Steve Goddard

Composite Materials – Assignment 2

Composites in Design

Q1

a) Describe the main design features to be taken into account when incorporating a composite
material into a new or modified assembly.

Composite materials can be engineered in a numbers of different ways but in general this type of material
offers the following benefits:

- Low weight
- High strength and stiffness
- Corrosion resistance
- Chemical resistance
- Excellent fatigue properties
- Electrical insulation
- Design freedom
- Low maintenance

Figure 1 – Interactive Design Phase

Designing with composite materials differs substantially from working with materials such as
metals. In composite design, there is a much stronger interaction between Product
requirement, Process and Material during the design phase. It can generally be described as in
Figure 1. As metals are isotropic (the same properties in all directions), the mechanical
properties in composite materials are strongly depending on the fiber direction and fiber
volume. Another mayor difference from other materials is the fact that the composite material
and the product are manufactured at the same time. Compare this with metal where you take
the bulk material, i.e. sheet steel, aluminium bar etc, and shape it into a product. In this
process the basic properties of the materials are normally left unchanged. In composite
processing, fiber and matrix are put together giving a cured composite part. The properties
and characteristics of the composite material are created at the same time as the product is
formed. Thus, designing with composites is to a great extent dependent on the manufacturing
method and the raw materials to be used.

To understand composite materials and processes is very important when designing an

optimized and cost effective product. Developing a composite product must address product
requirements, material and fabrication process during the design phase. A designer has the
responsibility to take these different elements into account and must therefore be skilled in
composite materials and manufacturing techniques as indicated, in Figure 1 above.

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A design process consists generally of the following steps:

1. Definition of product requirements

2. Conceptual design

3. Detailed design

4. Prototype manufacturing

5. Testing and evaluation

6. Design adjustments

7. Production set-up

The steps are in principle sequential but since it is a very dynamic process the design phase
may have to start all over again in order to find an effective design solution.

1. Definition of product requirements

It is very important to establish a list and specify all requirements of the product in the
beginning of the design process. Depending of the application the list looks differently but the
following aspects may be specified:

Mechanical requirements

- What kinds of strength and stiffness must the component withstand?

Environment

- Indoor or outdoor application, subjected to water, chemicals, service temperature, maximum

temperature or other environmental conditions

Surface requirement

- A visible or non-visible surface, surface quality, colour etc.

Weight requirements & Cost Target

Production volumes and production rates

- Critical issues in selecting manufacturing method

Codes and standards

- Must the product meet and be designed according to certain codes and standards

If possible all items shall be quantified in figures in order to avoid misunderstandings between
the team members. This will also force, or give the opportunity to, the buyer of the
development work to really think through the requirements for the application. Requirements
as ¨stiff enough¨ or ¨as low weight as possible¨ do not help the designer to select a proper
material combination.
This first step has been proven to be quite difficult, especially if a current component made of
some other construction material is to be replaced by a composite solution.

2. Conceptual design
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Now the evaluation of all parameters and other information from Step 1 can be evaluated and
a preliminary design concept can start. Quite often the type of work to be done in this step is
referred to as a pre-study or feasibility study, especially if composite materials are evaluated
for completely now applications and you would like to get a feeling for cost, investments,
possible materials etc.

During this step, two or three possible solutions will be defined with suggestions for choice of
materials and manufacturing method. In composite design it is normal to end up with different
solutions fulfilling the requirements. The solutions will have differences with both advantages
and drawbacks.

In close co-operation with the buyer of the project (external or internal client) and other
project members, the differences must be considered and a final solution has to be found. In
some cases, two or more possible solutions are developed in parallel. A finial decision can
then be taken when prototype manufacturing and a complete evaluation is performed.

3. Detailed Design

In this step, a detailed design will be performed. With CAD and FE-analyses (figure 2) the
designer can draw and calculate the performance of the part. Normally a number of iterations
is needed before a design is completed. A very important consideration during this step is also
the chosen manufacturing method. Each composite process has characteristics that must be
considered in establishing the final part geometry insuring successful manufacturing. Normally
this work is performed in different activities where a number of people are involved
contributing with special competences. The complexity of the development work will
determine the size of the project team.

Figure 2 – Finite Element Analysis of a Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic (CFRP) Panel

For detailed calculation, drawings, process simulations, cost calculations, etc. a number of
software is available to assist the design work. The use of this software requires skilled and
trained personnel with a fundamental understanding of the composite materials.

Figure 3 – Future Lynx Design Offices at AgustaWestland

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4. Prototype manufacturing

A recommendable way to verify a design is to manufacture prototypes and test panels and
then perform evaluation on critical parameters. It is still much more cost effective to evaluate
prototypes and adjust the design if required compared to adjust the final manufacturing
procedure including tooling, fixtures and other handling equipment.

To verify the structural behaviour the prototype must represent the geometry and material
properties of the ultimate part. The best way to achieve this is if it can be included in the
production process. Prototypes for hand lay-up, spray-up and vacuum infusion are relatively
easy and non-costly to produce once the surface is defined. Also prototypes for filament
winding is fairly easy to make.

Prototypes where matched tooling is required are more difficult to fabricate. Metal tools for
compression moulding and injection moulding have normally long lead times and are quite
expensive. Alternative solutions include composite tooling and cast aluminium. Despite the
fairly high cost of this type of tooling, it is still relevant and time saving compared to design
changes in the production tool.

Figure 4 - Prototype Berp IV blade

5. Testing and evaluation

Testing of prototypes is an important step in the design process. Structural behaviour,

functionality and other critical parameters of the component will be verified against the
product requirement – as defined in Step 1 in the design process. To evaluate the
functionality, the prototypes can be made of other substitute materials, as long as the
geometry is correct. For structural testing the prototype must consist of proper material lay-
up.

Mechanical evaluation can be extensive depending on the product. Fatigue, internal pressure,
testing of joints - the list of possible tests is endless. Most important is that a representative
prototype is manufactured and tested against specified requirements. Remember that most
dedicated testing also requires special fixtures and other equipment, also to be included in the
cost and time table.

6. Design adjustments

Allow corrective design changes in your timetable. After evaluation of prototypes, test panels
etc. there are normally changes to be incorporated in the design before the product can be

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put into production. When changes are made, sometimes new prototypes must be made to
confirm the properties.

7. Production set-up

A successful design process ends with production of the composite part. Preparation prior to a
production start must be carefully planned. This is in most plants handled by the production
department. The activities involve purchasing of tooling and handling equipment, writing of
special operation instructions and education of operators. Quality documents are also
prepared.

Design limitations

As with all materials, there is no exception with composites – design limits exist. Restrictions
to keep in mind are thick sections, significant thickness differences, sharp corners, etc. Joining
also requires some thinking. Gluing and mechanical joints as rivets and bolts will give good
properties provided the joints are carefully designed.

b) Determine the longitudinal tensile strength of an aligned glass fibre epoxy

matrix composite in which the average fibre diameter and length are 0.010mm
and 2.5mm respectively and the volume fraction is 0.4. Assume that:
i. The fibre matrix bond strength is 75 Mpa.
ii. The fracture strength of the fibres is 3500 Mpa.
iii. The matrix stress at fibre failure is 8 MPa.

Average Dia. = 0.010 mm.

Average Fibre length = 2.5 mm.
Volume fraction = 0.4
Fibre matrix bond strength = 75 Mpa.
Fraction strength of fibres = 3500 Mpa.
Matrix stress at Fibre failure = 8 Mpa.

Some critical fiber length is necessary for effective strengthening and stiffening of the

composite material. This critical length l c is dependant on the fiber diameter d and its

ultimate or tensile strength σf , and on the fiber-matrix bond strength τc according to the
following equation:
σ f ×d
lc =
2τ c

For a discontinuous and aligned fiber composite having a uniform distribution of fibers and in

which l > l c , the longitudinal strength σcd is given by the following equation:

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 l 
σ cd = σ f V f 1 − c  + σ m (1 − V f )
 2l 

where σf represents the fracture strength of the fiber and σm represents the stress in the
matrix when the composite fails.

3500 ×10 6 × 0.01

lc = = 0.2333
2 × 75 ×10 6

 0.2333 
σ cd = 3500 ×10 6 × 0.41 −  + 8 ×10 (1 − 0.4) = 1.3395 ×10
6 9

 2 × 2.5 
σ cd = 1.34 GPa

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Q2

Explain the significance of Griffith Crack Theory in relation to CMC’s and describe suitable methods
for improving the fracture toughness of such materials.

The Griffiths equation describes the relationship between applied nominal stress and crack
length at fracture, i.e. when it becomes energetically favourable for a crack to grow. Griffith
was concerned with the energetics of fracture, and considered the energy changes associated
with incremental crack extension.

For a loaded brittle body undergoing incremental crack extension, the only contributors to
energy changes are the energy of the new fracture surfaces (two surfaces per crack tip) and
the change in potential energy in the body. The surface energy term (S) represents energy
absorbed in crack growth, while the some stored strain energy (U) is released as the crack
extends (due to unloading of regions adjacent to the new fracture surfaces). Surface energy
has a constant value per unit area (or unit length for a unit thickness of body) and is therefore
a linear function of (crack length), while the stored strain energy released in crack growth is a
function of (crack length)2, and is hence parabolic. These changes are indicated in the figure
below:

The next step in the development of Griffith's argument was consideration of the rates of
energy change with crack extension, because the critical condition corresponds to the
maximum point in the total energy curve, i.e. dW/da = 0, where a = a*. For crack lengths
greater than this value (under a given applied stress), the body is going to a lower energy
state, which is favourable, and hence fast fracture occurs. dW/da = 0 occurs when dS/da =
dU/da. The graph below shows these energy rates, or differentials with respect to a.

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R is the resistance to crack growth (= dS/da) and G is the strain energy release rate (=
dU/da).

When fracture occurs, R = G and we can define Gcrit as the critical value of strain energy
release, and equate this to R. Hence Gcrit represents the fracture toughness of the material.
In plane stress the Griffith equation is:

where, to get the fracture stress in MPa (the standard SI engineering unit), the critical strain
energy release rate is in N/m, E is in N/m2, and a is in m. This provides an answer in N/m2
(Pa), which needs to be divided by 106 to get the standard engineering unit of MPa. In plane
strain:

Suitable methods for improving fracture toughness in CMC’s

Reinforced ceramics
j

Among the strategies for achieving ceramics with improved mechanical properties, especially
toughness, some involve the engineering of microstructures that either resist the propagation

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of cracks or absorb energy during the crack propagation process. Both goals can be achieved
simultaneously in microstructures with fibrous or interlocked grains. In ceramics produced
with such microstructures, cracks are deflected from a straight path, leading to a dramatic
increase in crack length; at the same time particles behind the advancing crack tip bridge the
crack, tending to hold it closed. Crack deflection and crack bridging also occur in whisker-
reinforced and fibre-reinforced ceramic composites. The result is increased fracture surface
area and much greater energy absorption.

Micro cracking
.

Another mechanism that can lead to increased fracture toughness in ceramics is micro
cracking, which occurs in single-phase polycrystalline ceramics whose grains are anisotropic
(that is, whose mechanical properties vary with direction) or in intentionally biphasic
polycrystalline microstructures. In these materials tiny micro cracks open up to either side of
the main crack path ahead of the advancing crack tip. This phenomenon has two effects. First,
the energy that goes into the opening of the subsidiary cracks increases the energy needed
for propagation of the main crack. Second, as the main crack propagates, micro cracks
opening up in the wake or process zone adjacent to the main crack but behind the crack front
result in an increase in volume, which tends to close the main crack. The resistance to
propagation thus increases the farther the crack propagates.

Transformation toughening
.

The most promising toughening mechanism for ceramic materials involves a phase
transformation; the method is referred to as transformation toughening and is illustrated in
Figure 5. Although other materials such as alumina can be transformation-toughened, zirconia
(zirconium dioxide, ZrO2) is the prototype material for this process. Pure zirconia, upon cooling
below 1,150° C (2,100° F), undergoes a dramatic 3 percent volume expansion as it transforms
from a tetragonal form to a monoclinic form. This expansion can be used to advantage by
dispersing extremely fine tetragonal particles in a matrix of cubic zirconia or alumina. The
small size of the particles (less than 1 micrometre) and their intimate contact with the matrix
induce the tetragonal structure to remain stable at room temperature. Ahead of an advancing
crack, however, a stress field triggers the transformation of the embedded tetragonal particles
to the monoclinic form. Behind the advancing crack, a process zone forms in which all the
tetragonal particles have transformed to the monoclinic form. The cumulative increase in
volume exerts a closing force on the advancing crack, as well as a corresponding resistance to
crack propagation that increases with crack length. Ceramics such as transformation-
toughened zirconia (TTZ) are often referred to as ceramic steel because the strain, or change
in dimension, in response to stress behaviour resembles that of steel instead of a brittle
ceramic. Also, the underlying phase transformation is called martensitic, after a similar
transformation in rapidly quenched steel to a phase known as martensite.

Figure 5: Resistance to cracking in transformation-toughened zirconia. In a ceramic composed

of tetragonal zirconia dispersed in a zirconia matrix, the stress field advancing ahead of a

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propagating crack transforms the small tetragonal particles to larger monoclinic particles. The
larger particles exert a crack-closing force in the process zone behind the crack tip, effectively
resisting propagation of the crack

Q3
a) Show how the laws of mixtures equation can be used to determine the
strength and stiffness of composite materials.

The mass mc of a composite is made of the masses of the matrix m m and the fibres m f ,
since mass is volume ( v ) X density ( ρ ), then the equation can be written as:

Vc ρc =Vm ρm +V f ρ f

This can be transposed into:

Vm Vf
ρc = ρm + ρf
Vc Vc

VmVc is the volume fraction that is matrix and V f Vc is the volume fraction that is fibre.
Thus:

ρc = Vm ρm +V f ρ f
This is the law of mixtures.

Two mathematical expressions have been formulated for the dependence of the elastic
modulus on the volume fraction of the constituent phases for a two-phase composite. These
rules of mixtures equations predict that the elastic modulus should fall between an upper limit
represented by:

E c −upper = E mVm + E pV p

And a lower limit:

Em E p
E c −lower =
V m E p +V p E m

Where, E represents the elastic modulus, V represents the volume fraction, c = composite, m
= matrix, p = particulate.

Essentially what the law says is that if you have a composite of 40% matrix with a modulus of
10GPa, and 60% fibre with a modulus of 100GPa then the elastic modulus of the composite
will be equal to each phases volume percentage multiplied by its elastic modulus, as follows:

E c = 10 G × 0.4 +100 G × 0.6 = 64 GPa

Strength is more difficult to predict that stiffness because there are many more ways the
composite can fail, such as: fibre fail, matrix fail or fibre matrix interface failure.

The matrix has a lower strength that the fibres so it will have a very small volume fraction
when the matrix fails, the load has to be carried by the fibres but as there are not many fibres
to carry the load complete failure follows.
When you have the applied in a direction parallel to the fibres, Fc = Fm + F f gives:

σc a c = σ m a m +σ f a f

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Where σc is the composite failure stress, σm is the matrix failure stress and σf =is the fibre
stress when the matrix fails. Thus:

σc a c = σ m a m + σ f A f = σ mVm + σ f V f

And because there are so few fibres you can normally neglect their contribution and show the
equation as simply:

σ c = σ mVm

At large fibre volume fractions, the fibres will take most of the load and after matrix failure will
still be able to carry a load and determine the strength of the composite. Then you must have:

σc = σ f V f

Where σf is the fibre failure stress.

As with the stiffness calculations mentions above, the strength depends on the orientation of
the fibres relative to the load direction. The graph below shows the effect of fibre orientation
on the strength of a typical continuous fibre composite, glass fibre-reinforced epoxy.

Strength MPa

Angle of Fibres

Figure 6 - Strength Variation with angle

b) A composite composed of long parallel fibres of Kevlar in an Epoxy resin

matrix, is required to have a tensile strength of 1600 Mpa. If the strengths of
the Kevlar and epoxy resin are respectively 2560 Mpa and 80 Mpa. What
volume fraction of Kevlar must be used in the composite?

Tensile strength = 1600 MPa

Fibre strength = 2560 MPa
Resin strength = 80 MPa

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Ec = Vm Em +V f E f

1 =V f +Vm

V f =1 −Vm

1600 ×10 6 = 80 ×10 6 (Vm ) + 2560 ×10 6 (1 −Vm )

1600 ×10 6 = 80 ×10 6Vm + 2560 ×10 6 − 2560 ×10 6Vm
−960 ×10 6 = 80 ×10 6Vm − 2560 ×10 6Vm
−960 ×10 6 = −2480 ×10 6Vm

960 ×10 6
V fm = = 0.3871
2480 ×10 6

V f =1 −Vm

V f =1 − 0.3871 = 0.6129

Therefore there must be at least 61.29% by volume of Kevlar.

Q4

a) Explain the differences between dispersion strengthening in Composite

Materials and precipitation hardening in metallic alloys.

Precipitation hardening is a heat treatment technique used to strengthen malleable materials,

including most structural alloys of aluminum, magnesium and titanium, and some stainless
steels. It relies on changes in solid solubility with temperature to produce fine particles of an
impurity phase, which impede the movement of dislocations, or defects in a crystal's lattice.
Since dislocations are often the dominant carriers of plasticity, this serves to harden the
material. It relies on changes in solid solubility with temperature to produce fine particles of
an impurity phase, which impede the movement of dislocations, or defects in a crystal's
lattice. Since dislocations are often the dominant carriers of plasticity, this serves to harden
the material.
Precipitation hardening can be described as similar to dispersion strengthened composites,
due to the fact that the impurities in the surface of a precipitation hardened metal play the
same role as the particle substances in particle-reinforced composite but there are
differences. Essentially the only similarity is the way that imperfections in the material are
used to prevent the propagation of cracks.

The dispersion strengthening effect is not at major as with precipitation hardening, the
strengthening effect is retained at elevated temperatures and for extended periods of time.
This is because the dispersed particles are chosen specifically to be un-reactive with the
matrix phase.
With precipitation hardened metals the increase in strength can fade upon heat treatment as
a consequence of precipitate growth of dissolution of the precipitate phase.

b) What effects do voids have on the strengthening mechanisms in PMC’s

Voids in a Polymer Reinforced Composite can occur in three ways; within the fibre, in the
matrix or in the matrix/fibre interface. Voids in PMC’s create weak areas and act as stress
concentration points. Voids can significantly decrease the inter-laminar shear strength of a
composite, and in turn this impacts the compressive strength, impact resistance and fatigue
life. The consistent production of void-free composite structures cannot be guaranteed for all

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fibre-resin systems. For this reason the effect of voids on the mechanical properties of
composite materials must be considered and understood to the allowable deviations from
void-free conditions can be determined and specified when necessary.
Voids can be created during manufacture for a number of reasons; poor mixing techniques for
the resin, trapping air during wet-lay up. The presence of voids is significantly reduced by
using pre-impregnated materials with an autoclave finishing process, as will be discussed in
assignment 3. Voids can also develop during service due to degradation of the matrix or fibres
caused by the environment the component works in – sunlight, moisture, chemicals, abrasion
etc.
In the aerospace industry composite materials that are classed as critical parts, such as rotor
blades, are inspected using ultrasonic testing. If voids are not found in this method they are
normally identified when cracks develop and propagate. Composites can be repaired with this
occurrence, but it is also highly likely that the component will fail before the crack is
identified.

Q5
Describe the main failure modes and mechanisms in composite materials. How do
these modes differ from those in conventional materials?

Compressive Loading

Composites are designed to have high strength and elastic modulus in particular directions,
these properties are given by both the matrix and reinforcement material. However in
compressive loading the fibres cannot bear a portion of the load and so the compressive
strength is dependant on the matrix alone. Excessive compressive loading, that is loads
higher than the compressive strength of the matrix, will cause the matrix/reinforcement bond
to weaken and fail and can also cause fibres to fracture.

Corrosion

Corrosion in composite materials can be caused by chemicals, like oil or solvents, UV light,
moisture etc. The corrosion can weaken the matrix material and sometimes penetrate to the
fibres and cause degradation in them also. This can cause the fatigue strength to be reduced,
as the component is put under strength and flexed it can increase voids in the composite
allowing the corrosion so penetrate further into the component. Corrosion in conventional
materials such as metals occurs slightly differently. With metals the presence of oxygen or
water causes oxidization on the surface of the component, essentially this is the loss of
electrons in the surface. In metals corrosion decreases the minimum metal condition and
creates areas of stress concentration.

Creep

There are a number differences between structural metal and fiber-reinforced composites, in
terms of creep. For example, metals in general exhibit yielding and plastic deformation
whereas most fiber-reinforced composites are elastic in their tensile stress-strain

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characteristics. However, the dissimilar nature of these materials provides mechanisms for
high-energy absorption on a microscopic scale comparable to the yielding process. Depending
on the type and severity of external loads, a composite laminate may exhibit gradual
deterioration in properties but usually would not fail in catastrophic manner. Mechanisms of
damage development and growth in metal and composite structure are also quite different.

Delamination

Delamination occurs when the matrix-reinforcement bond weakens and causes them to
separate. Energy is released which drives this process. Delamination of a structural panel can
significantly weaken the component, and more often than not will cause it to become
unserviceable. This failure mode does not occur in conventional materials.

Fatigue

Fatigue is the cyclic loading and unloading of the component, with loads below the maximum
tensile strength of the component. This causes failure by introducing cracks in the component
followed by crack propagation. This then causes softening because the stress and strain are
out of phase.
Metals are also susceptible to fatigue. However the way that both are affected by fatigue
differs.
Fatigue basically means that with each cycle of load applied the components maximum
tensile strength is decreased, even if the load applied is significantly lower than the maximum
strength. Therefore materials are tested to determine how many cycles they can withstand
before failure. For metals this can relatively easily be estimated with testing of components
and extrapolation of the graph. However composite materials can with stand fatigue a lot
better that metals and economic testing and analysis is not as easy.

Fracture Toughness

Composites depend on fibre reinforcement for fracture toughness and in some cases fracture
of the matrix does not necessarily result in fibre failure or total failure. With conventional
materials fracture toughness is dependant on the bond between atoms in the material
structure.
Impact Damage

Composite materials are easily damaged by impact. Impacts can cause fibres to shear and
weaken the matrix, therefore significantly weakening the component. With metals, however,
impacts do not cause as much damage and they still retain structural integrity.

Shear Loading

Shear loading can affect composites worse than metallic components, metals are isotropic –
they have similar strengths in all directions which means the loads can be absorbed.
Composites rely on the matrix to protect the fibres from shear loading which is why they are
more susceptible to this failure mode.

Temperature

With composite materials the two phases will react to temperatures in different ways, one
may be stable and the other not at a certain temperature. Different expansions between the
two phases can cause delamination. With conventional materials the structure is affected in
its properties and dimensions.

Tensile Loading

Tensile failure occurs in both metals and composites and is caused by the maximum tensile
strength being exceeded. Tensile loading can cause fractures/cracks and the component will
fail.

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Bibliography

Prototype BERP IV Rotorblade - http://www.cartercopters.com/images/weekly_update/2008-10-

13_rotor_blade_skin.jpg

http://www.compositesiq.com/

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