressions the by equation

+

"

h the

k, b

ioh +

c (x"2k,

ufh

u"k.

If however method

exhibited

in the

involve a, b, c symmetrically the expressions is following example preferable.

442 Example.
If
a

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

+ b +

0, shew
=

that
+ (a3

6 We have

+ b5 + c5) (a5

63 +

+ (a2 c3)

62 +

c2).

identically

(1+ ax)(1+ bx) (1+ cz)

=

1 +px
ca

qx2+rx3,
r
"

where

"

+ b + c, q

bc +

ab,

abc.

Hence, using the condition given,

(1+ ax)(1-t bx)(l+ cx)

Taking logarithms and
(~
n
'

l+

qx2+ rx3.
xn,
we

equating the
xn in the

coefficients of

have

(an+

bn +

cn) coefficientof
=
-

expansionof log(l+ qx2+ rx3)

. . .

of xn in coefficient

+ rx3)3 + ^ (qx2 + rx3)2 + rx3) ^ {qx2 [qx2

rc By putting

2, 3, 5

we

obtain a3 + b3 + c3 a5 + b5+c5
=r'

a2 + b2 + c2

j"
whence

=*"

3"

T-=-"?r;
" '

"-

"

=
~

"

result at and the required

once

follows. is satisfied;hence

we

c If a=fi-y, 6 = 7 -a, a-/3, the given condition for all values of a, /3, have identically y
=

+ (7-")5+("-/3)5} 6{(iS-7)5
=

+ (a-/S)2} + (Y-a)3+ (a-/3)3} 5{(/3-7)3 {{"-y?+ (y- a)2

that

is,
+

+ ^ + (7-a)5+ (a-^)5=5(J8-7)(7-a)(a-i3)(a2 (/3-7)5 compare

72-/37-7a-a^;

Ex.

3, Art. 522.

EXAMPLES.
1.
If

XXXIV.

b.
when
n

(a + b + cf

(a+ b + integer
2.
Shew

cfn
that

+ 1

a3 + bz + c3,shew that a2n + 1 + b2n + 1 + c2n+ K

is

positive

+ (a+ a"2b + a"c)3(2a (a+ "ob+ a)2c)3

=
-

c)(2b
-

a)(2c
-

b).

3.
n

is

an

that (x+y)n-x1l-yn is divisible by Shew odd positive not a multiple of 3. integer

xy(x2+ xy+y2), if

4.
a3
-

Shew

that b3 (ex
-

+ (bz cy)3

azf +

c3 (ay

bx)3
=

Sabc

(bz cy)(ex az)(ay bx).

-

444
If
a

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

b+

d=0, shew that

+ c#"

a5 + "5+c5 23. 24.

g + + Z"3 (a3

g? + b3+ (?+ d3

a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 2

3"
c3+

-"

d3)2
=

(M

+ cda + da" +
=

abc)2 (be-ad)(ca bd)(ab cd).

-

25.

If 2s

+ b+
-

and
-

2o-2 a2 + 62 +
=
-

c2, prove
=
-

that

+ 5a6cs 5 (s b)(s c)(a2 a2)

+ a-2). (4s2 {s2 cr2)

26.

Shew

that

+ 3x2y x3)3 + (v3 + 6xy2 + 3.vy2y3)3 (a? + 6.2%

~

+ Zlxy (x+y) (x2

xy

+y2)3.

a5

27.

Shew

that 2

(a b)(a c)(a d)
" " -

a2 + b2 + c2 + d2

ab +

ac

ad+bc

bd+cd.

28.

Resolve

into factors
+ (a3

2"262c2 +

b3 +

abc c3)

+ c-%3 + a3Z"3. + Z"3c3

Elimination.

527.
a

In

system of
of
a

Chapterxxxiii. we linear equations may

have
at

seen

that of

the eliminant down elimination

of

once

be written

in the

form

determinant.

General

methods

plicable ap-

of any degree will be found discussed in equations treatises on the Theory of Equations we ; in particular may refer and of Dr Salmon's Lessons ductory Introthe student to Chapters iv. VI. of to the Modern Higher Algebra, and to Chap. xm. Burnside and Panton's TheoryofEquations. These methods,thoughtheoretically not always are complete, We shall therefore onlygivea the most convenient in practice. brief explanation of the generaltheory, and shall then illustrate of elimination that are methods more by examples some cally practito

useful.
528. Let
us

first consider
two

the elimination

of

one

unknown

between quantity Denote the

equations. equations by f(x)

=

Q and

""(x) 0, and suppose

=

that,if necessary, the equationshave been reduced to a form in which f(x) and ""(x)represent rational integral functions of x.
Since
some

these

two
x

functions vanish
which

there simultaneously the

must

be

value of

satisfies both

givenequations ; hence

ELIMINATION.

445

the eliminant expresses the condition that must hold between the coefficients in order that the equations root. may have a common

Suppose that
then be
one

a,

at least of the
zero

the roots of f(x) 0, x J3, y,... are must quantities "f" "f" "f" (a), (/?), (y),
= =

equalto
The

; hence

the eliminant

is =0. the the

"f" 4"(a) "f" tf) (y)

roots of

methods
529.
:

the left is a symmetrical function of on expression and the equation its value found by be can fix) 0, in treatises on the TheoryofEquations. explained
=

We

shall be

now

methods three general explain

our seen

tion of eliminaa

it will

sufficient for

example,but
The Euler.

it will be

that

purpose in each

to
case

take the

simple
is

process

of to equations applicable

any

degree.
in the

illustrated principle

following example

is due

to

Example.

Eliminate

between
cx

the
=

equations
gx + h
=

ax* + bx2 + Let x + k be the factor and suppose that

+ d

0, fx2+

0.
common

to corresponding

the root

to both equations,

ax3 + bx2 + and

ex

+ d
=

+ (x+ k)(ax2

lx +
,

m),

fx2+
n

gx + h

(x+ k)(fx+ n)

k, I,m,
From

beingunknown
these

quantities.

have identically we equations,

bx2 +
cx

+ (axs

+ d)(fx+ n) (ax2
=

Ix +
we

+ m) (fx2

gx +

h).

of Equatingcoefficients

like powers
-an

of x,
+

obtain

fl
gl+fm
Jd + gm-

ag-bf=0, cf= 0,
-

-bn
en

+ ah-

df= 0,
=0. unknown

hm-dn
From
n,
we

these linear

the equationsby eliminating

I,in, quantities

obtain the determinant

/
g h

ag-bf ah-cf
-df
0

0.

f
g

b
c

446
530. be very The

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

eliminant of the

Method
before.

as a expressed easily We Elimination. of

(x) 0 can f(x) 0, "f" equations determinant Dialytic by Sylvester's

=
=

shall take

the

same

example

as

Example.

Eliminate

between
cx

the
=

equations
h
=

axs + bx2 +
the Multiply

+ d

0, fx2+gx +

0.

first equation by x, and the second have 5 equationsbetween which thus ; we as distinct variables. x x4,xz,x2, regarded quantities succession ax* + bx2+cx
+

equation by
we can

x2 in x and eliminate the 4

The

equationsare

d=0, =0,
=

axi + bx3+cx2

+ dx

fx2+ fxs+ gx2+ fx4+ gx3+

Hence the eliminant is
0
a a

gx + h hx

0, 0,

ltx2

=0.

b
c

0.

d 9 h

0
h 0

0 0

f
9 h

/
9

/
531. The

it has the lower order than methods. and

of the following method principle the result as advantageof expressing either of the determinants shall choose the same We of

is due to
a

Bezout;
of the preceding

determinant

obtained

by
as

example

before,

mode giveCauchy's
Eliminate
x

the elimination. conducting

the

Example.

between
cx

equations
gx + h
=

ax3 + bx2 + From

d=0, fx2 +

0.

these

we equations,

have
a
_

bx2 +

ex

+ d
'

f
ax

gx2+hx
cx

+ b

+ d Jix
'

fx +g~
whence and
-

x1 (ag bf)
-

{ah~cf)x- df= 0,
eg
-

(ah cf) x2+(bh

-

df)x

dg

0.

Combining these

two

equationswith

fx2+gx

+ h

0,

ELIMINATION.

447
obtain h
-

and

x'zand regarding

as

distinct variables, we

for the eliminant

f
ag
a
-

=o.

bf

ah

-cf
eg

df dg
the form

cf
two

bh

-df

532.

If

we

have

of equations be eliminated the eliminant the form

=

"", (x, y)

"

0,
x.

then 2/)=0, "".,(#,

in already explained; If
we

y may this

by

case

any will be

of the
a

methods

function of

have

three
=

of equations

0, (*" y" z) ""

z between l"yeliminating

02 (^ y" z) ""
the firstand obtain second
two

03 (a;" y" *) ""

=

between

the firstand

third,we
=

and equations, of the equations "have

a

then form

V) ("" "A,
If the
we

""
these

y) ^ (x"

eliminate
=

y from

we equations

result of

form/* (a:)0.
in By reasoning this
n manner

it follows that

we

can

eliminate

variables between

equations.

of elimination already methods general explained but with the eliminants be employed advantage, may occasionally obtained are rarely in a simple so form, and it will often happen that the equations themselves mode of suggest some special elimination. This will be illustrated in the following examples.

533.

The

Example 1.

Eliminate lx + my

Z,m
=

between

the
=

equations

a,

vix-ly

b, Z2+ m2=l.

By squaringthe

first two

equationsand adding,

7-.c2 + m-x2 +

""V

*V

a2 +

"2"

that is, hence the eliminant

If Z = cos0, m= the eliminant of
x

+ y*) + /"2) (Z2 (.t2

=

a2 + Z,2 ; a2 + ZA satisfied that is, identically;

is sin $, the third

.t2 +

?/2
=

equation is
sin 6

cos

6 + y sin 6

cos

Z"

is

x2 +

y*

a" + b*.

448 Example
2.

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.
the

Eliminate

x, y, z between

equations y*
y
= =

z2 + x2=bzx, y*+z*=zayz,
v

x2 +
x

cxy.

We

have

*" +
z

z
-

-=a,

-+"

c5

togetherthese by multiplying
w2 z2 hence
2 +

three z2 z2

obtain, we equations
z2 sa z2

y2
X'

t/2
-

a;2

2/2

-2) (a2 2) + (62 2)+ (c2

-

abc ;

.-.

a2 + "2+c2-4
the

a"c.

Example

3.

Eliminate

#, ?/ between
=

equations
x2 +

x2-y2=px-qy, "xy
the Multiplying

qx+py,

y2=l.
by
y,
we

first equation by x, and xs +

the second

obtain

+ y2)\ Sxy~=p {x2

hence, by the third equation,

p
=

x3 +

Sxy2.

Similarly
Thus
.:

q p +

Bx2y+ ys.

q={x+y)3" p-q={x-y)3\
=
-

+ {x (p + q)*+ (p- q)* {x+ y)*

=

yf

2(x2+ y2);

Example

4.

Eliminate
?--z
v

x, y,
z
=

between
x
=

the
x

equations
y
=

a,
x z

b,

--^

c.

We

have

x(y2-z2)+y(z2-x2)+z(x2-y2)
a

xyz

_{y-z){z-x)(x-y)
xyz If we change the sign of x, the signof a remains unaltered ; hence a-b-c"

signsof

b and

are

changed, while

the

(y-z){z+ x)(x+ y)
xyz

Similarly,
and

b-c-a

(y+ z){z-x)(x + y)
=

xyz c-a-b
+ x){x^y) (y+ z)(z
=

xyz

ELIMINATION.

441)

.-.

{a^b+c)(b + c-a){c+ a-h){a + b-c)

-{ul~Z")2^~fJ^ztl
\z

y)

\x

z) \y x)
0.

-a?b-2c2.
i4
-

."

26V

+ 2c2a2 +

2a262

a4

c4 + a262c2 =

EXAMPLES. 1.
Eliminate
m

XXXIV.

c.

from

the

equations
a=0}
my + x=Q.

m2x 2.
Eliminate m, my +
n n a

"

?ny +

from
=

the

equations
"

m\v 3.

"

0, n2x

ny +

0,

mn

0.

Eliminate m,
mx
"

between
"

the
nx

equations
=

ny

"

(m2 n2),
r
r
"

+ my

2amu,

m2 + n2

4.

Eliminate p

p, q,
+

from the

equations
=

q+

Of a(qr+rp+pq)
the

2a-x,
"

apqr=y,

qr=

1.

5.

Eliminate

from
-

equations
a2 + x2
-

ax2 6. Eliminate
m

2a2x + 1=0, from the

3ax

0.

equations
??i), wy
the
xy
-

y +

mx=a

(1+
z

x"

(1 m).
-

7.

Eliminate a:, y, yz
=

from

a2, zx=b2,
+

equations c2, x2+y2+

=

z2

d2.

8.

Eliminate p, q from the

equations
=

x(p
9.
Eliminate
x

q)=y,
y a,

p-q

k(l+pq),

xpq

a.

x, y from the
"

x2

"

equations y2 b2, x3"y3

=

c3.

10.

Eliminate x, y from the

x+y
11.

a,

equations x2+y2 b2, #*+#*=c*.

=

Eliminate x, y, z, u from the

x
=

equations
+ cfo+ a#, +
=

by +
cfti +
z

cz a#

rfw} y=cz

fry,w
the

cu;

by+

cs.

12.

Eliminate x, y,

from
+
z
=

equations
= =

x+y

0, x2+y2+ z2 a2,
c5.

+ 25 aP+ff+sP^fc, ^,5+y5

n. h. a.

29

450
13. Eliminate

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

#, y,

from

the

equations
'

'

y 14.

z^x^y
#, y,
z

\y

zj\z

xj\x

y)

Eliminate

from

the

equations
=

+ x) ff2(y+z) y2(z
=

g2fo+ff) a^a!l(
c3

a3

b3 the

abc

15.

Eliminate
4

x, y from
=

equations
=

+ y 2) (.r2

ax

Z"y, 2(x2-y2)
the

ax

by,

xy

c2.

16.

Eliminate
=

#, y,

from

equations
=

+ #)2 46^, z)2 4a2yz, (2; (y-f-

+ (a;

)2 4c2#y.
=

17.

Eliminate

x, y,

from
+
=

the

equations

(x+y

z)(x-y

z) ayz,
"

(y+
x

x) (y
=

x)

6s#,

(z+x"y) (z
18. Eliminate a?,y from the

y)

cxy.

equations
=

x2y=a,
19.
Shew

x(x-{-y) b, 2x-\-y
=

c.

that
of

(a+6

c)3-4 (b+ c)(c+ a) (a+ 6)+ 5a"c=0

is the eliminant

cm;2+

+ cz2 fry2

ax

by +

cz

=yz

zx

+ xy

0.

20.

Eliminate

#, y from

the

equations
=
" "

ax2-t-by2=ax+by
21.
Shew
that of
=

=c.

"3c3+ c%3 + a3P=

5a2b2c2

is the eliminant

ax+yz
22. Eliminate

bc, by +
x, y,
z

zx=cai

cz +

xy

ab, xyz=abc.

from
+ y +

x2+y2+z2=x

z=l,

^(x-p)=-(y-q)=C-{z-r).
23.

Employ
ax3 +

Bezout's method
=

to eliminate

x, y

from
=

bx2y+ cxy2+ dy3 0,

a'x3 +

+ c'xy2 + d'y3 b'x2y

0.

452
538. Denote

HIGHER

ALGEBHA.
n

has of the nth degree Every equation the

and roots,

no

more.

by/(a;)0, givenequation
=
=

where
+

+ +2"2xn~"' f(x)=pQ"?+PJXT1

P*' this be

The

f(x) 0 has a root, equation is divisible by denoted by a,; then/(a)

=

real

or

imaginary;let
x-a},
so

that

where

Igain,
where

f(x) (x-ai)"f"l(x), function of n-1 "t" (x)is a rational integral 0 has a root real or *" the equation
=

dimensions
that

this be denoted by a2; then

"""

is

divisible by x-a2,

"0^^**
so

fa^^ix-aj^x),
is a rational integral "f"a(x) (* O *b(*" /(a") (" ",) Thus
n
=
~ -

function of

2 dimensions.

Proceedingin

this way,
=
~

we

obtain,as in Art. 309,

"

(a ^) /(") PoO* "i)

Hence when
sc

the

f(x)= equation
cannot equation

0 has

(* a-)* roots, since f(x)

-

vanishes

has any

of the values ax, a2, a3,...an. than n roots; for if x has have more ..."",all axi a2, a any of the quantities different from zero, and therefore are
x.

Also the
any

f(x)
may

value different from the factors on the right cannot vanish for that value of In the above
be
some investigation

of the

quantities al,a2,a3,...an j
shall suppose
are

this case, however, we these has stilln roots,although equation

equal;in

that

the

not

all different.

539.

To

the investigate

relations between the roots

and

the

in any equation. coefficients

Let
us

denote

the

by equation
+

xn+p1xn-l+2"2xn~2+ +Pn-lX
and the roots

P"

0"

j
(x-k)'}

by

a,

b, c,

k;

then

we

have

identically

x"+p1xn-l+2)0xn~'+ +Pn-ix+P"
=

(x-a) (x-b)(x-c)
have

hence, with the notation of Art. 163, we

xn

+ +Pn.^+Pm +paxn-* +plxH~l + (- iy-%-^ + Ssx*~* wT Sxxn~l

-

(" !)"","

THE011Y

OF

EQUATIONS.
of
x

453

Equatingcoefficients of
-

like powers

in this

identity,

%"x
"

Sl~ sum
S"
=

of the roots ; of the of products the roots taken

two

pa

sum

at

time;
"pB
"

Sa -sum

of the time ;

of products

the roots taken

three at

(" \)*p **SU productof

=

the roots.
on

If the coefficient of x" is poi then becomes ]?uithe equation

aj" +

each dividing

term

by

;-1 xn-l+]-^x"-2+
Po
Po

+P"=1X + P"=0
Pu have

Po

and, with the notation of Art. 521, we "

=

-", 2aft=", %abe -%".

=

abc...k

(- 1)"^
.

Po

V,
Solve the equations
+ ay + a2z =

P0

Po

Example 1.
x

a31 x

+
see

by + b2z
that

b*, x ", e
=

cy + c2z = c*.

these the cubic satisfy From

equations we equation

a,

are

the values

of t which

t3-zt2-yt-x
hence
z
=

0;
+

+ b + c, y=

-(bc+

ca

ab),x

abc.

Example
form the

If a, b,c are the roots of the equationwhose roots are a2,62,c2. 2.

-

equationx3+p1x3 +-PzC+pa=0,

The
or

equationis required
-

(y a2) (y c2)=0, (y b2)

-

(x2 c2) 0, (x2 a2)(a;2 62)

=

if y

x2 ; 0.
;

that

is,

(x a) (x b)(x c)(x+ a)(x+ b) (x+ c)

-

But hence Thus the

(x a)(x b)(x c) x3 +p1x2+p2x +pt

-

{x + a)(x + b) (x + c) x3
=

pxx2 +p."

pv

equation is required

(x3 +p1x'z +p*x -p3) 0, -pxx2 +p2x +p3)(x3

=

or or

(x3 +p")2
x6 + if we
-

(pxx2 +p3)2 0,
=
-

x4 + (p.2 2p1p.i) x2 p.2 (2ft j^2)

we

0;

and

replacex2 by y,

obtain
-

y2+ (p.? 2pdh) y -p:2=0. (2p,-p2)

454
540. in the The student

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

might suppose
enable

that the relations established him

to solve

a,

any proposed is relations to of the for the number equal the number equation; that is this not the A little reflection will shew of the roots. 1 of the quantities eliminate n we for suppose any case determine the remaining to and so obtain an equation b,c,...k article would preceding
"
-

in involved are symmetrically quantities shall always obtain an it is clear that we each of the equations, this equationis therefore coefficients; havingthe same equation stituted subof the roots a, b,c,...k with some one the original equation
one;

then

since these

for Let
us

x.

take for

example the equation

x3
+ + pxx2

p2x

p3

0;

and

let a,

b,c

be the

roots; then
a

+
ac

b
+

+ c

"]:"x" ps)
"

ab

bc=

abc=

p3. and respectively add ; thus

by a2, Multiplythese equations

rf that which The
=

a, I

-l\rf-l\u"-p3i
+
a

is,
is the

a3 +

+ p2a pxa?

p3

0,

with equation original process

in the is

placeof

x.

above

of elimination any

and quitegeneral,

is

of to equations applicable 541. If two

an or more

degree.
roots

of the
to obtain

by

the relation, assigned enable

us

will sometimes

equationare provedin Art. properties solution. the complete

an
-

of

nected con-

539

Example 1.
that the roots
are

Solve the equation 4.r3

in arithmetical
-

24a;2 + 23x + 18

0, having given

progression.
-

Denote of the roots is 3a ; the the roots by a b, a, a + b ; then the sum of the products of the roots two at a time is 3a2 62 ; and the product of the roots is a (a2 62) the hence have we equations ;
sum
-

3a

6, 3a2-Z"2
find

^, a(a2-62)=-|;
5
a
=

from

the first equation we

2, and

from

the

second
are

6="-,
a

and

since these values Thus the roots

are
-

the three equations the third, satisfy 1

-

consistent.

9
,

2,

"

THEORY

OF

EQUATIONS.
-

455
=

Example
Denote

2.

Solve the equation 24a;3

14.r2

(ftx + 45

0, one

root

being

double another. the roots by

Sa + b =
a,

2a, b\ then

we

have

2a-6=-^. ^, 2a2 + 3a"=--^,

obtain
=

From

the first two

we equations,

8a2-2a-3
3
.-. a
=

0;
5 25

-or--and"=--or-.
,

1 It will be found
on

25 6=
^

trial that the values

15

a=

--,

do not

satisfy

the third

2a26 equation

"

hence
3
a
=
-v

we

are

restricted to the values

5

b=--.

Thus

the roots

are

"

"

Although we make w e can equation,

to determine

542.

may
use

be able to find the roots of an of the relations proved in Art. 539

not

the values of
sum

functions symmetrical
of the squares and

of the roots.

of the

Example 1. Find the equation

the roots

of the cubes of the roots

x3

-px2 +
;

qx-r

"

0.

Denote

by a, b, c
a

then
bc + b+
-

+ b + c=p,

ca

+ ab + (bc

q.
ca

Now

a2 + b2 + c2 =

(a+
-

c)2

ab)

"p2 Again, substitute

",

2q.
in the and add; givenequation b+ thus

b, c for

a3 + b3 +
.-.

+ q{a + "?-p{a2+ b2 + c2)

c)-Sr
+ Sr

0;

a3 + b3 +

c3=p(p2-2q)-pq
=p3
-

Spq 4- dr.

Example 2.

If a, 6, c, d

are

the roots of

xA +px* +
find the value of Ha2b.

qx2+

rx

0,

We

have
ab +
ac

+ b+

+ d

(1),

+ ad + bc + bd + cd

q
-r

(2), (3).

abc + abd + acd + bcd

"

456
From these
we equations

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

have

-pq

Sa26 + 3

+ (dbc

aid + acd + bed)

Sa26-3r;

.-.

2a-b

3r-pq.

EXAMPLES.
Form the

XXXV.
are

a.

equationwhose

roots

1. 3.

|,"V" |,
2, 2, -2, -2, 0,
: equations

2.
5.

0, 0, 2, 2, -3,
a

-3.

4.

b, a-b,

-a

b, -a-b.

Solve the 5. 6. 7. 8.

a? -16x3+
-

86x2
-

1 76# + 105 36
=

0, two

roots

being1

and

7.

4r3 + 16.r2 9x
-

0, the

sum

of two
roots

of the roots

being zero.

4^ + 2(Xr2 23.r + 6 Sx3

" "

0, two of the
=

being equal.
in

26x2 + 52.27 24

0, the

roots

being
roots

geometrical gression. proratio of

9.
3:
4.

2a?

"

x2

"

22#-

24

0, two 0, one

of the

being in the
another

10.
roots.

24x* + 46.2?2 + 9#

"

root

beingdouble
of the roots

of the

11.

"r4

2^

-27^,2 + 6# + 9

0,

two

being equal but

in opposite

sign.
-39^2-26^7+
16
=

12.

54^

0, the

roots

being in geometrical gression. pro-

13.

32^3-48^2+22^-3
6#*

0, the roots being in arithmetical progression. 0, the productof 0, the

roots two

14.

29^

+ 40a3

1x -12

of the roots

being2.
15.
#*
-

2x* -21.r2 + 22.27+ 40

being
roots

in arithmetical

progression.
16. 27.274-195.273 + 494.r2- 520.27+ 192
=

0,

the

being in
the

metrical geo-

progression.
17. 18a3 other two,
+

8U2 + 121.37 + 60

0, one

root

being half

sum

of the

THEORY

OF

EQUATIONS.

457
-

18.

If a,

b,c

are

the roots of the

equationXs -paP+qx (2)

w

0, find

the value of

(1)
19.

^+1 + 162 c2 a2
'
'

+r

c2rt2 aaja

i,+
t

"

If a,
+

c are "",

the roots of .r3 + g'.r +

r=0, find the value of

(1) {h-cy
20.

(c-a)*+ (a-b)\
the
sum

+ (c + ")-i+ (a+ ?,)-i. (2) ("+ c)-i

Find

of the squares

and of the cubes of the roots of

rx

#* + 21.
Find the
sum

+ qx2

0.

of the fourth powers

of the roots of

x3+qx+r=Q.
543.
occur

7?i

an

with equation

real

coefficients imaginary

roots

in

pairs.
=

Suppose that f(x)

and
"

0
an

is

suppose that it has ib is also a root. that a The factor of

equationwith real coefficients, imaginaryroot a + ib ; we shall shew

an

to f(x) corresponding
a
"

these two
"

roots is

(x
Let

"

ib) (x
"

or (x ib),

+ a)2

b2. the

f(x) be
the

Q, and

+ b2; denote by (x a)2 then remainder,if any, by Rx + E

"

divided

quotientby

',

+ b2} + f(x) Q{(x- a)2

=

Rx

E.

In this
-

put identity
b2
=

ib,then f(x)
"

by hypothesis ; also

+ (x a)2

0 ; hence
zero

+ (a+ ib)

0.

Equatingto
and b

the real and Ra

+

imaginaryparts,
Rb
=

E=Q,
zero,
=

0;

is not by hypothesis
.-.

0 and

#
"

0.

Hence

is exactly divisible by (x a)2 that is, + b2, f (x) by

(x
hence
x
=

"

(x ib)

"

ib) \

a-ib

is also

root.

544.

In the
=

f{x)

0 has

article we have preceding of roots a pair imaginary

seen a
"

that if the tion equathen ib, (x a)2+ b2

"

is a factor of the

f(x). expression

458

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

the imaginaryroots are Suppose that a"ib, c"id, e"ig,... (x)is the product of the of the equation f(x) 0, and that cf" to these imaginary factors corresponding roots; then quadratic
-

+ /}.... + d2}{(x-e)2 + b2}{(x-c)2 {(x-a)2 "j"(x)

=

Now hence

each

for every real positive for real values of x. is alwayspositive (x) "f"

of these factors is

value

of x;

545.

As

in Art.

543

we

may
root.
-

shew in

that in

an

with equation
+

surd rational coefficients,

a

roots
a

enter

if a that is, pairs;

Jb

is

root then

a-

Jb
-

is also

Example 1.
that
one

Solve the

equation6z4

13x3

35z2

+ 3

0, havinggiven
sponding corre-

root

is 2

^3.
a

Since

know that to this pairof roots we have the

2-^/3
6z4
-

is

root, we
35a:2

is also a root, and 4# + 1. factor x2 quadratic

2+^/3

Also hence

13z3

+ 3

{x2
-

4x +

+ 11* 1) (6a;2

3) ;

the other roots

are

obtained from
=

6a;2 + 11a; + 3
1

0,
3
-

or

+ 3)=0; + 1)(2z (3a;

thus the roots

are

2 +

^/3, 2-^3.
of
-

Example

2.

Form of whose have

-

the

equation
is

the 3.

fourth

degree with

rational

coefficients, one
Here
-

roots

+ sj ,J2

we

must

/J2+
-

/J-3,J2-Jpair.

as

one

pair

of roots, and

"/2+

^/
-

3,

J2

3 as another

and

factor x2 have the quadratic to the first pair we + 5, 2/v/2x Corresponding factor to the second pairwe have the quadratic corresponding
-

x2 + Thus the

2fJ2x+

5.

requiredequationis
+ 5) 0, + 5) (x2-2fJ2x + 2,J2x (x2
=

or

+ 5)2-8a2 0, (x2
=

or

a^ + 2x2 + 25

0.

Example

3.

Shew
A2

that the B2
+

equation
C2
7

H2
+
... '

+
x-c

"

x-a

x-b

x-h

,=",

has

no

imaginaryroots.
-

If possible let p + iq be a root ; then p iq is also a root. Substitute these values for x and subtract the first result from the second ; thus A2
+ q2 i)2 {(p-a

B2

C2
'
""

H*
'

(p-b)2+ q2^(p-c)2+ q2
=

(p-h)2+

which is impossible unless q

460
Hence
we

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

see

an (i)

product each ambiguityreplaces

that in the and after

continuation

of

sign in
set

the

polynomial; original
the signsbefore (ii)
are
an

ambiguityor
at the end.
case

of

biguities am-

unlike;
unfavourable suppose that all from (ii) see we continuations; and
we

is introduced a change of sign (iii) Let the

us

take the most

replaced by of whether of changes that the number signwill be the same let us take the upper; take the upper or the lower signs; of changes of signcannot be less than in the number
are ambiguities + + + same +
as
-

thus

-+,

and with

this series of
an

is the signs

in the

original polynomial

additional
we

change of

signat the end.

If then and
"

suppose

the factors

roots to be imaginary to a a x corresponding therefore of no can equation change sign; roots than it has changesof sign.

to the negative corresponding each factor multiplied already together, root introduces at least one positive

have

more

positive

equation f("x) 0 are equalto those in sign;therefore the negative of /(^) 0 but opposite to them the positive of f(x)-0 are of /*(-#) 0; but the roots roots of these positive exceed roots number the number cannot of roots changes of signin f{" x); that is,the number of negative exceed the number of f(x) 0 cannot of changes of sign in /(- ""
=

Again,the
=

roots of the

Example. Consider the equationa;9+ 5x8

Here there
are

x* + Ix + 2

0.
are

two

changes of sign,therefore there

at most

two

roots. positive

Again /(- x)= x9 + 5x8 + x3-7x + 2, and here there of sign, therefore the given equation has at most three therefore it must have at least four imaginaryroots.
"

three changes are negativeroots,and

EXAMPLES.
Solve the
: equations

XXXV.

b.

1. 2. 3.

3xA

"

lO.'o"3 + 4x2 l"e3

"

0, one
=

root

being being2
-

^
N/3.
^1 ,J

6s4

35#2

+ 3
=

0, one

root

xA + 4-r3 + 5x2 + %x -2

0, one

root

being

1+

THEORY

OF

EQUATIONS.
root

4G L

4. 5.

X* + 4./,-" + G.f2 + 4x + 5 Solve another the

1

0, one

being "/-l.
"

equation x5-xA

+ 8x2-9x

15

0,

one

root

being

^3
one

and

"2J-

1.

Form the equationof lowest of whose roots is

dimensions

with

rational

coefficients,

6. 8. 10. 11. 12.

siZ+J^2. -J2-J^2.
Form the

7. 9.
roots roots

-J^l+J5.
N/5 + 2x/6.
are "

equationwhose equationwhose

5 a/3,

=l

*/
-

1.
-3.

Form
Fomi
one

the
the of

are

1"

"/- 2, 2" J
with

equation of the eighth degree whose roots is "J2 + J3 + x/ 1.

"

rational

efficients co-

13.

Find

the nature

of the roots of the

equation
0.
-

3xi + l2x2 14.

Shew that the

+ bx-4

equation 2.v7 xA +
-

4.V3

0 has

at least four

roots. imaginary

15.

What

may

be inferred

the respecting

roots of the

equation

a-10 -4a6 + xA -2.y-3=0? Find equation x"

16.

"

number least possible 0. o?" + xA + x2 + 1

the
=

of

imaginary

roots

of the

17.

Find

the condition that x3

(1) (2)

two roots the roots

-px2 + qx r 0 equal but of opposite sign; in geometrical progression.

-

may

have

18. If the roots of the equation xl+p.v3-\-qx2 + rx + arithmetical progression, shew that p3 4pq + 8r=0; and shew that p2s r2. in geometrical progression,
"

are

in
arc

if

they

19.

If the roots of the

1 xn equation (l-a)(l-/3)(l-7)
-

are =n.

1,a, /3, y,

shew
.

that

.,

If a, value of

b,c

are

the roots of the

x3-px2 equation
21. 23.

+ qx

-r

0, find the

20. 22.
If a,

Za2b2.

+ a)(a+ b). (b+ c)(c

(*!)"
+
are

$a2b.
qx- +
rx

b,c, d

the roots

of

xA+px3 +
25.

0, find the value of

24.

%a*b"

$a\

462
548. To

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

find the value of f (x+ h),when ofx. Junction integral

Let

f (x) is

rationed

+ +P2X"~2 +Pn-ix +Pn i then f(x)=pQxn+plxn~l + + h)"-* + h)n +2"2(x fix + h) p0(x +2\ (x+ h)H~} +2\-Ax + h)+Pn
=

Expanding powers of h, we
+

each have

term

and

arrangingthe

result in

ascending

+ +2^xn~2 Poxn-\-2\xn~l

...

+pn.lx+pn
...+

+ + (n-2) p2xn~3 {np^-1+ (n- ljjyrf-1

p^}
+

2pn_2} ^{n(n-l)p0x"-2 (n-l)(n-2)Plx'"-3+...

+
.

^{n(n-l)(n-2)...2.12"0}\nl
written usually in the form

This result is

/(" + *)=/(*)+ hf{x)+

and the functions

*J/" *j/-" *i/",

+

...

are f (x), f"(x),... f"(x), derived functions second,third,... oifix).

called

the

first,

The

student
see

who that

knows the

the elements

of the Differential Calculus

expansion of f(x + h) is only a of Taylor's Theorem; the functions f (x), case f" (x), particular down written the therefore at be once by ordinary f'"{x) may rules for differentiation: thus to obtain f'(x) we "romf(x) multiply of x in that term and then in f(x) by the index each term diminish the index by unity.
will above

Similarlyby
J

successive

differentiations

we

obtain

fix),

\X),

....

By writing

"

h in the

placeof h, we

have

+ f(x-h)=f(x)-h/'(x)

h'f"(x)Jff'"(x)+... %-f{x). {- I)+

The
to
x

function

f(x + h)

is

evidently symmetrical with

i

respect

and

h;
+

hence
,n

fix

+ h)=/(h)+ xf (h)

*r
"

(h)+

...

f/*(h).
\n

THEORY

OF

EQUATIONS.

463

denote the results Here the expressions f'(h)if"{Ji),f,"{1b)i h in the place of x in the successive derived obtained by writing
...

functions

f"(x),.... /"(#), f'(x),

If

Example.
Here

/ {x)
= =

2x*

xs

2xz + 5x
-

1 , find the value of

so

/ (x+ 3).

/ (x) 2x*

x*

2x* + 5x 4x +

1,

that

131 = / (3)
;

/' (x) 8z3

=

Sx"-

5, ana /'(3) 182

=

and -^ ^-)=12a"-3aj-2, 97;

=

QS-te-1, 23; and/-^3)

=

ii
Thus The

/ (x+ 3) 2s4 + 23r*

=

+ 97x2 + 182* + 131

calculation may, however, be effected in the next article. process, as explained

more

systematically by Horner's

549.

Let y
+

+ p2x"~2 + f{x)=p0xn+p1xn~1

...

+pn_lx

pn;

put x

"

h, and

suppose

that

then f [x)

becomes

Now

"

h;

hence

we

have

the

identity
+pn_1x
. .

+ p2xn~2 +... p0x"+p1xn~l

=

pn
-

h)n qo(x+qx(x-h)-1+

qn_x(x h)+

qn ;

also the

therefore qn is the remainder found by dividing f(x) by f rom the division is quotient arising

x-h;

q0(x-h)*-l+ql{x-hy-'+...+qH_i.
found by dividing the last Similarly qn_l is the remainder and the from the division is xh, expression by quotient arising
+ QAx-hT~3 9o(x-hT'2 +

-+Qn-2'}

and

so

on.

Thus qn, qn_1, qn_a, plained may be found by the rule exin Art. 515. The last quotient is q0, and is obviously
"""

equalto

j)0-

464 Example.
Find

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

the result of

changing x

into

+ 3

in the

expression

2a;4_^_2x2+5x-l.

Or

more

thus briefly

Hence It may

the result is 2xi + 23a3 + 97sc2 + 182x + 131.

Compare

Art. 548. in numerical

be remarked

that Horner's

process

is

useful chiefly

work.

550.

If
and

the variable

f (x) will function Let We

c c +

from a to changescontinuously changecontinuously from f (a)to f (b).

x

b the

h be any two

values of

between lying

and

b.

have

/("+*)-/(")=
and

+|/"(e); vw+"/"W+-

and enough the difference between/(c+ /i) hence to a small change f(c)can be made as small as we please; in the variable x there corresponds a small change in the function and therefore as x changesgradually tion/*^) from a to b,the funcf (x), from changesgradually /(a) to f(b).

by takingA

small

551.
to

It is

to important

notice that

we

have

not

f(x) always increases from

but fib),

/(a) to

fib),or

decreases

proved that from f(a)

that it passes from one value to the other without it may be increasing and at other any sudden change;sometimes "times it may be decreasing. The student who has
a

knowledgeof

the elements

of Curvefollow y
one

will in any particular tracing example find it easy to of value gradual changes by drawing the curve oif(x) then If f (a)and f (b)are of contrary signs f (x) 0 must lie between a and b. equation
=

the

=f(x).
root

552.

of

the

from changesgradually from f(a)to f(b), and gradually

x

As

to

b, the function f(x)changes

must

therefore

pass

through all

THEORY

OF

EQUATIONS.

4G5

intermediate

values;but
a

the value zero must value of x between

f(a)and f(b)have contrarysigns lie between them; that is, f(x) 0 for some
since
=

and b.
a

It does not follow that f(x)= 0 has onlyone root between and b; neither does it follow that if f(a)and /(b) have the same signf(x)0 has no root between a and b.
=

553.
root whose

of an odd degreehas Everyequation is to that of its last term. sign opposite

at

least

one

real

In the function then successively,

f(x) substitute
+ co,

for

the values

co

0, -co

If pn
"

oo

f(0)=pnJ /(-oo) -oo. then f(x) 0 has a root lyingbetween is positive, 0 and and if pn is negative f(x) 0 has a root lyingbetween 0
/(+oo)
=

and

co

which is of an even and has Every equation degree has least real at two and one roots, negative positive negative. 554. last term For in this
case

its
one

but and

/(+co) +co, f(0)=pn, f(-co) + co; hence f(x) 0 has a root lyingbetween pn is negative; and between 0 and root + co a co lying
=

f (a)and f (b)have contrary signs, 555. If the expressions odd number of roots of f (x) 0 will lie between a and b; and an have the same eitherno root or an even number sign, andi(h) "/*f(a) ofroots will lie between a and b.
=

is greater than b, and that a, /3,y, a k all of roots the 0 and which lie between b. a represent f(x) be Let "f" the when divided is the quotient (x) by product f(x)
. .

Suppose that

(x

a)(x /3) (x y) (x k ); then f(x) (x a)(x"/3)(xy) Hence f (a) (a a)(a /3) (a y)

" " " "

...

"

"

...

"

"

"

...

(x). (x )"" "/" (a k) (")"

"

/(8)=(5-a)(6-J3)(6-r)...(ft-K)*(5).
for otherwise a and "f"(b) must be of the same "{"(a) sign, root of the equation 0, and therefore of f (x) 0, would "j""(.x') lie between and b [Art. which is contraryto the hypoa 552],
= =

Now

H. H. A.

30

466
thesis. Hence if

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

/(a)
-

and

/(b)

have

the contrary signs,

ex

pressions (a a)(a-fi)(a-y)
have all
...

(a k),
-

(b-a)(b-P)(b-y)...(b-K)
must
are

contrarysigns.Also the factors in the firstexpression

the factors in the be second
are

and positive,

all

negative;
of

hence

the number
...

of factors must

odd, that is the number

same

roots a,

be odd. k must /?, y, if /(a) and /(b) have Similarly be

.
.

the the

signthe

number

of

factors must if a,
not
.

even.

In this

case

givencondition
less than
a

is satisfied it does and b.

all greater than a, or are /?, y, follow that y* (as)0 has necessarily
k
=

b ; thus
a

root between

556.

If a,

b,c, ...k are

=

the roots of the

equation /(x) 0,then

=
...

/ (x)
Here If
r

(x j?0
"

a)(x-b)(x c)
"

(x k).
"

the

of them

k are not necessarily unequal. quantities a, b, c, then t to to to s are b, equal a, c, (x b)s (x c)' /(x) p0 (x a)r
... . . .

"

"

In

this 0
as

case

it is convenient

still to

/{x)
"

havingn

roots,each of the

speak of the equation equalroots beingconsidered

distinct root.

557.
f equation Let then

1/ the equation f(x) 0 has r roots equal to will 1 roots equal 0 have to a. r (x)
=
=
"

a, then

the

be the quotient when ""(#) /(x) (x a)r$"{x).

=
"

/(x) is

divided

by (x a)r ;
"

Write

h in the

placeof
+
=

x;

thus
+

/(x

h) (x-a

h)r 4"(x+h);
.

+ "'(x) + .-../(")

%/"(x)+..
+ +
.

Ux-a)r r(x-a)r-xh ...\U(x) hcf"'(x)+~ "}""(x)+ ...]

+

In this

the identity, by equating

-

coefficients of
-

A, we

have

/'(x)=r(x ay-'^x) + (x a)r $ (x).

contains the Thus/'(aj) the equation is, /' (x) 0
=

factor has
?"
-

x-a

1 roots

r-\ repeated to equal a.

times;that

4fi8
560 We have
seen

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

f'\x) f"tx\
=

roots that if the equation/^)0 has r But to /(a) 0 has r 1 roots equal a. equalto a, the equation hence the equation of f (x); r(x) is the first derived function the equation roots equalto a; similarly 0 must have r-2 IheseL 3 roots equalto a; and so on. have r o must discover the equal considerations will sometimes enable us to the method ot Art. 559. roots of f(x) 0 with less trouble than
= =
-

561. prove that

If

a,

b, c, ...k

are

the roots

of the equation f (x) 0, to

=

f(x) v
'

M+M
x-a

x-b

M+...+lWk.
x-c

x-k

We

have
+

fix) (x- a) (x-b) (x-c)

=

...

(x-k);

writingx

h in the
=
-

of place
+

x,
4-

f (x+ h) (x
But

h)(x
-

h)(x-c
+ (x)

h)

...

(x-k
',

h)

...

(1).

f(x +

h )=/(").+ hf

r^

/" (")+...
in the

hence member

f(x)
of

equal to the as (1);therefore,

is
...

coefficient of h in Art.

right-hand
...;

163,
...

f(x)= (x-b)(x-c)
, that is,
"

(x-k) + (x-a)(x- c)

(x-k)+ f(x)
-/^/
x
"

f'(x)
=

*,,

Ax) J^^x
"

+^-{
x-b

Ax)
+

Ax) ^-J
x
"

+...

562.
to find the

The
sum

result of the of
an

article enables us very easily preceding assigned power of the roots of an equation.
the
sum

'"

Example. equation

If Sk denote

of the
t=

fcthpowers

of the roots

of the

x5+px* + qx2+
S4, S6 and S_4.

0,

find the value of Let then

+ qx* + f(x)=x5+pxli

t',

/' (x) 5x*

=

4ps3+ 2qx.
a4 +

Now
and

Z^=rf+(a+P)x3+
so a

fix)

+ ap)x2+(a* (a2 + a2p+ q)x +

a?p+

aq-,

similar

hold for expressions

/(*)
x-b'

fw
x-c'

/")
x-d'

/w
x-e'

THEUltY

OF

EQUATIONS.

409

Hence 5ar* +

by addition,
+ + 5p)x?+ (S2 (St +pSJ
+

4px*+ 2qx =5x*

x2
+

{Si +pS2 + 5q)x 8X

p ;

{S4 +p83 + qSJ.

By equating coefficients,

S1+ 5p S2+pSl S3+pS2 S4+pS3

+ + oq

"p, whence 0, whence 2q, whence

."

S2=pz; S3
=
-

p%-Sq;

qSx 0, whence
=

S4=pi + 4j)q.
k, we proceed as follows.

To find the value of Sk for other values of

the givenequation Multiplying by #*~5, x* +pxk~1+

for Substituting
x

+ to*-5 qx*~3

0.

in succession the values

results, we
Put k whence Put k whence
To find
=
=

obtain
5 ; thus

a, b, c, d, e and + tSk_5 0. Sk +pSk_x + qSk_3

=

adding the

S5+pS4 S5
=

+
-

qS2+
-

5t =

0,

-p5 op2q
+

bt.
=

6 ; thus

S6+pS5

qS3+ tSx 0,

+ Sq2+ bpt. S6=p6 + 6p'*q

5_4,put

4, 3, 2, 1 in succession;then
+

Si+pS3

whence qS1+ *#_! (),

=

S_x 0;
=

2,/

S3+pS2

5q + tS_2 0, whence
= =

S_.2=
=

"

+ qS-1+ tS_3 0, whence S.2+pS1

S_3 0; "_4
=

S1+ 5p + qS_2 + tS_4 0, whence

=

Ap
-

563.
as

When in the

the

coefficients

are
-

numerical

we

may

also proceed

following example.
the
sum

Example.

Find

of the fourth powers

of the roots of

x*-2x2
Here

+ x-l
+ +

0.

f(x)
= =

x*-2x2

x-l,
l.

f'(x) Sx2-"x
Also
*

f(x)

/ -.-'
=

+
xa

x"b
a

x-c

/l
=

a2
+

a3
"+...

+_+x-

\x
O
=

Xs
Oo o"

x*

i",

-+"
X X~

"

X3

X*

470
the

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

hence which

#4

is

equal to

coefficientof

in the

of f'{x)by f(x), quotient of

is very

obtained by conveniently
1 2 -1 1

the method

division synthetic

as

follows :
3-4
+

1
+ 3

6-3

4-2

2 2 + 2

4-

10-5
3 + 2 + 2 + 5 + 10 + 3 2
+ -2 +

+ 5

Hence

the

is quotient

2 -3 +

5
-4 +

10
-g +

thus

S.

10.

EXAMPLES.
1. If If If If If

XXXV.

c.

f{x)

xA

10^

+ 39#2 + 76o;+ +

65, find the value of f(x

4).

2.
3.

f(x)=xi-

I2x3 + 11x2-9x
-

1,find the value of/(#+ 3).

/(#)
=

2#4
+

13#2 16^
+

10a;

19,find the value of f(x + 1).

-

4. 5. 6.
between

f(x)=x*
=

12x2 + 64a;
ex

129, find the value of f(x

"
-

4).

f(x) ax9 + bx5 +

that
-

find the value of /(# + /i)f(co It). c",

-

Shew 0 and

the

equation 10a*3 equationx*

between
-

17#2 +#+6=0

has

root

1.
-

7. Shew that the between 2 and 3 and one

5x3 + Sx2 + 35#

-

70

0 has

root

2 and
-

3.
-

8. Shew that the equation x* l"2x2+ I2x between 4 and another between 2 and 3. 3 and
-

3 =0

has

root

9.

Shew
a

that x5

+
-

5x*

20x2
-

19a;

0 has

root between

2 and

3, and

root between

4 and

5.
:

Solve the 10. 12. 13. 15. 16. 17.

which have equalroots following equations

=

a;4-9a;2 + 4a;+12

0.

11.

^-6^
108=0.

+ 12^_

1007 + 3

0.

a,-513#*+67#3- 17la;2 + 216^-

x5-x3 + 4x2-3x xG-3x5

x6
-

0. + 2
-

14.
=

8^ + 4^3-18^+11^-2=0.

6x3-3x2-3x
-

0. 18a; + 18
=

2x*

4xA + 12a,*3 Sx2

0.
=

xi-(a + b)x*-a(a-b)x2+ ai(a+ b)x-a3b

Q.

TRANSFORMATION

OF

EQUATIONS.
have
common

471

Find roots
:

the solutions of the

which equations following

=

18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

2s*

2a-3 + x2 + 3x -6
-

0, 4#* 0, 6^4 +

2s3 + 3x -9
1 3a;3
-

0.
=

4#* + 1 2x*

#2 -15.*;

4a;2
-

1 bx

0.

Find the condition that Shew that xi +

+ qx2
s
=

+ x1l-px2

r=0

may three

have

equalroots.

0 cannot
a

have

equalroots.
=0

Find the ratio of b to ax2 + bx +

a
=

in order that the

equations

0 and

xs-2x2 + 2x-l
common.

may

have 23.

(1)one, (2)two
that the
xn +

roots in

Shew

equation nxn~1 + n (n 1)xn~2

-

...

\n
=

cannot

have

equalroots.
=

x5- l0a3x2 + bix + c5 24. If the equation shew that ab* 9a5 + c5 0.
-

Q has

three

equal roots,

25.

If the

xA + equation
is

ax3 + bx2 +
" "

cx

+ d=0
.

has three

equalroots,

shew that each of them

equalto
t
=

^r

26. If x5-hqx3 + rx2 + them will be a root of the

0 has two

equal roots,prove
-

that

one

of

quadratic 15rx2 6q2x + 25*

-

4qr

0.

27. 28.
and

In the

x3 equation

=0, find the value of S6.

x

In the

equationxi

x3 -1x2 +

0, find the values of "4

S6.

Transformation

of

Equations.

564.

The

discussion

of

an

it into another by transforming relation to those of the assigned useful in the are especially 565. To

equationis sometimes simplified whose roots bear some equation tions one proposed.Such transformasolution of cubic

equations.
roots
are

into another ivhose an transform equation those of the proposed with contrary signs. equation

Let
Put every

f(x)
-y

0 be the

proposed equation.
the

for x;

then
-

f(x) is equation f("y)

root
=

of

0 with

equation f("y) its signchanged;

-

is satisfied by thus the required 0

0.

472
If the

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

is proposed equation

then it is evident

that the
+

will equation required

+

be
=

p0yn-py~l
which

p2f~2
from

(- irxA-,y + (- W.

o,

is obtained

the

signof every
566. To

alternate term

equationby changing the original with the second. beginning

into another whose roots are an equation transform by a given equalto those of the proposedequationmultiplied quantity.
Let

f{x)

0 be

the y

and proposedequation,
"

let q denote the

the

given quantity. Put

is f ( J equation
-

qx,

so

that

"

then

required

0. is to clear of equation

The

chief

use

of this transformation

an

fractional coefficients.

Example.

Remove

fractional coefficients from

the

equation

*"-"*-* .+1-0.
Put
x
=
-

and

each multiply
3

term

by q3;
13

thus

By puttingq
we

4 all the terms

become

and integral,

on

by 2, dividing

obtain

ys-Sy2-y
567. To

0.

the

an equationinto another whose transform reciprocals of the roots of the proposed equation.

roots

are

Let

f(x)

be

the

proposedequation ; put
-

so

that

"

; then

the

required equation isy( )

uses

0.

One
values

of the chief of

of this transformation involve

which expressions
of the roots.

is to obtain the symmetricalfunctions of

negativepowers

TRANSFORMATION

OF

EQUATIONS. equation

473

Example 1.

If a, b,

are

the roots of the

Xs

-px2 +
-

qx
+

"

0,

find the value of

a2

b-

r.,

-s

c-

Write

for x,

multiply by y'\ and

change all the signs; then

=

the

re-

equation suiting
has for its roots

ry9 qy2 +py

-

-1

0,

111
''

a'
2a

b'

hence

^, S-=
r

=-:

ab 1
V
-

q2 2pr
r-

a2

Example 2.

If a,

b, c

are

the roots of
=

"3 + 2x2-3x-l find the value of

0,

a-3 + b~3 + c~3.

Writing
-

for x, the transformed

equation is
=

y*+ Sy2-2y-l
and

0;

the
Here

is equal to givenexpression

the value of

Ss in

this

equation.

S1=-3; "2=(-3)2-2(-2)
=

13;

and

S3+ 3S.2-2S1-3 0;
=

whence

we

obtain

S,= -42. 1 is equation unaltered

568. is called
a

If

an

by changingx

into

"

it

reciprocal equation.
is givenequation

If the

+ ^=0, xn+Plxn-l+p2x"-2+ +1-"n_2xi+Pn_iX

the
is

obtained by writing equation

-

for x, and

of clearing

fractions

V"?

+ pn-X~2 + l\-pn~x
are equations

"

"

"

+l\n2 +PF
we

+1

0.

If these two Fl p from

the same, V"-*~

p
=*fc

must

have

'

?'2
*

'

'""'

'

*-"-"
and thus

'

P"-p
we

"

the last result we have p classes of reciprocal equations.

1,

have

two

474

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

(i)If pn=lt then

Px=Pn-^
that and

P*=P*-"
terms

Pb=P*-B"
from equidistant

'"

is,the coefficients of
end
are

the

beginning

equal.
=
~

If (ii)

2"n

1) then
p2=-pn-2, Ps=-pn-3,
=
"

p,=-ps_1,
hence if the
case

In this if the

dimensions of 2m pm pmi or from the tlie coefficients of terms equidistant

equationis
are

and

end

equal in
an

is of equation

even

""TO=0. ning beginand in and magnitude opposite sign, degreethe middle term is wanting.
=

569. If
root

Supposethat f (x)
=

0 is

reciprocal equation.

f (x)
"1;
so

it has a 0 is of the first class and of an odd degree is the that f (x)is divisible by aj + 1. If "f"(x) =0 is "f"(x) degree.
a

then quotient, and of If has

a

of reciprocal equation

the first class

an

even
=

f(x)
root

0 is of the
+
=

second

class and

of

an

odd

it degree,
as

before
an

"j" (x)

1 ; in this case f(x) is divisible by as" 1, and 0 is a reciprocal of the first class and equation

of

even

degree.

If has x2
"

f(x)
root

0 is of the
+

second
-

class and

1,and

as

1; before "f"(x) Q is a
a

1 and

root
=

it degree, in this case f{x) is divisible by of the first reciprocal equation

an even

of

class and Hence

of

an

even

degree.
an

any be

its last term

therefore

reciprocal equationis of be reduced to or can positive,

considered
as

even

degreewith
may

thisform; which form

the

standard

of

reciprocal

equations.
570.
to
an

of the standard form reciprocal equation of halfits dimensions. equation

be equation

can

be

duced re-

Let the

ax2m

bx2m-] + cx2m~2 +
xm and

...

kxm

...

ex2
we

bx

0;

dividing by
a

the terms, rearranging

have

xm

i)+6(^'+5L)+.(.r-'+;

476
Example.
Find the

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

whose equation

roots exceed
=

by

2 the

roots

of the

equation
The

4x* + 32a;3+ 83a;2+ 76a;+ 21

0.
-

2 for be obtained by substituting x proposed equation ; hence in Horner's process we employ x + 2 as and the calculation is performed as follows :

equation will required

a;

in the

divisor,

573.

The

chief

use

of

the

substitution

in
an

article is to Let the

remove

some

term assigned

from

preceding equation.
the

be givenequation
+ p2xn~2 + + p1x"~l 2?Qx"
...

+pn_xx+pn

0;

then

if y

"

h, we

obtain

the

new

equation
of y, becomes
^

A^+*)"+ip16r+*r,+A(y+*ri+-+p.=0i
which, when

arrangedin descending powers

(/w
(77,
*"

"2

pft + (" i)M

-

=o. +i\yf~*+-"

If the term
so

to be removed
:

is the

second,we

put npji+

])l
we

0,

that

"

"

if the term

to be removed

is the third

put

np0

n(n-\)

-^2
"

"

Poh

(n l)l\h+P*
-

""
may
remove

and any

so

obtain

other

to quadratic term. assigned

a

find h \ and

we similarly

TRANSFORMATION

OF

EQUATIONS
to

477

Sometimes

it will be

more

convenient

proceedas

in the

following example.
Example.
Remove the second
term

from
rx

the
=

equation

px? + qx2+
Let
a,

0. Then if increase

/9, 7

be the roots, so

that

p+

y=

--.

we

each of the roots

will be

by "dp
+
-

in the transformed that

equation the

sum

of the roots will

equal to

is,the coefficient of the second

term

be

zero.

Hence
for
x

the

transformation required

will be effected

x--~ by substituting

6p
in the

givenequation.
From
are

574.
whose
some

the

equation f(x)
with

we

roots

connected

those

may of the

equation givenequationby
an
=

form

relation. assigned Let

denote

equationand let cf"(x, y) 0 y be a root of the required the assigned then the transformed can relation; equation
either
=

function of y by means a; as a by expressing of the equation this value of x "" (x,y) 0 and substituting between the equations x f(x) "; or by eliminating f(x) and "f" 0. (x, y) be obtained
= =

in Q

form

Example 1. If a, b, c are the equation whose roots

a
"

the roots of the

are

+ equationx3+p"x2

qx +

r=0,

11
-

1
,

b
ca

be

"

ab

When

in the

givenequation,y
1
a-"
=

a-

=-

in the
a

transformed

equation j

a a
"
"

but

=a

be

abc

+ -;
r

and

therefore the transformed

y v
=

will equation
x

be obtained
ry
;
r

by

the substitution

or

~-

1 +

thus the

equation is required r2y3+Pr{l+ r)y2+ q{l + r)2y+ (l+ r)*

=

0.

Example

2.

Form

the

equation
x3 + qx +
r

whose

roots

are

the

squares

of the

differences of the roots of the cubic

=

Q.
;

Let

a, b,

be the roots of the cubic

-

then the roots of the required

-

equation are

(b c)2, (c a)2, (a b)2.

478

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

2a6c Now

(b-c)2
=

fc2 + c2-2fcc

a2 + "2 + c2-a2a

2abc
=

(a+

b +

c)2
-

+ (be

ca

ah)

a2
a

-25-a2
the

^;
a
=

also

when

in

given equation, y
2r
.*.

(b-c)2

in

the

transformed

equation ;
?/=
-

2o-

a;JH
x

Thus

we

have to eliminate

between

the

equations

xs + qx + r=0,
and .r3 +
+ y)x (2#
-

2r

0.

By subtraction

(#+?/)#
=

3r ; obtain

or

a:

and reducing, we Substituting

+ 9^ ys+ 6(2^2

+ 27,-2 +

4^3
_ -

0. all positive ; therefore

If a, ", c are real, Cor. (" 27r2 + 4g3is negative.

-

are c)2, (c a)2, (a 6)2

-

Hence

in

order that the equation xz be that negative,

is

+ qx +

0 may

have be

all its roots

real 27r2 + 4"73must If 27r2 + the

(-)

+(f) must
one

negative.
therefore

equation has 4#3=0 the transformed has two roots. equal original equation

root zero,

the transformed If 27r2 + 4g3 is positive, equation has therefore the have two must original equation 553], [Art. since it is only such a pair of roots which can produce a the transformed equation.

negativeroot

imaginaryroots,
negativeroot in

EXAMPLES.
1. Transform
the

XXXV.
4#2 +

d.
0 into another

equationx3

"

with

and unity for coefficients, integral

the coefficient of the first term.

-

the equation3xA 5x3 + x2 2. Transform whose first term is unity. the coefficient of

+ 1

0 into another

Solve the 3. 4. 5. 6.

: equations

2x4 + x3-6x2

+ 2

0.
=

^-10^

26^-10^+1
+

0.
=

x*-5xi + 9x3-9x2 4#fi 24^ + 57xA

-

5.^-1

0.
-

Idx3 + 57 x2

Mx

+ 4

0.

TRANSFORMATION

OF

EQUATIONS.
48.r
-

479
roots

are

7. Solve the in harmonica! 8.

The
roots

equation3./,-322.r2+
-

32

0, the

of which

progression.
of x3
-

lLr2 + 36#-36

are

in harmonica!

gression pro-

; find them.

9.

If the roots of the

that the

x3 equation
mean

ax2 +x"b=0

are

in harmonica!

shew progression,

root is 3b. + 2.t*+l =0, the roots

10.
which

Solve the
are

equation4(Xr4-22^-2Lr2

of

in harmonica!

progression.
from the
: equations

Remove

the second term

11. 12. 13. 14. 15. exceed 16.

a?8- "c*+ 10a?- 3=0.

x*+4o?+ 2a2 -4# -2=0.

afi + 5xA + 3X3 + x2 + afi 12s5 + 3.v2
-

0.
=

1 7.v+ 300

0.
x

3
"

Transform
3

the

equationa^-j

7=0

mto

one

whose

roots

by

the

roots corresponding

of the

givenequation.

22

Diminish

by

3 the roots of the

equation
roots
=

17.
than
a

Find the root of the Find the

equation each of whose equationx3 bx2 + 6x 3

-

is

greater by unity
of the roots of

0.

18.

equationwhose
x* + x3
+

roots

are

the squares 1
=

2x2 + x+
roots
=

0. the cubes

19.

Form

the

whose equation

are

of the roots of

x3 + 3x2 + 2 If a,
roots
are

0.

b,c

are

the roots

of x3 + qx

r-0, form

the

equationwhose

20.

ka~\ hb-\ hr\

b+
c
c

21.
+ b
,

a2b2. b2c\c2a2,
1
1 1

24. 26. 27.

~n

"(6 + c),"(c+a), c(a + b).

b
-

25.

"3,63,c3.

c
-

a T

b
+
--

+ r, b

-, c

Shew
the

givenby
28.
roots
are

that the cubes of the roots x3 + a3x2 + b3x + a3b3 equation

-

of x3 + ax2+bx
0.
-

+ ab=0

are

Solve

the equation x* of the form ", "a,b,

"

bx*

bx3 + 2bx2 + 4a

20

0, whose

b,c.
r
=

29.

If the roots of x3 + 3px2 + 3qx + shew that 2gs=r(3pgr" r).

are

in harmonica]

gression, pro-

480

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

Cubic

Equations.
a

575.

The

generaltype

of

cubic

is equation

x3+Px2
but

Qx
+ r

fi=0,
be reduced
to

in explained form simpler

as

Art. 573 this

can equation
=

the

x3 + qx
as

0,
form of
a

which

we

shall take To

the standard x3 + equation

cubic

equation.

576.
Let
x
=

solve the
+
z

qx

0.

; then

x3 and the

=y3 +

z3 +

3yz(y+ z) y3+
=

z3 +

3yzx,

becomes givenequation

y3+
At

z3 +
any

+ q)x+r (3yz

0. the
dition con-

present y,
that their
we

are

two

to quantities subject
one

sum

is

equalto

of the

roots

of the

equation ; if
3yz +
q
=

further

0, they are

they suppose determinate. completely

o3

that

the satisfy

given equation

We

thus obtain

y3+ z3=-r,
hence

y3z3
=

-^;

z3 are y3,

the roots of the

quadratic

and putting Solvingthis equation,

yz=-\Jriit
+ + sr~

"

2
we

27
x
=

"

obtain the value of

from the relation

1

z; thus

fr2
+

-2+V4
The above it was

27}+H-V"
'

q3Y

11r2 +

q3^
97

solution is generally known as Cardan's Solution, in first him the Ars as published Magna, in 1545. Cardan by obtained the solution from Tartaglia; but the solution of the cubic
seems

to have

been

due

to Scipio Ferreo,about originally

CU13IC

EQUATIONS.
note

481
on

1505. found

An

historical interesting of Burnside and

at the end

Panton's

subjectwill be Theoryof Equations.

this

577. side of cube

the right-hand on By Art. 110, each of the quantities article lias three equations (1)and (2)of the preceding it would
case.

roots,hence
not

appear For

that

has nine
"

values ; cube roots

this,
are

however, is
to be taken

the

since yz

^,the

of each pairis rational. that the product of values if y, z denote the Hence any pairof cube roots which fulfil this condition, the only other admissible pairs will be the imaginary cube roots of a)Z, where co, or are wy, ta*zand ii"2y, in
so pairs

unity.

Hence

the roots of the

y
+

are equation + wz. w2z, "x)2y

z,

wy

Example.
Put y +
z

Solve the for x, then

equation x3

15.r=

126.

+ z* + {3yz-15)x 126; y"*

=

put
then also hence z:i are y's,

3f/2-15 0,
=

y^z3

126;
;

y*zs 125
=

the roots of the

equation
+ 125
=

i2-126"
.-.
=

0;

2/3 125, sfc=l;

y
=

5,

1.

Thus

j/+

5+ l=

6;

u,y +

u~z

^"-3 +
-

5+

2^/^3;
-3-2

w-y + and the roots

are

wz

3-2^/^3;
+

6,

-3

2*7-3,

-3.

578.
values for from the

To
x

the explain in Art.

reason

why
0, yz
=

we

obtain apparently
z are

576, we
z3 +
r

observe that y and

=
"

nine found be to

y3+ equations

\j
o

but in the process of

solution the second of these

H.H. A.

was

changedinto yJz3
=

q3
-

which

31

482

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

would

also hold
x are

if yz

"

or

yz

^;

hence

the other

six

values of

solutions of the cubics

x3 + wqx 579.
We

"

0,

x3

+ r ou2"p;

0. of

proceedto
qx
+ +
3

consider

more

the fully

roots

the

x3 + equation
2

0.

(i) If
y
are

q
~

-r

then y3 and positive, cube

z3

are

both

real;let
the roots

and

represent their arithmetical

y
+

roots, then

z,

wy

oy2z,(o2y + wz.
a"

The

first of these is become

and by substituting for real,

and

w2 the

other two

r2 If (ii) the roots

-j
+

"73

is ^=-

zero,

then

y3 z3\ in
"

this

case

?/ =
"

z, and

become r2

or + co2), + to2), 2y, "3/, 2y, 2/(w 2/(00

?/.

"73
+
~

If (iii)

"

is

and then ?/3 negative,

a

23

are

imaginaryexthe cube the roots of

of pressions

the form

ib and
m

"

ib.
m

Suppose that
"

roots of these

are quantities

in and

in; then

the cubic become

m

in

+
o"

"

in,
"

or
"

2m ;
m
"

(m + m)
(m +
which
are

or "o2, (m in) m) co2+ (m in) "o, or

"

"m

+ n

^/3 ; ^3 ;

As however there is no quantities. general arithmetical or algebraical method of finding the exact value of the cube root of imaginaryquantities the [Compare Art. 89], solution obtained in Art. 576 is of little practical when the use roots of the cubic are all real and unequal. This solution.
case

all real

is sometimes

called the Irreducible Case of Cardan's

580.
be

In the irreducible case

justmentioned
follows.
1
-

as completed by Trigonometry
1

the solution may Let the solution be

+ (a ib)3; (a+ ib)3

484
a and by eliminating

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

b from
-

these

we equations,

obtain

+p* q)(k2 s), (pk r)2 (21c

=
-

or

2k3 From

-qk2 +

2( pr

k s)

p2s
-

qs

r2

0.

this cubic

one equation

real value

of k

can

always be

found

Also 553];thus a and b are known. [Art. (ax+ W'" (x2 +px + W .'. x2 +px + k "(ax + b);
= =

and

the values of

are

to be obtained from
+ +

the two

quadratics

x2 and

(p a)x
"

(k b) 0t
"

x2

+ a)x+ (k + b) (2)

0.

Example.

Solve the

equation
-

xi

2.x3

5x- + Hh;

0.
assume
x

Add

a2x2 + 2abx + b2 to each side of the x*

-

and equation,
+ 62
-

2x* +

5)x2 + (a2-

{ab+ 5)x

(x2
-

k)2
"

then

have coefficients, we by equating a2=2fc

.-.
.-.

6, ab

-k-5,
=

b2=k2

3;

+ 6)(fc2 + 3) (2fc

+ 5)2; (7c

2k* + 5k2 -M1 ; hence

7=

0.

we By trial,

find that k=

a2 =

4, "2

4,

ab=

4.

But

from

the

it follows that assumption,

+ b)2. (x2-x + k)2=(ax

the Substituting

values of

k} a and b, we
-

have
-

the two

equations

x2
that

"

(2x 2);
x2 + x-3
=

is,
the roots
are

z2-3.r + l = 0,

and

Q;

whence

"

~"

, a

^
-

"

583.

The

solution following the

was

givenby Descartes

in 1637. form

Supposethat

is reduced biquadratic equation x1

+

to the

qx2+
=

rx

0;
-

assume

x4

qx2+

rx

+ (x2

kx

1) (x2

kx

m) ;

BIQUADRATIC then

EQUATIONS.

485

have we coefficients, by equating I+

vi
"

k2

"

q,

(m

"

l)
=

r,

Im

s.

From

the first two

of these
v

we equations,

obtain
v

2m

AT +

2l=k2
,

-j;

hence

in the substituting

third

equation,
-

or

+ qk + qk + r)(k3 r) 4sk2, (k3 r2 0. k2 " + 2qk4 + (q2 4s)

=
-

This

real positive solution in k2 wliich alwayshas one [Art.553];thus when k2 is known the values of I and m is
a

cubic

are

determined,and
two

the solution

of the

is biquadratic

obtained

the by solving

quadratics
+

x2

kx

0, and

x2

"

kx

m=0.

Example.

Solve the equation

z4-2a;2 + 8j;-3
=

0.

Assume then

x4

2a;2+ 8#

+ (x2

kx +

(x2 kx 1)
-

m)

have we by equating coefficients,

l + m-k2
=

-2,

k(m-l)
-

8,
=
-

lm

-Z;

whence
or

we

obtain

{k3
-

2k +

8)(A;3 2k

8)

12"2,

fc6-4fc4 + 16fc2-64 satisfied when clearly

one

0.
=

This equation is sufficient to consider

A;2 -4

of the values of k ;
7n-l
=

0, putting k
=

or
=

k"

"2.

It will be

2, we
m
=

have

m+l
Thus

2,
-

4] that is, l
3
= =

-l,
-

3.

as* 2.r2+ 8.r

a;2 + 2.r-l
are
-

+ 2x (.r2

1 ){x2 2x +
+ 3
=

3);

hence
and

0, and
1"

x--2x 1"

0 ;

therefore the roots

J2,

J^2.
of

584.

The

solution generalalgebraical has not been of such a of the impossibility the fourth

equationsof

than degreehigher demonstration

obtained,and
solution is

Abel's

generally

the coefficients of an the value of any real root may be found are numerical, equation of apto any requireddegreeof accuracy proxima by Horner's Method in treatises found on will be of full which a account

by Mathematicians. accepted

If,however,

the

Theoryof Equations.

486
585. We

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

shall conclude

with

the discussion of

some

neous miscella-

equations.
Example 1.
Solve the equations :
x

y +

0,
0, 0,
k.
from

ax

by +cz

+ du

a2x + a?x +

b2y+
+ b3y

c2z + d2u c3z + d3u

beginning Multiplythese equations,

;

the lowest, by 1, p, q,
are

spectively re-

p,

q,

being quantitieswhich
x

at

present undetermined.
u

Assume

that

they are

such that the coefficients of y, z,

vanish

then

+pa2 + (a3

qa +

r) k,
=

whilst b, c, d

are

the roots of the

equation
r
=

+ qt + t3+pt2

0.

Hence and

a3

+pa2 +

qa +

(a-b){a-c){a-d);
=

therefore
Thus the value
x

(a-b)(a- c){a-d)x
is

h.
z,
u can

found, and the values of y,

be written down

by symmetry.
Cor. If the

equationsare
x ax

+ y +
cz

l, I; k2,

by +

du

a2x + a3x +
as before,we by proceeding
x

b2y+

c*-z + d2u dhi

bsy+ c3z+

A;3,

have
qa +

(a3 +pa2 +

r) k3 +pk2 + qk +
=

r;

.'.

(a-b)(a-c)(a-d)
x

(k- b)(k-c)(k-d).
z,
u can

Thus the value of down by symmetry.

is

found, and

the values of y,

be written

The solution of the above Undetermined Multipliers.

equations has been facilitated by the

use

of

Example 2.

Shew

that the roots of the

-

equation
=

{x-a){x- b)(x c)-f2 (x-a)-g2(x-b)- h2{x-c)+ 2fgh

are

all real. From the

we given equation,

have

+ h*(x-c)-2fgh}=0. {x-a){(x-b)(x-c)-f*}-{g*{x-b)

Let p, q be the roots of the

quadratic

{x-b)(x-e)-f*=0,

BIQUADRATIC
and suppose
^ to be not

EQUATIONS.
the quadratic, we By solving have

487

less than
2x
=

q.

b+

+ tf:i c"J(b-c)*

(1);
that p is greater than
h

now or

the value of the surd is greater than c, and q is less than b or c. In the

c,

so

given equation substitute for

+ """

the values successively

-30;

v,

q"

the results
+
""

are

respectively

-fajp^b-h Jp

c)2" +{"JJb-q=
-

Jc

q)~,

cc

since

{p -b)(p- c) =f*

(b q)(c q).
real roots, one

Thus the given equation has three between _p and q, and one less than q. If p In this
=

greater than

2',

one

q, then

from

(1)we

have (6-c)2+

4/2
=

0 and

therefore

c,f=0.

case

the

given equation becomes

(x-b){{x- a) (x-b)-g*thus the roots If p is

a are

=0 lr}

all real.

fails ; for it root of the givenequation,the above investigation that there is one root between namely p. But as q and + oo before,there is a second real root less than q ; bence the third root must also

only shews
be real. the roots The

Similarlyif
are

q is a root

of the

given equation we

can

shew

that all

real.

equation here discussed is of considerable in Solid Geometry, and is there known frequently
Cubic.

importance ; it occurs the Discriminating as

586. branches

The of

followingsystem Applied Mathematics.

Solve the equations:
x a

of

equationsoccurs

in

many

Example.

y b+ \
c

+ \
x

+ \
z

y
c

b + /j, -\-fji.
x
"

+ fx
z
=

y
+

J"+
v

-, 1.

a+f

b+

c+v

Consider the followingequation in 6,

x

y
+ +

z c

+ 0

b + d

+ 0

(0-X)(g-ft)(g-y). + 6){c + 0y (a+ e)(b

quantities.

x,

y,

being for the present regarded as known

488

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

This equation when cleared of fractions is of the second degree in 6, and is satisfied by the three values 8 = \ 6 = p., d = v, in virtue of the given equations; hence it must be an identity.[Art.310.] To thus find the value of #,
..

multiply up by a+0, and then put

-

+ 0

0;

(--X)(-^)(-"-'0 (b a) (c a)
.
-

that

is,
we

.=fe+"Lfe+i4!ttd.
(a- b) (a-c)
have
+ v) (b+ \){b + fx)(b

By symmetry,

y=

{b-c)(b-a)
+ v) {c+ \){c+ fi)(c (c-a) (c b)
-

and

EXAMPLES.
Solve the 1. 3. 5. 7. 8.
is
: equations following
=

XXXV.

e.

a3-18a
a3
+

35. 316
=

2.
0.

a?+ 7207- 1720=0.

ff3 + 21# + 342
=

63a-

4. 6.

0.

28^-9^+1=0.
2a3 + 3a2 + 3a + 1=0. Prove that the real root

"s-15#8-33ar+

847=0.

of

the

equation a3 +

12a -12

2^/2-^4.
Solve the 9. 11. 12. 13. 15.
16.
: following equations a

a4 -3a2 -42

-40

0.
=

10.
0. 0.

a4-

10a2- 20a-

16

0.

a4 + 83? + 9a2 -8a a-4 + 2a3

-

-10

7a2

8a + 1 2

**- 3^-6^-2=0.
4a4
-

14.
-

a*-23?-12afi+10x

+ 3=0.

20a-3+ 33^2

20a + 4

0.
=

a6-6a4-17a3
a4 + 9a3 + 1 2a2

+ 17a2 + 6a-1
-

0.

17.

80a

1 92

0, which has equalroots.

18. Find A3 + ^A + r=0

Hence

the relation between q and r in order that the be the form into a4 + "a+")2. (a2 put may
=

equation

solve the

equation
8a3 -36a
+ 27
=

0.

BIQUADRATIC

EQUATIONS.
and

489

19.
have
a

If
common

jfi+3pafl+3qx+r
shew factor, that

x*+2px+q
(pq-r)2
that
=

4(p2-q) (q2"pr)
If

0.

they

have

two

common

shew factors,

p2-q=0,
20.
shew If the each

q2-pr=0.
+ d=()

equation
of them

axs + 3bx2 + 3cx

to
".

has

two

equal roots,

that

is equal 1

(etc b2)
-

rs?

21.
as a

Shew

that if

the

equation

x4

+PX3

qx2 +

rx

0 may

be solved

quadratic
Solve

r2=p2s.
equation
gfl
-

22.

the

1 SxA +

1 6.1*3 + 28x2

S2x

+ 8

0,

one

of whose

roots

is

J6

"

2.

23.

If

a,

/3,y, 5

are

the roots
xA +

of the
r.t-

equation
4s
=

qx2 +
are

0,
"c. (/3y")_1,

find

the

equation
In the

whose

roots

/3+y

+ d +

24.
of two and the that other

of the if
two

equation x4" px3 + qx2- rx + roots is equal to the sum of the of the roots the product of two

0, prove
two

that if the

sum
=

other is

p3
to

equal

4pq + 8r the product

-

0 ;

of

r2=p2s.
equation
them.
two roots
x"
-

25.

The

209." + 56

0 has

two

roots

whose

product

is

unity

determine

26. 27.

Find If a,

the

of ^
roots

"

409^

+ 285

0 whose

sum

is 5.

are b, c,...k

the

of

Xn

+p1Xn~1 +p2Xn~2 +
{l+k2)
of two
-

+Pn-l$

+Pn

""

shew

that

(l+a2)(l+b2)
28.
The
sum

(l-p,+p"of the
-

+ (Pl-p,+p,...)2

...)2.

roots

equation
20a- + 5
=

.-r4 8.r" + 21^2 is 4 ;

explain why

on

attempting
method

to

solve

the

equation

from

the

kuow-

led^e of this fact the

fails.

MISCELLANEOUS

EXAMPLES.

1.

If sl, s2i *3

are

the

sums

arithmetical 2.
are

shew progression,
two

of n, 2n, Sn terms that s3 3 (s2 sj.

=
"

of an respectively

Find
one

numbers
as

such

that their

sum difference,

and

product,

to

another

1, 7, 24.
the digits? by reversing

3. 4.

In what

scale of notation is 25 doubled

Solve the

equations:

(1) (#+2)(#+3)(a;-4)(#-5)=44. (2) x(y + z)+

5.
In
an
=

0, y(z-2x) + 2l=Q,
which
a

z(2x-y)

b.
sum

A.

P., of

firstp terms

0, shew

is the first term, if the of the next q terms that the sum

of the

a{p + q)q^ p"l

[R.M.
6.

A.

Woolwich.]

Solve the

(1 ) (a+
11

: equations b)(ax+ b)(a- bx) (a2x b2) (a+ bx).

=
-

(2)
7.

x* +
an

(2x-Zf={l2(x-l)Y.

[India Civil Service.]

unity geometric
is

first term arithmetical progressionwhose form a terms such that the second,tenth and thirty-fourth series. Find

8.

If a,

fi are

the roots of x-+px+q 0, find the values of a2 + a/3 a3 + /33, a4 + a2/32 + 04. + /32,
=

9.

If 2x

"

+ a~1 and

2y

b+

find b~1,

the value of

xy + 10.

*J(x2-\)(y21).
3

Find

the value of
3

(4+
(6+

Vl5)"2 + (4-Vi5)'2
3
_

3"

V35)"2-(6-\/35)'
[R.M.
A.

Woolwich.]
that

11.

If

and

/3are

the

imaginary cube a4 + ^4 + a-1^-1

=

roots

of

unity,shew

0.

492
23.
Find

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

of the productsof the integers the sum 1,2,3, n taken of the sum of two at a time,and shew that it is equal to half the excess the sum of their squares. the cubes of the givenintegers over
...

20 loaves of bread in a week. and his familyconsume 24. A man of bread were raised raised 5 per cent.,and the price If his wages were But if his lowered week. would gain 6d. a wages were 2\ per cent.,he he would lose \\d. then bread fell and 10 cent., cent., per 7^ per and of the loaf. his a find week price a weekly wages :

in arithmetical progression is 48 and of four numbers sum of is the the to 27 to 35 : of the extremes means as the product product find the numbers.

25.

The

26.

Solve the

: equations
=

(1) a{b-c)x2+ b(c-a)x+c(a-b)

(2) v '
fr%.

0.
r,r

(x-a)(x-b) l ^ b
"
"

"

(x-c)(x-d) 1" \ ""

"

x-a

"

x-c-d

[Math. Tripos.]
L J

..

27.

If

shew + ^/b-x+\/c-x=0i /s/a-x

that
ca

(a+ b +
and if ^a +
=

c +

3x)(a+

b+

c-x) (a+

4(bc+
=

ab)-,

4/6+4/c 0, shew

that

b+

c)3 27abc.

hour after starting, meets with an accident which an 28. A train, detains it an hour,after which it proceedsat three-fifths of its former rate and arrives 3 hours after time : but had the accident happened 50 it would have arrived l" hrs. sooner miles farther on the line, : find the

lengthof
29.

the

journey.
: equations
=

Solve the

2x+y

2z, 9z-7x=6y, x3+f

+ z3=2l6.

[R. M.
30.
in how the two Six papers are set in different orders many
two examination,
can are

A.

Woolwich.]

the papers
not

in mathematics : be given, provided onlythat

of them

mathematical

papers

successive ?

In how many 60 "5. 4s. 2d. be paid in exactly can ways and fourpenny-pieces of half-crowns, ? shillings consisting

31.

coins,

32. Find a and b so that x3 + ax2 + llx + 6 and x3 factor of the form x2 -\-px + q. may have a common

bxi + l4x

[London University.]
In what time would A,B,C together do a work if A alone could do it in six hours more, B alone in one hour more, and C alone in twice the time 1

33.

MISCELLANEOUS

EXAMPLES.
1 have

493

34. prove

If the equations ax + a2 b2 that +-7 1, and x

.,
.

by \, ex2 + dy%
= =

onlyi "ne solution

___

a
-

b
,

"

-,

[Math. Tiuros.]
the firstfive terms in the expansion

",

35.
of

Find

by the
+

Binomial Theorem

(l-2x

2x2)~'2'
"

36.
shew

If one that p3

of the roots of x2 -fpx + q 0. 1 + ) q2 q (3p

-

0 is the square

of the

other,

[Pemb. Coll. Camb.]

37.
Solve the

equation
xi-5x^-6x-b
=

0.

[Queen'sColl. Ox.]
38. Find the value of x3
a

for which ax2 + 19.27

-

the fraction
a
"

x?-(a + l)x2 + 23x-a~7

admits of reduction. If a,

Eeduce
y,
z are

it to its lowest terms.

[Math. Tripos.]

39.

b,c, x,

real

and quantities,
ca

+ (a+ b + c)2=3 (be

+ ab-

x2-y2
0,
2
=

z2),

shew

that

c, and

0, y

0.

Coll. Camb.] [Christ's

i

40.

What

is the greatest term

x

in the

expansionof ( 1

when

the value of

is

[Emm. Coll. Camb.]

41.

Find two

of their squares of their squares If

numbers such that their sum multiplied by the sum is 5500, and their difference multiplied the difference by is 352. Coll. Camb.] [Christ's

42.

\a, y

(k-l)b,

b2 + 3c2 1 _|_
'

(\-3)c,
of a,

X=

"

Qj

"z
"T"

0"

2
~p

express

x2+y2+
43.

z2 in its simplest form

in terms

b,c.

[SidneyColl. Camb.]
Solve the
: equations

(1) xa + 3j*=16x (2) y2+

z2-x
=

+ 60.

z2 +

\. x'i-y x2+y2-z [CoRrus Coll. Ox.]

=
=

44.

If x, y,

are

in harmonical

shew progression,
+

that

+ log{x-2y log(x+ z)

z)
=

log(x z).
-

494
45.
Shew
1

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

that 1.3/1\ 1.3.5

/lV
,

4
._

/oN

,_

[Emm. Coll. Camb.]

3a-26~36-2c~3c-2a'
then will

b(x+y

+ z) (5c

46

+ 13^) 3a) (9x+ 83/ (a+

=

b+

c).

Coll. Camb.] [Christ's

and 5 vowels,how With 17 consonants letters can be formed having 2 different vowels at each end? consonant or different) (repeated 47. 48.
lost on which was question voted having againon the same A

words of four many in the middle and 1

600 persons had voted ; the same it was carried by twice question, persons before and the to the former it lost as was new was as many majority by, as 8 to 7 : how changed their minds? [St John's Coll. Camb.] many

49.

Shew

that
l-x

(l+x)2
+ l+"?-^

5x*
+ 2.3

9^5 13^7 4.5+ 6.7+"'

Coll. Camb.] [Christ's

formed into a hollow 50. A body of men were t hat when it was with the addition of 25 observed, solid square might be formed, of which the number would be greaterby 22 than the square root of the the number each side of the hollow square : required

square, three deep, to their number a of men in each side in of men number of men.

51.

Solve the

: equations

+ (1) V (a+ x)2

V(a^02
-

\/a2^2.
-

(2) (x
52.
Prove

a)* (x
-

6)2 {x

c)i (6 d)K (x d)% (a c)%

=
-

that
3/, v/4 N

2
t

2-5
1
v
"

2.5.8
"

^6

6.12

6.12.18

[Sidney Coll. Camb.]

53. Solve

$6(5a? + 6)-^5(6#-ll)=l.
[Queens'Coll. Camb.]

MISCELLANEOUS

EXAMPLES.

405

A vessel contains a gallons of wine, and another vessel contains b gallons of water: c gallons taken out of eaeh vessel and are transferred to the other; this operation is repeated any number of times : shew that if c(a + b) ab, the quantityof wine in each vessel will alwaysremain the same after the first operation.

54.

55.
mean

The

arithmetic
a

mean

between

and
-:

and
m

the and
n

geometric
in terms

between
a

and

are

each

equal to
m

find

of

and

b.
If x, y,
z

56.

are

such that their

sum

is constant, and

if

(z+x-2y)(x+y-2z)
varies
as

yz, prove that 2

Prove if n that,

(y+ z)
-

varies

as

yz.

[Emm. Coll. Camb.]

57. is

greaterthan 3,
+

1.2.MCV2.3.'lC_1+ 3.4.""X_253. Solve the

-

(-l)'-(r+l)(/-+2)=2."-3Cr.
Coll. Camb.] [Christ's

: equations

(1) *J'2x1 + */"v

-

*J~4x3 + *Jbx^~i.
-

(2) 4{(sa-16)*+8}=#8+16(#a-16)* [St John's Coll. Camb.] be equal to one 59. Prove that two of the quantities x, y, z must
another,if
., .j.

x
"

"

"

yn 2-

0.

l+yz

l+zx

l+xy

of p persons, a percent,can 60. In a certain community consisting and of the females alone read and write ; of the males alone b per cent., read and write : find the number of males and females in c per cent, can
the

community.
61. If

!"=?"'-"
[Emm.
Coll.

Camb.]

62.

Shew

that the coefficient of x4n in the

of expansion

(1
"

+ x2

"

x3)'1is unity.
b
=

63.

Solve the

equation
x-a

x-b
+
a

+
x "a

x-b'

[London University.]
Find (1)the arithmetical series, (2) the harmonical series of of which a and b are the first and last terms ; and shew that n terms term of the productof the r* term of the firstseries and the {n r+ l)tb the second scries is ab.

64.

"

496
65.

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

If the roots of the

1

equation (q~ 1)+

"

*2+p (1+q) x+q q+^J

that
=

=0

are

shew equal,

p2 4q.
=

[R. M.
that
a (loS

A.

Woolwich.]

66.

If a2 + b2

lab,shew l"g
+

(" V) jg }
=

loSh)Coll. Ox.] [Queen's

67.

If

is

root of the
x-

equation
x

(1 ac)
are

+ c2) (1+ ac) 0, (a2

-

harmonic difference between

n

and

if

means

and c, shew that inserted between a the firstand last mean is equalto ac {a c).
"

the

[Wadham
68.
If
n

Coll.

Ox.]

208: W"2P4
=

57

16, find n.

in a 6rr per cent. Government 69. A person invests a certain sum had been "3 less he would have received \ per cent, loan : if the price interest on his money ; at what price the loan issued ? was more

70.

Solve the
+ ^ {(^2 +

: equation + l)3-^3}{(^2-^ + l)3+^3} + l)3-(^2 l)3-(^2

=

+ x2 + 1)3 (#*+If a6} {(^4 [Merton Coll. Ox.]

-

71.

If

x by eliminating

between
0
an

the

equations
y)+
m
=

x2 +
a

ax

+ b

xy + 1 (x+

0,
as or

the roots are in y is formed whose quadratic in x, then either a =21, and 6 original quadratic

same
=

those

of the

m,

b + m=al. A.

[R.M.
72. Given
2 log
=

Woolwich.]

3 and log '30103,

solve the equations : -47712,

(1) 6*=y-6-".
73. Find two numbers their fourth powers 2417. such

(2)

V5M-V5-*=|q.
sum

that their

is 9, and

the

sum

of

[London University.]

74. A set out to walk at the rate of 4 miles an hour ; after he had been walking 2| hours,B set out to overtake him and went 4" miles and so gaining a quarter 5 the third, the firsthour,4| miles the second, hours would he overtake A l In how many of a mile every hour. 75. Prove factor.
that the next above (^3+ l)2mcontains integer
2m
+

as

MISCELLANEOUS

EXAMPLES.

407

76. ?ith group

The is

5, 6, 7, 8, 9
77.
Shew +

series of natural numbers is divided into groups 1 ; 2,3,4 ; that the sum of the numbers in the so on : prove ; and

+ n3. l)3 (?i-

that the

sum

of

terms

of the series
+

|2_W+
is

[3 \2/
,, to equal 1
, 1

|4

\2J (2n-l)
="
:
"

1.3.5.7
2'*\n

[R.M.
78.
Shew that the coefficient of xn in the
n

A.

Woolwich.]
1 + 2x

of expansion
w-2

j"2is

n-1

(-l)S 3(-l)3,
as according n

2(-l)3,
1, 3"i
+ 2.

is of the form

3m,

3m

79.

Solve the

: equations

(1) " =^_2_ b

a
.".

yyz

x+y
v x
z

ii
z

x
z

y 80.

[Univ.Coll. Ox.]
the series a, x, y, z, The value of xyz is 7" or 3f according as b is arithmetic or harmonic : find the values of a and b assuming them to be positive [Merton Coll. Ox.] integers. If ay-bx=c the and y will satisfy

81.

shew \/(x -a)2+ (y- b)2, unless c2 " equation than greater
5x
-

that

no

real values of

a2

b2.

If (#+l)2 is value of x. integral

82.

1 and less than

7#-3,

find the

of 83. If P is the number characteristicp, and Q the number have reciprocals the characteristic

have the whose logarithms integers of whose the logarithms of integers

-

q, shew that
=

log10P-log10#p-2
84.
t lat
no

+ l. 5 persons
so

In how person

ways may 20 many less than receive may

be given to shillings ? 3 shillings

"

85. A man rilen they came

invested at the time of his death in 4 per of money of a certain sum the accumulated cent, stock at 88 ; and to the younger he bequeathed at the same invested less than the former by "3500 interest of a sum time in the 3 per cents, at 63. Supposingtheir ages at the time of invested the sum their father's death to have been 17 and 14, what was ? fortune each daughter's in each case, and what was
11. 11. A

wishing his two daughtersto receive equal portions to the elder the accumulated interest of age bequeathed

32

498
86.
A number

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

in scale 7 when of three digits reversed in order : find the number. has its digits

in scale 9 expressed

[St John's
If the sum of m of the next to the sum

Coll.

Camb.]
next

87.

terms
n

of

an

arithmetical
also to the

is equal progression
sum

terms, and
i=

of the

terms

; prove

that

(m +

n)(

+p)( (wi

"

[St John's
88.
Prove that
1
+

Coll.

Camb.]

(y-z?
If is

{z-xf

7"4

1 +

/
vi
=

1
7"

1 +
"

1
7

(x-y)2

7-".

\y-z

z-x

x-y)
A.

[R. M.
89.
m

Woolwich.]
that

than 1, shew and greater or positive negative,

lm + 3" + 5m + +

(2n-l)m"nm

1. Coll.

[Emm.
90. If each

Camb.]

pairof
ql
=

the three

equations

x2-p1x +
have
a

0, aP-ptfC+q^Q, x2-p3x+q3=0,

common

root,prove that
4
+ (?i

+ +P-? + P32 Pi2

ft +

ft)
=

(P2P2+P?,Pi +PiP"J-

[St John's
91.
A and

Coll.

Camb.]

road and at the same rate from B travelled on the same fioin 50th milestone the At took London, A overHuntingdon to London. at the rate of 3 miles in 2 of geese which were a drove proceeding which was hours ; and two hours afterwards met a waggon, moving at drove of geese at B overtook the same the rate of 9 miles in 4 hours. before he 40 minutes the 45th milestone,and met the waggon exactly B when ^4 reached London Where ? to the 31st milestone. was came John's Coll. [St Camb.]

92.

Ifa

+ 5+ c +

c?=0,prove
=

that

abc + bed + cda + dab

*J(bcad)(ca bd) {ah cd).

-

"

[R.M.
93.
terms
:

A.

Woolwich.]

An A. P., and an H. P. have a and b for their first two a G. P., shew that their (?i will be in G. P. if terms + 2)th
1
"

ba(b2n-a2n)

77-0

"tn

=
.

[Math. Tripos.] J
x
r-, rv
-

94.
in

Shew

that the coefficient of xn in the expansion of

an
"

(x
bn
" "

"

a) (x

0)

I
.

ascending 01 power
of expansion r

of

is

a-b
-,,

anbn

7-

'

and that the coefficient of x2n

in the

L (l-#)3

is 2n_1 hi2 + 4w + 2l '

"

__

[Emm. Coll. Camb.]

r,

r,

-.

500

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

105.

Shew

that the

expansionof V
2?4'
+

/l-Vl-a;2"
2~
a"

x 1S

+ 2

JL3 ^
6

1.3.5.7
2. 4. 6.8*

10+

106.

If

a,

/3are

roots

of the
+ q
=

equations
=

x2+px
where
n

+ qn 0, x2n+pnxn

0,

is

an

even

shew integer,
.r" + l +

that

"

are
a

roots of

(#+l)n
between

0.

[Pemb. Coll. Camb.]

squares of the

107. Find the difference continued fractions

b
a+"

the

infinite

b
-

b
^..
"

d
c

d
2c +

d
2c +

2a+

2a +

^",-

2a+

"' j

aD0-

2c+

Coll. Camb.] [Christ's

of is distributed amongst a certain number of money the third 2s. than the first, The second receives Is. more persons. and so on. the than 3s. fourth the than the more third, more second, what is the If the first person gets Is. and the last person "3. 7s., distributed 1 number of persons and the sum

108.

sum

109.

Solve the

: equations

'

b+

+ b

(2)
110.
If
a

~2+x*+f=l3i" ""+""=*""
are

and b

and unequal, positive prove

that

a*-bn"

(" b)(ab)2
-

[St Cath.
111.
values of

Coll.

Camb.]

Express ^r^
x

as

continued

fraction; hence

find the least

=

and y which

the equation396.t'" 763y satisfy

12.

take A alone would 112. To completea certain work, a workman would alone times as many B B C and as days working together ; take take n times as many days as A and C together ; C alone would numbers of that the : shew days as A and B together p times as many days in which each would do it alone are as m + 1 : "+l : jp+ 1.
m

Prove

also

+
n

-^"

2.

m+l

+ l

p + l

[R.M.

,,

A.

,_

Woolwich.]

MISCELLANEOUS

EXAMPLES.

501

of a hydropathic establishment are partly stant conwith the number of boarders. Each boarder "9 a head when there are are pays "65 a year, and the annual profits a nd when there 4d. "10. 13s. 50 boarders, 60: what is the profit are on each boarder when there are 80 ?

113.

The

expenses

and

partlyvary

114.

If

x2y
=

2x

"

y, and x2 is not

than 1, shew greater

that

[Peterhouse,Camb.]
X

V
h
"

115.
are

If

o al-yunequal, (a2-c2)2-b2c20,
=

-s-

"

"sr

"

a2-x2

Ti

and

xv
"

"

c2.shew

that when

and

or

a2 + c2-b2

Q.

116.
and prove

If

(1+ (x
-

x2fr
=
-

1+

+ k\x+ l'2x2
~

.,

a*" 1 )3r =

c^'
=

c^s*
"

2
-

that

(1) \"kx + k2(2) l-k^

+

1,
!3r
=

hc.,
"

"

\r\2r

[R.M.
117.
Solve the
"

A.

Woolwich.]

: equations

+ 2ab (1) {x y)2

ax+by,

xy + ab
+

bx + ay.
+
z
=

(2)x2-y2 +
118.
square that

z2

6, 2yz-zx

2xy

13, x-y

2.

If there are n roots of all their

positive quantities alt a2,... an, and if the products taken two togetherbe found,prove
n
""
"

"

Vaia2 + V"i"3+
hence prove that the

\
""
mean

+ "2+ ("i

+an);
square
mean

productstwo quantities.
119.

arithmetic is together less than

of the

roots

of the

the

arithmetic

of the A.

[R.M.
+

given Woolwich.]

If 6"

"V=a26'i, and
Wx6 +
=

d2 + V

x2+y2

\, prove that

-f a2y4)2. [IndiaCivil Service.] a*yG (b2xA

120.

Find the

sum

of the first n terms

of the series whose

rthterms

(1)

(2) (a+r*6)*-' ~r|~_, [St John's Coll. Camb.]

x+

2
*iX + 0
.

121.

Find

the

value greatest

of
2iX"
o

~a

t~

502 122.
Solve the

HIGHER
: equations

ALGEBRA.

(1) l+^4

7(l+#)4.

(2) 3#y+20=ff0+6y=2^s+3d?=O.
If "x, a2y a3" ai are any expandedbinomial, prove that

123.

f"ur

consecutive

coefficients of

an

I
"

"

3
"

".

[Queens' Coll. Camb.1

'

124. find the of

X.

Separate
term general

\ /
,

"

=r

into

fractions ; partial

and

3x

"

when
2

is

expandedin ascending powers

125.

In the

series recurring

5
-

lx + 2

2x* + lx3 + bx4 + 7x:" +

the unknown the scale of relation is a quadratic expression ; determine and give the and the scale of relation, coefficient of the fourth term M. A. the series. term of [R. Woolwich.] general

126.

If x, y,

are

and unequal,

if

2a-3v

2a-3z^^^ (-^2,and
y (v
-

*)2
,

then will

2a -3.?="
Ob

and x+y

a.

[Math. Tripos.]

127.

Solve the equations:

(1)

xy + 6

2x-x2, xy-9
=

2y-y2.
=

(2) {ax)^a
128.
Find the

{by)^h,bXo"x
of

alo%y.

values limiting
-

(1) (2)
,
.

\fx2 + "2
" " "

when *JxA + a4,

,

oc

\fa+ 2x"\/3x ?""

"

when

rr

x"a.

[London University.]

tt

\/Za +

x-

2sjx

whose productis 192, and the quotient 129. There are two numbers of their greatest common of the arithmetical by the harmonical mean find the numbers. is and least common measure multiple 3f| : [R. M. A. Woolwich.]

MISCELLANEOUS

EXAMPLES.

503

130.

Solve the

: following equations

(1) yiar + (2) 6Vl-22

c

37+

J/l3.r-37= J/2.
=

c\/l-y2 ",
"

\/l
-

#2 +

Vl

22=

6,
_

+ b*Jl-x2=c. a*Jl-y2

131.

Prove
1
"

that the
1.3 +

sum

to

of the infinity
.23
*
* "

series

1.3.5

2
,n
~

2^3

24)4

~Wb

1S

24

[Math. Tripos.]

of three digits is doubled by reversing 132. A number consisting that will hold the digits; the for the number same formed prove by and also that such a number the firstand last digits, be found in can only one scale of notation out of every three. [Math. Tripos.]

133.

Find

the coefficients of x12 and

xr in the

productof

1+x3
n_ 2ui_
\

an(* 1 -*+*""

[R-M.

A.

Woolwich.]

is to take a plot of land fronting a street ; the purchaser and three times its frontage added to twice plotis to be rectangular, its depth is to be 96 yards. What is the greatestnumber of square he take ? yards [London University.] may 134. 135.
Prove
c

that
+
-

(a+ b + (a+ b +

+
-

dy + (a+ b-c-dy + (a-b + c-dy d)* (a + b c + d)A (a b+c+df

-

(a-b-c + d)* (- a + b + c + d)*

=

192 abed.

[Trin.Coll. Camb.]
136.
square. Find the values of a, b, c which will make each of the expressions xt + aaP + bx'Z and xA + 2ax3 + 2bx2 + 2cx + 1 a perfect + cx+l

[London University.]
Solve the
: equations

137.

f
138. less per

(1)

4^S
-

3(

^=65.

+ \l" (2) \j2x2+\

V3
farmer head; the
A two

2 j--

sold 10
sum

sheep at
the

certain

he received for each lot

by the

same

: find digits

price per

and 5 others at 10*. price in pounds was expressed sheep.

504
139.
Sum
to
n

HIGHER terms

ALGEBRA.

(1) (2"~l)+2(2"-3)+3(2"-5)+.... (2) (3)

140.
that If
3
a,

The The

squares

of the terms

of the series

1,3,6, 10, 15

odd terms the

of the series in roots of the

=

Coll. Camb.] (2). [Trin.

prove

/3, y

are

+ y2) + /32 + /35 + y5) (a2 (a5

equationx3 + qx + r=0 + y3) + /33 + "4 + y4). (a4 (a3

[StJohn's
141.
Solve the
: equations

Coll.

Camb.]

(1) a?(%-5)= 41 y(2A + 7) 27J'

=

(2)A3+y3 + z3 495) ar+y+*=15V. Ay2=105 )

=

Coll. Camb.] [Trin.

If a, whose equation

142.

b,c

are

the roots of the

are
a

x3 + qx2+r equation
c
"

0,form the

roots

b-c, b +

a,

+ a-b.

143.

Sum

the series
n

(1) (2) (3)

144.

+
-

(n-l)x
x
-

+ xn-1; (?i-2)x2+...+2zn-2 1 6a-3

-

2x2

28^4
..
.

676a5 +
n

...

to

infinity ; [Oxford Mods.]

6 + 9 + 14 + 23 + 40 +

to

terms.

Eliminate

a, y,

from
+

the
=

equations a~1, x+y

"r3
=

x-i+y-i
.v2 + and shew that if a, y, be equalto d.

z-1

+ z=b.

y2+
z

z2

+ c2, A3+3/3

c?3,

are

all finite and

b cannot numerically unequal, M. A. [R. Woolwich.]

-

145. The roots of the all unequal: find them.

not + 8)+ 16(a-3 1) 0 are equation3a2(a2 [R. M. A. Woolwich.]

=

146. A traveller set out from a certain place, and went 1 mile the first day,3 the second,5 the next,and so on, goingevery day 2 miles than he had gone the preceding more day. After he had been gone three days, sets out,and travels 12 miles the first day,13 the a second and so on. In how many second, days will the second overtake the first? Explainthe double answer. 147. Find the value of
11111
1
""

3+

2+

1+

3+

2+

1+

MISCELLANEOUS

EXAMPLES.

505

148.

Solve the

equation
as + (a2 be)
-

x3 + 3ax2 + 3

a3 + b3 + c3

Zabc

0.

[India Civil Service.]

149.
a

If

+ by prove of multiple

is that

prime
an~2b
"

number which an~:ib2 + an~ib3

will divide
"

neither

...+abn~2

b,nor exceeds by 1 a
",

n.

[StJohn's
"

Coll.

Camb.]

150.
sum

the ?tthterm and the sum to n terms is (1 abx2){\ ax)~2(l bx)~2. to infinity
"

Find

of the series whose

[Oxford Mods.]
151.
If a,

b,c

are

the roots of the equation x3 + px + q b2 + c2 c2 + a2 a2 + b2

are
a
" -,

0, find the

whose equation 1

roots

"

Coll. Camb.] [Trin. 152.

Prove that
=

(y+

z-

+ x-2y)i+ (x+i/-2z)i 2xY + (z

18

+ y2+ (x2

z2- yz

zx

xy)2.

[Clare Coll.
153.
Solve the
: equations

Camb.]

(1 ) x3- 20x 4-133

0, by Cardan's method.
=

(2) x5

4t4

KU-3 + 40.i'2 + 9x -36

+

0,havingroots of the form

a,

"b, c.

It is found that the quantity of work done by a man in an his hour varies directly and the square as as inversely pay per of hours he works per day. He can root of the number finish a piece of work in six days when working 9 hours a day at Is. per hour. How will he take finish to the work when same days pieceof working many 16 hours a day at Is. 6d. per hour ?

154.

hour

155.

If sn denote the

sum

to

terms
+

of the series

1.2 + 2.3

3.4+...,

and

o^-!

that to

"

1 terms 1 +

of the series
1 +
1

1.2.3.4

2.3.4.5
1 8sncrnx
_ -

3.4.5.6 sn + 2
=

-"'

shew

that

0.

[Magd. Coll. Ox.]

156.
Solve the
: equations

(1) (12a?-l)("p-l)(4a?-l)("e-l)=5.
(2) ^ ;

I fo+^fo-S)
5

1
+

(x+ 2)(x 4)
-

(x+3)(x-5) (x+ 4)(x- 6)

(a?+5)(a?-7) 92 _2_
""

13

+ 6)(* {x
-

8)

585

[StJohn's

Coll.

Camb.]

506
157.

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

worth "250, but it A cottage at the beginningof a year was end of each the at that found was by dilapidations year it lost ten per of each the it had at value beginning cent, of the year : after what be reduced below "25 ? number of years would the value of the cottage Given log103 -4771213. [R.M. A. Woolwich.]
=

158.

Shew

that the infinite series

1 +

1.4
+

1.4.7
+

1.4.7.10
+

4.8

4.8.12
2.5.8
+

4.8.12.16
2.5.8. + 11 18

'"'

ll? i+?_l + +
6
are

12

12

18

12

24+
.

'""

'

equal.
159.
Prove the

[Peterhouse, Camb.] identity a)

x{x
-

x(x

a)(x /3)
-

a/3

~aPy~
r
X

x(x+ a)
[

\
_

|
a

a(5

+ p) x(x + a)(x a/3-y

\
J

_x" x2(x2-a2) x2(x2-a2)(x2-^)+""""

a

"2R2

a2^2

"2/92"2

a2(32y
Coll. Camb.] [Trin.

160.

If

is a

integer greaterthan 1,shew that positive

n*-57i3 + 60n2-56n

is

of multiple

120.

[Wadham

Coll.

Ox.]

of persons were engaged to do a pieceof work at which occupiedthem 24 hours if they had commenced at equal the same time; but instead of doing so, they commenced the whole tillthe work was to finished, continued intervals and then first the each comer done : to the work by payment beingproportional received eleven times as much as the last ; find the time occupied.

161.

A number would have

162.

Solve the
x

: equations

(1)

y
x2-S

-7

y2-3

x3+f
=

+ z) a^ (2) y2+ z2_x{]/

z2+ x2

"

(z+x) b2,
=

x'2 -t-y2z
-

(x+3/)
=

c2.

[Pemb.Coll. Camb.]

508
171.

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

Shew that ?t7-7n5+14?i3-8?i not less than 3. integer

is divisible

by 840, if

is

an

172.

Solve the

: equations

2 + 1 2y + *Jy+ (1) six1

I2x=

33, x+y=2S.

(2)
w

,~x

u(y-x) ^
"

=a,

-^

z(y-x)'
=

",

y(u
"

"

z)
-

x(u-z)J
c,
"

7 d.

"

2-W

"

-^-y

[Math. Tripos.]
173.
If
s

be the

sum

of

then positive unequalquantities a, b,c...,

+ +
"
...

"

="

"

[Math. Tripos.]

174. A merchant bought a quantityof cotton ; this he exchanged that the number of cwt. of cotton, for oil which he sold. He observed of gallons of oil obtained for each cwt., and the number of the number for which he sold each gallon formed a descending shillings geometrical He calculated that if he had obtained one cwt. more of progression. of oil for each for each and Is. more one more gallon cotton, cwt., he would have obtained "508. 9s. more if he had gallon, ; whereas less of oil for each cwt.,and obtained one cwt. less of cotton, one gallon he would have obtained ."483. 13s. less : how Is. less for each gallon, much did he actually receive ? 175.
2

Prove that
-

+ (b

x)*(b c) (a-x)
-

16

(b-c)(c- a)(a-b)(x- a)(x b)(x c).

-

[JesusColl. Camp,.]
176.
If a, /3, y
are

the roots of the

are

equationst?" paP+r =0,

"

find the

equation whose
177.

roots

^-~
"

"

-.

TR. M. A. Woolwich.]

If any number shew that the together, squares.

of factors of the form a2 + b2 are the as product can be expressed

multiplied
sum

of two

Given that (a2 find p and q in + b2)(c2 + d2)(e2+f2)(c/2 + h'2)=p2 + q2, terms of a, 6,c, d, e,f, [London University.] g, h. 178. Solve the

equations x2+y2=6l, a*-y*=91. [R. M.

A.

Woolwich.]

179.
papers

number

A man in which goes in for an Examination with a maximum of m marks for each paper; of ways of getting 2m marks the whole is on

there are four shew that the

(m +

1 )(2m2+ Am

3).

[Math. Tripos.]

MISCELLANEOUS

EXAMPLES.

509

180.
of x2 +

If a, j3 are the roots of "8+jw?+l=0, and y, S .are the roots + 8)(/3 + 8) J2 jo2. qx+l=0; shew that (a y)(/3y)(a
-

[R.M.
that if am be the coefficient of xm Shew whatever then n be, (1+#)*,

A.

Woolwich.]
expansionof
+ l).
,
"

181.

in the

"0-"1

(n~l)(n A ".,-...+(-l)--1"m_1 ^
/ ,s i =

"

|w;_^ 2U(-i)--i.
[New
Coll.

2)...(n-m

Ox.]

the is the product of three prime factors, A certain number There are of whose 7560 numbers sum (including squares is 2331. than the number and The of which less to sum it. are prime unity) Find the the is and number its divisors (including 10560. unity itself)

182.

number.

[Corpus Coll. Camb.]

of products
every

two

whose roots shall be the 183. Form an equation of the roots of the equationx3 ax2 + hx + c 0.
-

Solve

the equation completely

2afi + xA +

+ 2

1 2x* + 1 2x2.

[R.M.
184. Prove that if n is
a

A.

Woolwich.]

positive integer,

nn-n(n-2)n+

-'(n-4)nif F

2B[w.

+ and 185. If (6V6 + 14)2n 1=:jr, + =202"t NF 1. that prove

be the fractional part of N, [Emm. Coll. Camb.]

186.

Solve the

: equations
=

(1) x+y+z

2, x2+y2 + z2
=

0, x3+y3 + z3=
=

1.

(2) x*-(y-z)2 a2,y2-(z-x)2 b2,z2-{x-y)2=cK

Coll. Camb.] [Christ's 187.
was

15

number the the same as of Scotch Conservatives was Liberals. The number was and the Scotch Liberal majority equal number of Welsh Liberals, Irish the to and number Welsh was the of twice to Conservatives, 10 was The English Conservative majority 2 : 3. Liberal majority as number of The whole of Irish members. than the whole number more returned by Scotch constituencies. 60 were members was 652, of whom land, Ireof each party returned by England, Scotland, Find the numbers
and

of Liberals returned election the whole number general the whole number the of Conservatives, more English of English the number twice than 5 more of Conservatives was
At
a

than

Wales,respectively.
Shew

[StJohn's
-

Coll.

Camb.]

188.

that a5 (c
-

b)+ b5(a c)+ " (b a) + 2a*b + abc). (b- c){c a)(a b)(2a3
=
-

510
189.

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

Prove that

a3 a2
a

3c*2
a2 + 2a 2a+l

3a

(a-l)"

2a+l
"

1
1

+ 2

13

[Ball.Coll. Ox.]
b,c
are

190.

If

"

|
c

1 a"b

=0,

c"b

prove

that a,

in harmonical

unless progression,

+ c.

[Trin.Coll. Camb.]

191.

Solve the

: equations

(1) .r3- 13#2+1

5x + 189 another root 8x -f 35

=

0, having given that

one

root

ceeds ex-

by

2.
one

(2)

.r4 Ax2
-

0, havinggiventhat
2 +

root is

\/-~3.
given;
a

[R. M.
two two

A. Woolwich.]

Two numbers 192. by the relations 3a1 from alf bx in the same and b, prove that when
=

and

are
=

2"x+6, 3bl
manner,
n

+
so

2b;
on

others av more a2,

b"are
b2 are

formed
formed of a and

and

find an,

bn in

terms

is

an"bn. infinite,

[R.M. A.

Woolwich.]

193.
mr

If

+y +

+ w
"

0, shew that

-+(w+ a;)2 yz (w

+ wy(w+y)2 x)2 + + zx(io yf + wz(w + z)2

-

xy

(w

+ 4xyzw z)2

0.

[Math. Tripos.]
a be not altered in value by interchanging a2 + fc2 + c2 pairof the letters a, b,c not equal to each other,it will not be altered if a + b + c=\. by interchanging any other pair;and it will vanish

be -a2

194.

If

[Math. Tripos.]
On a quadrupleline of rails between two 195. and and two down trains start two at 6.0 6.45, up If the four trains (regardedas points)all 8.30. between find the following equations simultaneously, rates in miles per hour,
*53/i)
"VO

termini A and By trains at 7.15 and another pass one xlt x2, x3i x4, their

Am

+ 5#o

Am

1 Ox, -+-

Jb

-t

where

is the number Prove

of miles in AB.

[Trin.Coll. Camb.] higherorders,

+

196.

terms that, rejecting

*

of the third and

^-4

(1~y)

2
=

l+

i+V(i -#) (i-y)

3y2). ^+y) ^(3.*2 ^

+ +
8

Coll. Camb.] [Trin.

MISCELLANEOUS

EXAMPLES.

511
the series

197.

Shew

that the a,
a
"

sum

of the

productsof
,

b,a -2b,

"

{n-l)b,
n

taken two and and 2a (3m

=
-

togethervanishes 2)(m + 1)6.

two

when

is of the form

3m8"

1,

198.
shew

If n is even, and a + /3,a-/3 are the middle pair of terms, is of the cubes of an arithmetical progression that the sum

na{a2+ (w2-l)/32}.
199. If ",

b,c

are

real
111
a

shew positive cpiantities, g8 + 68+ C8 b

c

that

a3b3c3

Coll. Camb.] [Trin.

time for a town a miles distant ; 200. A, B, and C start at the same A walks at a uniform rate of u miles an hour,and B and C drive at a After a certain time B dismounts uniform hour. rate of v miles an and walks forward at the same pace as A, while C drives back to meet the with C and they drive after B entering A J A gets into the carriage time that he does : shew that the whole time occupied town at the same
a

3v +
-

was

hours.

rT.

3u+v

Camb.] [Peterhouse, L J
'

r.

-.

board. The streets of a city are arranged like the lines of a chessThere are m streets running north and south, and n east and travel from the of ways in which Find the number can a man west. shortest distance. the S.E. the to N.W. possible corner, going

201.

[Oxford Mods.]
202. 203.
the
terms

Solve the Shew ab +

x equation*/

+ 27 +

55

x"

4.

[Ball.Coll. Ox.]
that in the series

(a+ x)(b+ x)+ (a+ 2x)(b+ 2x)+

of the last n terms of the last term over
over

to 2

terms,
n
"

excess

of the sum is to the excess Find the nth

of the first the sum 1 the first as rilto 2n

.

204.

convergent to

205.

{a-x)Hy-zy
=

{a-yf{z-xY

{a-zY{x-yY

2{{a-yf{a-zf{x-yf(x-zf+{a-z)'i{a-xf{y-zf{y-xY
^(a-xf{a-yf{z-xf{z-yf}. Camb.] [Peterhouse,

512
206.
If a, #, y
are ma ma

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

the roots of x3
+
"

qx+r my+n
my
"

0, find the value of

n n

m{3 + m(3
-

n n

in terms

of m, n, q, In

r.

Coll. Camb.] [Queens'

one person out of 46 is said to die every year, be If there were of born. 33 out to in how one no emigration, would the double this at Given itself ? rate population many years

207.

England

and

log2
208.

'3010300,log1531

3-1849752, log1518
+ a^c2 +
,

3-1812718.

If

(1+

+ +

x2)n
=

a0 + axx +
1)

prove that
n
'
=

7i

(n

"

"P-war-i unless
r

-y72~

"r-2-

0" (-1)rr! (n-r)\a"

case

is

of 3. multiple

What

is its value in this

1 Coll.

[St John's

Camb.]

209. In a mixed of Poles,Turks, Greeks, consisting company Germans and Italians, the Poles are one less than one-third of the number of Germans, and three less than half the number of Italians. The Turks and Germans outnumber the Greeks and Italians by 3; the Greeks and Germans form one less than half the company ; while the Italians and Greeks form seven-sixteenths of the company mine : deterthe number of each nation. 210. Find the
sum

to

of the infinity

series whose nth term

is

(n+ l)n-1(?i+2)-1(-x)n+1. [Oxford Mods.]

211.
n

If

is

integer, positive prove n(n2-l)(n2-22)

+

that

n(n2-l)

[2
*K
;

|2J_3
n{n2-l){n2-V)
\r \r + l
of the series :
to
-

(n2-r2)
~k

'

[Pemb. Coll. Camb.]

212.
Find the
sum

(1) 6,24, 60, 120,210, 336, (2)

4
-

terms. + to inf.

9x + 16x2

25^3 + 36^

49^

1.3

(3) -x
213.
Solve the

3. 55.
+

7. 9

^r

^3-+-^r +
Ax 6x + 2 Qx + 2 9.r + 3 12.r

tomf-

equation

8#+l
12# l6x + 2 =0.

8.r+l

[King'sColl. Camb.]

MISCELLANEOUS

EXAMPLES.

513

214.

Shew

that

+ ^2(l+c2) + c2(l+rt2)"6"6^ + ^2) (1) a2(l + + + " + 6', + C"+...)(^+^ "+...)"("," + Z)P " + ^ (2) ?2(rtP

C^+...),

the number 215.

of

quantities a, 6,c,... beingn. equations

yz

Solve the

a{y + z)+ a\ zx=a(z+x) +/3".

=

xi/

a(x+y)

y\
that

[Trin. Coll.

Camb.]

216.

If

be

prime number, prove

l(2"-^l)
is divisible

2^-1+^+3f4"-^!U...+("-l)
[Queen'sColl. Ox.]
man can score

by n.

In a shootingcompetition a each find the number for shot: points 30 in 7 shots. can score

217.

5, 4, 3, 2, or 0
in which he

of different ways

[Pemb.Coll. Camb.]
-

bx3 + ex2 + dx Prove that the expression x" of and a a completecube if completesquare product 218.

will be

the

126_9^_5e_^
" ~ ~

c2

A bag contains 6 black balls and an unknown number, not and not than six, of white balls; three are drawn successively greater and are all found to be white; prove that the chance that replaced

219.

ft*7*7
a

black ball will be drawn

next is

jr"r

[JesusColl. Camb.]
productsof
" -

220.
squares

Shew

that

the

sum

of the

every
"

pair

of the

of the firstn whole numbers

is

+ G). n(n2 l)(4?i2l)(5?i

"

[CaiusColl. Camb.]
221.
that If
x
"

+
a

"

"

'4."_i
x-c
=

^=o

has

x-b 0.

equal roots, prove

a(b-c) "/3 (c-a)"y (a- b)

Prove

222.

that when

is a

integer, positive

""-"X"-4)8.., ".2.-..^y-.+
(n-4)("-5)("-6) ",_,.

j3
H. H.A.

"

, +"-

[ClareColl. Camb.]
33

514
223. Solve the

HIGHER
: equations
if-

ALGEBRA.

+ 2yz ) .r2 (1

+ 2z.r =g"+
a

%xy + 3

7G.

(2)
?
a

.v+y
+

+ b+

+ f b

S- 3
=

c cz
=

ax

by+

bc +

ca

+ ab
-

Coll. Camb.] [Christ's

line be joined in one straight 224. Prove that if each of m points terminated l ines the another in of then, straight points, each by n by

to

the lines will intersect -mn{m-\){n"\) excludingthe given points,

times.

[Math. Tripos.]
Having giveny
y + that a2d=

225.

+ x1 + r",

expand

in the form
;

+ eyi + dys+ ay2+ by3

-

and

shew

3abc + 2b3=

1.

[Ball.Coll. Ox.]
buying calves, pig and "2 more of pigs The number he could have bought
fraction in

of money 226. A farmer spent three equal sums than a calf cost Each "1 more pigs,and sheep. than
a

he bought sheep; altogether

47 animals.

exceeded that of the calves by as many sheep as of animals of each kind. for "9 : find the number 227.

Expresslog2

in the form
1 1

of the infinitecontinued 32 1+ n2
1+

22 1+

1+

1+

[Euler.]

228. In a certain examination assigned 100 marks as a maximum. obtain in which a candidate may of marks is
II
!" ;

six papers are set, and to each are Shew that the number of ways cent, of the whole number forty per

(1245 '
_

'

1144
.

143)
i
\ =

r~

[5{[240
229.
x

r 6"

[139+ll"-|38j
.

"

-, [Oxford Mods.] L J
,f

Test
+

for convergency 1.3.5.7.9.11

x*_ 1JJ x* 1.3.5.7 + 2.4"6"+2.4.6.8,10

2.4.G.8.10.12*

x*_ +
14

230.
terms

the nth Find the scale of relation, of the recurring series 1 + 6 + 40 + 288 +
sum

term, and

the

sum

of

Shew also that the for its rth term the sum

of
r

terms

of

terms

of the series formed of this series is

by taking

4 (2*
-

1)+

i (2*

1)
-

[CaiusColl.

Camb.

516
240. Shew that the

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

equation
a

is] ax +
reduces
to
a

\]bx ex + /3 + *J

+ y
=

simpleequationif fJa"s/b"fJc equation

-

0.

Solve the

\f6x2
241.
A

1 5.i- 7 +
-

V4.r2
-

8x

11

\/2x2
-

5#+ 5

2#

3.

contains 3 red and 3 green balls, and a person draws He then drops 3 blue balls into the bag,and again that he may Shew out 3 at random. draws just lay 8 to 3 with the latter balls being all of different 3 advantage to himself against

bag

out

3 at random.

colours.

[Pemb. Coll. Camb.]

of the fifth powers of the roots of the

242. Find the sum at lx2 + 4x 3 0.

-

equation

[London University.]
and

243.

Geometrical
a,

Harmonica!

have the Progression

that
=

same

rth terms ptYl, qth,

b,c

: shew respectively

a(b-c)\oga

(e-a) logb + c(a-b)\ogc

0.

Coll. Camb.] [Christ's

Find four numbers such that the sum of the first, third and of the squares of the fourth exceeds that of the second by 8 ; the sum of the squares of the third and fourth firstand second exceeds the sum the of the and of the sum products of the first and second, by 36; third and fourth is 42 ; the cube of the firstis equalto the sum of the and fourth. cubes of the second, third,

244.

series 245. If Tw Tn + l, Tn+2 be 3 consecutive terms of a recurring connected by the relation Tn + fi aTn + l bTn, prove that
=
"

1 {T\ 1-aTnTn
+

+ 1

bTn*}=a

constant.

246.

Eliminate
1

x, y,
"+-+-

from

the

: equations

=-,
z

+ .r*+y2

02

Z"2

a
=

Xs +

y3 +

z3

c3,

xyz

d3.
i

[Emm.
247.
Shew that the roots of the

Coll.

Camb.]

equation
-

x*

"

px3 + ox2
solve .r4
"

rx

"

=
"

are

in

proportion. Hence

1 2.r3 + 47.^2
"

72.r + 36

0.

MISCELLANEOUS

EXAMPLES.

517

hit a targetfour times in 5 shots; U three times in 1 A can and 0 twice in 3 shots. They fire a volley: what is the proshots; that two shots at least hit? And if two hit what is the proliability that it is C who has missed? bility [St Cath. Coll. Camb.]

248.

249.

Sum

each of the

series following

to

terms:

(1) 1+0-1+0
(2) 2-2

+ 7 + 28 + 70+

l-"
, ,

6-23
,

"""
.
.

I.2.3.4T2.3.4.5T3.4.5.6T4.5.6.7
3 +
x

'

(3)
250.

9x* + x3 + 33x*

a* +

1 29^; +

[Second
Solve the
: equations

Public

Exam.

Ox.]

(1) y2+yz + z2=ax,\

z2+
zx

+ x* =
=

ay,

x2 +

xy+y2

az.)

(2) x(g + z-x) a, y(z + x -y) b,\ z (."/ z) c. +y [Peterhoisk, Camb.]

= =
-

251.

If

"

+
c

"

a+b+cJ
111 +
aH

and

is
1

an

odd

shew integer, "

that

bn

7-"

cn

an + bn + cn'

If u6

vG + 5

+ tt"("2 v2)
-

4md

(1
-

u*v *)
=

0, prove that
Cai
..

(w2-v2)6=16^V(l-w8)(l" p8). [Pemb.Coll.

252.
If

x+y-\-z=3pJ
z
-

yz +
-

zx

+ xy
-

3q, xyz
=
-

r, prove
-

that

(y+
and

x)(z+
~"

y)(x+y
#
"

z)

+ 36pg 27js3
-

8r,

+2 (.'/

+ x)3+ (s

+ (#+# y)3

*')327j93 24/-.
=
-

253.

Find

the

linear factors,

in x, y, z, of
-

+ by2 + cz2). + c(a + b)z2}2 Aabc (x2 +y2 + z2)(ax2 {a(b+ c)x2 + b(c+ a)y2 [Caius Coll. Camb.]

254.

Shew

that

(
"

\ x+y+z

".r*yy.s""(^ J 3 \ [St John's

' " ,

) Camb.]
that

Coll.

255.

By

means

of the
r=n

\l identity

,"-

"

prove

*r=1"1;

"

r!(r-l)!("-r)!
[Pemb. Coll. Camb.]

518
256. Solve the

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

: equations
a

+ bj.+ (1) ax-\-by+z=zx-\-ay-\-b=yz

0.

(2)

-fy +z

~u

"=

12,\

If

"

agree with this

unity as

far

as

the rthdecimal

to place,

how

many

will places

in general be approximation

correct ?

[Math. Tripos.]

258. A ladybought 54 lbs. of tea and coffee ; if she had bought five-sixths of the quantity of tea and four-fifths of the quantity of coffee she would have spent nine-elevenths of what she had actually spent; and if she had bought as much tea as she did coffee and vicehave spent 5s. more than she did. Tea is more pensive exversa, she would and the priceof 6 lbs. of coffee exceeds that of than coffee, of each. 2 lbs. of tea by 5s. ; find the price
,

259. numbers

If sn representthe sum of the taken two at a time,then

productsof
11

the first n natural

J2 +
3!

11

4!

v_i + n\

~2l6'
[CaiusColl. Camb.]
*

260.

If

pa2 + 2qab +
prove that P, p ; the equalities.

rb2

pac +

" q (be a2) rab

" "

pc2 2qca+
"

ra2

'

Q, q

; and

R,

may

be

without altering interchanged

[Math. Tripos.]
y
=

261.
an
+ 3

If
3

+ j8

0, shew that

+ j8n

+ j8B + 7n) + yM+3 a/3y(an

=

^(a2 /32 "8)(aw1+/3"

+ +
+

+ 1

+ y" 1).

[CaiusColl. Camb.]
262.
If
a,

/3, y, 8 be the
x*

roots

of the
rx

equation
+
s
=

+pa? + qx2+

0,

find in terms

of the coefficientsthe value of

2(a-/3)2(y-S)2. [London University.]

MISCELLANEOUS

EXAMPLES.

519

of turkeys,geese, and 263. A farmer bought a certain number for each bird as many ducks, giving there were birds of as shillings he bought 23 birds and spent "10. 11*.;find that kind; altogether the number of each kind that he bought. *o*

264.

Prove

that the

equation
-

"y)i+(#+y 8^ (y+z-8xfi+(z+x
-

0,

is equivalent to the

equation

[StJohn's
265.
If the

Coll.

Camb.]
pair of
L

equation
1

H
x

1
x

have
x

x+b

+ d

then equal roots, the quantities c then

or

either

one

of the
-

a quantities

or

b is

equal to

one

of

d, or else
0
: '
-

+ abed

Prove

also that the roots

are

a,

"

a,'

b,

"

b,0

or

0, 0, ' '
a

+ b

[Math. Tripos.]
266.
Solve the
x

equations
: z
=

(1) (2)
267.

+ y +
z

ab, x-l
cz
=

y-1 +
cz

z-l
=

a-1b, xyz=az.
a. ";+

ay

by+

bzx +

ax

cxy +

by

+ b+

c.

[Second Public
Find the
form simplest of the

Exam.

Oxford.]

expression
*
^"

(a-j8)(a-y)(a-*)(a-*) (0- a)((3 -y)(/3 S)(/3c)

-

+""

""

,+...

^_
(*-".)(" 8) -/3)(e-7)(e'

[London University.]
of Clergymen, Doctors, and 268. In a company Lawyers it is fcund that the sum of the ages of all present is 2160; their average a;e is 36; the average age of the Clergymen and Doctors is 39; of the 1 octors and Lawyers 32^; of the Clergymen and Lawyers 36f. If each Clergyman had been 1 year, each Lawyer 7 years, and each Doctor 6 years older, their average age would have been greater by of each profession 5 years : find the number present and their average ages.

269.

Find

the

condition, among

that the its coefficients,

expression

+ Aa^xhf + -i't...ry3 + "4"y4 + Ga.sv-yciyX*

should

be reducible
x

to the

sum

of the fourth

powers

of two

linear

in expressions

and y.

[London University.]

520
270.
Find

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

the real roots of the x2 + v2

equations

-\-w2=a2, vw-hu{y + z)=^bc,

+ u2
=

y2-f w2

b2,

wu

+
+

(z+x)=ca,

z2 +u2 +v2

=c2,

uv

w(x+y)=ab. [Math. Tripos.]

consonant or group of consonants stand immediatelybetween a strong and a weak vowel ; the strong can that the vowels e and i. Shew vowels being a, o, u ; and the weak which be formed whole number of Gaelic words of n + 3 letters each, can

271.

It is

rule in Gaelic that

no

2 1ft + 3

of

consonants the
same

and the vowels word.

aeo

is

"

"

"

where

no

letter is

ft re-

+2

peatedin
272.

[Caius Coll. Camb.]

=

Shew
2x
=

that if

x2+y2

where 2z2,
=

x, y,

are

then integers,

+ 2lk-k2), 2y r{l2
are

+ k2) + 2lk-l2), 2z=r(l2 r(k2

where

r,

and k I,

integers.
112 4 6
"

[Caius Coll. Camb.]

inf.

273.

Find

the value of

to

1+

1+

3+

5+

7+ Coll. Camb.] [Christ's

274.

Sum
"-2

the series 2.1-3

+
"

3.^
" -

(1)

B to inf.

2.3

3.4

4.5

(2) -^
a+l

|1

[2
+ + 2) (a+ l)(a
: equations

[ft
+ +
+ 2)...(a + n) (a+ l)(a

275.

Solve the
+ 3

(1) 2^

(2^-l)(3y+ l)(42-l) + 12 + l)+ (2x+l)(3y- l)(4g

= =

80

0.

(2)
276.

3ux

-2oy
that

vx

+ uy

3u2 + 2v2

14 ; xy

10"v.

Shew

a2

ab b2 + X be

ac

ad

ab
ac

be c2+ X

bd cd
d2 + \

ad

bd

cd

is divisible by X3 and find the other factor.

[Corpus Coll. Camb.]

MISCELLANEOUS

EXAMPLES.

521

277.

If c,

b,c,... are

the roots of the

equation
that

find the

sum

of os+6s+c8+..., and shew

b'2
(t

a"
""

a*
c

c2
a

I/2
c

c2
b
J

Pn-iOr

-2/*.,)
Coll.

2"n

[St John's
278.

Camb.]

Hy

the

expansionof

1 + 2a' j ,

or

otherwise, prove

that

l-3"+

(3m-1) (3m-2)
j-g
+
"

(3/t-2)(3/t-3)(3w-4)
lT273
-cVo.-(-l),
that vanishes.

1.2.3.4 wlien
n

is

an

and integer,

the series stops at the firstterm

[Math. Tripos.]
and B went out shooting and brought of the number of the squares of shots was of shots fired by each was 48 2880, and the product of the numbers birds killed of the of had numbers times the product by each. If A fired as often as B and B as often as A, then B would have killed 5 of birds killed by each. birds than A : find the number more

279.

Two

sportsmen A
The
sum

home

10 birds.

280.

Prove

that 8

9 (a2 " + ab). + 6s + c3)2 + be) + ca) (b2 (e* ("3

[Pemb.Coll. Cams.]
281.
Shew that the nlh
2 34 46 5'" ...

convergent to
.

2"+1
_

is

2-

2"2r(n-r)\
is infinite?

'

What

is the limit of this when

Coll. Camb.] [Kino's

282.

If

"

is the ?ith convergent to the continued 111111

a+

fraction

b+

c+

a+

b+

c-\-

shew

that p3n Out

+ 3

+ (bc+l)q3n. bp3n

[Queens' Coll. Camb.]

inches
which

of n straight lines whose lengths are 1, 2, 3, ...n the which four of number in respectively, may be chosen ways will form a quadrilateral in which a circle may be inscribed is

283.

-L {2n(/i
-

2)(2* 5)
-

3 + 3

1 )"}
.

[Math. Tripos.]

522
284.
and ?i3
"

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

the arithmetic means If u2, u3 are respectively less than n and cubes of all numbers prime to
=

of the squares it,prove that Coll.

6nu2 + 4m3

0, unitybeingcounted

as

prime. [St John's

-

Camb.]
-

285.

If

is of the form

"m
"

1 shew

is divisible by x2+y2 + z2-yz shew that it is divisible by

+ (x2

zx-xy;

that {y z)n + (x y)n + (z- x)n and if n is of the form 6m +1,

2 y + z2 -yz

"

zx

"

xy

)2. products

of the of the mth powers, P the sum If S is the sum of the n quantities together an, shew that alt a2, a3,

286.

...

\n-

"

!n

\jm P.
.

[Gaius Coll. Camb.]

287.
Prove that if the
=

equations
rx3
"

x3 + qx-r

and

2q2x2 5qrx 2q3

"

"

"

?'2=Q

will have a pairof equalroots ; have a common root,the first equation and if each of these is a, find all the roots of the second equation.

[IndiaCivil Service.]
288.
where

If

V2a2
-

Sx2 +y

*/2a2 -Sy2 +
that
+

\/2a2 3z2 0,
-

a2 stands for

x2+y' + z2, prove

+

(x+y

z)(-x+y

z)(x-y + z)(x+y-z) Q. [Thin.Coll. Camb.]

=

Find the values of x{, x2, ...xn which : system of simultaneous equations 289.
til

the following satisfy

/C\)

ax

bx Oj W
+

"

b2
-

ax-bn~
Xr,

x\

X.,

+...+

a1

Cl2
~~

^2

a2

bn

OC-%

x,

an

bx

+ an
-

bo

+ ...+

an

[London University.]
290. Shew
that yz
zx
-

xl
-

zx

yL

xy yzzx
-

z-

y2
"

xy where r2
=

z2

xy -z2 x2 yz
"

x*

y2
[Trin. Coll.

x2+y2 + z2,and u2=yz +

zx

xy.

Camb.]

524

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

298.

Shew

that

if

a,

b,
0,
of

are

positive

and

unequal,
yz+zx+c=0,

the

equations

ax+yz

zx+by+z=Q,
real of
x

give

three

distinct
of the

triads three

values and y

for

x,

y,
-

;
:

and
a

the

ratio

of

the

products

values

is

(b

c)

{c

a). Mods.]

[Oxford

299.

If

ax

-by-cz,
ax,

D=bz
E=

cy,

B=by-czC
=

ex

az,

cz-

ax

by,
+

F=

ay

bx,

prove

that

ABC-

AD2
-

BE?
-

CF2

2DEF

(a2

b2 +

c2) (ax

by

cz) (x2 +y2

Exam.

z2).

[Second

Public

Oxford.]
old

300.

certain

student

found

it

necessary
of could the the read

to
same

decipher
kind varied

an

manuscript.
observed
as

During
that the of

previous
number
of

experiences
words and he

he

had

daily
of the

jointly
he worked
of
per

the

number the and

miles He

he therefore

walked

number

hours
amount 1

during
exercise

day.

gradually
the first
rate

increased
of
1

daily

daily

work

at

mile usual

and

hour

day
found
12000 of

respectively,
that
on

beginning

the

day
232000

with

his

quantity.
he
counted the
amount

He

the the

manuscript

contained 72000
on

words,

that that

first he and

day,
had

and

the

last words

day
:

and his

by

end

half

the

time

counted

62000

find

usual

of

daily

exercise

work.

ANSWERS.

I.
1. 4

Paces
:

10"12.
2. 6.

(1) 546
11,
*

: a.

(2) 9

7.

(3) bx
5.

ay.

18. 5 : 6 or
-

3.

385, 600.

13.
17.

3 : 5.

10.

y
= =

ZQ. *-,or^-"i
=

abc+2fgh-af*-bg*-cti"=0.
7,3,2.
23.

20.
25. 26.

3,4,1. " " a (62 c2),

-

21. b
-

-3,4,1.
c
-

22.

3,4,1.

(e2 a2), "

(a2 ft2).

be(b-c)tca(c-a),ab(a-b).
II.
Pages

19,

20. z3

'

45

2.

(1) 12.
0, 3, 8.
j "

(2) 300a36.

3.
.

",.

13 li.

0 o, u, 58

"

14.

15.

"

-.

cm-

bm

7T" -2aii

"

18 21. 25.

19.

g, 9, 10, 15.
23.

20.

gallons from
24.

A ; 8
a
=

gallonsfrom
are

B.

45

gallons.

17:3.

"b. brass 63
or

64 per cent, copper

and

36 per cent. zinc.

parts of
26.

taken to

parts of bronze.

12 minutes.

18. 20. 22.

Tbe

regatta lasted 6 days; 4lh,5th,6th days.

years;

16,25
The

"200, "250.
the rate for the

21.

day

18 hours
an

28

minutes.
then the cost

cost

is least when

is 12
"9.

miles

hour;

and

per mile is

and ":/ly,

journey is

7*. """'"

526

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

IV.

a.

Pages

31, 32.

1.

277".
-42.

2. 7.

153. -185.
11.

3. 8.

0.

4. 9.

n(10-*" ' v
.

5.

30.

6.
10.

1325^/3.

75^/5.
21
12.

820a -16806. 1
3
--,...,

{n + l)a-n2b.

"(11a -96).
a

"13.
16. 20.

-j,

-9|.

14.

1, -l",...,-39.
x.

15. 18. 23.

-31z, -33a;,
3.

...,a%

z2-a:+l, a;2-2a; + 2, ...,

612.
21.

17. 22.

?i2.

19. 24.

5. 160.

4, 9, 14.

1, 4, 7.
x

495.

25.

^(o+1Uff5. 2a
IV. b.
10
-8. 8

26.

n("+l)a--.
a

Pages
-13.

35, 36.
3.

1. 4. 5.

or

2.

or

2,5,8,...

First term First term Instalments

8, number

of terms

59. 54.
7.

1\, number

of terms

6.

"51, "53, "55,...

12.

8.

25.

fi

9" 13. 14. 20. 22.

+ rc~8"^r)" 2(l-.r)(2

10#

%2*
a
-

12,

-te
+

+
+

2)3d.]

3, 5, 7, 9.

[Assume for

tbe numbers
16.

M, a-d,
or
-

d, a
17.

15. 2,4,6,8. 10p-8. 3, 5, 7; 4,5,6.

p + q-vi.

12

17.

6r-l.

21.
23.

8 terms.

Series

1|,3, 4^,.

ry

(n+ l-r)x.

V.

a.

Pages

41, 42.

ANSWERS.

527 46, 40.

1H
3-

V. b.
1-g"
* mi"

Pages

8
Zl

(l-a)2

1-a'

3'

(i

9-

(l-r)fl-H'
s(.r"-l)
*-l

10"

10'2ft'10-

^i'"
*

n(n+l)
2

.r=(.r5"-l)a7/ (x"//" 1 ) x--l xy-1

23
15.

2 /
14.

l'\

4/2a+

9f1-pJ.
-

li.

16.

^r.
"

19.

B.2"+f-2*"

+ 2.

2o

(i+.)i"y-d,
"c

21.
r
-

1 (

S'":""1'-"!?"*- 1 1
-

VI.
1. 4.

a.

Pages

52, 53, 0^, 794:9.

3.

(1)5.
Gaud

(2) 3*. (3)3H24.

+

2.

|,J,I
"r

2
11

5.

10.

(" 1 1).

11.

+ l)(?i2 + ^w(?t

?i

3).

12.

gn(n+l)(2"+7).

13. 15. 18.

-n(n

+ l){n2

3/t+

l).

14.

J(3,l+1+ 1)
n

2'1+1.

4"+1-4-w(tt + l)(n2-"-l).
The nth term
term v\
=

fr +

(2n

"

for 1),

all values of
form

greater than

1.

Tho

first

is

+ b + c; 22.

the other terms

the A. P. b + 3c, b -f 5c, fr+ 7c,....

-

19.

I(2a
1140.
11879.

n^ld) la* + (n 1) ad
Page 16646.
1840.

1} d* [ -("0
.

VI. b.
1. 6. 11. 15.

56.
4. 9.

12,0.
.

2.

3. 8. 14.

2170.

5. 10.

21321.

52. 300.

7.
12. 16.

11940.

190.

18296. n-1.

Triangular364; Square4900.

120.

VII.
1. 6. 11. 16.

a. 3.

Tack
1710137.

59.
4. 9. 14.

333244.
334345.

2. 7. 12.

728G26.
1783212G. 231.

*7074.
2012.

5. 10. 15.

112022.

8. 13.

1625. 1456.

842.
-

M90001.

7071.

(1) 121.

(2) 122000.
VII. b. Pages

65, 66.
4.

1. 6.

20305. 34402.

2. 7.

4444. 6587.

3. 8.

11001110.

2000000. 26011.

5. 10.

i 87214.

8978.

9.

528
11. 16. 20. 25. 31.

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

30034342. 20-73.
Nine. Twelve.

12.

710^3.
125-0125. Four. Ten.
+

13.

2714687.

14.

-2046. 5

15.

15-1*6.
2 5
,

17. 21. 26.

18.
22.

19.

5
o

6
o

Twelve. 2n + 27 + 26.

23.

Eight.

24.

Eleven.

30.

39-38-37-36-35

33 + 32 + l.

VIII.
2 +
l.

a.

Pages

72, 73.
3 +

^/2+ ^/6
z.

^6
6 1+

^15
.

4
+ "\/a a*/6
~~

3*

\/a6 (" +
-

6)
.

y/a2 1 + N/2a (a
-

1)
*

~~2^
+ 5^/15 3^/30 ^
5

"'

a-1

12

10^/2
"

5.

^2
6.
1
.

+ "/5 ^/3

g
2 3
.

4
.

7.
8.

33 + 33
541322

2^+3

2 + 33 23.

22 +

3:1 22 + 22.
145
.

56

56

23+ 56
19

56
.

2 + 56
110

23

23".
21

11

10

11

9.

a6-a66*+a%2"-...+a"6*-64.
1

10.

3*+3"+l.

13

11.

23-22.74+2.72"-74~.
11 10
.

10

11

21

12.

53+53
5

34 + 53. 34+. ..+53.34

3 4 5 2

+3*.
17

1-33
2
1

+ 33

14.

17-33.22
15

33.22-3.
4 3
.

22 + 33.23-33.22.
2

5
.

15.

32

22-

33

2 + 33
33

221\

22 + 33

22-

33

23.
31262116
11

16.

i(36_36 + 36_36+36_1\ 2 \
J
3 5 1

|S"4

17#

25+26+26+26+26+26 gj
+ ^7-2. v/5

l
.

32 +
18.

+ 86. 8Q6
o

19.

20.

V5-\/7
2 + 2 +

2^3.

21.

1+^/3-^/2.
3

22.

*+
1 +

aA

"

4/^
"

23.

Ja-JSb.

24.

26.

^/5.

27.

^2 3-2^/2.
-

^7

"J3.

25. 28.

^/3. JU-2J2.

29.

2^/3+ ^/5.

30.

3^/3-^/6.

31.

a/^^+a/|-

35.

ll +

56x/3.

36.

289.

37.

5v/3-

ANSWERS. 3.
42.

529

38.
41.

3^3
3 +

5.
=

39.

^/5

5-23007.

a^ +

8^3. l+^+a x^/2

40.

2.

43.

Sa+Jlr^^r.

1.

0-2^/6.
.i-

4.

+ 1

7-

_8_
29*
3a2
-

10.

2a
13. 16. 19-

"(2 +
9

3N/3l). "2(1- "/^T).

19
+
.

14. 17rtrt

"(5-6 "(" +
4

V^T). ^"=T). 18,

15.
"

"(1
+ {("
.

J^Z). ^"j. /;)-(,/fc)

+

-1S
1
-^

1113. EJ. 5

2"-

^0

7-14''
26

21'

'"

(3a2 -6s).
iTTTaz + b*"

22.

23.

IX.
1. 3. 5. 7. 9. 11. 14.

a.

Pages
2.

88"90.
MiH.r'J +
.c (u2-wr)
=
-

35x2

13.r-12

0.
q=

mn

0.

+ 4pga -p* + (;"2 -fl2).r2

Q.

4. 6. 8.

xa- 14.r+ 29
x.r-

0.
=

.r2 + 10.r+ 13 .r2 + G.r+ 34 x" + a22axs +

=

0. 0. 0.
=

2px+p--8"j
a-

0. 0.
=

+ 2(ix +

+ b- =

,ab + b- =

10. 0. 12.

0.r!+ 11.c-

19r + 0
-

0.

{4-a-)x2-2ax

.rJ 8.r2 + 17.r

16.
"

4
-

0.

10

3,0.
fr2 2ac
-

15.

2,

--.

".

18, 21. 26. 28. 29.

~^"
7. 1

"

19-

6c" (3ac
-

6")
"

"*("*-4ac)
20-

o7
22.

~aV
-

"

-15.

23.

0.
v
. .

24.

x*

(p* 2q)x +p* (p* l"/)=0.

-

...,-.

(2)
-

-L.
-

27.
"".

""-=

1+

n)*ac.

aW
x--

+ (6" 2ae) (aa

=

.c + (/,2 9ac)8 c-)

=

hinix-{m--n-)- 0.

H.

Ji. A.

34

530

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

IX.
1. 7.

c.

Page

96.

-2.
+ (aa' bb'f
-

2.

"7.

5.
=

(ln'-l'nf=(lm'-l'm)(mn'-m'n).
-

0. + Ji'a) + Jib) (Jib' (ha' 2ac' 2a' c)2 (b2 4ac)(b'2 4a'c') ; which \bb' 10. (be' b'c). (ab' a'b) (ac' a'c)2=
4
-

reduces

to

X.

a.

Pages

101, 102.

13.

4.

17.

9, -7,

1"N/:I24- 182i.

2- ~4" 2, -8,

-1"*/71. -3"3x/5.

19-

3" "g'
3,

"

X"

20.

4,

y^". -J,

22.

2-^". -",

532

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

40. 41.

0,
"

"3a, ""x/7, ift^/13,

2a2

"";
"

y
=

0, ^bs/7, "6^/13, T", T36.

a
.

#=

1,

"

-a8 ,716a4

; ?/

"

2a,

-1

V16*4-"2-1
Pages
2. 4.

X.
1. 3.
x
=

c.

109, 110.
# #
=

"3;

?/=

"5;
y
=

z"

"4.

5;

?/=

1;
?/=

7.
2
=

af=5, -1;
.

lf

"

5;
; y
=

"=2.

8, -3;
2
=

3;

3,

8.

5.

.x

4, 3, "3;

2"Vi5i

S, 4,

2=7151

11 ;

1
7.

2,

"

6.

?/=

t2;
=

2=

i5.

jr=

"5; y= "1;
3;
?/=

"==

"1.

8.

8, -8; y
?/= 2;

5, -5;
2
=

3,

-3.

9.

.c

4;

-;
a

-.

10.

*=1;

3.

11.

.r

5, -7; y

3, -5;

6,

-8.

11
12.

.t=1, -2;
#
=

?/=

7, -3;

3,

'

3
14.

13.

4,

"

; */

6, ";

2, -6.

.r

a,

0, 0;

0, a, 0;

0, 0, a.

^-^3'
16.

"

'a-

"=a,

-2a,

a;

"a, a,

^
2
=

a;

2a, -4a,

(l"v/-15)
a.

X. d.
1. 2.
z
= =

Page

113.

3.
5. 7. 9. 11. 13. 16. 17.

29, 21, 13, 5; y 2, 5, 8, 11. a?=l,3, 5, 7, 9; 2/ 24, 19, 14, 9, 4. 4. ar-20, 8; y l, 8.

=

30, 5; ?/=9, 32.

6. 8.

x=7p-5, 2; y=5p-4, 1.
.t
=

21^-9, 12; y

19p-W, 3;
horses,15
; an

?/=

8p-5, 23^-19, 4.
3.
14.

10. 12.

a?=9, 20, 31; y 27, 14, 1. .t 50, 3; y 3, 44. s=l$p-2, 11; y=6p-l, 5. -" 17; ?/ 13^, 13. 17/), x llp- 74, 3; y 30p-25, 5.
= = =
=

11

cows.

101.

15.

56, 25

or

16, 65.

To pay 3

and guineas

receive 21 half-crowns. of the form 1147 + 39

x

1147

infinite number

56p.

18. 19.
20.

To pay 17 florins and receive 3 half-crowns.

37,99; 77,59; 117,19.

28 rams, 3 13 pig,11 oxen; or 13 rams, 14 pigs, 11 half-crowns, 13 shillings. sovereigns, 1
oxen.

21.

ANSWERS.

533
122"12-4.

XI.
1. 4. 8. 12. 16. 20.

a.

Tacks
3. 6. 10. 14. 18. 22.

12.

2. 5. 9. 13.

221.

40320, 0375600, 10626, 11628. 40320; 720.

720.
7. 11. 15. 19. 23.

6720.
6. 1440.

15. 120. 6375G00.

144.

15, 860. 10626, 1771.

230300. 848. 3(19600.

360, 144.
224, 896.
2052000. 2520. 25920.

1140, 231.
56.
21000.

17.
21.

360000.

24.

25.

yJ^-p.
26.

27.

5700.
41.

28.
33.

9466.
1956.

29. 34.

2903040. 7.

30.

32.

XL
1. 3. 7.

b.

Pages

131,

132.

(1) 1663200.
151351200.
nr.

(2) 129729000.
4. 8.

(3) 3326400.
5. 9.

2. 6.

4084080. 125. 30.

360. 531441.

72.

Vn.
455. 1023.
14.

10.

11.

1260. 4095. 127.

20.

12.

3374. 57760000.
21.
'

13.

'

yunrwr
18.

15.

16.

17.
inn

720; 3628800. 64;

325.
23.

19.

315.

'

22.

42.

{\m)n \ii
(1) P(p-l){p-e" *Ji"l"-i""zi" + l; (2) 6 g(g-l)(g-2)
_

24.

3"(g-l)(p-2)
6
27.

6
28.

! , hi.
29.

26.

(p+ l)*-l.
30.

113; 2190.

2454.

6666600.

5199960.

XIII.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

a.

Pages
243.

142,

143.

""

15a;4+ 90a;3
-

270.r2 + 405a;

81a:4 + 32.c5
1
-

+ 216.r-//2 + 96.r?/3 + 16//4. 216a;3// if. + lO.r//4 80x*y+ 80.r3y"40.r-y3

-

18rt2+ 135a4

540"G + 1215a8

1458a10 + 729aM.

a;10 + a;5. + 5a;9+ 10a;8 + 10a;7+ 5a;6

1
-

+ 2 la;2*/2 + 35a; V 35a;3*/3 7.iv/

~

tlxhf

7"V

x7'f'

81a;8
7.

16-48a;2

54arl-27.c6 +
16

8.

729o"
Ix

972a5 + 540a4 21x2

+

160a3 + 35a;4

^
21xn

^
7xG

35a;3

x7

1+T

~T~

~8_

l"T+ ~32~+64 +128"

534
64a;6
10*

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.
243
_

32a;4
+

20a-

135
+

729
+
'

729~~2~r
1
a

^~
7ft3

4a;2
+
n

8a;4
_

64a;6
,
. _ _

7ft2

35ft4
5~ 8

11.

+ ytv + t? 2ob lb lb
^T^
,

+^T 4
120
5-

+"

5 7 6 7ft + 4ft + 7ft +

ft

8.
10 iC9
-

10
"

45 +
-Z X'

210
+
"
-

252
r a;1

210
+
"

120
^

45
+
x

12. 13.

1-

a'

x*
14.
-

xv

:8 15.

x,.io

35750a:10.
130

112640a9.

312a;2. MK 81

16.

40ft763. 17. J~(5a;)3(8?/)-7.

1120
18.

;27|3_
a:3

10500
19. 22. 24. 27. 30. 8 2x 2
20.

10 70x6y

21.

2x4 + 24a;2+ 8.

20a;2ft2 + 5ft4). (16a;4

-

23.
25.

140^2.

65 (3

363a; + 63a;2 -a;3).

28. 21
19

252.

26. 29.
32.

-^a;14
1365, -1365.
18564.
Bn

110565ft4. 189ft17

84ft3"6. 7

'"I6a
In

31.

18*

33.

34. + r)' |i("-r)!4(H

( 1)"
-

2/i* |"|

XIII. b.
1.

Pages
3.

147, 148.
The 6th.
4. 9.

The

9th.
=

2.

The
6.

12th.

The
x
=

10th and

11*.

5. 10.
11.

The3rd

6|.
-

The 4th and 5th

-

=Jrj"
-

2, ?/

3, n=5.

1 + 8.r+ 20a;2 + 8a;3

-

26a;4
-

8.r5+ 20a;6 8a;7+ x\

27a;6 54"a;5 + 117ft2a;4 116"3.c3 + 117ft4a;2 54ft5a; + 27ft6.

n

I2n+1
xr-ian-r+l.
13.

12.

r-1
14.

n-r+1
15.

(- l)p
2r
=

p + 1

".,

z*"-*"+\

2n -p

14.

n.

XIV.

a.

Page
3
2. i +

155.
3 1 " + _a;-__a:-.

2a-

-2
_

3"

5*
1
-

2__8_ 25* 125

a;2
-

x-

4.

l-2a;2 + 3a;4-4a;6. 14

5.

a;3.

6.

l+

a;

+ 2a;2+

"

a;3.
o

7.

l-aj+ga^-g^3-

8.

"

a;

;r a;-

"

"

ar

9-

1+X+6-U-

10.

l-2ft +

-ft-

"r

ANSWERS.

535

U.

4(l+.-|..+|..). i(l "*"+|"").

!4.

\ 2a-i 1040
18.
._

a-

"/""/
10//

lb

250

-lra"
x 2 3

19.

2-43rt,.
1
22.
.

20.

+ 1)** (r

21-

+ 3) + l)(r+2)(r (r
a?-.

5
...

(-1)

(2r-3)

_r

23 "'

( I

lr_,11.8.5.2.1.4,..(3r-14) *J
*"

3r|r

24.

-1848.113.

25.

-i^-z"\
161, 162.
+ 2)(r + 3)(r + !)(r + 4) (""

10719

XIV.

b.

Pages

1.3.5.7...(2r-l)
*"

x"

^y
t

"

"

p
2.5.8...(8r-l)xr.
3'- r

"

(3r-4)^, ^1.2.5...
/_nrfe"llt"2)r-r *~. ^_
br

4"

3.5.7...
fi 6.
-

(2r+ l)

*"{-*)

xr.

9"

2.1.4...(3r-5) ^
3'lr

1.3.5...
U"

(2,-1)
l)
7,h.
.rr

V"--'
r

\r
+

2.5.8...

(3r-l)
14.

(n+ l)(2n+ l)... (r-l."

5th.
The
15.

13.
17.

The 3**.
The

The
18.

The

13th.
19.

16.

The

4th and 5*h.

21.

3r"1.
22.

989949.
23.

20.

9-99333.

10 00999.

G- 99927.

-19842.

XIV.
1.

c.

Patqeb 1G7"

1G9.
3.

-197.

2.

142.

(-1)"-1.
.

4.

(-l)"(n"+2n+2).

6.

v/8=(l-|)

53G
/ 2\-'v /

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

1VH

|2n (1) 45. (2) (1+ x)n(1+ re)-1 (1+ x)9^1.

3:r
-

14. 18.

Deduced

from

(1 a;3) (1 #)3
-

3.r2.

16.
=

6561.

of (1) Equate coefficients

xr in

(2) Equate absolute

20.

terms

in

{l+ x)n f1 +

=z2(l+ o;)n-2.
(1 .t2)-*
-

Series
22"-1

on

the left+

( 1)" qn2 coefficientof

-

x-n in

21.

J
2

|2w
'

In ire +

[Use (c0 +c1

c2+

..

.c

J2

+ clCs + ...) c02 + Cl2 +. (Coc, + c22 .cn2].

=
.

XV.

Pages

173, 174.

15-

8+

18.

w(l-^x* ^x"~x? ^xA.

3x* +
+

XVI.

a.

Pages

178, 179.

1.

8,6.

2.

2,-1.
2

3.

-i. -^,
"

4.

-4,

-|.

_4_4
3'
8.

157.42 2'

5*
+

b-

5'

~2*

7-

3'
2

'

"3'
3
+

3'

61oga
4

91ogb.
1
+

9.

-loga
2

-logb.
1

10.

--loga
7

-logfc.
1

11.

-gloga--log".
14-

12.

-"log

-log

b.

13.

2^"8fl19. 2

-51ogc.

16.

log 3.

logc loga log b

-

. '

51"^ loga + 3 log " 41ogm

loga + log b 21ogc-loga + log6*

1 1
+

'

X~

\oga'J
-

logw log 6

'

log (a ")
24.

22.

loga;
=

g(a

36),log?7 g(a-26).
=

+ by log(fl

answers.

537
185, 186.

XVI.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 9. 13. 17. 21. 28.

b.

Pages

4,1,2,2,1,1,1.
3-8821259, 5-8821259, 6-8821259. -8821259, 2-8821259,

5, 2, 4, 1.
Second decimal place; units' place; fifth decimal 1-8061800.
1-1583626.
6.

place.
8. 12. 16. 20.

1-9242793.

7.
11.

1-1072100.
-3597271. 1-948445. 9-076226. 4-29. frJ
26.

2*0969100.
-0503520.

10.
14. 18.

-6690067. -44092388. 1-0039238.

24.

f-5052973.
1-1998692. 9. 4-562.
23.

15. 19. 25.

1915631. 178-141516.
27.

301.
29.

3-46.

1-206.

14-200.

.-_""". log -log 2'

3

loS2
log3 -log 2'
,

31og3-21og2

log3

.,"*,

32.

5-614. ?,l0gJ ""-"", log 7 log

=

XVII.
1.

Pages

195"197.
6.

2. log, e*~-cy~. 50 in
; (2)
?*
=

2.

3 -log,2. log,

-0020000000666670.
In Art. 225 put

9.
7i
=

10.

-8450980; 1-0413927; 1-1139434.

?i
=

10 in

(1);and

1000 in
13.

12.

(.lr..r"i".
r
"

respectively. (1) + "-1"r"'3r 2r^.

r

14.

2ji+^.+i_X+...+i_^+...{.
/""-

(2.r)2(2x)4
/)"4 /y"6

(2x)-r
/y"*-7*

,*"

H"1" 111L~
24.

E
a=

1^+iog.a-*).
-log,

-69314718; 1-09861229; 1-60943792;

b

(l M
-

=-105360516;
-012422520.

log,(1

A^

-040821995

f1 log,
202.

iA

XVIII.
1. 4. 9.

a.

Page

"1146.

14s. 10J.

2. 5.

"720. 9-6 years.

10.

3.

14-2 years.

"6768. 7s. 10hd.

8.

"496.

19*.

4frf.

A littleless than 7 years.

"119.

16s. 4^7.

XVIII.
1. 4. 8.

b.

Pack
2U.

207.
3.

6 percent.
3 per cent.
5. 9.

2.

"3137. 2s.
6. 10.

"110.
7.

28J years.
"183.
15.

"1275.

"920.

2s.

"6755. 13s.
"1308.

18s.

3} per cent.

11.

"616. 9s. l"d

13.

12s. 4 U.

"4200.

538

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

XIX.
8. 14.

a.

Pages
xs "
or
"

213, 214.
#2 +
x

a3 + 2"3 is the The 44

.

greater.
x x
=

12.

2,accordingas
#=1.

"

or

"

2.

value of greatest 55 ; when 3.

is 1.

15.

4 ; 8.

22.

23.

9, when

XIX.
33.55
,n
.

b.

Pages

218, 219.

/3

3/2

XXI.
1.
4. 5.

a.

Pages

241, 242. Convergent.

Divergent.

8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

14.

3. 2. Convergent. Convergent. #"1, or# l, convergent; x"\" divergent. 6. 7. Same result as Ex. 4. Convergent. l, divergent. #"1, convergent;x"l, or x Divergentexceptwhen p " 2. #"1, or x=l, convergent; x"l, divergent. If x " 1, convergent ; x " 1, or x 1, divergent.
=
= =

SameresultasEx.il.
"

13.

except when ^"1. Divergent,

15. 17. 18.

x"l, or x 1, convergent; .t"1, divergent. 16. Convergent. Divergent. (1) Divergent. (2) Convergent.

(1) Divergent. (2) Convergent.

XXI. b. Page
252.

1. 2. 4.

x"l,
Same
11
x
"
-

or

x=l, convergent; x"l, divergent.

as

result
or x
=

Ex.

1.
1
x",

3.

Same

result

as

Ex.

1.

convergent ;
x"e,

divergent.

5.

x"e,

convergent;

or#=e,

divergent.

540
1 X-l
12'
X

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

1
+ l

{x+ l)2 {X+ 1)3 {X+l)*'

BiiWsoW "Pn-r-4n*.
_il
3(1-*)
+

4
"

13 ld"

3(2 + *)' 3\ 3(x +

-

1flll(-1"'-V +
V~*

'

3(* + 5)
15.

2)'1
5
l

'

3V5'-+12^+V
'

-L.
-

-1_
1+
a;

l-# ""

,-4{1+ 1-2*
+

(- l)r-1-2r+2}^. '

""

18-

!{9r+8+(-l)'2~}V. (r^y8(I^j-3(I^) llr)a:'4lI^) 4(l1^p;4M(12 Tfx(TT^-2T3i' (-V ("+"-"?)*

+

31
19'

"

2la^I)
2

-h1 {-1)2 }XT' 2(rT^);?'eVen'2{{-1)2-3}a;r;r0dd'

+ 3 2

3a;

1-

"

(l-sc)d

(l-x)2
+

1-sc *"-+2
+

j
*

^r+2
-

c^"2

)
X
'

j(a

b)(a c)
-

1 (6 c)(6^o) (c-a)(c-b)
-

5
22'

2
+

1
+

5r + 9) *

-(2^p-2^
1 11)

(I^-)2 r^;
*
*

f+"-W
1 1+
x x

23

1
1 + ax)
'

f9\

_JL J_l_
(1-a)2 \l+
1
25
*

1 l + aP+tx

anx

(
"

x*
l-^

xn+l i_xn+i

.-r(l-a")(l-.'c2)"

(l-.r)2(l-3

XXIV.

Page

272.

*'

(4r+1)^ (TT^25

2-

l + x-2x*"

{1+(-1)r2r^r-

3
5'

12* + Use2
+

l=^flE?r"5^

tr-+1)"r-6'

3-

2n-l;-(3"-l)+
*

2n-l.

7.

(2.3-1 -3. 2-1)^-1'

v

2(1-3^")
1-3*

3(1-2^*)
1-2*

'

l-4x

1-Sx

ANSWERS.
l-.r"
,

541
l-2'l.r"

l-3".r"

?/n-3"n_1+ 3"u_o-j/n_3=:0; M"-4"n_1+6Mw_a-4tito_a+""_4=0. to infinity term. 12. beginningwith (n+ l)th Sn=5aD-S, where 2 smn This may be shewn to agree with the result in Art. 325. easily
11.
=

13.

(2n+

(2**+i+l). 1)3+|
XXV.
a.

Pages

277, 278.

2 L

13

15
7
'

28

323

074 313* 95 232' 121

'

1'
12

6'
7

13'
9

150'
43

2'

JU3
1497' 1174
'

2' 5'
3 1
'

f7' 22'
13
'

105'
85
'

10 3 1

36
'

T
1
2 +

11

26

37

"359

'

1 1+
1

1
1 + 1

1117
2 + 2
'

*"

2 + 1
* D

2+
1

12

"

157

4+
6.

3+
3+

2+

1+

3;

"30"

'

JL _L JL JL J_ JL *"
3+

3+

3+

3+

3+3'
Ill

109"
11

7'

_1_JLJ^JL_!
3T
2+ 5+

IT 1+
2+ 2+

3+~ 2+
1+

1+

5;

35"
1 +

J__l_ J_ J_ _1_1. _7
1+ 11111111
10.

3; 19"
G3

J_J^AJl_X
7+ 5+

?5i
35
223'

6+

1+

3+
n'
4 +

3+

3+

6+ 3'
r"

1+ 259

2+

1+

10'

208*
1

J__l_l
3+ o+
7

39

47

GO*
,

i'
;

29'

33'

161'

194*
are

16.

1 +

(n + l)+

(n-l)+
//
-

jt

and
-

7i

+ l

the firstthree convergents

n
-

n2

?j3 n2 +

1
"'

~T~'

n+~l'

~n*~

XXV.
1 and
*

b.

Packs

281"283.

1
j

151
"

(203)2
11
4. a+

"2(1250)**
11
a

115'

a*+3a+3
+

("+ !)+ (a+2) +

3'

aa + 3a- + la + 2

'

542

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

XXVI.
1. 2. 3.
a
=

Pages

290, 291.
y
= =

7m

x x

100, 2/ 775f + 109; a=100, 519t-73, ?/ 455t-64; a=446, y

+
= =

109.

S91.
?/
=

3934 + 320, ?/= 436t +

5.

355; x=320,
Seven.

355. 5 4
-.

4.

Four.

6.

-,

^3117
12'
8. 11. 13. 14. 15. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.

8*'12' 8;
=

"r

\
8'
9.

L
12
x
=

^
8'

1_
12*
=

"6. 13s.
x
=

9, y

S,

S.

10. ?/ =

5,

6,

7.

"c =

4, y=2, z l. 3, 7, 2, 6, 1; y
y
=

12.
=

as=2,
=

9, s=7.

aj=l, 3, 2;
280" + 93.

ll, 4, 8, 1, 5; 5, 1, 3; z 2, 4, 3.
=

1, 1, 2, 2, 3. 181,412.

16.

Denary 248, Septenary503, Nonary

a=ll,
The

305.
v

10,9, 8, 6,4, 3; 6
104th

107th and

66,30, 18, 12, 6,3, 2. divisions, reckoning from either

=

end.

the first time. 50, 41, 35 times,excluding

425.

22.

899.

23.

1829 and

1363.

XXVII.
1 1

a.

Pages

294, 295.
1
"

26

2889

1+2+
"

"""15*
1

n4+"",1292"
1
42 +

1
3' J +

485 198 3970

'

1
-;

99

2T4T'-;
11

IT4+

35"
1

5-

d +

3+"6+";
1111

6'

J. J_

J_

119
33

1197
116

+1+

1+

1+

1+

6+"-;

7.

3-f 1+
+

2+

1+

6+

""'

31

_L J_ JL J_ JL J_
1+ 2+
4+
'"";

197
.

2+ 1351

1+

8+

"'"'

42

9-

d +

_1_J_
2+ 6+
111111

JL_J_ JL
1+ 161 1+

1_
10+
-;

198
35
*

"390"'
2+
1+

1+

11.

1+
12.

2+

2+

12+

'

21 253

11111111
12 +

1+
1 13.

1+

1+

5+

1+

1+

1+
""

24+
12

'

'

20

111111

4+
'

1+

1+

2+

1+

1+
.

8+

55*

_1_Jj_J_ _1
5+
ie

1_
10+
'""'

47_
270'
.

_1
10+
280
"'"'

1_
2+
'"'

5291
"

1+

2+

1+

4830*

1111111111
"D'

1+

3+

1+

16+

1+

3+

2+

3+

1+

16+

351*

ANSWERS

""4.*"

4030
9'

1(577
*

1
*

1
""

20-

401
22.
( 4 +
r"

21, 2 +

483
111
-

2+2
"

1111
" " "
-

1+
1
""

1+
!

1+

... '

23.

1+

"

4+ 11111
"

2 +

3+
25'

1+

24'

4+3+3T-;rT2+8+3+3+Positive root of
x-

^
-

26.

3" -3

0.

27.
30.

Positive root of 3x2

-. a

lOx -4

0.

28.

4^/2.

XXVII.
1
1.
a

b.

Pages

301, 302.

8a4 + 8a2 + l
""'

2a +

2a+

2a+

8a:,+ 4a
1

2*

+2T 2(a-l)T
1 1
,

J.

1_

8a2-8a
*,;

2+
1

2(a-l)+
1

8a-4 2a- -1

3.

a-l

1+
1111
4.

2(a-l)+
2a +

1+
"'

2(a-l)+
'

""'

2a

8a2 + 8a + l

1+

2a+
1111
6.
a

2+

2+

8a2 + 4a

'

2a262 + 4a"
'

+ l
'

b+
6.

2a +

b +

2a +

2a"*+26
""

1111

2a/i-l
"

a-l-t 1+

2(n-l)

1+

2(a-l)+

'

2/i

432a5 + 180a3 + 15a

7.

141a4 + 36a2 +1

XXVIII.
l.

Page

311.
2.
#
=

3.
4. 6. 7. 9. 12.

10, y 5. x 3, 2; y=l, 4. 11; 4,3. x=2, 3, 6, y=12, 7, x 79, 27, 17, 13, 11, 9; y=157, 61,29, 19, 13, 3.
= =

1, 2/ 4; s=7 or 5, y=6. x=3, y=l, 11; *=7, y=9, 19j x

s=7
or
= =

2, y

l.

18, 22.

15, ?/

4.
10.
x
=

8.

170, y

39.

x=32, y=5.
2.r =

lG4, y
.

21.

11.
-

x=4,

l.

2V'3 (2+x/3)n+(2-v/3)";

{2+ s/3)n-(2 v/3)";/t being any

-

integer.
13.

2x
2x

even

14.

(2+ v/5)n+(2-^/5)'1; 2^/5 ^ (2+ ^5)"- (2 v/5)";n being uny integer. positive n being (4+ v/17)n+(4-v/17)n; 2V/17.?/ (4+ x/17)" (4-v/17)";
.

positive integer. any The form of the answers to 15 17, 19, 20 will vary mode of factorising the two sides of the equation.
"

odd

according to the

544
15.
x
=

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

11fi

3/t2, y
y
=

m?

2mn.

16. 18.

m2 + 2mn

+ n~;

m2

?i2.

17.
19. 21.

x=2mn,
m--n-\

5m?-n*.

53, 52; 19, 16; 13, 8; 11, 4.

20. 2mn; m2 + w2. m2-n2j 2mn + n'2. Anna Hendriek, Geertruij. ; Claas,Catriin;Cornelius,

XXIX.
1
1. + ^n(n + S). l)(n+ 2)(ti

a.

Pages

321, 322.
-

2.

+ 4). (n+ 1)(n +2) ("+ 3)(/t

3.

"

+ 4)(3n + 7)+ (3"i 2)(3n+ 1)(3/i

-

n* + {21

90/i2+ 45u

50)
.

71

11

4.

-(n
n

+ 7). l)(n+ 6)(/i

5.

-(n
n

l)(n+ 8)(n+9).
1 3*
1
'

6.

fc

n+1'
1
o 8. t^
-

; 1.
'

7.

3;i+l'
l

l
"

1
9.
'

12

t-t^

+ 3)' + 1) (2/7 4(2/1

=^^

^r

,~.

12"

24

^T

+ l) (3// + 4) 6(3/i

24*
1

2/1 + 5
2
+ l)(?? + 2) (7i + 5

11
6
^
h

2
+

'4
12'

4*

3+(u+
+

3)(h
+

4);6*
+

S-nT2 a(n
1

i' + 2); l)(i"

"H" j^+l"""
n

""(*

""'

14.

-?i2(n2-l).
"

15.

+ + j ("-l)(w l)(n 2)(2n+l).

16.

+ (n+ 1)(n+ 2)(3/r

36n2 + 151n+

240)
-

32.
n

1?

(n-l)"(n+l)(n+2)
6(2n+l) 3 + 3) n(/t
2 1 +,

ig

"(n+l)(n+2)
3
20-

n+1"
1
H

19,

~^~

2~^2~

(n+l)(n + Z)'
XXIX.
b.
Pages

1-7l+~r

332, 333.
5/t2+ 3/7;
-

1.

3"2 + 7i;

+ l)2. ?i(7i

2.

n
o

+ 7). (n+ 1)(5/7

3. 4.

+ l); 7t2(/i

"

"(n+l)(n+2)(3n+l).
-

(n2 -4raa(n-3);-77 (/7+1)

3u

2).

5.

rc("+l)(n+2)(n+4);^n(n+l) (n+2)(n+3)(4"+21).
l + .r2
7-

l-a; + 6.x-2-2.r3
*

2-.r + .r2
8'

(l-.r)3*
1-aJ
_

(l-a;)3
1 + lLc + lla^+g3

(I-*;3
9
4
+ /7 +

(1+.t)12.

(l-z)0
13.

gj.

3.2"

2; 6(2"-l) +

W^

5^.

ANSWERS.

545
3*+n~+"
n;
]

14.

S*-i + 15. ^(Sn"+2n*-15n-26). n"-(n+l)s;

16.

2"+"-ns-2tt; 2"+2-41

t"(u+1)(2"+7).
"("+l)(.+ 5)
_ _

1
n

17.

3--1 1
-

+ xn

(n+g)

+ (3"+1 8)

"

nx11 19.

xn
" -

"i.rn
"

)i

(n+ 1) xn

18.

(1 a;)2
-

(1 xf
n
-

(1-*)"
4n+1
2

2(1-a?)

1
20.
'

1
21'

n+1
n

2n'
58n +

7TT2-~^~+3
n

22.

+ 27k2 + (n+ 1)(3k3

2)

23.

+ 33na (k+ 1)(12k3

37n

8)

15
+ k(k + 1)(9h2

60
1 1
-

13k +

8)

24.

25.

12

2
27.

2'1.3.5.7

(2k+ 1)'

2"t+i
26.

1-

|k + 2'

(k2-k+ 4)2"-4.
*

1-3-5 2.4.6
l

28.

(n-l)3"+1+3.
n

29

(2/t+l) (2k+ 2)"

J

J 2".
31.

30.
n

+ 1
n

4
33.

2(k+1)(k + 2) *3"'
k

1
32"

+ 1

+ 4
'

1-

2""^T2

(K + l)(K+2) 2n+1'

XXIX.

c.

Pages

338"340.

1.

(ex e~x)
-

x.

2.

1+

"

-log(l-ar).
1

(ex
-

c~x

ieix+

ie~ix).
6

4.

(r-2)|r-T
7.

5.

(l+ x)ex.
k(2"-1).

{p + q)r

1.
4.

II
9. 12.

8. 11.

0.

10. 13.

log"2-",
...

3("3-l).
K

e*-log(l + .r).
7k4
24
ir

?l'

n6 71"
+

?i5 ?f
+

n3 71*

n8

?i7

7kb
12

14' 15.

"X"
lot'.

2--6+42' (J)
17.

+12

(1)
k

+ 1.

2 \

1 +

n2J

'

+ 1

(1 +
20.

-')2lo-a+.T)-3^. 21. 4.r

3

"(n-fl)2"~".
(_1)

22-

W
H.

+ + "-) 2"+i + (-!)"+'}" 5l2 I1

(n+l)(n+2)/'
35

H.

A.

54G XXX.
1. 7.

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

a.

Pages

348, 349.
6.

3, G, 15, 42.
23.

2. 33.

1617, 180, 1859.

8987.

18.

:. b.
20.
x
=

Pages

356"358.

where 139t + (jl,

is

an

integer.

XXXI.
2.

a.

Pages

367"369.
1 ; it be shewn that

1 h

"

18.

can

qn=l +j"n-

XXXII.

a.

Pages

376, 377.

5.

2 to 3.

2197
10.
'

20825

11
16.

4165*

(m

7i) (m+n-1)'

XXXII.

b.

Pages

383, 384.

XXXII.

c.

Pages

389, 390
1
4.
" Florins.
.

5.

-.

1
9.
me 11 to

o.

10.

b.
o

548
26.

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

The

determinant

is

equal to

27.

w'
v

v'
w
10

=0.

v'

v!

XXXIII.
1.

b.

Pages

427,

428. third and 2ca

-

1.

2.

0 ; add

first and
4.

second rows,
-

fourth

rows.

3. 6.

(a + 3)(a-l)3.

a2 + b2 + c2

2bc

2ab.

subtract three times the third,from the second 6 ; from the firstcolumn the fourth subtract four times subtract twice the third, and from the third.

6.

abcd(l+
\ -(x
+ y +

_/,

1
-

1
+ T+

1
-

1\
+

a)

-).
x
-

7. 8.

z)(y+

x) (z+
9.

y) (x +

z).

(ax-by+cz)''
B

a'.

12.

.""-"""-"") ; "c.
(a b)(a- c)
"

13-

x=",

k(k-b)(k-c) ('"cTVT (a b) (a c)
-

""

X-{a-b){a-c)(a-d)'
439, 440.
3a + 6
a
= =

XXXIV.
1. 3. 5. 6. 7. 8. 10. 11. 13. 14. 28.

a.

Pages
2.

-102. x3-2x2
+
x

27.

l; -loz+11.

4.

3.
+ 90x-" + 4S2x-7.

x-4 + 5x~5 + 18x~6 + 54:X-7; U7x-i-B56x-5

(b-c){c-a){a-b) (a+ b + c).

-

+ a) (a + b). (b c)(c a) (a-b)(b + c)(c

-

2iabc.
+ 62 + ("-c)(c-a)(a-")(a2

9.

+ c)(c ("" + a)(a+ b). +

c2 + "c +

ca

+ a) (a+ b). 3a6c("+ c)(c J2 + + 80a"c(a2 c2). 3 (b c)(c a)(a b) (as a)(x-b) (x-c). 12.
-

12a6c

aZ"). (a+

6 +

c).

29.

2.

(x-a) (x- b)(x-c)'

30.

(p-x)(q- x)
(a+ x) (b+ x) (c+ x)
'

31.-

1.

32.

+ b +

+ d.

XXXIV.
5. 28

b.

Pages
7.

442, 443.
A
=

0.

ax+by

+ ay,

bx-ay.

(a2 + bc)(b2 + ca)(c2 + ab).

ANSWERS

549

XXXIV.
1.
4. 7. 9.

c. + rt =

Pages
0.

449, 450. aB3+y"=o* ""+ys=2as. loa;=fc2(a:+a)".

3. 6. + 2c4 =

x3 +
y=

xy2+

ay-

0.

2. 5.

a(x-Sa).
0.

a*-a*=l.
8. 10. ?/--

64e4+ c4a4 + a464 = cf-b-c-J2.

a4-4"/c3 + 364 = abed
+

"4-2a2"2-"4 5a263
=

0.

11.

l+
13. 15. 17. 20.

a
=

1 + 6

1 +

1 + d 1+"Z

-3=1.

12.

6c5.
=

ab

l +

c.

14.

a3 + 63 + c3+abc a" + b2 + c2"2abc "2-4a"c

a
-

0.
=

(a+6)*-(a-5)$=4c$. 16.
abc
=

l.
=

(i- a-b
-

c)2.

18.
-

+ ac3 + 463-"V

0.

c2 (o+ b

1)-

{a+ b
x

1)(a-

2a6 + "21

b)+
(c

ab

0. 1

1
22

(a-b)cr+(a- c)bq

(b c) ap
-

(b a) cr
-

a) bq+ (c b)ap
-

bcqr+
23.

carp +
=

abpq

ab' ac' ad'

-

a'b a'c a'd ad'

-

ac'

a'c
-

ad' b'c bd! cd'

a'd
-

0.

a'd + be' bd'

-

b'd
-

b'd

c'd

XXXV.
1. 3. 4.

a.

Pages
2.
=

456, 457.
x* + 2xri- lis*12.r3+ 3Gx2
=

6x4-13x3-12x2 x6
-

+ 39.r-18
-

0. 80r

0.

ox*
2

8x4 + 40x3 + 1 G.r2

-

0.
5.

re4
-

x2 + {a2 b2)2. + b2) (a2

1 l

1,3, 5, 7.
8.

p ~"-

2'

2'
3 1 11-

6, 2, g
/o

_3
2'
113

4' 3"
14.

"n/3, j,

2*

V
16.

2' 4*
17.

|,|,W2.
4 3 5

f,|,2,3.
19. 21.

3'
"1

2'

3'

(1) -62J (2)

2(/2. 460, 461.

XXXV.
2 L

b.

Pages

ldb^-3
~2~
~"

d'

~3'

2.

-g,

-3,2"N/3.
+ 25
= =

3. 5. 7.

-1=^/2, -l^V^7!-1, "v/3,

x4-8x2
+ 3G

4. 6. 8.

"7^1, _2"VTT.
.t4-2x2
ar"+ 1G 0. 0.

1*2^/^1.
=

0.

.)

50 s4- 10^+
ar"
-

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

9.
11. 13. 15.

1=0.
26a; + 21
=

10.

re4
-

10a;3-19.r2 + 480a; -1392

=

0. 0.

6a;3 + 18x2-

0.

12.

a;8- 1 6.r6+ 88a;4+192.t2 + 144

One One

positive, one positive,

one

two negative, at negative,

imaginary. [CompareArt.

554.]

least four

16. 21.
24.

Six.
pq-r.

17.
22.

(1)pq

r;

imaginary.[Compare Art. 554.] 20. (2)ph'=q*. q2-2pr.

23.

^-3.
pi-4p2q + 2q2+ 4:pr-4LS.
XXXV. Pages
2. 4.

pq-Sr,

pr-ls.

25.

c.

470, 471.
a:4- 37a;2- 123a: a;4-24a;2-l.
-

1. 3. 5. 10.

a,-4-6a;3 + 15a:2-12a; + l. 2a;4+ 8a;3-a;2 -8a; -20. 16aa;7i(.r6 + h6) + 2bh + 7a;4/*2 + 7a;2/t4

110.

+ 10.r2/r+ 7i4) + 2ch. (5.T4 12.

2, 2,
1

1,
=

3.

11.

1, 1, 1, 3.
1
14.

3, 3, 3, 2, 2.

^/^3 1"J~Z
2
,

1
"

1
'

13.-2,
15.

2 2.
16.

'

1, 1, 1, -1, -1,
a, a, -a,

17.

6.

"x/3,i^/3,1 /3 l"J-7
"

^/^1.
/3

l",7r23
4

18.

^Wg'"
20.

;"\/2'
=

19. 22.

0, 1,

-|. -|, -| 0, 1, -|,

;

n"j*-*

4p"{n-2)"-*.
28.

(1) -2;

(2) -1.
XXXV.

27.

5.

99,795.

d.

Pages
2.

478, 479.
+27=0. + Sy'2-9y ?/4-5?/3
3

4.

"2^/2,2

^/3.

6-

2,2l,L(l"Jl3). 2'2'
2
in 1U*

1
4'

X
1
'

2'

~5*

11. 14. 15. 17. 19.

21.

y*-2y + l 0. 2/6 60i/4 320r

=
"

12.
-

+ l ?/4-4?/2
-

0. 0.

13.

y5-7y3 + 12y2-7y=0.

717?/2 773?/
=

42

t/3-^|2+^-^
0.
+ 19j/-15=0. ?/3-8?/2 0. + 8 + 33?/2 + 12*/ ?/3
=

16.

+ ll2/4 + 57y2-132/-GO + 422/3 2/5

18. 20. 22. + 4y2+ 37/ + 3?/3 + ?/4 + kqi/2+k* ri/
=
-

0.

0.

0.

0. y'i-q2y2-2qr2y-r4
= =

23.
25.

26.

+ "/(l-r)2/3 + (l-r)3 ?-^ 0. + + r3 + + 3r2)2/ 2/3 3?^2 (53 + r(r2 + 223) ;V + 3?^2+(3r2+ "/3)?v/

0.

24.

0. r\f ?/3-2^2 + 92y+ r2=0.

qif-1

0.

28.

"1, "2,

5-

ANSWERS.

551 488, 489.

3.

XXXV.

e.

Pages

1.

5,

d*""Lll.
a

2-

10,-5"7V^8,

4,

-2"5j~^S.

4.

-6, 3"4

7^~3.

5.

--.-iVJ?.

6.

11,11,7.

10. 13. 15.

-ld=7^1. 1"72, -1"7^1.

4, -2,

U.

1,-4*^/6.
14. 16.

12.

1,2,-2,-3.

1, -3,2"75.
1, 4

2,2,|, |.
-4, -4, -4,
3. 2

17. 22. 25. 28.

18.

-3-^. g"+8r*=0;?, I-3-^-5

"715,
=

-2"76, "72, 2"73.

-

"72.

23.

sV

+
26.

+ (l-44 + r(l-s)3j/ 2s(l-*)2?/2

0.

""
-

^?.
putting x 4 y, and + 1 y2 3// original equation.
=
-

.t4 8.r3+ 21a;3 20a;+ 5 = (x2 5x + 5)(a;2 3a; + 1); on the expressions a;2 5a;+ 5 and a;- 3a;+ 1 become the so that we + 5 respectively, merely reproduce y2 5//
-

MISCELLANEOUS
2. 4.

EXAMPLES.
3.

Pages

490"524.

6, 8.

Eight.
1,
y=

(1) 1"75; 1"275. (2) 35=1, y S, z=

=
-

5 ;

or

x=

3;

5.
1

6.

(1) 1, ^-3;

+ 2b -,

(2) 3.

7.

First term

1 ; common

difference

8.

-pCp8-^); (p2-q)(p"-3q).
10.

9.
14. 15.

+ a-^"1). -(oft

^.
=

13.

A, 7 minutes; ZJ,8 minutes.

a4 + "4 + c4 =
x=

62c2+ c2a2+ a262"

:

y1= J
a

+ b + c

; or
c-a
-

a-b
-ca-

,-=";
ab) d.
=

where
16.

Jc-a(a+ b- + c2

be

One

mile per hour.

17.

(2) (1){b+e)(e+a){a+b). (1)

^/-g- ^
+

"

'

2~.

18.

; 22G8.

13.

^105
=

(2)x
22.

y="7^;

a^6= -(J+26)="\/y+a623.

1"*5; nine.

i {(1 +

2 + 3+

..

+ (l2 /")--

2-* + 32 +

...

+n-)\.

552 Wages 15s.; loaf 6d.

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

24.

25.

6, 10, 14, 18.

29. 31.

3fc, ?/ 4fc,z
=

Either
or

l, so that fc=l,w, or or. 8 fourpenny pieces; 33 half-crowns, 19 shillings, 17 fourpenny pieces. 37 half-crowns, 6 shillings,
=

5fc; where

30.

480.

32. 35.

6, ft 7.
=

33. x\

40 minutes.

1 +

xi ^x2--

"

37.

-l^y-3^1^/gj[a,.4_.r_5(a;2 l)
pr
1

a;

0.]

38.

8;^"
.r'

-.

40.

The

firstterm.

l + 4ft2c2 + 9c2a2+ a2ft2

41.

13, 9.

42.
.,,.,, a2 o- + -|-

"

",

c-

43.

(1) 3,
(2) x
=

2, l,

"

^^"

[Add a-2+
0; 0;

4 to each

side.]

ssl,
2=1,
48.

-1, -|, -|,0,

0,

-1,

-\, 0,
a

0,-1.
at

17.

5780.

150

persons

changed their mind;

50.
.

first the 936

men.

minoritywas

250, the

majority350.
2m-l
".
_

ad -be
.

51-

0, C1) i*

7J'2m+l
-

rrt.

(2)
K
'
=

a-b-c+d
-

[Put (a
53.

c)(6- d)

{(x c) (x a)}{(x d) (x ft)} ; then square.]

55.
m
=
"

6,

--577-.

30

^/a+ ^/6
a;2- 16
=

-r"

,-

"=-,

"

v/a+ ^/6

-^St.
=

58. 60.

(1)1. (2)"4 ^[putting

" "

we y4,

find
63.

y*-16 -4y(?/24) 0.]

0,
a

",

males;

^"
" "

females.

b-c

b-c difference of the A. P. is n-1 is the reciprocal of the

b,

"

a+b

64.

Common which

; common

difference of the A.P.

H.P.

is

ab
+ b(r-l) a(n-r) '-^
" -

-=-"

"

.
-

[The rth

term

is

"

n-1
68.

the in

...

,...

term l)th ' 69.

is

"

(n 1) aft(n-l) e rr rv -1 a(n-r) + b (r 1)
-.
" " -

19.

"78.

l"V-3
*

-1*^-3
'
*

U'

2
=

and + ft)3-a3-ft3 + ft), [(a 3aft(a

a3 + (a- ft)3-

63 =

-3aft(a ft).]
-

ANSWERS.

553

72.
73.

(1)
v '

*4U .,*]"" log

b
*

(2)
74.

*=*2(^?l0S2)~*l-189 log
1
-

7,
*"* v '

2.

8
...

hours.
= ."c

79.
80. 85.

-.

(1) -=*f=-=sO,
a o
=

!f

*
c

a or

+ 6 +
-

c
.

a6c

2)
u

y b=

, l.

3, 6

1.

81.
were

[Put x-a
"7700

and "3500:
91.

v.]

82.

ar

3.
was

84.

126.

Sums

invested

and

the fortune of each London.

/5
'

"1100.

86.
95

503 in scale T_5 *-6'

! *"

seven.

25 miles from
+

ItthE}.
29
..

25

'

?/_3 "*"-d'5'
.

10^
96"

2y

\/3'
--

"21'
'

_"

100.

,. function Generating , r,

l + 4x
-z

2(l-2'\r") l-(-l)".r"
.,

is

1-x-

-"

2i-

suru=

-^

"

=
-

"

2.c

1 +

nih term=
107.
109.
a-

xn~K + ( l)n} {2"

-

+ 6

c-

d. y
=

108.

12 persons, "14.
or

18s.

(1) x
1+

a,
-=-

b,

c.

(2)x
,"

3,
=

1;
y *
=

|f=l,or
492. b.

3.
113.

111.

JL
=

-i--L
y
=

1;
or

1+12+1+1+1+9
117.

948,
=

"12.

15*.

(1) x (2) x

a,

b; 1, y

x
=

3 or

y = 2, 2=1

a,

2a\

2b, y

3;

12"-

W
(2)

l~^TWa(J"'1)
+

+ **+" {*"+"-

*2 + (2*" + (n+ 1)2

2li

1)x

n-

1
.

121.

122.
=

(1)
2
=

y-

or

^2=

(2) x
124

0, y
-

0,

0; x="2,
lO.r-1
t

y="lt
r
'

"3.

13.c 3
125.
-

23
-

4
'

(.r23x

1)

(**+*+ 1)
-

2^+1
2x- ;

1=

1; scale of relation is 1
=

term general

2'1~3 + is {

(- l)n_1 }.r"-'.

127.

(1) .r=-6, 2; y

9, -3.
129.

(2) *=-;
12, 16;
or

y=y
48, 4.

128. 130.

(2)^. (1)^".
(1) x= (2)
-

"7.
=

I
b

"

JL
2abc 134.

where

"2 =

262c2+ 2c2a2 + 2a262

136.
a=

a4

64

c4.
c
=

133.

11,r-1.

384sq.yds.

"2,

3,

"2.

137.

(1)*="-^, y" V2' y="^.

v/2

(2)

"^;

*^/^-

138.

"3. 2s. at the firstsale and

"2. 12*. at the second sale.

554

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

139.

(1) (3)

i"("+l)(2" + l). (2) ~n(n

+ 2)(Bn2 + l)(n

6n +

l).

|n("+l)(4w-l).
=

141.

(1) x (2) x,

l y,
-

or

y;

?/= have
-

or

y.

may
-

the
=

permutations of

the values 3, 5, 7.

142.

y3+ "jy2 g2y/ q's

x

8r

0.
3 + Ua; -157a:2

143.

(1)

(xn 1)
-

(x-iy

x-l'

'

1 + 5x -50a;2 144. 2

-8a;3'
-

+ 7)-2. (3) 2'l+i+ -u(/t

(63 d3)
=

("2 c2) (b a).

-

145. 146.

-2, -2, -2,

A walks

3*

in successive

B walks
so

that

overtakes

days 1,3, 5, 7, 9, 11,13,15,17,19,21,23, miles, 12, 13, 14,15,16,17,18,19,20, A in 2 days and passes him on the third day ; A
B

subsequentlygainson

and

overtakes b+

him

on

B's 9th day.

^6-1
147.
~

5
150.

148.

-(a +

c), -(a +
A
-

wb +

u)2c), (a+
-

(o'2b +

wc).

nth term

is -*

(an

"

bn)
L
"

a-b where
A
,

a;"-1; Sum a2x

H
-

B,
and denotes

a(l-nanxn) y" '=

"

an-1xn~i) (1 *_

corre-

ax

(1-aa;)2
of B.

spondingfunction
151.

qif 2p2y2 5pqy

-

2p3 q2
-

0.

153.

(1) (1)
".

-7,7"8y~8(2) ^

"8"

4"

154.

days.

156.

| ^ 0"^4
89
-

[(12a; 1)(12a; 2)(12s 3)(12* 4) 120.]

-

T92
, ,""

11

"I

157.

22 years
_

nearly.

161.

44 hours.

162.

(1)x (2)x

-7"V217
r*-

-=r=
=

s="i,
, ,

.-

"2;
where
=

y==F2, Tl;ar=-y="V3
2/i;2 + bG + c6 (a6
b2x +
-

h (64 + c4

a262

"c. a?e2)
+

3a262c2)1
=

[Itis

easy to shew

that a2x
c2x
ca
=

a2y+ b2z +
163.

a;3 +
+

b2y+ c2z 0, and a2z + + z'i- Sxyz y'i

=

c2y .]
b+
=

(a+

b +

+ c)x (be
=

ab)"

J (be+
c)x2-

[Equation reduces to
164.

(a+ b +

ab)2 4abc (a+ + ca + ab)x + abc (be

ca

c).

0.]

(1) ~n(n

+ 2)(Sn + 13). (2) 2e-5. l)(n

556

HIGHER

ALGEBRA.

223.

1("15W^); (l)^=l("15"V33)j
,=

or*

y
2

4, 6, -4, -6; 6, 4, -6, -4; 5, 5, -5, -5. V~b

_

a;~fl

g-c

(2)

a(6-c)
where
226.

6(C-rt)~c^rT6)-X'
=

a2 + 62 + ("-c)(C-a)("-")x

c2_"c_ca_^
convergent.
+ 8"
.

20 sheep. 229. Lim 12calves, I5pigs,

=|; f(^-l)}
-1 Xtenn {""
=

230.

Scale

of

relation
23"-i
T

is
5

1-12.,

+ 32.-

2*"-i ^n
11
231233. 235.
=
"

7
232.

"21
ar
=

"

2T3a3 + V +

+ 6"-ca, "c. N/a=*

+ c)+ bZ(c + a)+ c*(a + b). cS=aZ(b

(1)

(l-*)^=l+4o;+^-.(n+l)3a.n+(3B8+6|l "%"+" (3m3 3n2 3k 1)"*M

-

J (2) ' 8
236. 237. 244. 247.

1
+ 2)3(n+ l)2(7i

1 + a*x* + a*x* + fl"x" + ""*!" +

a*V"
-

aux*
.

"^28 + ^
242.
_

+ a20;r,6"

3hours51min. 3,4,5,6.
2, 6, 1, 3.
246. 248.

240.

2 or

140.

(ab*-"f. a*(c*-Sd?)*=:(ab*+2")

"
.

13
+ +

249.

(1)

l)(2,tl). 2*-H-2-jU(n
2
_

(2) -_^!L_ (n+ l)(n+ 3)

S'

"3"

T^
n is
=

*""P
If 0or|.
-a,

-he-

even

If*^
+

'Jiz*^)

when
250.

odd.
*
=

(l)*
*

2/= 2/+

however X" + y"+ z* + yz+zx

xy

0) then

and

the solution is
V

indeterminate.
z

(2)",

a(-a

+ b +

c)

b(a-b

c)-^(^b^c)
1
'

"

s/l- +
a

*" +

-b cjja

flM 253.

-"+BE1C,H-A, +
A
=

(i

B,

+ c.)"4,-B, + 0,)(Alf

"+ Xre

c)(a + b~^~c)

y/a (6 c),"c.
-

ANSWERS.

55?

256.

(1) .""

1,

w,

to-

z=-(a (2)x
y
257. 262. 266.
=

+ W), b), -(rtw

+ /yu). -(i/w'-

S, 7,

or or

7 3

|
)

0, 4,

or or

-4

-6
258.

To

at least 3r-2

places.
263.

Tea,

2s.

Go".; Coffee,1*. 6d.

3 ducks.

2ga-6pr+24".
(1)x,
y,
a,
z

have

the

turkeys,9 geese, permutations of the values

11
a
-

la(b-l+sJb*-2b-3), \ (b JJfi^W^3).
1
-

(i j_

b -fc
="

(2) as=f/="
268.

l;

; "c.

267.

0.

16

Clergymen of
Lawyers of
-

average

age 45 years ;

24 Doctors

of average
average
-

age 35 years ;
age
=

20
269.

30 years.
-

(a0a2 afl(a.2a4 a32) (afy a22)2 ; or + a0a32 afaA a23 a0a.2ai 2axa.2a3
-

0.

270.

X=

"

"

"C.
,

"

"

"c

273.

c~$.

Va2 +
274.

62 + c2

V"2 +

^2 + c2

(1)

v'\

fl-?Viog(l-a;)-2. (2)-^ jl- ,w'^" a-1 (

xj
#

+ n)) (a+ l)(a+ 2)...(a

"

275.

(1)*=?,?, 2;
?/=-l,
3
2
'

-g,
3

-1;

4'

4'

(2)z="4,
5

2/=

"5, t"="2,

w="l.

*="3 Vi"
276. 279. 287. 291.
294. 300.
or

u="\^^t2v!'u=4v-3'
277.
281.

a2 + ft2 + c2 + d2 + \.

-p18+ 3^02.

Bp3.

^, 6 birds; B, 4 birds.
a,

-5a, -5a.
45

289.

S1=

"* -ft"? ^'fl'-fr"??,

.4 worked
+ c2 (ft2
-

Walked walked

days ; i",24 days; C, 10 days. + c2)(a2 + ft- c2). a2)(a2 ft2 3 miles, worked 4 hours a day ;
-

miles,worked

3 hours

day.

CAMBRIDGE

PRINTED

BY

C.

J.

CLAY,

M.A.

AND

SONS,

AT

THE

UNIVERSITY

TRESS.