SENTENCE PROCESSES Foreword This book deals with the syntax of the complex sentence.

Its name, Sentence Processes, e!eals in fact the main topics of disc"ssion# those p ocesses that take place within the sentence, namely negation, interrogation, coordination and subordination. The book is add essed to those st"dents that a e pa t of the $on% &istance $ea nin% p o% amme. It was desi%ned fo the specific p" pose of helpin% st"dents del!e into the int icacies of syntax by themsel!es. This is why each theo etical section is la!ishly accompanied by sets of exe cises meant to help st"dents imp int info mation in thei memo y with minim"m effo t. The optional exe cises p esent in each section of this co" se a e of a hi%he de% ee of diffic"lty and a e meant to be helpf"l inst "ments fo those lea ne s that want to f" the imp o!e thei p oficiency and at the same time p actise the theo etical f amewo k offe ed in the especti!e sections. This co" se is an inst "ment fo st"dents dete mined to ac'"i e the most basic le!el of info mation. This is why I ha!e limited myself to a mo e desc ipti!e app oach and ha!e a!oided steppin% on mo e theo etical te ito ies. (ltho"%h they can be ext emely ewa din% when tackled, I think that, "nde the ci c"mstances, this mate ial is mo e p ofitable in this simple, if not s"btle, fo m. )y since e % atit"de and wa mest thanks %o to my n"mbe *one teache , ) s. (lexand a Co nilesc", to whom this book is hea!ily indebted. I co"ldn+t ha!e w itten this witho"t he p ecio"s help, ad!ice and s"ppo t. The a"tho

ONE INTRODUCTION Aim of this unit: to int od"ce se!e al key concepts that will facillitate a bette "nde standin% of the next "nits Objectives# to help st"dents e!ise notions al eady disc"ssed in p e!io"s lin%"istics classes. This "nit is de!oted to a b ief e!ision of some concepts that will be c "cial fo e!e y section in this co" se. -e will the efo e ha!e to emembe the meanin% of s"ch te ms as# Constituent .phrase/0 any pa t of a sentence which is e%a ded as fo min% a distinct syntactic "nit within the o!e all st "ct" e of the sentence. 1o instance, if we we e to take the followin% example# .,/ S"san lo!es he mothe !e y m"ch.

.S"san 23i i"be3te foa te m"lt mama./ we can identify the followin% constit"ents# Susan, loves, her mother, very much. Each of the abo!e identified elements can be said to fo m a distinct syntactic "nit, since it has a ce tain semantic and st "ct" al a"tonomy inside .,/. Conse'"ently, se'"ences of the kind her mother very, o Susan loves her cannot be conside ed constit"ents, since they do not ha!e a st "ct" al and semantic "nity. They a e 4"st strings, that is se'"ences f a%mented at andom. Syntactic, Semantic, Pragmatic Syntactic 0 elates to the st "ct" e of sentences Semantic elates to the meanin% of wo ds, sentences Pragmatic elates to the f"nction of a sentence ."tte ance/ inside discourse In the followin% example, .5/ 6i!e S"san the money and then send he away7

.&8*i banii l"i S"san 3i apoi t imite*o de aici7/

syntactically we a e dealin% with a compo"nd sentence .whe e two main cla"ses a e coo dinated by and/, semantically the two sentences a e pe cei!ed as se'"ential .the e!ent in the fi st sentence is followed by the one in the second/ and p a%matically, we a e dealin% with a directive .i.e. an o de %i!en to an inte loc"to /. Au iliary verbs 0 one of a small set of lexical items ha!in% ce tain p ope ties in common with !e bs b"t also exhibitin% a n"mbe of othe distinct p ope ties. The En%lish a"xilia ies a e "s"ally di!ided into the modal au iliaries .s"ch as may, must, should, etc./ and the non!modal au iliaries .s"ch as have, be/. "nsertion 0 a p oced" e by which some element not p e!io"sly p esent in a st "ct" e is added to it. (n example is the inse tion of the element do in sentence .9/# .9/ She told me the sec et.

.)i*a sp"s sec et"l./ (s a conse'"ence of the inse tion of do in .9/ we obtain the followin% emphatic st "ct" e# .:/ She did tell me the sec et.

.)i*a sp"s 2nt *ade!8 sec et"l./ #he distribution of an element ep esents the f"ll an%e of en!i onments in which a lexical o % ammatical fo m can occ" . Conside , fo instance, the followin% sentence# .;/ The e is a cat on the mat.

.Pe p e3"l de la int a e se afl8 o pisic8./ This sentence has a <special+ s"b4ect, an <empty+ there s"b4ect, which does not ha!e a simila co espondent in Romanian. This element cannot appea in any kind of context. It no mally is allowed in combination with be o with othe simila !e bs s"ch as appear, live, etc. These a e the contexts in which there subjects a e possible in En%lish, and the set of these contexts can be efe ed to as the distribution of there subjects.
9

Complementary distribution it mi%ht be the case that two athe simila elements a e in complementa y dist ib"tion, that is they a e so close in meanin% and f"nction that they cannot appea to%ethe in the same context. One of the best known s"ch pai s is that of the definite a ticle the and the demonst ati!e p ono"n this$that. If the %i!en context is the one "nde .=/, let+s check if these two elements a e in complementa y dist ib"tion o not# .=/ .?/ .A/ .B/ >>>>>>>>>> book @the this book the book this book

(s yo" can see, both .A/ and .B/ a e co ect st "ct" es, whe eas .?/ is not, as the sta indicates. Sentence .?/ p o!es that the two elements cannot appea in the same %i!en context. This means that these elements a e indeed in complementary distribution.

Activity1 %efine and illustrate, using your o&n e amples: inse tion, a"xilia y !e b, dist ib"tion, complementa y dist ib"tion, semantic, syntactic, p a%matic. Activity 2 "dentify the constituents in the follo&ing sentences: )a %a et was anxio"s to settle on a ho"se befo e they left town to pay thei ann"al !isit to ) s. )"nt. Ce was info med on Sat" day at noon that he was %oin% to be fi ed. Cow m"ch, apa t f om his dist ess fo pa ents, this wo"ld eally h" t, he had not yet been able to estimate. T-O SENTENCE NEGATION 1.1. 1.2. 1.". 1.'. 1.). Key terms Assertive non !ssertive F#$$ $o%!$ ne&!tion Ne&!tive vs. !((irm!tive senten%es. Tests (or ne&!tivity Inst!n%es o( ne&!tion
:

1.*. 1.,. 1.-.

+o$!rity Items Ne&!tive %on%ord non ne&!tive %on%ord $!n&#!&es Con%$#sion. Key terms

Aim of this unit: to offe a b ief p esentation of the main iss"es elated to <sentence ne%ation+. Objectives: to help st"dents "nde stand the diffe ences between En%lish and Romanian with espect to this p ocess .ne%ation/. To help st"dents lea n how to co ectly fo m"late ne%ati!e sentences in En%lish.

1.1.

Assertive non !ssertive

-e need to make a distinction between asse ti!e and non*asse ti!e sentences. 1o instance, a sentence of the fo m# .,/ Ce offe ed he some chocolates. .I*a ofe it bomboane de ciocolat8./ is said to be an assertion, in the sense that it states somethin%, it asserts somethin%. This example can be compa ed to# .5/a. Ce didn+t offe he any chocolates. .N" i*a ofe it bomboane de ciocolat8./ b. &id he offe he chocolatesD .Oa e i*a ofe it bomboane de ciocolat8D/ The diffe ence between example .,/ and the examples "nde .5/ is that the latte examples a e non!assertive, in that they do not state anythin%. Conse'"ently, a sentence can be non*asse ti!e if it is negative o if it is a 'uestion. -e do not the efo e ha!e two independent systems# * Positi!e !s. Ne%ati!e
;

* &ecla ati!e !s. Inte o%ati!e b"t athe an inte elated system in which assertion in!ol!es both <positi!e+ and <decla ati!e+ while non!assertion has a s"bsystem eithe <ne%ati!e+ o <inte o%ati!e+. The elationship can be ep esented as follows# asse tion * positi!e and decla ati!e sentence non*asse tion ne%ati!e .They didn+t tell he the sec et./ othe .if 0cla"ses, compa ison, s"b4"ncti!e/ positi!e .e.%. They told he the sec et./ . e.%. &id they tell he the sec etD /

inte o%ati!e ne%ati!e .e.%. &idn+t they tell he the sec etD/

Activity (: )hich of the follo&ing sentences are assertive and &hich are non!assertive* They like he a lot. E ( e yo" listenin% to meD E ( en+t yo" listenin% to meD E Ce ne!e listens.E -e didn+t come he e 4"st to talk. E Come with me.E &on+t do that.E If yo" like he , don+t bothe he .E She can+t wait to ead that book. E She finally admitted, didn+t sheD E Casn+t she a i!edD E If yo" like 4aFF, listen to this. E She is mo e inte estin% than anyone I ha!e e!e seen. E It is odd that yo" sho"ld like Sa t e so m"ch.

The distinction asse ti!e E non*asse ti!e b in%s "s to one of the main '"estions we need to answe in this section# when is a sentence ne%ati!e and how do we distin%"ish between !a io"s fo ms of ne%ationD -e shall answe the second '"estion in the followin% s"bsection. 1.2. F#$$ $o%!$ ne&!tion

The fi st distinction to d aw between !a io"s fo ms of ne%ation is that of Sentence vs. )ord negation.

1o example, the sentences "nde .9/ a e conside ed instances of syntactic negation, whe eas those "nde .:/ a e conside ed to be fo ms of &ord negation: .9/ b. .:/ a. S"san doesn+t like he f iends. Gohn is not happy. .Gohn n" e fe icit/ a. S"san dislikes he f iends. b. Gohn is "nhappy. .Gohn e nefe icit./ It is ob!io"s that sentences "nde .9/ a e st "ct" ally diffe ent f om those "nde .:/ in that they a e ma ked by the p esence of the ne%ati!e wo d not. In the case of the sentences "nde .:/, we can speak mo e of a ne%ati!e meanin% than of a ne%ati!e structure, since the ne%ati!e wo d not is not p esent the e. The e is also a diffe ence in meanin% between the two examples, since it is ob!io"s that the meanin% of .9/ is not eally e'"i!alent to that of .:/. ( second distinction to be d awn he e is between s"ch examples as# .;/ +ot long ago, I met a %i l named S"san. .$"i S"san n"*i place de p ietenii ei./ .$"i S"san n"*i place de p ietenii ei./

.N" dem"lt, am 2ntHlnit o fat8 pe n"me S"san./ In this case, 4"st like in the case of &ord negation, we speak abo"t local negation in the sense that the ne%ati!e wo d not does not infl"ence mo e than the fi st pa t of the sentence, mo e p ecisely the phrase it is pa t of. In othe wo ds, the whole sentence "nde .;/ has an affi mati!e dimension and it is only the ph ase not long ago that has a ne%ati!e connotation. This is also called an instance of phrasal ne%ation, since the ne%ati!e meanin% is est icted to one constit"ent only. Example .=/ %i!es "s howe!e eason to speak abo"t full negation, namely the whole sentence is ne%ati!e and the wo d not infl"ences the whole meanin% of the sentence# .=/ I didn+t meet a %i l named S"san lon% a%o. .N*am 2ntHlnit o fat8 pe n"me S"san dem"lt./

(n inte estin% p oblem is posed by s"ch examples as# .?/ a. She was not an "natt acti!e woman. .N" e a o femeie neat 8%8toa e./ b. Ce was not witho"t intelli%ence. .N" e a lipsit de inteli%enI8./ c. I was not a little wo ied. .N" mic8 mi*a fost 2n% i4o a ea./ The meanin% of all these examples is a positi!e one# .?a/ implies that she was an att acti!e woman, .?b/ implies that the %"y the e was '"ite intelli%ent, whe eas .?c/ states that I was !e y wo ied abo"t somethin%. In othe wo ds, these sentences look ne%ati!e, since the ne%ati!e wo d not is p esent inside them, b"t thei meanin% tells "s a diffe ent sto y. -e can say that we a e dealin% with a combination of wo d and ph asal ne%ation, whe e the wo d ne%ation .unattractive, &ithout intelligence, a little &orried/ is cancelled by the p esence of not: not unattractive J attractive. (nothe name fo the distinction between f"ll ne%ation and local .that is wo d and ph asal/ ne%ation is s"pplied by the opposition syntactic !s. semantic ne%ation. Ky syntactic ne%ation we mean ne%ation at the le!el of the sentence . i.e. the whole meanin% of the sentence is ne%ati!e/. Semantic ne%ation will conse'"ently efe to sentence bits with a ne%ati!e meanin%.

Activity ,# )hich of the follo&ing sentences e hibit forms of semantic$ syntactic negation* Cis obse !ation is non*scientific and it is also i ele!ant.E Kill isn+t inte ested in syntax and his f iends a e not inte ested in syntax.E Ce disapp o!es of mothe s %oin% o"t to wo k.E Ce doesn+t app o!e of mothe s %oin% o"t to wo k.E Nikita+s "npleasant face appea ed on TL last Th" sday ni%ht.E Nikita+s "npleasant face did not appea on TL last Th" sday ni%ht.E Nikita+s not !e y "npleasant face did not appea on TL last Th" sday ni%ht.E Nikita+s not !e y "npleasant face appea ed on TL last ni%ht.E Nikita+s not !e y "npleasant face didn+t appea on TL last ni%ht. Activity -: #ranslate the follo&ing sentences into .nglish, paying attention to the distinction bet&een full and local /that is &ord or phrasal0 negation: N" e a lipsit8 de % aIie 3i de f "m"seIe. E CHnd a aflat !estea, n" s*a simIit deloc 2ncHntat. E N" c" m"lt8 ! eme 2n " m8, toat8 l"mea c8l8to ea c" t 8s" a. E I*a t eb"it n" p"Iin8 isc"sinI8 s8 eFol!e

p oblema. E N" 2l p efe 8 pe Gohn 2n mod special. E Ml p efe 8 pe Gohn, da n" 2n mod special. E N" e a neobi3n"it de de3tept. E E a neobi3n"it de 3meche . E E a el dest"l de isteI, da n" neobi3n"it. E &eloc inte esat de confe inI8, domn"l Gones s*a idicat 3i a plecat din sal8. E &omn"l Gones n" e a deloc inte esat de disc"Iiile din sal8. E N" tocmai con!in3i de ceea ce a"Fise 8, cei doi f aIi 3i*a" l"at inima 2n dinIi 3i a" p otestat. E N" e a" nel8m" iIi, ci doa indeci3i. E N" ne% c8 aceast8 c"loa e m8 p inde de min"ne. E ( ne%at c" t8 ie o ice le%8t" 8 c" c ima comis8 c" o sea 8 2nainte. E N" mic8 i*a fost mi a ea s8 !ad8 cHt de bine se 2nIele%ea" cei doi.

Since this co" se is an attempt to cla ify matte s elated to syntax we est ict the te m negative sentences only to those sentences that '"alify as syntactically negated. This means that negative sentences need to have a negative &ord present inside them that will infl"ence the &hole meanin% of the especti!e sentences.

1.".

Ne&!tive vs. !((irm!tive senten%es. Tests (or ne&!tivity

In this s"bsection we a e %oin% to answe two '"estions# a/ -hat is the diffe ence between ne%ati!e and affi mati!e .positi!e/ sentencesD b/ Cow do we tell when a sentence is syntactically ne%ati!eD ( e the e any ways of checkin% on the sentence+s ne%ati!ityD $et "s sta t with the fi st '"estion# the diffe ence existin% between ne%ati!e and positi!e sentences is not only a semantic one .that is the fact that they exp ess opposite t "th !al"es/ b"t also a syntactic and pragmatic one# (s we we e sayin%, syntactically ne%ati!e sentences a e ma ked by the p esence of a negative structure .s"ch as the wo d not, etc./ and sometimes by othe syntactic chan%es. Compa e .A/ to .B/# .A/ .B/ I went the e. .)*am d"s acolo./ I didn+t %o the e. .N" m*am d"s acolo./

The second sentence has "nde %one ce tain syntactic chan%es, s"ch as do insertion. .see s"bsection ,.,./. $et "s now disc"ss the pragmatic diffe ences between positi!e and ne%ati!e sentences# basically, whene!e we "tte a ne%ati!e sentence in a disco" se, we imply the existence of its affi mati!e co"nte pa t. 1o instance, in a ne%ati!e sentence s"ch as# .,N/ Ca y didn+t attack the %o!e nment. .Ca y n" a atacat %"!e n"l/ the implicit affi mati!e sentences existin% in co elation to the ne%ati!e sentences co"ld be# * Ca y did somethin% to the %o!e nment .b"t he didn+t attack it/ Someone attac1ed the %o!e nment .b"t it wasn+t Ca y/.

Activity 2: )hich are the implied affirmative sentences &ith the follo&ing negative sentences* They did not tell S"san the t "th abo"t Gim. E S"san did not %et ma ied to Gim. E I don+t like he !e y m"ch. E -e don+t come he e often. E S"san was not bitten by a do%. E She does not hate animals.E They didn+t lea!e.

The second '"estion that sp in%s to one+s mind is# b"t how do we tell when a sentence is ne%ati!e, since sometimes examples can be so misleadin%D (n efficient way of doin% that was offe ed by Olima .,B=:/ who distin%"ishes between four tests of negativity# ,. #ag!'uestions 0 a sentence is syntactically ne%ati!e if it allows fo the p esence of an

affi mati!e ta% '"estion .with a fallin% intonation/# .,,/ .,5/ .,9/ S"san does not like he f iends, does sheD . $"i S"san n" 2i place de p ietenii ei, n"*i a3aD/ S"san dislikes he f iends, @does sheD S"san dislikes he f iends, doesn3t she*

,N

Sentence .,,/ '"alifies as ne%ati!e, since it is followed by an affi mati!e '"estion ta%, whe eas the sentence "nde .,5/ does not# the sta placed at the be%innin% of the ta% '"estion indicates that the st "ct" e is ungrammatical, inco ect. The sentence allows only fo a ne%ati!e '"estion ta% .see example .,9// and is syntactically affirmative. 5. even!tag # .,:/ .,;/ .,=/ S"san does not like he f iends, not even the smart ones. .$"i S"san n"*i place de p ietenii ei, nici m8ca de cei de3tepIi./ S"san dislikes E likes he f iends, @not even the smart ones. S"san dislikesE likes he f iends, even the smart ones. +ot even!tags 0 a sentence is syntactically ne%ati!e if it allows fo the p esence of a not

Example .,:/ is syntactically negative, as is demonst ated by the p esence of the not even ta%. Compa e this example to those "nde .,;/ and .,=/, which exhibit samples of affi mati!e sentences, since the not even ta% cannot be applied to them. 9. .ither conjoining 0 a sentence is syntactically ne%ati!e if it can be followed by anothe

ne%ati!e sentence and the ad!e b either# .,?/ .,A/ S"san does not like he f iends, and they don3t li1e her either. S"san dislikes E likes he f iends, @ and they don3t li1e her either.

.$"i S"san n" 2i place de p ietenii ei 3i nici lo n" le place de ea./

Sentence .,?/ is syntactically negative beca"se the either conjoining is possible, which does not happen in the case of .,A/, which is "n% ammatical. :. .,B/ .5N/ +either tags 0 a sentence is syntactically ne%ati!e if it can be followed by a neither tag# S"san doesn+t like he f iends, and neither do they li1e her. S"san likes E dislikes he f iends, @and neither do they li1e her.

. $"i S"san n" 2i place de p ietenii ei 3i nici lo n" le place de ea./

,,

Sentence .,B/ is syntactically negative since it can be combined with a neither tag, whe eas sentence .5N/ is syntactically affirmative since its combination with neither is ob!io"sly impossible. In %on%$#sion, whene!e one wishes to check whethe a ce tain sentence is ne%ati!e f om a syntactic point of !iew, they need to efe to these tests of ne%ati!ity. Ky applyin% these tests to the sentence in '"estion, one can tell if the sentence is ne%ati!e o not.

Activity 4: Say &hether the follo&ing are instances of local or sentence negation by using the tests for negativity above: I don+t know m"ch abo"t him. E I can ha dly "nde stand what they a e sayin%. E Po" ha!e ne!e met he . E I ha!en+t e!e seen s"ch a thin%. E Sho"ld they not ha!e told he the t "thD E Not inf e'"ently, they %o skiin% in the mo"ntains. E In no time he was able to sol!e the p oblem. E (t no time was he able to sol!e the p oblem. E Not always a witty inte loc"to , Gim felt athe at a loss fo wo ds. E They ca"sed "s no p oblems. E No p oblems we e ca"sed afte all. E This boy is no %ood. E 1ew of them stayed behind. E ( few of them stayed behind.

1.'.

Inst!n%es o( Ne&!tion

-e shall now attempt to offe a classification of the !a io"s instances of ne%ation p esent in En%lish. The c ite ion we employ has to do with the position of the ne%ati!e wo d inside the ne%ati!e sentence# a/ .5,/ .55/ negative insertion .the ne%ati!e wo d not is inse ted in the a"xilia y/# Gohn has not come. .N*a !enit Gohn/. S"san co"ld not %o to the theat e. .S"san n" s*a p"t"t d"ce la teat "/ The ne%ati!e wo d not has been inse ted inside the sentences "nde .5,/ and .55/. This kind of ne%ation is the most f e'"ent one in En%lish. ( !a iation to this instance of ne%ation is offe ed by those sentences in which the ne%ati!e wo d is attached to the a"xilia y !e b by means of contraction# .59/ Gohn hasn3t come.
,5

.5:/ b/ an ad!e b/# .5;/

S"san couldn3t %o to the theat e. negative incorporation .the ne%ati!e wo d is inco po ated in a dete mine , a p ono"n o

I saw no st"dent.

.N*am !8F"t nici "n st"dent/ In example .5;/ ne%ation is inco po ated in the dete mine .that is the a ticle / of the di ect ob4ect. .5=/ I saw nobody.

.N*am !8F"t pe nimeni/. In this case ne%ation is inco po ated in the p ono"n. .5?/ a . I went nowhe e.

.N" m*am d"s nic8ie i/ b. I ne!e went to his place. .N" m*am d"s niciodat8 la el./ In sentence .5?/ the ne%ati!e wo d has been inco po ated in the ad!e b of place. (ll the sentences disc"ssed he e a e !a iants fo # .5A/ a. I didn+t see any st"dent.

.N*am !8F"t nici "n st"dent./ b. I didn+t see anybody. .N*am !8F"t pe nimeni./ c. I didn+t %o anywhe e. E I didn+t e!e %o to his place. .N" m*am d"s nic8ie i. E N" m*am d"s niciodat8 la el./ c/ negative attraction .the ne%ati!e wo d is att acted by position of the sentenceQ no inco po ation takes place./
,9

the nominal ph ase in the fi st

.5B/

a. Not all that %litte s is %old.

.N" tot ce st 8l"ce3te e a" ./ b. Not a day passed witho"t me thinkin% of him. . N*a t ec"t o Fi f8 8 s8 m8 %Hndesc la el./ It is ob!io"s that in s"ch examples the ne%ati!e wo d not has been <att acted+ by the nominal ph ase in sentence initial position. The sentences "nde .5B/ may be pa aph ased by means of ne%ati!e inse tion o inco po ation# .9N/ a. (ll that %litte s is not %old.

b. No day passed witho"t me thinkin% of him. The fact that these sentences may be pa aph ased by means of othe ne%ati!e sentences makes "s belie!e that the p ocess of att action is optional not obligatory.

Activity 5: %istinguish bet&een the sentences &hich e hibit negative insertion or contraction, negative attraction and negative incorporation: They didn+t send many st"dents ab oad. E I showed him nothin%. E Not many women a e famo"s ope a compose s. E Not a wo d fell f om he lips. E She said not a wo d when I spoke to he . E It didn+t take him a min"te to tell he the sec et. E Not a min"te did it take him to tell he the sec et. E No one e!e listens to he . E None of them liked ho"se m"sic. E Not one of them came to meet he .E They didn+t come to meet he . E I saw nobody. E I didn+t see anybody.E They ne!e went the e.E They didn+t e!e tell he what bothe ed them. E Ce sho"ld not be eleased.

The e a e othe instances of ne%ation that do not necessa ily fall "nde the c ite ion we mentioned abo!e .that of the position of the ne%ati!e wo d inside the sentence/. incomplete negation .ne%ation in the sentence is made by means of the so*called

incomplete negators s"ch as hardly, scarcely, barely, seldom, rarely, etc./ 0 the sentences that contain these ne%ato s a e also conside ed syntactically negative, beca"se they pass all the tests fo ne%ati!ity p esented in ,.:.#
,:

.9,/ .95/ .99/ .9:/

I ha dly met this man, did ID They ba ely ead any no!els, not e!en sho t ones. -e seldom watch T.L, and we don+t %o to the theat e eithe . They a ely talked to thei f iends, and neithe did thei f iends talk to them.

.N" l*am c"nosc"t pe om"l acesta./ .N" citesc omane, nici m8ca din alea sc" te./ .Ne "it8m a la tele!iFo , 3i n" me %em nici la teat "./ .Lo bea" a c" p ietenii 3i nici p ietenii n" !o bea" c" ei./

Activity 6: Paraphrase the follo&ing instances of incomplete negation by means of negative insertion, negative attraction or negative incorporation: I can ba ely look into his eyes. E I co"ld ha dly wait to hea the news. E This is ha dly the time to b"y yo" self a new f" coat. E I sca cely e!e see he . E Ca dly anybody liked him. E Po"+!e eaten ha dly anythin%. E I seldom look at he like that. E 1ew people came to see he . E Po" can ha dly blame me fo yo" mistakes. E I ha dly e!e look at those paintin%s.

.9;/

emphatic negation .emphasis is laid by placin% the ne%ati!e wo d o the incomplete a. Ne!e ha!e I met a mo e ho ible pe son. .Niciodat8 n*am c"nosc"t "n om mai 2n% oFito ./

ne%ato in the fi st position inside the sentence, which t i%%e s inversion/#

b. Ra ely ha!e I done s"ch a st"pid thin%. .Ra eo i am f8c"t "n l"c " a3a de p ostesc./ c. Ca dly ha!e they hea d a thin% like that. .N*am mai a"Fit a3a ce!a./ d. Not fo the wo ld wo"ld I do s"ch a thin%. .Pent " nimic 2n l"me n*a3 face "na ca asta./

Activity 7: 8ephrase the follo&ing sentences ma1ing them emphatic: I shall ne!e , ne!e t "st a man a%ain. E One can ha!e peace in life only by a!oidin% them alto%ethe . E ( t "e wo d has seldom been spoken7 E This nation sca cely e!e in the past faced so % eat
,;

a dan%e . E The e is a ely an oppo t"nity fo "s to se !e the comm"nity in this way. E Nothin% like that e!e happened in o" st eet befo e.E -e seldom ecei!e s"ch %ene o"s p aise. E (nn %a!e him the "se of he flat and lent him a ca as well. E She had no idea he was a man on the "n f om the police.E -e ne!e tho"%ht he was that so t of fellow. E -e little s"spected when we sta ted o" holiday that it wo"ld be like this. E Po" a ely see s"ch an o"tstandin% ba %ain. E Po" sho"ldn+t wande away f om the path "nde any ci c"mstances. E I didn+t lea!e the office at any time. E Po" m"st on no acco"nt to"ch this machine y. E She co"ld ely on nobody b"t him. E -e not only an into the fo% b"t it be%an to ain. E The keys co"ldn+t be fo"nd anywhe e.

negative transportation .the ne%ati!e wo d is t anspo ted to the main cla"se f om a

s"bo dinate that clause whe e it o i%inates and belon%s semantically/# 1o instance, sentence .9=/ becomes .9?/# .9=/ .9?/ They think that he doesn3t like them. They don3t think that he likes them.

.Ei c ed c8 l"i n"*i place de ei./ .Ei n" c ed c8 l"i 2i place de ei./ by "nde %oin% a p ocess of ne%ati!e t anspo tation. (s yo" can see f om the t anslation of these examples, the phenomenon is the same in Romanian. The diffe ence between .9=/ and .9?/ is a pragmatic one, in the sense that the o i%inal sentence .9=/ is st on%e f om the point of !iew of its ne%ati!e fo ce. In sentence .9?/, the ne%ati!e meanin% is less st on%. Ne%ati!e t anspo tation is optional and may appea with !e bs of opinion, intention, p obability, etc.# thin1, believe, imagine, suppose, guess, e pect, seem, appear, loo1 li1e, sound$feel li1e, intend, choose, &ant, be probable, be li1ely, be supposed to, ought to, should be desirable, advise, suggest, etc.

Activity 9: 8eformulate the sentences belo& in such a &ay that they become instances of negative transportation: Gohn claims that S"san doesn+t t "st him. E I s"ppose she doesn+t ca e, does sheD E It+s likely that he won+t help he . E I expect he won+t come he e a%ain. E I tho"%ht I didn+t ha!e to do it myself. E They
,=

belie!e she does not like them. E They s"%%ested that she sho"ld not meet Gim. E Ce eckoned he wo"ld not win he o!e .

1.).

+o$!rity Items

Sometimes a ne%ati!e sentence is cha acte iFed not only by the existence of a ne%ati!e wo d .s"ch as not o hardly, barely, etc./ b"t also by the existence of ce tain elements that, altho"%h not ne%ati!e in meanin%, cannot appear in an affi mati!e context. 1o example, we can !e y well say somethin% like# .9A/ a. She didn3t lift a finger to help me.

.N*a mi3cat "n de%et s8 m8 a4"te./ b. She doesn+t like o" chai man at all. .N"*i place deloc de p esedinte./ In the abo!e examples, I "nde lined the ph ases /not0 to lift a finger and at all that a e specific fo the ne%ati!e context. They a e not usable in an affi mati!e en!i onment, and sentences s"ch as# .9B/ a.@She lifted a fin%e to help me.

b. @She likes o" chai man at all. a e clea ly not grammatical. This means that the ne%ati!e wo d not is so powe f"l that it lite ally imposes the p esence of ce tain elements .s"ch as lift a finger o at all/ in its !icinity. These elements that can appear only in non!assertive conte ts .see section,.5. fo the definition of assertive$ non!assertive/ a e called negative polarity items. They a e le ical items .that is wo ds and ph ases/ and a e sensiti!e to the pola ity of the sentence .namely to the asse ti!e o non*asse ti!e nat" e of the especti!e sentence/. The phenomenon is not est icted to En%lish only as one can come "p with examples of s"ch items f om Romanian# .:N/ .:,/ +u e chip s8 !o be3ti c" el. +*am !8F"t nici picior de hoI p in p ea4m8.

,?

The fact that the italiciFed ph ases abo!e a e indeed ne%ati!e pola ity items is demonst ated by thei inade'"acy in an asse ti!e context. It is inco ect to say# .:5/ .:9/ @ E chip s8 !o be3ti c" el. @ (m !8F"t picio de hoI p in p ea4m8.

Ne%ati!e pola ity items a e sometimes pa alleled by Affirmative Polarity "tems, that is by items that can appear only in assertive conte ts. That is exactly why, we can speak of pairs of Ne%ati!e and (ffi mati!e Pola ity items# Any vs. some /" haven3t any money. $ " have some money.0 At !$$ vs. some.ow/ somew.!t ." don3t li1e him at all. $ " someho& li1e him.0 0et vs. !$re!dy /" haven3t seen him yet. $ " have already seen him.0 Any more vs. sti$$ ." don3t love you any more. $ " still love you0 Eit.er vs. too ." don3t li1e it, either. $ " li1e it , too.0 1!rd$y ever vs. most o( t.e times . " hardly ever eat caviar. $ " eat caviar most of the times.0 Unti$ vs. 2e(ore /:e didn3t arrive until 4. $ :e arrived before 4.0 3#%. vs. ! $ot /" don3t li1e you much. $ " li1e you a lot.0, etc.

Activity (;: <ive the negative $ positive counterpart of the follo&ing sentences= identify the polarity items: -e ha!e al eady had some snow this winte . E They say he once had someone !e y close. E Come on, yo" can still do somethin% abo"t it. E -e will see them a%ain somewhe e sometime. E -e we e somehow s" p ised by that s"dden appea ance. E -ell, I hope he+s somewhat wise now. E I somewhat like his p oposal. E I think I can help him .to/ some .extent/. E &on+t wo y, it will stop h" tin% befo e tomo ow. E S"san %ot a passin% % ade in En%lish and he f iend did, too. E (lice doesn+t li!e he e any lon%e E mo e. E I don+t feel any bette fo ha!in% had a holiday. E -ell, I+m af aid he h"sband was ne!e any %ood. E Po" needn+t send he anythin%. E She ha dly e!e comes he e. EThis expe iment has e!ealed somethin% of impo tance al eady. E Kob is still li!in% at that add ess. E I can "nde stand both of these sentences.E I can "nde stand all of these ten En%lish wo ds. E C"nd eds of st"dents can find somewhe e comfo table to li!eR E Some of the '"estions on this test he knew how to answe . E Pete knows some En%lish and so does Gohn.E Koth Gohn and Pete ha!e p etty wi!es. E &addy

,A

d inks a lot of coffee and now he misses it '"ite badly. E I nea ly always ha!e to clean it myself. E (lmost e!e yone of them did well on that exam. E Po" m"st pay that fine. E Po" m"st be tellin% lies. Activity ((: #ranslate into .nglish, paying attention to the follo&ing +egative Polarity "tems: K"d%e, flinch, bat an eye.lid/, %i!e a damnEda n, find a t ace, hea a peep, h" t a fly, last a min"te, c ack a smile, t" n a hai , sleep a wink, to"ch a d op, lea!e a stone "nt" ned, liftE aiseE sti a fin%e , lay a fin%e on someone, to"ch he Ehim with a ten*foot pole, mo!e a m"scle, seeE feelE emembe a thin%, tellE askEspeak to a so"l, say E b eatheE "nde stand a wo d, know a sin%le pe son, ha!e a ca eE f iend in the wo ld, ha!eEbe wo th a ed cent. Ion n" e p ea de3tept, de fapt nimeni din familia lo n" e p ea de3tept. E N*a p"t"t face el a3a ce!a7 N" e el chia a3a de de3tept7 E N" 3ti" ce s*a 2ntHmplat c" eaQ n*am !8F"t*o de ani de File. E (4"t8* m8, te o%7 N" pot s8 clintesc din loc piet oi"l 8sta. E Se sp"ne c8 acest docto 2n 3tiinIe n*a st"diat niciodat8 nimic nic8ie i. E No"8 n" ne*a sp"s nimeni nimic, nici "n"ia dint e noi. E S"nt con!ins8 c8 )a k n" s*a de an4at s8 telefoneFe. E Gim e atHt de c" a4os7 Nici n*a clipit m8ca o dat8. N*a Fis nici pHs cHnd docto "l i*a pansat ana. E ( 8Ii atHt de obosit8 aFi7 *N" e de mi a e, n*am 2nchis "n ochi toat8 noaptea .n*am lipit %ean8 de %ean8/. E (# Kei "n paha de !inD K# N", m"lI"mesc, de cHnd c" "lce "l 8sta, n" mai p"n pic8t" 8 2n %" 8 2nainte de mas8. E (# Te*a afectat desi%" foa te m"lt pleca ea l"i. K# (3i, n"*mi pas8 cHt"3i de p"Iin dac8 se 2ntoa ce sa" n". E PoliIia a scotocit peste tot, n*a l8sat cotlon nece cetat, 2nce cHnd s8 p ind8 c iminal"l. E Cot8 Ht l"c ", i se 2ntHmplase ce!a 2n% oFito , da ea n"*3i mai amintea absol"t nimic 3i n" scotea o !o b8. E N" 3ti" de ce plHn%e, n" e !ina mea, n*am atins*o nici c" "n de%et7 E E a sin%" "l ca e a fi p"t"t s*o fac8, da n*a mi3cat "n de%et s8*i sal!eFe7 E E a "n om ta e, a p imit !estea mo Iii fi"l"i s8" f8 8 s8 clipeasc87 E E "n om fe icit. N*a e nici o % i48 pe l"me, da nici pa a chioa 8 2n b"F"na . E N" te l"a d"p8 el7 P8 e ea l"i n" face nici do"8 pa ale7 E Scena e a atHt de ca a%hioas8, 2ncHt n"*3i p"tea Iine Hs"l. E S8 fi" al naibii dac8 mai !o besc c" el ! eodat87 E (# ( s"nat clopoIel"lD K# N", n*a s"nat 2nc8. Activity (,: #ranslate into 8omanian, paying attention to Polarity "tems: No fool like an old fool. E Ne!e t o"ble t o"ble till t o"ble t o"bles yo". E Ne!e is a lon% wo d. E No man is wise all the time. E No soone said than done. E Nothin% s"cceeds like s"ccess. E Ce won+t make old bones. E Not to p"t too fine an ed%e point on it, he+s a pi%. E I had no end of t o"ble. E Ce is no end of a fellow. E No hands wanted. E No admittance. E No ent y. E These %"ys ne!e know whethe

,B

they+ e comin% o %oin%. E I co"ldn+t make head o tail of it. E Nothin% doin%7 E SSo y7T SNo ha m done7T E Nothin% da"nted, he left the oom. E No t o"ble at all. E Not that I ca e, b"t yo" eally sho"ld do somethin% abo"t it.

(s yo" ha!e noticed f om the exe cises abo!e, the e a e cases when Pola ity Items wo k in pai s .s"ch as still and any more/ and cases when the e a e only Ne%ati!e Pola ity Items . lift a finger, budge, etc0 o (ffi mati!e ones .&ould rather/. No mally, Ne%ati!e Pola ity Items a e more numerous than (ffi mati!e ones, and this is helped by the fact that they can appea in any context that is non* asse ti!e# they can appea in ne%ati!e sentences, b"t also in inte o%ati!e ones . :ave you seen anyone*0 o in If*cla"ses ."f you have anything to say, say it.0

Activity (-: "dentify the conte ts that allo& for +egative Polarity "tems: a/ Ce admitted sayin% somethin% to some of the people p esent. E Ce denied e!e sayin% anythin% to anyone. b/ I lo!e askin% some f"nny ema ks. E I hate makin% any commitments. c/ Ce is anxio"s to say somethin%. E Ce is el"ctant to e!e say anythin%. d/ Ce is w on% E "nwillin% E "nable to say anythin% abo"t it. e/ She is the c"test %i l anyone has e!e seen.

1.*.

Ne&!tive %on%ord / Non ne&!tive %on%ord

This s"bsection attempts to d aw a distinction between negative concord lan%"a%es .s"ch as Romanian/ and non!negative concord ones .s"ch as En%lish/. Compa e the followin% sentences# .::/ .:;/ I did not see anyone.E I saw no one. +*am !8F"t pe nimeni.

In the case of the sentence "nde .::/ the e a e two ne%ati!e wo ds in conco d, which is not the case of the sentence "nde .:;/. Romanian is the efo e a ne%ati!e 0conco d lan%"a%e and we can safely say that S"bstanda d En%lish 0 that "ses do"ble ne%ation 0 exhibits ne%ati!e conco d, as well# .:=/ I can3t feel no satisfaction.
5N

The examples of do"ble ne%ation that a e so f e'"ent in S"bstanda d En%lish need not be, howe!e , mistaken fo the so*called ample ne%ati!es, that a e instances of Standa d En%lish# .:?/ (# Po" can+t eally like this poem.

K# Not this poem, I don+t. .(# &oa n"*Ii place poeFia asta. K# N", n"*mi place, n" poeFia asta./ The example abo!e is a sample of Standa d En%lish, in that it does not in fact contain two ne%ati!e wo ds in the same sentence. The second ne%ation is somehow independent, it is 4"st a copy of the fi st one fo the sake of emphasis. The sentence "nde .:?/ is a eph ased emphatic !a iant of# .:A/ No, I don+t like this poem.

.N", n" 2mi place poeFia asta./ 1.,. Con%$#sion. Key terms.

One of the most impo tant iss"es disc"ssed in this chapte is that of the ne%ati!e stat"s of a sentence. -e ha!e d awn a distinction between affi mati!e and ne%ati!e sentences, f om a syntactic point of !iew. Synt!%ti% ne&!tion efe s to those sentences that ha!e a ne%ati!e wo dE ph ase inside them that modifies the whole content of the sentences. Sem!nti% ne&!tion is elated to the meanin% of a sentence o ph ase only, witho"t takin% into conside ation fo m and st "ct" e. The second iss"e disc"ssed he e is connected to the chan%es pe fo med on affi mati!e sentences when one needs to t ansfo m them into ne%ati!e ones. 1 om this point of !iew, it is c "cial fo one to "nde stand the p oblem of Pola ity Items. Ne&!tive +o$!rity Items a e those elements that can appea only in non*asse ti!e contexts. A((irm!tive +o$!rity Items a e those elements .fewe in n"mbe / that appea only in asse ti!e contexts. The thi d iss"e tackled he e efe s to the diffe ence between ne%ati!e conco d and non*ne%ati!e conco d lan%"a%es#
5,

En%lish 0 non*ne%ati!e conco d .does not allow fo <do"ble ne%ation+/ Romanian 0 ne%ati!e conco d .ne%ation is made "p of two pa ts/ S"bstanda d En%lish 0 ne%ati!e conco d

Optional activities: #ranslate the follo&ing into .nglish and comment upon any difficulties of translation you can thin1 of in relation to negativity: Exist8 "n ma e pe icol# s8 n" de%ene eFi 3i s8 a4"n%i s8 !eFi !iaIa altfel de c"m este. E Mi

e a team8 s8 n" plece el mai de! eme 3i s8 "ite !aliFa acas8. E Sta" 3i p8Fesc cl8di ea 3i am % i48 s8 n" iFb"cneasc8 ! e"n foc la pa te . E T eb"ie s8 te fe e3ti s8 n" se 2ntHmple ce!a 8". E N*a !enit acas8 mai de! eme pent " c8 n" 3tia dac8 el n*o s8 ! ea s8 m8nHnce 2n o a3. (bia cHnd m*am pomenit b8tHnd 2n poa ta )8%" enilo , 2ncet, slab, f8 8 p ea m"lt8 hot8 H e, a" 2ncep"t s8 mi se hipe t ofieFe b "tal 2n minte dimensi"nile a!ent" ii 2n ca e m8 !H Hsem. N"*mi f8c"sem ma i il"Fii, n" m8 a3teptam s8 obIin ce!a de la Ca ol, d"p8 c"m n" c eF"sem c8 !oi fi b "scat, expediat afa 8. .(. K"F" a, >e?ele t@cerii/ O ic"m distanIa ca e o Iinea" faI8 de mine n"*mi con!enea, mi se p8 ea ameninI8toa e.

N*a!eam mai nimic com"n, n" ne le%a o sin%" 8 aminti e, 2ntHmpla e, ce!a, n" mi se i!ise p ile4"l s8 do!edesc, int *"n fel sa" alt"l, c8 s"nt om b"n, c" ne!oi ca ei. .(. K"F" a, >e?ele t@cerii/ catifea/ Pe loc"l hot8 Ht se ad"nase, 2nc8 pHn8 a n" se face Fi"8, atHta l"me, cHt f "nF8 3i ia b8, de n" se mai p"tea mi3caQ 3i b8t Hn"l c" copiii abia %8si 8 3i ei "n colIi3o la o pa te de "nde s8 se poat8 "ita 3i ei. N*ap"ca 8 s8 se a3eFe bine 3i a"Fi 8 "n s"net de fl"ie . .P.Ispi esc", Basme/ C" nici "n"l dint e ace3tia N.S. n" se %8sea 2n elaIii deosebit de no ocoase, ceea ce 2nsemna c8 ei nici n"*3i !o bea" 3i nici bineIe n"*3i d8dea". .$. Kla%a, Peisaj Ai amintire0 Nici o clip8 n"*mi t ec"se p in minte c8 !enind aici, la mHn8sti e, a3 a!ea ne!oie 2n

ba%a4ele mele de "n f ac. &e fapt, nici n" do eam s8 ia" pa te la pet ece e. .Ut. (%opian, #ache de

55

T-O 4UESTIONS 2.1. Dire%t vs. Indire%t 4#estions 2.2. 4#ir56s C$!ssi(i%!tion o( Dire%t 4#estions 2.2.1 0es/No 4#estions 2.2.2 7. 4#estions 2.2.". A$tern!tive 4#estions 2.". 3inor Ty8es o( 4#estions 2.".1 2.".2 T!& 4#estions E%.o 4#estions

2.'. Key Terms. O8tion!$ E9er%ises

2.1. Dire%t / Indire%t 4#estions $ike Romanian, En%lish makes "se of two main types of '"estions# di ect '"estions .%id Susan give #om the parcel*/ indi ect '"estions .:e as1ed if Susan had given #om the parcel/

-e shall lea!e the p oblem of indi ect '"estions aside, fo a s"bse'"ent section. This section will only deal with the opposition bet&een direct and indirect 'uestions , foc"sin% on di ect '"estions mainly. If we t y to analyFe the examples abo!e, it appea s that di ect '"estions a e cha acte iFed by# a/ .,/ b/ .5/ .9/ the placin% of an a"xilia y in f ont of the s"b4ect# )ill Gane meet the p esident todayD the initial positionin% of an inte o%ati!e o &h 0 element -ho will Gane meetD -hat is she talkin% abo"tD

.O s8 fac8 Gane c"no3tinI8 c" p e3edintele aFiD/

.C" cine o s8 se 2ntHlneasc8 GaneD/ .Ce sp"ne acoloD/

59

c/

isin% <'"estion+ intonation It can be said that the interrogative force of di ect '"estions is p o!ided by two of the

cha acte istics we mentioned# the fact that the s"b4ect chan%es places with the a"xilia y, by means of S"b4ect ("xilia y In!e sion, and the specific isin% intonation a speake attaches to the sentence he "tte s. Vnlike di ect '"estions, indi ect ones do not ma1e use of Subject Au iliary "nversion, and their intonation is not rising .and this is ob!io"s e!en % aphically, since we do not "se a '"estion ma k with indi ect '"estions/. In the case of indi ect '"estions, the interrogative force we we e speakin% abo"t has been ta1en over by the main verb that int od"ces the indi ect '"estion. Compa e# .:/ to .;/ Ce asked he &here she &as going. .( 2nt ebat*o "nde se d"ce/ The fact that the meanin% of indi ect '"estions is ti%htly linked to the main !e b that int od"ces them is einfo ced in En%lish by the necessity that the tense within the indi ect '"estion sho"ld co espond to the tense in the main cla"se . that is, the rules of the se'uence of the tenses need to be observed# in example .;/, the Past Tense in the main cla"se matches the Past Contin"o"s in the s"bo dinate/. It wo"ld be the efo e inco ect to say somethin% like# .=/ Ce asked he @whe e she is %oin%. beca"se, in this case, the se'"ence of the tenses is !iolated. $ikewise, it wo"ld be w on% to say .in standa d En%lish/# .?/ Ce asked he @whe e was she %oin%. -he e a e yo" %oin%D .Vnde te d"ciD/

Since the '"estion is not di ect any mo e, S"b4ect ("xilia y In!e sion is not e'"i ed, and the sentence wo"ld be deemed % ammatically w on%.

Activity ( Analyse the follo&ing sentences in terms of the opposition direct$indirect 'uestions= identify the incorrect sentences. -hat is %oin% onD E -hat ha!e yo" two been "p toD E -hat yo" two ha!e been "p toD E I wonde what ha!e yo" two been "p toD E I wonde what is %oin% on. E I wonde # what is %oin% onD E I wonde #

5:

what ha!e yo" two been "p toD E I wonde what yo" two ha!e been "p to. E I don+t know whom she fancies. E -ho does she fancyD E I don+t know who does she fancy. E -ho is sheD E I don+t know who is she. E I don+t know who she is. E Ce asked me who she is. E Ce asked me who she was. E Ce asked me# who is sheD

2.2. 4#ir56s C$!ssi(i%!tion o( Dire%t 4#estions ( fi st possible classification of '"estions is elated to whethe these '"estions a e lon% o sho t. Sho t '"estions tend to lose some of thei content, bein% typical of spoken lan%"a%e. Compa e fo instance# .A/ to .B/ .CeD/ o .,N/ -he e a e yo" %oin%D .Vnde te d"ciD/ to .,,/ -he e toD .Mncot oD/ -hatD -hat do yo" wantD .Ce ! eiD/

Activity , #ransform the follo&ing Clong3 sentences into Cshort3 ones: Is the e any t o"bleD E &o yo" like my new T.L setD E &o yo" want me to come alon%D E -hat is it that yo" wantD E -hy don+t yo" 4oin "sD E -o"ld yo" like to ha!e dinne with meD E Ca!e yo" hea d f om he latelyD E ( e the e any bad newsD E Is the e any mail fo me todayD E -hat sho"ld I do that fo D

(nothe c ite ion of classification is, as W"i k shows, the type of answe the especti!e '"estion e'"i es. In this case, one can speak of th ee classes of '"estions# those '"estions that need a yesEno answe , those that need an elabo ate answe and those that need an alte nati!e answe . $et "s p o!ide examples and a sho t p esentation of each of the afo ementioned types of di ect '"estions.
5;

2.2.1. 0es / No 4#estions (s thei name s"%%ests, yesE no '"estions a e those pa tic"la '"estions that ecei!e a yesE no answe . Ce e a e a co"ple of examples# .,5/ Ca!e yo" ead <reat . pectationsD .(i citit Darile Speran?eD/ .,9/ &id yo" %o to the pa tyD .Te*ai d"s la pet ece eD/

Activity - >orm 'uestions and say &hich of them are Ees$+o 'uestions: ,. 5. 9. :. ;. =. ?. A. B. ,N. .yo" E pick "p the child en f om school/ D . yo" E lend me some money/ D .which E yo" like best/ D .who E talk to last ni%ht/D .yo" E hea f om he these days/ D .what time E shops close today/ D .yo" E keep a sec et/ D .when E the accident happen/ D .how lon% E wait fo meD/ .what E yo" do lately/ D

Since '"estions '"alify as non!assertive contexts, one wo"ld expect them to make "se of +egative Polarity "tems# .,:/ &id anyone call last ni%htD .)*a c8"tat cine!a asea 8D/ .,;/ Cas the boat left yet* .( plecat de4a !as"lD/

5=

Those yes E no '"estions that p efe to "se (ffi mati!e Pola ity Items, instead of Ne%ati!e Pola ity ones, a e said to be positively oriented, that is the answe s to these '"estions a e s"pposed to be positive# .,=/ &id someone call last ni%htD .)*a c8"tat cine!a asea 8D/ Pes, they did. .&a/. .,?/ Cas the boat left alreadyD .( plecat de4a !as"lD/ Pes, it has. .&a/. ( s"b*type of yesE no '"estions is ep esented by the so*called declarative 'uestions, which a e so named beca"se they a e not cha acte iFed by S"b4ect ("xilia y In!e sion. The decla ati!e '"estion is a type of '"estion which is identical in fo m to a statement, except fo the final rising 'uestion intonation# .,A/ .,B/ Po" ealiFe what the RISOS a eD Ce didn+t finish the R(CED .MIi dai seama de isc" iD/ .N*a te minat c" saD/ (nothe s"b*type of yes E no '"estions is s"pplied by negative 'uestions# .5N/ .5,/ .55/ &idn+t yo" know she was my )"mD Can+t yo" be mo e patientD -on+t yo" tell me who yo" went o"t withD .N" 3tiai c8 e mama meaD/ .N" poIi s8 ai 3i t" mai m"lt8 8bda eD/ .N"*mi sp"i 3i mie c" cine te*ai 2ntHlnitD/

Activity 2 "n the follo&ing dialogues, ma1e negative 'uestions using the &ords given and decide if the e pected response &ould be Ees or +o, as in the e ample:

5?

,. %et eady/

(# Po"+ e still in yo" py4amas. Aren3t you supposed to be getting ready* .s"pposed to E

K# +o. I+!e still %ot plenty of time. 5. 9. :. ;. =. ?. A. siste D/ K# XXXXXXXX.. . Po" co"ld ha!e mentioned it ea lie . B. ,N. (# The e was a te ible ca c ash. XXXXXXXXXXXX.D .see it on the news/ (# It+s past yo" bedtime. XXXXXXXXXXD .be in bed by now/ K# XXXXXXXX . I didn+t %et home "ntil late last ni%ht. K# XXXXXXXX.. . I+m allowed to stay "p late at the weekend. (# Po" mothe is sho"tin% fo yo". XXXXXD .hea he / (# Po"+!e been lea nin% 6e man fo yea s. XX.. XXXXXXX. .speak yet/ (# -hat a lo!ely hai do7 XXXXXXX. .tell me who does it fo yo"/ (# -hy a en+t yo" comin% to the pa tyD XXXXX .feel like %ettin% o"t/ (# Po" look down. XXXXXXXXXXXXXD .en4oy the film/ (# She had he tenants e!icted. XXXXXXXXXXX..D .a mean thin% to do/ (# That was a athe tactless thin% to say. XXXXXXXX. ealise she was (nn+s K# X. , b"t I want to play basketball a little lon%e . K# XX., b"t I+m too shy to t y in f ont of st an%e s. K# X.., beca"se yo" always copy e!e ythin% I do7 K# XXX, b"t I+!e %ot to babysit toni%ht. K# XXXXXX . It was the kind of film that eally dep esses me. K# XXXXXXX.. . She+s %ot a ep"tation fo bein% hea tless.

2.2.2 7. :#estions -h* '"estions a e fo med with the aid of one of the followin% simple inte o%ati!e wo ds# )ho$ &hom$ &hose, &hat , &hich )hen, &here, ho&, &hy The wh*ph ase appea s in sentence*initial position and S"b4ect ("xilia y In!e sion takes place# .59/ a. On what did yo" base yo" p edictionD .fo mal/ b. -hat did yo" base yo" p ediction onD .info mal/ .Pe ce 2Ii baFeFi p onostic"lD/

5A

Activity 4 As1 'uestions &here the &ord$phrase in bold is the ans&er: Pete wo ks fo ;ritis. Te$e%om.E Sa a owns two ca s. E She+s t!$$ !nd (!ir. E It+s ne!r$y seven o6%$o%5.E I ha!e 1 ench lessons twi%e ! wee5. E I went to 1!w!ii on holiday. E The e a e si9 st#dents in my class. E I wasn+t at wo k today 2e%!#se I w!s i$$. E D!vid6s %!r was stolen. E S.!5es8e!re w ote SOin% $ea T.E -e+!e li!ed he e (or ten ye!rs. E )y new ca cost 1<=<<<do$$!rs. E Oay+s %one o"t s.o88in&. E Shi ley %ot ma ied to ;en. E That+s my pen. E She li!es in t.e s#2#r2s./ She d opped .er &$!sses. Activity 5 )rite 'uestions in &hich the bold type &ords are the ans&ers: So I was &$!d fo the company of Ros!$ie. (s mo e o$d b"ildin%s a e demolished I m"st constantly shift abo"t t.e %ity, t yin% to find 8$!%es whe e I esided in life, places whe e a sh ed of my so#$ emains to ancho me. The e a e still o!e % own 2!yo# is$!nds and emote 3ississi88i %oves I !isit often, b"t to %i!e "p the d "nken %!rniv!$ of New O leans, to fo sake h"man companionship .wittin% o othe wise/ wo"ld be to f"lly accept my death. Ne!r$y two .#ndred ye!rs, I cannot do that.

Note that the e is a % o"p of info mal intensificato y wh 0 wo ds . &ho ever, &hat ever, &hy ever, etc/ that con!ey to the '"estion an emphatic meanin%# .5:/ .5;/ -hat e!e did yo" do that fo D -hy e!e didn+t he tell meD .&e ce oi fi f8c"t t" astaD/ .&e ce oa e n" mi*o fi sp"sD/ The e a e, of co" se, othe fo ms of intensification a!ailable# .5=/ -ho on ea th did thisD .impolite/ .Cine o fi f8c"t "na ca astaD/ .5?/ -ho the hell does he think he isD .Cine naiba se c edeD/ .5A / -hy in hea!en+s name did yo" say thatD .impolite/ .Pent " n"mele l"i &"mneFe", de ce ai sp"s a3a ce!aD/

Activity 6 )hat is the syntactic function of the &h phrase in the follo&ing e amples*

5B

-hoe!e opened my lette D E -hich toys did they b"yD E -hose ca d is thisD E Cow la %e did he b"ild his boatD E -hen do yo" meet S"sanD E Cow lon% did that lastD E -he e shall I p"t theseD E -hy a e yo" doin% thisDE Cow did yo" sol!e the p oblemD E -hat 4ob does he ha!eD

The e a e ce tain cases whe e the e a e two wh 0 ph ases p esent in the '"estion# .5B/S"san has hidden somethin% somewhe e. -hat has she hidden whe eD

.Ce a asc"ns 3i "nde l*a p"sD/ -he e has she hidden whatD

.Vnde 3i ce a asc"nsD/ 2.2.". A$tern!tive :#estions (lte nati!e '"estions a e those '"estions that ecei!e an alte nati!e answe # .9N/ (# -o"ld yo" like to smoke a ci%a ette o a pipeD K# ( ci%a ette. .(# 1"meFi o Ii%a 8 sa" o pip8D K# O Ii%a 8./ (ny positi!e yesEno '"estion can be con!e ted into an alte nati!e one by addin% the ph ase o not, o a matchin% ne%ati!e cla"se# .9,/ .95/ Pes E no '"estion# LiiD (lte nati!e '"estion# ( e yo" comin% o notD .Lii sa" n"D/ ( e yo" comin% o a en+t yo"D .Lii sa" n" !iiD/ ( e yo" comin%D

Activity 7 >ind the &ord &hich should not be in the sentence: ,. 5. 9. :. Co"ld yo" mind come a bit ea lie tomo owD Cow fa is it the cinemaD Ce "sed to wo k in a bank, didn+t "se heD &idn+t they not %o to the conce t last ni%htD
9N

;. =. ?. A. B. ,N. ,,. ,5. ,9. ,:. ,;. ,=. ,?. ,A. ,B. 5N. 5,. 55. 59. 5:. 5;.

-o"ld yo" like ha!e a piece of cakeD $et+s stay fo anothe few days, shall we stayD Cow lon% is she be spendin% in (me icaD -hat (nne does she plan to do in the s"mme D The e was a !ax fo yo" this mo nin%, wasn+t it the eD -ho did left the %ate openD -o" can+t be se io"s, can yo" beD -o"ld yo" mind to photocopyin% this lette fo meD &on+t fo %et to take some spa e socks, will yo" notD That was Ge emy+s b othe , wasn+t it heD Gohn %oes 4o%%in% e!e y mo nin%, doesn+t he %oD -o"ld yo" mind to pickin% some thin%s "p at the s"pe ma ketD That+s yo" ca , isn+t it thisD Cow lon% ha!e yo" be li!ed in $ondonD &on+t fo %et to in% the dentist, will yo" notD Cow lon% time does it take to %et the eD -o"ld yo" to like a c"p of coffeeD &idn+t yo" not see him yeste dayD -ho did told yo" abo"t the p oblemD -hose it is this bookD -hat did he say it abo"t the assi%nmentD

Activity 9 #ranslate the follo&ing, paying attention to the different types of 'uestions: (. (ni 2nt e%i, "neo i dispe at, n*am f8c"t altce!a decHt m*am st 8d"it s8 2n% op " mele de d" e e 2n mine, am 2nce cat s8*mi epa defo maIiile, s8*mi 2nf Hn% f ica, nelini3tea infantil8. Toate !echi, deci, ac"m 2ns8 pa c8 m*am pie d"tQ pa ticip la po!estea asta c" sentimentele 3i n" c" aIi"nea. Pot e!eni, deci, o icHnd la !echile t 8i iD Sa" ! ea" doa s8 st Hn% doc"mente desp e "n "ni!e s t"lb" e, plin de %e meni !i "lenIi, desp e o l"me d" 8, nec "I8toa eD C"i i*a folosi eleD Cei ce !in a" 2n spate Feci de secole de isto ie, la fel ca 3i cei ce se d"c, ca 3i cei ce a" fost, da c"m nici lo n" le*a folosit expe ienIa alto a la nimic, n" !8d c"i i*a folosi doc"mentele meleD Ui cine*i 4"dec8to "l, dac8 p in abs" d exist8D Mntotdea"na !o exista stadii e!ol"tie, ia p o3tii, inacti!ii, la3ii, medioc it8Iile !o fi ma4o ita i si !o a!ea % i48 s8 condamne la an"la e o ice idee no"8, st 8in8 p icepe ii lo , !o amHna*o

9,

2n cel mai fe icit caF. (t"nciD S8*mi a %"menteF ideea c8 oamenii se afl8 in p eFi"a "n"i no" salt e!ol"ti!D &a 3i f8 8 ni3te bio% afii 2n pl"s am aceast8 ce tit"dine. T eb"ie s8 se 2nt2mple ce!a .X/ Poate m8 afl" 2n stadi"l definiti!8 ii "n"i d "m p op i" 3i, nai!, !iseF c8 odat8 c" mine se !a schimba 3i l"mea. & "mYda ce d "mD (m m"lte 3anse pent " a m8 schimba, a 2ncepe 2nt *"n fel !iaIa de la cap8t, indife ent de isc. Risc"lD Rata ea, pe ca e o ic"m am simIit*o, 2i 3ti" %"st"l. K. N"*mi amintesc din 2nt ea%a po!este decHt "n sin%" l"c "# st8team 2n cancela ie 2n faIa mesei di ecto "l"i 3i pe faI8 mi se p oiecta l"mina "nei " ia3e l8mpi de bio "# SVnde ai fostD Ce*ai f8c"t pHn8 la ,5 noapteaDC" cine ai a!"t 2ntHlni eD Rec"noa3te, c8 altfel 2Ii sp"nem noi7T N"*l !edeam din ca"Fa l"minii ca e m8 o bea, %hiceam doa "nde se afl8. SSp"ne7 st i%a el. Vit8*te la mine dac8 ai c" a4. C" cine ai a!"t 2ntHlni eDT $"mina m8 ameIea, simIeam c8 n" m8 !oi p"tea mi3ca din ca"Fa t anpi aIiei. S(i fost 2n pa c noaptea. C" cine ai a!"t 2ntHlni e, ce le%8t" i aiD Mn ce scopDT C. )8 obsedeaF8 me e" 3ansa pe ca e %ene os mi*am aco dat*o at"nci, da 3i d "m"l, l"n%, ne% ", pe s"b bolIile din ca e, ne2nt e "pt, pic" 8 apa o3ietic8, m" da , 3obolanii t ecHnd indolenIi p in faIa mea 3i c" enIii de ae cald, "med, p"t" os. Ui, de at"nci, 2n afa 8 de fapt"l c8 mi*am aco dat me e" cHte o 3ans8, m8 2nt eb, contaminat desi%" 3i de cinism"l inteli%ent"l"i me" "nchi# S$a cHIi <Fei+ te poIi op"ne 2nt *o !iaI8, domn"le p ofeso , cHnd a mele tale s"nt "dimenta e 3i t "pele decimateD Ui Ca ol, n" se poate, excl"s, absol"t excl"s s8 n" fi simIit 2n sec"nda aceea " ia38 atH nat8 deas"p a l"i, %ol"l alb, o bito , ca e i*a dete minat ale%e ea, !iaIaD Oa e e d ept, e cinstit s8*i obosesc de%eaba, cHnd n"*i pot face nici "n bine, cHnd n*am c"m s8*l a4"tD Ui, la " ma " mei, chia cHnd p in abs" d a3 p"tea, a a!ea ost s8 le fac d eptateD $a ce le*a folosi, cHnd aceast8 c8"ta e 2nc8p8IHnat8 a d ept8Iii 2i mai Iine 2n !iaI8D .("%"stin K"F" a 0 >e?ele t@cerii/

2.". 3inor Ty8es o( 4#estions The e a e two mino types of '"estions we wo"ld like to mention in the followin% s"bsections# tag 'uestions and echo 'uestions. 2.".1. T!& 4#estions Ta% '"estions, o dis4"ncti!e '"estions a e mostly typical of spoken En%lish. They can be attached to#
95

an impe ati!e &eschide "3a, daD

.99/ Open the doo , will yo"D .9:/ $et+s %o the e, shall weD .Cai s8 me %em acolo, daD/ b"t the most f e'"ent kind of ta% '"estions a e the ones attached to# decla ati!e sentences .S*a d"s la P a%a, n"*i a3aD/ -e shall deal with the latte type in mo e detail. &ependin% on whethe they match the pola ity of the main sentence o not, ta% '"estions can be# constant pola ity ta%s

.9;/ She went to P a%"e, didn+t sheD

Constant pola ity ta%s ha!e the same polarity as the host sentence .i.e. if the host 0 o main 0 sentence is affi mati!e, the ta% is affi mati!e tooQ if the host sentence is ne%ati!e, the ta% is ne%ati!e too/. The s"%%estion is that in this case, the speake "sin% the ta% disagrees &ith &hat the main sentence states. In this way, constant pola ity ta%s can be a means of exp essin% i ony, sa casmQ this is why constant pola ity ta%s ha!e also been called S eacti!e ta%sT, o Scomment ta%sT, since they e!eal the speake +s eaction to the sit"ation he comments "pon# .9=/ Gohn# (nd S"e hasn+t % ad"ated yet. . Ui S"e n" 3i*a dat 2nc8 licenIa/ Ca y# She hasn+t % ad"ated yet, hasn+t sheD .(ha, deci n" 3i*a dat licenIa, hmD/ .9?/ (# -he e+s the est of the moneyD .Vnde e est"l de baniD/ K# I+m af aid it+s all spent. .&in p8cate, a" fost chelt"iIi./ (# Oh, it+s all spent, is itD .&eci, a" fost chelt"iIi, hmD/ !ice !e sa.
99

e!e sed pola ity ta%s

Re!e sed pola ity ta%s a e those ta%s that a e ne%ati!e when the host sentence is affi mati!e and

&ependin% on whethe the intonation of the especti!e ta% is isin%, o fallin%, e!e sed pola ity ta%s can be split in thei t" n into two cate%o ies# answe # .9A/ They+ e mo!in%, a en+t theyD .Se m"t8, n"D/ with a falling intonation, the speake is s" e abo"t what he says and doesn+t eally expect an answe # .9B/ Ce ca"sed the accident, didn+t heD .El e cel ca e a ca"Fat accident"l, n"D/ with a rising intonation, the speake is not s" e abo"t what he says and he expects an

Activity (; >ill in the appropriate 'uestion tag: Po" ha!e %ot eno"%h money. E S" ely yo" ha!e eno"%h money. E Ce will be on time. E The e is eno"%h food fo e!e yone. E She "sed to talk a lot. E E!e yone felt happy abo"t it. E I am d essed sma tly eno"%h. E That+s yo" ca o!e the e. E Po" will pick me "p, afte all. E Po" will pick me "p at ?. E $et+s eat dinne now. E &on+t lea!e witho"t me. E Ke a nice %i l and b in% me that stick. E Po" ha!e been in!ited. E The e a e a lot of ca s on that st eet. E She left an ho" a%o . E Ce hates his wife. E Ce simply hates empty wo ds. E That was yo" fathe . E Tell me,XE $et me know, XE (nn can+t speak 1 ench. E She has a b othe . E I am olde than yo". E I m"st %o now. E I may not see yo" tomo ow. E I may see yo" tomo ow. E Po" o"%ht not to smoke. E The boy ne!e watched his siste . E The boy often watched his siste . E Ce hasn+t any money in his pockets. E Ce had his tooth filled two weeks a%o. E Ce has to ma y S"san. E The e a e s" e to be two books in that d awe . E The e happened to be a spa e seat in the back of the oom. E 1ew people like he . E ( few people like he . E Each of "s is stayin%. E I don+t think yo" like my m"sic. E I think yo" don+t like my m"sic. E I think yo" like my m"sic. E They said he liked m"sic. Activity (( %iscuss the differences in meaning or emphasis /if any0 bet&een the sentences: ,. 5. 9. Ce "sed to play s'"ash, didn+t heDE Ce "sed to play s'"ash, did heD E &idn+t he "se to Isn+t this a % eat pa tyD E This is a % eat pa ty7 E This is a % eat pa ty, isn+t itD E Is this a &idn+t she do well in he exam7 E She did !e y well in he exam. E Cow did she do in he play s'"ashD E &id he "se to play s'"ashD % eat pa ty, o whatD examDE &idn <t she do well in he examD E &id she do well in he examD
9:

:. ;.

Isn+t it st an%e that e!e yone thinks they a e expe ts on ed"cationD E It+s st an%e that So yo" en4oyed my talk, did yo"D E So yo" didn+t en4oy my talkD E So didn+t yo" en4oy

e!e yone thinks that they a e expe ts on ed"cation. my talkD E So did yo" en4oy my talklD Activity (( Add 'uestion tags to these sentences= then re&rite ( to 2 as negative 'uestions: -e+d bette stop wo k soonX.E I+m i%ht abo"t thisX. E Po"+d athe stay in bed than %et "p ea lyX E (nyone can apply fo the schola shipX E If we don+t %et a mo!e on, the e won+t be m"ch time leftX E $et+s ha!e a estX E Nobody anticipated what wo"ld happenX E &o t y to elaxX. E Ce ne!e "sed to st"dy so ha dX.. E They o"%ht to wo k m"ch ha de X Activity (, a08e&rite each sentence so that its meaning remains unchanged, using a 'uestion tag at the end. #he passive is re'uired in each one. b0 #hen re&rite each of your ne&ly formed passive sentences as negative 'uestions: Expe ts a e findin% new ways of "sin% the comp"te s all the time. E New "ses X One day obots and comp"te s will do all o" wo k fo "s. E (ll o" wo kX I don+t think that comp"te s co"ld be installed in e!e y class oom. E Comp"te sX No one has yet in!ented a obot teache . E No obot teache X The %o!e nment sho"ld pay teache s on es"lts. E Teache sX St"dents+ pa ents often s"ppo t them. E St"dentsX St"dent loans mi%ht eplace % ants. E 6 antsX

2.".2. E%.o 4#estions W"i k disc"sses two cate%o ies of echo '"estions# 2.".2.1. Re%!8it#$!tory e%.o :#estions * '"estions which epeat pa t o all of the messa%e, as a way of ha!in% its content confi med In thei t" n, ecapit"lato y echo '"estions can be f" the split into# a/ %ene al echo '"estions 0 cha acte iFed by the fact that they ha!e the same o de as decla ati!e '"estions .see 5.5.,./ b"t a isin% intonation .instead of a fallin% one, as is the case with decla ati!e '"estions/# .:N/ (# I didn+t like that meat.

9;

.N" mi*a pl8c"t f ipt" a aia./ K# Po" didn+t like itD . N" Ii*a pl8c"tD/ .:,/ (# )y h"sband speaks Chinese. .SoI"l me" 3tie chineF8./ K# ChineseD .ChineF8D/ b/ special echo '"estions 0 the wh* wo d can be placed in sentence initial position o not. If the wh* ph ase is f onted, S"b4ect ("xilia y In!e sion takes place, accompanied by isin% intonation# .:5/ (#I saw Kill yeste day. .Ie i l*am !8F"t pe Kill./ K# Po" saw -CO) yeste dayD .Pe cine ai !8F"t ie iD7/ .:9/ (# Switch that li%ht off. .Mnchide l"mina aia./ K# Switch -C(T offD .Ce s8 2nchidD7/ .::/ (#-e went to (mste dam. .Ne*am d"s la (mste dam./ K# -CERE did yo" %oD .Vnde ai fostD7/ .:;/ (# Ce is an ast ona"t. .E ast ona"t/ K# -C(T is heD .Ce eD7/ S"ch sentences often exp ess surprise, consternation, disbelief, misunderstanding# .:=/ (#)y h"sband eats b"%s. .SoI"l me" m8nHnc8 insecte./ K# Ce eats -C(TD .Ce m8nHnc8>D7/

9=

2.".2.2. E98$i%!tory E%.o 4#estions ask fo the cla ification, athe than the epetition, of somethin% 4"st said. The diffe ence between ecapit"lato y and explicato y echo '"estions lies in the type of intonation they possess# as we ha!e seen, with ecapit"lato y echo '"estions, intonation is isin%, whe eas with explicato y echo '"estions, intonation is falling# .:?/ (# Take a look at this. .Vit8*te la asta./ K# Take a look at -C(TD .$a ce s8 m8 "itD/ .:A/ (# Oh, dea , I+!e lost the lette . .Lai, am pie d"t sc isoa ea./ K# -CICC lette ha!e yo" lostD yo" say, yo" ha!e lostD/ .Ce sc isoa e ai pie d"tD/ .i.e. which lette do yo" mean, athe than did

Activity (- >ormulate echo 'uestions in relation to the underlined &ord and comment on their meaning: )y siste dyed he self % een. E I think I+!e fo"nd a sol"tion. E I think I+!e fo"nd a hai in my so"p.E -e a e lookin% fo a p" se. E -e a e lookin% fo a pixie. E Ce is inte ested in m"sic.E Ce is inte ested in bl"e mo!ies. O8tion!$# Activity (2 #ranslate the follo&ing: ,. N" 3tiam "nde m8 d"ce, da 2mi d8deam seama c8 a!ea o Iint8# d"p8 ce t8c"se atHta timp as"p a a ceea ce a3 fi ! "t s8 afl", ac"ma spo o!8iala. Mnt e ce ani f"sese st"dent8DX Te minase oa e fac"ltateaD C"m a4"nsese case iI8, a3a, 2n %ene al, 3i la O aca 2ndeosebiD Cine e a" p8 inIii eiD 1"sese m8 itat8D .n", n" p" ta !e i%het8, da X/ Ca e f"sese ant" a4"l ei 2n acei ani cHnd e" 3i Ion )ic" f ec!entasem b ase iaD Lenise 3i ea acolo desD C" cineD 3i 2n ce sens e a %eloas8 pe noi doiD Mmi eteFa, ca s8 Fic a3a, din fa38 do inIa de a*i p"ne aceste 2nt eb8 i 3i o f8cea c" o capacitate de a !o bi 3i a n" sp"ne nimic eno m8 p in c"m"l de c"!inte, ca e asc"ndea" "n h"mo sec etX CeD pa c8 sp"nea, n" e am"Fant c8 n" e am"Fant ceea ce po!estescD Ei, da, e a7 .)a in P eda 0 Cel mai iubit dintre p@mFnteni/

9?

5.

0 C eFi t", c"mnat8 1enia, c8 iep"3oa a asta de Lica, ca e e fata l"i (nd ei )o t", 3i

ca e s*a aci"at, st icata, 2n sat"l nost ", c eFi t" c8 n" e ea 2n le%8t" 8 c" hoI"l de (nd ei, c" ta*s"D 1e e3te*l, 1enio, pe Cond at de Lica, n"mai la oameni b"ni le*a s"cit cap"l c" d a%ostea ei p8c8toas8# l"i Pet e $it 8, l"i Sta! e P8ici, l"i ChiFlinski, l"i $"ca Co obeI, oameni a3eFaIi, c" o cas8 de copii. ( e %"st de oameni blHnFi, 3e poaica, s8 se 2ncol8ceasc8 mai bine, d"p8 pofte. &e%eaba c eFi c8 a l"at*o Cond at 2n ceata l"i la pesc"it, ast8*toamn8D 1e e3te*l 1enio, a!eIi 3i a3a n"mai necaF" i, 3i apoi Lica ce Fice, ac"m p"n mai bine mHna pe Cond at, c8 tot t eb"ie s8 plece pe f ont. .X/ Ui de la Ko%dap oste, "nde c eFi c8 a 8s8 it LicaD $a Kabada%7 O a3 ma e, c" cale fe at8 3i c" %eamie. Ui c"m c eFi c*a 8s8 it Lica*n Kabada%D Mn stamb8 2nflo at8, o3" 3i %alben, pHn8 la c8lcHie, 3i 2n cap c" piepteni alba3t i. Mn picioa e 0 Ii*ai %8sit s8 mai "mble c" t8lpile %oale7 0 "mbla*n sandale de catifea alb8 c" cata 8mi ot"nde. Ui c"i c eFi c8 i*a s"cit cap"l 2n Kabada%D $"i Co%ea, popa al t8ta ilo 3i al t" cilo . $*a scos din %eamie. Co%ea, tine el de 3apteFeci 3i opt de ani, c" at ca pe eIii de Pa3ti. Oamenii de la Kabada% 0 oameni s"bIi i, de o a3 0 s*a" f8c"t n*a"de n*a !ede 0 de ob aF"l Co%ii. .Utefan K8n"lesc" 0 "arna b@rba?ilor/

TCREE COORDINATION ".1.Syndeti% !nd Asyndeti% Coordin!tion ".2.Coordin!tion !nd S#2ordin!tion ".".Senten%e !nd +.r!se Coordin!tion ".'.Coordin!tin& Con>#n%tions ".).?er2 A&reement wit. Com8o#nd Senten%es ".*.Key Con%e8ts

9., Syndetic !s. (syndetic Coo dination Kefo e we p oceed to disc"ss the notion of coo dination, some comment is in o de # the te m coo dination is %oin% to be "sed mainly in elation to what some % amma ians call syndetic coo dination, i.e. that type of st "ct" e whe e the e a e explicit indicato s that the e a e two mo e elements linked by coo dination. This type is placed in opposition to asyndetic coo dination, whe e the e is no indication othe than a comma, that elements a e coo dinated. Conside example
9A

.,/

Ce looked at them sadly and ep oachf"lly.

.S*a "itat la ei c" t istete si ep os./ which is an instance of syndetic coo dination. Example .5/, on the othe hand, is an ill"st ation of the asyndetic type# .5/ Ce looked at them sadly, ep oachf"lly.

.S*a "itat la ei c" t istete, c" ep os./ Example .,/ exhibits coo dination by means of (N&, which is a coo dinatin% con4"nction o a coo dinato . The te ms linked by the coo dinato a e called con4"ncts. -e will "se the te m coo dination in efe ence to the fi st type mentioned abo!e, whe e a coo dinato is o!e tly exp essed .i.e. p esent/ in the sentence. 9.5.Coo dination Z S"bo dination Ky definition, coo dination .o con4oinin%/ is a syntactic operation that puts together constituents of the same ran1. Con!e sely, s"bo dination .o Embeddin%/ is a syntactic operation that involves ran1!shifting, namely one constit"ent is s"bo dinated to a hi%he * ank constit"ent. Conside the followin% examples whe e one can look at the same sit"ation exp essed diffe ently f om a syntactic point of !iew# .9/ .:/ Cit my wife and yo"+ll die. If yo" hit my wife, yo" will die.

.O lo!esti pe sotia mea si !ei m" i./ .&aca o lo!esti pe sotia mea, !ei m" i./ S"ch examples, that ha!e a lot in common f om a semantic point of !iew, led % amma ians to belie!e that coo dination is the basic st "ct" e whe ef om s"bo dination o i%inated. Example .9/ is an instance of coo dination whe e constit"ents of the same ank a e linked by means of the coo dinatin% con4"nction and. In example .:/ one can notice a mo e complex st "ct" e, whe e the s"bo dinatin% con4"nction if plays a ma4o pa t. -e will come back to example .9/ in a s"bse'"ent s"bsection. 1 om the p e!io"sly mentioned examples, we can al eady make at least two impo tant ema ks#

9B

a/ b/

that f om a fo mal point of !iew, coo dination diffe s f om s"bo dination in that it is that the e mi%ht be impo tant semantic simila ities elated to examples exhibitin%

ealiFed by means of coo dinatin% con4"nctions. coo dinated, especti!ely s"bo dinated constit"ents. Cowe!e , we need to specify that, f om a lo%ical Z semantic point of !iew, a ma4o diffe ence between coo dination and s"bo dination is that the info mation in s"bo dinate cla"ses is not asse ted, b"t p es"pposed. Compa e# .;/ .=/ Gohn came back and %a!e he a piece of his mind. Gohn %a!e he a piece of his mind afte he came back.

.Gohn s*a into s si i*a sp"s ! eo do"a./ .Gohn i*a Fis ! eo do"a d"pa ce s*a into s./ Vnlike in the case of .;/ whe e we a e dealin% with asse tion, the s"bo dinate ad!e bial cla"se of time contains a p es"pposition# -e p es"ppose that the e!ent of Gohn+s comin% back happened. c/ info mal tone. f om a p a%matic point of !iew it is to be ema ked that example .9/ will be fo"nd mo e

f e'"ently in instances of dialo%"e and spoken lan%"a%e as it is ob!io"sly cha acte iFed by a athe

A%tivity 1

Coo dination and style

The followin% two passa%es a e st ai%htfo wa d desc ipti!e pa a% aphs taken f om na ati!e wo ks. The fi st is a !i!id desc iption of a se'"ence of actionsQ the second, a static desc iption of a small town in nineteenth*cent" y I eland. The st"dent will notice the almost complete absence of s"bo dinate cla"ses f om both passa%es. In the fi st, this adds to the % aphic effect of the mo!ement in the passa%e. In the second, the compa ati!e looseness of the sentence const "ction is admi ably s"ited to the e!ocati!e info mality of desc iption. Passa%e ,#

:N

The black clo"d had c ossed the sky, a blob of da k a%ainst the sta s# The ni%ht was '"iet a%ain, Tom stopped into the wate and felt the bottom d op f om "nde his feet. Ce th eshed the two st okes ac oss the ditch and p"lled himself hea!ily "p the othe bank. Cis clothes h"n% to him. Ce mo!ed and made a sloppin% noiseQ his shoes s'"ished. Then he sat down, took off his shoes and emptied them. Ce w "n% the bottom of his t o"se s, took off his coat and emptied them. Ce w "n% the bottoms of his t o"se s, took off his coat and s'"eeFed the wate f om it. Gohn Steinbeck, The 6 apes of - ath Reconst "ct the pa a% aph, combinin% as many of the simple sentences as yo" feel easonable into compo"nd sentences with s"bo dinate cla"ses. Cow does the effect of yo" passa%e diffe f om Steinbeck+sD Passa%e 5# Castleba had p ese !ed the appea ance of a fe"dal town. Tho"%h the castle had !anished, on its site fo tifications still f owned abo!e steep and na ow st eets, the ho"ses we e bea"tif"l and ancient, b"ilt, with eno mo"s solidity, of c"t % ay stone, ado ned with co nices, stone*w eathed windows and ca !ed doo ways. In the late ei%hteenth cent" y a )all had been added to the town, with fo mal walks "nde ows of t ees, b"t the st eets tailed off ab "ptly into m"d cabins, c" lews wheeled and c ied in the cent e of the town, and the walke s in the )all had ba e feet. Cecil -oocham 0 Smith, The Reason -hy Compa e the p e!io"s two passa%es with the followin% in point of complexity of st "ct" e and fo mality of tone. Note that the mo e int icate const "ction of the thi d passa%e is co elated by the a"tho to the diffic"lt 4o" ney the cha acte in the passa%e has to make# +!ss!&e " The Canon d essed and, wa!in% the emonst ances of his ho"sekeepe aside, left the ho"se. Kefo e him was a climb that wo"ld take at least th ee ho" s, o!e some of the o"%hest % o"nd in the
:,

co"nt y. Ce walked "p to the top of the !illa%e st eet and st "ck off "p a bo een that went fo a bit and then pete ed o"t as if disco" a%ed. (fte that he had to make do with the na ow ocky footpath when he co"ld see it o st"mble a while o!e the tan%led sc "b and sha p stones till he fo"nd it a%ain. The "nwonted exe cise made his hea t po"nd and his head swim, and his clothes st"ck damply to him# da kness fell befo e he was half*way "p and altho"%h he had a to ch the way in f ont was so st an%e and feat" eless he tho"%ht he sho"ld ne!e a i!e at his %oal. Cis feet pained him f om contin"ally st"bbin% a%ainst the bits of ock# in spite of the lon% d y spell the mo"ntain was soakin%, and as the way is with I ish mo"ntains, the hi%he he went the wette it % ew, "ntil he fo"nd the wate %" %lin% abo"t his ankles and seepin% o!e the top of his bootsQ and mo e than once he missed his footin% and meas" ed his len%th on the p ickly % o"nd. Cono T acy 0 The St ai%ht and Na ow Path

9.9 Sentence !s. Ph ase Coo dination Compa e the followin% sentences# .?/ .A/ I saw him yeste day and I had seen him the day befo e yeste day. I saw him yeste day and the day befo e yeste day.

.$*am !aF"t ie i si l*am !aF"t si alaltaie i./ .$*am !aF"t ie i si alaltaie i./ Example .?/ is an instance of sentence coo dination, the es"lt of which is a CO)POVN& SENTENCE. ( compo"nd sentence is to be placed in opposition to a CO)P$E[ SENTENCE, whe e the e is a main cla"se and one o mo e s"bo dinate cla"ses, as shown in .B/. .B/ If the a"tho s and p"blishe s of <&ick &eadshot+ and s"ch ema kable wo ks we e

s"ddenly to make a aid on the ed"cated class, we e to take down the name of e!e y man, howe!e distin%"ished, who was ca"%ht at a Vni!e sity Extension lect" e, we e to confiscate all o" no!els and wa n "s to co ect all o" li!es, we sho"ld be se io"sly annoyed. .6.O. Cheste ton 0 ( &efence of Penny & eadf"ls /

:5

Example .A/ exhibits an instance of Ph asal Coo dination, whe e we a e dealin% with a compound constituent, yeste day and the day befo e yeste day. (s one can easily notice, this constit"ent can be conside ed to be the es"lt of comp essin% the lon%e and m"ch less economical compound sentence f om example .?/. This phenomenon of comp ession and ed"ction is called ellipsis.

A%tivity 2 %istinguish bet&een sentence coordination and phrasal coordinationQ argue that both are basic, but phrasal coordination may also result from reduction of coordinated sentences# ,.Kob ente ed the oom and immediately the telephone an%. 5. They a e li!in% in Italy o they a e spendin% a !acation the e. 9. Gane mi%ht sin% b"t I don+t think she will. :. Gohn is eady and )a y is eady. ;. Gohn and )a y a e eady. = Gohn san% and )a y danced. ?. Gohn and )a y a e the newly ma ied co"ple. A. Ce pet kitten is black and white. B. O" fla% is ed, yellow and bl"e. ,N. Cis speech was cohe ent and "nde stood by almost e!e ybody.

A%tivity " 8ead the follo&ing e amples and state &hether they have undergone ellipsis or not# )y collea%"e failed, and I passed, o" especti!e examinations. E Pete and Gohn played

football. E Kob and 6eo %e a e admi ed by thei st"dents. E Pete , b"t not Gohn, plays football. E Goan plays many %ames, and e!en tennis. E Gohn both composed the m"sic and w ote the wo ds.

Ellipsis can be of two types# a/ .,N/ the so called fo wa d ellipsis, when it ope ates on the second con4"nct in the st "ct" e# a. Gohn w ites poet y and Kill w ites p ose.
:9

.Gohn sc ie poeFii si Kill sc ie p oFa./ b. Gohn w ites poet y and Kill p ose. .Gohn sc ie poeFii si Kill p oFa./ In .,Na/ the second con4"nct has been wiped o"t, o deleted, as can be seen in .,Nb/. ( deletion of the fi st con4"nct wo"ld ha!e been impossible in this case# .,N/ b/ .,,/ c. @Gohn poet y and Kill w ites p ose. backwa d ellipsis 0 when it ope ates on the fi st con4"nct in the st "ct" e# a. Gohn lo!es ci%a s and Kill hates ci%a s. .$"i Gohn ii plac t ab"c" ile ia Kill le " aste./ b. Gohn lo!es and Kill hates ci%a s. .$"i Gohn ii plac ia Kill " aste t ab"c" ile./ c. @ Gohn lo!es ci%a s and Kill hates. Example .,,b/ p edicts the co ect deletion of the fi st con4"nct, whe eas .,,c/ shows the "n% ammaticality of a deletion of the fi st con4"nct in this case.

(cti!ity : Rew ite the followin% sentences by "sin% ellipsis# ,.The messa%e was ambi%"o"s and was diffic"lt to comp ehend. 5. ( b" %la m"st ha!e b oken in and he m"st ha!e stolen the 4ewels. 9. -hy did yo" %i!e a %old watch to yo" sec eta y and why did yo" %i!e a pai of %lo!es to yo" wifeD :. Kob may ha!e been listenin% to m"sic. ;. Kob seems to be t yin% ha d to %et alon% with Gane and Gohn seems to be t yin% to %et ha d to %et alon% with S"san. =. Gane fo ced Gohn to sha!e himself and S"san fo ced Kob to wash himself. ?. 1athe be%%ed S"san to %et ma ied and mothe be%%ed Gane to %et ma ied. A. Kob tho"%ht of his %i lf iend and Tom d eamed of his %i lf iend. B. Peste day la %e fla%s we e flyin% and this mo nin% small fla%s we e flyin%. ,N. -e can demand payment and we will demand payment.

::

Kesides ellipsis, substitution is anothe sentences. Conside the followin%# .,5/

ed"ction ope ation that can be applied to compo"nd

I was ad!ised to b"y a pai of shoes and I bo"%ht a pai of shoes.

.(m fost sfat"it sa c"mpa o pe eche de pantofi si am c"mpa at o pe eche de pantofi./ The common element, i.e. the p edication b"y a pai of shoes, can be ed"ced by s"bstit"tion, as can be seen in .,9/ I was ad!ised to b"y a pai of shoes and I did soEit.

.(m fost sfat"it sa imi c"mpa o pe eche de pantofi si asta am si fac"t./ These two ed"ction methods can ope ate within compo"nd sentences d"e to the fact that sometimes it is mo e economical to "se a ed"ced st "ct" e, than a lon%e epetiti!e one. So, these syntactical p ocesses, ha!in% to do with a chan%e pe fo med in the st "ct" e of a sentence, a e in fact moti!ated by a p a%matic p inciple, the so*called P inciple of Economy, that fa!o" s concision and efficiency in the "se of lan%"a%e.

A%tivity ) Datch the follo&ing t&o columns so as to obtain correct elliptical phrases# this book he son yo" wo k he idea that method yo" p oposal o little and Gohn+s and his and the othe and those and othe s

:;

many %"ests m"ch satisfaction

o few and mine

Note that the followin% idioms a e b"ilt on the same p inciple as the ph ases abo!e# one way o anothe , some eason o anothe , one o .the/ othe method.

(cti!ity = "n certain cases, ellipsis may be a fruitful source of ambiguity, since one may interpret the compound noun phrase or sentence in 'uestion as having undergone ellipsis or not. Consider the follo&ing phrases and find as many possible interpretations for them as you can# .a/ .b/ .c/ .d/ the old men and women simple books and ma%aFines fo child en 6eo %e and Gane a e sepa ated. 6eo %e and Gane went back to thei pa ents.

(cti!ity ? #ranslate the follo&ing sentences, using reduced structures# ,.S*a astit la el si l*a palm"it. 5. P efe p opoFitiile de mai 4os o i de pe pa%ina " matoa e. 9. ( citit, inte p etat si t ad"s ope a contempo an"l"i sa". :. Ii plac si a e % i4a de toate pisicile !a%aboande de lan%a bloc. ;. Intotdea"na am l"ptat si !oi l"pta pent " p o% es. =. &aca si cand se hota aste sa plece in No"a \eelanda este o p oblema mai !eche. ?.Psiholin%!istica si sociolin%!istica s"nt mate ii impo tante. A. I*a in!itat de Fi"a l"i pe %ine i si pe n" o i.

A%tivity -

:=

Some idiomatic phrases are in fact compound phrases, li1e: salt and pepper, fish and chips, s&eet and sour, Dar1s and Spencers. >ill the gaps in these sentences &ith suitable e pressions from the list belo&: ,.I sea ched XXX.. fo my wallet. 5. Can we disc"ss the XXXX.. of yo" p oposals late onD 9. Can yo" show me the XXXX to s"ppo t yo" a %"mentD :. She+s a wonde f"l sto ytelle # always the XXXXX of the pa ty. ;. They %et on '"ite well to%ethe , e!en tho"%h they ha!e thei little XXXX.. =.Po" %ain some thin%s and yo" lose othe sQ it+s a case of XXXX ?. The police a e esponsible fo maintainin% XXXX. A. I+!e tidied "p my oom and now it+s XXXX B. It was XXXX whethe the esc"e s wo"ld %et the e in time. ,N They+!e sha ed a lot of expe iences# they+!e been th o"%h XXXXX to%ethe . ,,. Po" can+t claim on ins" ance fo XXX, only fo dama%e. ,5. I need anothe ,NN] XXX.. the amo"nt I+!e al eady sa!ed "p. ,9. N"clea physicists who a e also best*sellin% w ite s a e XXX..X ,:. ( pend"l"m swin%s XXX.. ,;. Ce makes a little money o"t of w itin% b"t teachin% is his XXX. . ,=. (fte all thei ad!ent" es, they eached homeXXX. b ead and b"tte E facts and fi%" es E few and fa between E hi%h and low E law and o de E life and so"l E o!e and abo!e E p os and cons E safe and so"nd E spick and spanE swin%s and o"ndabo"ts E thick and thin E to and f o E to"%h and %o E "ps and downs E wea and tea .

9.:. Coo dinatin% Con4"nctions -e can distin%"ish between th ee classes of coo dinato s# a/ Cop"lati!e# and $ both G and $at once G and $ neither G nor $ as &ell as $ no less

than $ not only G but also, etc. -e sho"ld also mention he e a e cop"lati!e coo dinato s, s"ch as# ali1e G and $ nor G nor $ nor G or # .,:/ .,;/ Cis 4ob is at once 4"dicial and political She went to sleep alike thankless and emo seless.

.Sl"4ba l"i este si 4" idica si politica./ .( plecat la c"lca e si ne ec"noscatoa e si lipsita de em"sca i./

:?

.,=/

No s"n, no wind will st ike to kiss thee.

.Nici soa e si nici !int n" te*o atin%e c" ! e"n sa "t./ The e a e, of co" se, semantic est ictions on the types of cla"ses that can be coo dinated. 1o instance, one cannot co"ple two sentences with completely diffe ent semantic content, as in# .,?/ a. @$ions a e mammals and Tom bo"%ht a ca .

b. @I hate pl"mbe s and yo" lea n syntax. In fact, the exp essi!e f"nction of coo dination is, mo e often than not, to emphasiFe .semantic/ pa allelism o cont ast, which is the case with b/ .,A/ c/ .,B/ ad!e sati!e coo dinato s# but, and I %a!e he the money b"t I didn+t feel happy abo"t it. dis4"ncti!e coo dinato s# or, either G or She can eithe ha!e the money o she can ha!e the clothes.

.I*am dat banii, da n" am fost m"lt"mit de asta./

.Poate p imi o i banii o i hainele./ Some of the afo ementioned coo dinatin% con4"nctions ha!e co elati!es .eithe X o , both X and , etc/Q some of them allow ellipsis of the s"b4ect .and, o Q sometimes b"t, too/# .5N/ a. I may see yo" tomo ow o .I/ may phone late in the day. .S*a p"tea sa te !ad miine sa" sa iti telefoneF mai incolo./ b. Ce went to the safe and .he/ took o"t the money. .S*a d"s la seif si a scos banii./ c. I %a!e he the money b"t .I/ didn+t feel happy abo"t it. .I*am dat banii da n" mi*a con!enit de loc./ In ce tain cases, the ellipsis of the s"b4ect is e!en e'"i ed .see e.%. 5N .b//. If the coo dinatin% con4"nction links two s"bo dinate cla"ses, whe e the s"bo dinato is epeated, ellipsis of the s"b4ect is no lon%e accepted#

:A

.5,/@ I didn+t ob4ect to his p oposal since it was !e y ap opiate and since apealed to me. (nothe p ope ty some of the coo dinato s abo!e sha e is the fact that they can lin1 more than t&o clauses# .55/ They both liked S"san and espected he , and che ished he .

.Ei o placea" pe S"san, o especta" si o ind a%ea"./ (n impo tant p ope ty sha ed by coo dinatin% con4"nctions has to do with the fact that sometimes, these coo dinato s can impose a s"bo dinatin% shade of meanin% "pon the con4"nctions, like in the example we disc"ssed at the be%innin% of this section# .9/ Cit my wife, and yo"+ll die. .O lo!esti pe sotia mea si ai sa mo i./ In example th ee one can ead a conditional meanin% behind the lines. In this case, if we we e to ew ite the example , we co"ld not say somethin% like# .59/ @Po"+ll die, and hit my wife.

-hene!e the coo dinatin% con4"nction adds a s"bo dinatin% tin%e of meanin% to the con4"ncts, the order of these conjuncts is fi ed. 1 om this point of !iew, one can diffe entiate between a/ .5:/ a symmetric "se of coo dinato s 0 whe e the o de of the con4"ncts is e!e sible# a. I like and admi e he . .Imi place si o admi ./ b. I admi e and like he . .O admi si imi place./ b/ .5;/ an asymmetric "se of coo dinato s 0 whe e the o de of the con4"ncts is i e!e sible# a. I washed and i oned my pants. .)i*am spalat si calcat pantalonii./
:B

b.@ I i oned and washed my pants. $et+s cast a swift %lance at the asymmet ic "ses some con4"nctions may ha!e# ,. assymet ic (N& can impose diffe ent shades of s"bo dinati!e meanin% within the ch onolo%ical se'"ence .tempo al implications/ Ce sliced and f ied the potatoes. .1i st he sliced them and then he f ied them/ ca"se*effect elation Ce hea d an explosion and .the efo e/ phoned the police. Ce didn+t pay the ent and he was e!icted f om thei apa tment. .^Keca"se he didn+t

compo"nd sentence# .5=/

.( taiat ca tofii si i*a p a4it./ .5?/ .5A/

.( a"Fit o exploFie si a s"nat la politie./ pay, he was e!icted/ .N*a platit chi ia si a fost dat afa a din apa tament./ if*then elation .s"ppo ted by p ope intonation/ 6i!e me the money and yo"+ll walk away safely. .If yo" do that, yo" will be safe/ concessi!e meanin% .pl"s s"itable intonation/ Gohn wo ked ha d fo the exam and he failed .(ltho"%h he wo ked ha d, he failed/. whileEwhe eas 0 inte p etation & . Smith expe iments with %"inea pi%s and & . K own expe iments with h"mans.

.5B/

.&a*mi banii si poti pleca ne!atamat./ .9N/

.Gohn a m"ncit din % e" pent " examen si l*a picat./ .9,/

.&octo "l Smith face expe iente pe cobai ia docto "l K own face expe iente pe oameni./ .-hile & . Smith pe fo ms his expe iments with %"inea pi%s, & . K own does it with h"mans/ 5. (ssymet ic KVT implies a cont asti!e effect 0 like in the case of symmet ic KVT 0 b"t

this effect es"lts f om an une pected conse'"ence. Compa e .95/ a. Gim is b a!e b"t Gohn is a cowa d. .symmet ic "se/

.Gim e !iteaF da Gohn e "n las./

;N

b. Gim likes comp"te s b"t Gohn hates them. .$"i Gim ii plac comp"te ele da Gohn n" le s"po ta./ to .99/ 9. .9:/ Gim is 4obless b"t he is happy. (symmet ic OR implies a%ain an if*then elationship# a. Po" lea!e my da"%hte alone, o I+ll b eak yo" neck. .O i imi lasi fata in pace, o i iti "p %it"l./ b. Stop that noise, o yo"+ll be p"nished. .InceteFi c" F%omot"l, o i !ei fi pedepsit./ This "se is to be cont asted with the symmet ic "se of OR, which is in its t" n of two types .9;/ .9=/ excl"si!e OR Po" can eat lobste , o yo" can eat ca!ia . incl"si!e OR If yo" ha!e eno"%h money yo" can eat lobste , o yo" can ha!e ca!ia X o both. .asymmet ic "se/ .Gim n*a e se !ici" da e fe icit./

.Poti sa mananci homa sa" poti sa mananci ca!ia ./

.&aca ai dest"i bani poti sa mananci homa sa" poti sa comanFi ca!ia X sa" din amindo"a./

A%tivity @ &istin%"ish between symmet ic and asymmet ic "ses of con4"nctions# ,.Gohn smoked ci%a ettes and Kill smoked a pipe. 5. Gohn lit a ci%a and )a y left the oom. 9. Gohn went to the cinema and saw a mo!ie. :. Gohn cooked the steak and he ate it. E Gohn ate the steak and he cooked it, too. ;. I am a p ofessional man of lette s and a typew ite is essential to my wo k. =. That do% is !e y a%% essi!e and he has ne!e bitten me so fa . ?. $ay a hand on me and yo"+ll sc eam. A. $o!e me and I+ll ma y yo". B. Gohn likes ope a b"t Gim hates it. ,N. Gohn is %ood*lookin% b"t Oim is "natt acti!e. ,,. -e slept late b"t we ca"%ht the t ain. ,5. -e want to b"y a ca b"t we ha!e not eno"%h money. ,9. They killed him b"t he came back as a %host. ,: .Eithe / we a e !isitin% ("nt
;,

S"san o we+ e stayin% home. ,;. Gohn mi%ht take them by ca , .o / )a y mi%ht %o with them by b"s, o I mi%ht o de a taxi fo them. ,=. People en!y me fo ha!in% a cell"la phone, o they e%a d me as eccent ic. ,?. Po" m"st be kiddin% o else yo"+ e o"t of yo" mind. ,A. )a y was so"nd asleep o .at least/ she p etended to be. ,B. $et %o off me o I+ll sc eam. 5N. This is an ea ly Remb andt o it is an excellent R"bens. 5,. It m"st be a R"bens o it wo"ld be in a m"se"m. 55. I o!e slept and I a i!ed late at my office, and Gohn was no lon%e the e and .so/ I had to deal with ) . K own alone.

9.; Le b (% eement with Compo"nd S"b4ects -e shall disc"ss !e b*a% eement with compo"nd s"b4ects dependin% on the con4"nction that is "sed# (N& 0 the compo"nd s"b4ects co elated by and a e %ene ally "sed with pl" al !e bs# .9?/ a. Semantics and syntax a e inte elated. .Semantica este st ins le%ata de sintaxa./ b. Koth yo" fai ness and yo" kind nat" e ha!e been app eciated. .(" fost ap eciate atit co ectit"dinea ta cit si b"natatea ta./ -hen the !e b appea s befo e the s"b4ect, both pl" al and sin%"la fo ms a e %ene ally accepted. The sin%"la fo m is howe!e est icted to info mal speech# .9A/ The e wasEwe e a man and a woman in the oom.

.In came a e a" "n ba bat si o femeie./ The e a e cases when the compo"nd s"b4ect is not made "p of the two semantically distinct con4"nctions any mo e# .9B/ a. The hamme and the sickle was flyin% f om the fla%pole. .Sece a si ciocan"l fl"t" a" s"s pe stea%./ b. 1ish and chips is my fa!o ite food. .Pestele c" ca tofi p a4iti este fel"l me" de minca e p efe at./

;5

In .9B/ the s"b4ect contains two con4"ncts that a e pe cei!ed as one semantic "nit, hence the sin%"la fo m of the !e b. OR, EITCER X OR, NOT .ON$P/ X KVT ($SO compo"nd s"b4ects a e s"b4ect to the "le of a% eement by p oximity# the !e b a% ees with the nea most con4"nct# .:N/ a. Not Gohn, b"t his two b othe s a e to blame. .N" Gohn este de !ina, ci cei doi f ati ai l"i./ b. Not Gohn+s b othe b"t he is to blame. .N" f atele l"i Gohn, ci el este de !ina./ NEITCER X NOR compo"nd s"b4ects accept both the sin%"la and the pl" al fo m of the !e b since f om a syntactical point of !iew Neithe X no esembles eithe Xo , b"t semantically it is the ne%ati!e co"nte pa t of both X and# .:,/ Neithe he no his wife ha!eEhas a i!ed.

.N*a" a4"ns nici el si nici sotia l"i./

A%tivity 1< Inse t the app op iate !e b fo m# a.,. Cathy and &a!id .ha!e a i!ed. 5. The b ead and the b"tte .be/ both mo e expensi!e this yea . 9. The b ead and b"tte .be/ scatte ed on the floo . :. The % een and bl"e blanket .be/ also to be washed. ;. The ed and the bl"e shi ts .be/ washed yeste day. =. )y aim and ob4ect .be/ to make the theo y clea fo all. ?. ( ca ia%e and a pai .be/ standin% at the doo . A. Cis f iend and le%al ad!ise .be/ p esent at the f"ne al. B. )y son and hei .be/ safe. ,N. )y son and da"%hte .be/ twins. b. ,.The e .be/ a table and some chai s in the oom. 5. The e .be/ some chai s and a table in the oom. 9. Koth the ho"ses and the %a den .be/ dama%ed by the fi e. :. Not only the ho"ses b"t also the %a den .be/ dama%ed by the fi e. ;. Not Gohn b"t his two sons .be/ to blame. =. ( t affic wa den o a

;9

policeman .be/ always on the watch in this st eet. ?. Eithe Pete o Gohn .ha!e/ had b eakfast al eady. A. Eithe the child o the pa ents .be/ to blame. B. Neithe he no his wife .be/ he e. ,N. Neithe Isabel no I .be/ timid people.

9.=. Oey Concepts Coordination is defined in opposition to subordination, as bein% a syntactic p ocess whe e elements of the same ank a e con4oined. This section also attempts to d aw attention "pon ce tain points of simila ity between coo dination and s"bo dination, especially those elated to the asymmet ic "ses of coo dinatin% con4"nctions. (s shown, ce tain compo"nd sentences can be efo m"lated as complex ones, namely as a main cla"se pl"s a s"bo dinate one. Emphasis is also laid on the ed"cti!e methods that can be applied to compo"nd sentences o to compo"nd ph ases# ellipsis .o deletion/ and s"bstit"tion.

A%tivity 11

.Optional Exe cises/

#ranslate the follo&ing, ma1ing use of the theoretical frame&or1 offered above# ,/ ,. S"nt docto i si docto i pe l"mea asta. 5. 1 ate nef ate, tot am sa*i ce bani pent "

medicamente. 9. O sa stam imp e"na, la bine si la a". :. N"*i nici cal, nici ma%a . ;. Spe ca sc isoa ea mea te %aseste bine, sanatos. =. SC"m o mai d"ciDT S N*am m" it inca, m"lt"mesc de int eba e.T ?. Sot"l ei e de m"lt mo t si*n% opat. A. (" !enit la mine c" catel si c" p" cel. B. Inte Fis cons"m"l de alcool la !olan. ,N S*a d"s la c"lca e c" tot c" haine pe el. ,,. Ta as, % apis, tot am sa te min l"c a ea. 5/ ,. N" e a inchip"it si n" se c edea f "mos, da "n instinct de conse !a e fiFica il facea

sa*si "mfle bicepsii si cos"l piept"l"i si sa fandeFe plastic c" picio "l d ept inainte, pent " a obtine maxim"l de !ol"m al p"lpei.

;:

5. L " sa*si ince ce p"te ea b atelo eFemand"*se c" toata % e"tatea t "p"l"i pe speteaFa "n"i sca"n, da acesta t osni asa de ta e, incat sp e a e!ita "n accident, Gim en"nta si se m"lt"mi sa 9.K"nica si b"nic"l a" t ait fa a baie*n casa si a fost bine7 (ti !enit d!s. mai c" mot7T 9 :.*Ce stai de !o bestiD Se scandaliFa baba. C"m s*ad"c e" st opitoa ea in casaD : *Sa mi*o ad"ci, altfel n" e de t ai c" mine7 boxeFa a c" ile desf"ndate ale canapelei si pe nele din pat.

;. Gim stat" p"tin sa se %andeasca, fiindca n" !edea inca mod"l de int eb"inta e. Sa ata ne st opitoa ea de c"i"l din ta!an si apoi sa*i dea inclina e deas"p a cap"l"i, n*a!ea nici c" ce*o le%a si ii e a teama sa n" se s" pe c"m!a ta!an"l. Sa toa ne apa in li%hean, li%hean"l e a p ea mic. =. Sili!est " amase si sca bit de platit"dinea c"%eta ilo , da si mi at de o p ecocitate pe

ca e el n*o c"nosc"se. ?. 0 &oamna, ti" sa !a decla ca n*am !enit decat sa !a ce in!oi ea de a ne casato i si de a

pleca apoi "nde !om c ede de c"!iinta. N" n"mai ca n" t eb"ie sa !a in% i4o ati, da !a ce pe misi"nea de a ma oc"pa e" in chip excl"si! de acest e!eniment si fa!oa ea de a n" se mai !o bi de chesti"ni mate iale. .6. Calinesc" 0 Ca tea N"ntii /

A%tivity 12 8ead the follo&ing and comment on the conjunctions that lin1 the phrases belo&= try to re&rite those phrases# ( pleasant if talkati!e child E a shabby tho"%h comfo table a mchai E a simple yet de!o"t p aye E Ce looked at me kindly if somewhat skeptically E Ce d o!e '"ickly yet safe E an intelli%ent albeit ash leade .albeit 0 a e, fo mal con4"nction/ E Ce spoke fi mly albeit pleasantly.

;;

1OVR T1E CO3+AEB SENTENCE A CAASSIFICATION OF DE+ENDENT CAAUSES '.1.T.e F#n%tion!$ Criterion o( C$!ssi(i%!tion '.2.T.e Str#%t#r!$ Criterion o( C$!ssi(i%!tion '.".Key Con%e8ts (s p e!io"sly shown, the complex sentence is made "p of at least one main cla"se and a dependent o a s"bo dinate one. Vnlike in the case of compo"nd sentences * which a e based on coo dination * the complex sentence elies hea!ily on the p ocess of s"bo dination. This is the eason why a classification of s"bo dinate cla"ses sho"ld be in o de . Classifyin% dependent cla"ses will employ two main c ite ia# :.,. the 1VNCTION($ one 0 which, as the name s"%%ests it, takes into conside ation the

syntactic f"nction of the especti!e cla"se. 1 om the f"nctional point of !iew, s"bo dinates can be classified into# a/ .,/ .5/ b/ ob4ects# .9/ I belie!e that he is not he e. .&i ect Ob4ect/ .C ed ca n" este acolo./ .:/I am af aid that he won+t come .P epositional Ob4ect/ .)i*e teama ca n" o sa !ina./
;=

s"b4ect cla"ses -hoe!e did that was a %eni"s. It seems that he is not yo" f iend. ob4ect cla"ses 0 this class incl"des di ect ob4ects, indi ect ob4ects and p epositional

.;/ I %a!e this to whome!e wanted it. .Indi ect Ob4ect/ .(m dat asta c"i a ! "t*o./ (t this point we need to p o!ide some f" the explanation. (n OKGECT efe s to only those items .ph ases, sentences/ e'"i ed by the !e b .o ad4ecti!e/. They ha!e the feat" e _` obli%ato ya and, e!en on the a e occasions when they can be omitted, they a e still p es"pposed by the speake . 1o instance, the !e b %i!e is always accompanied in o" mind by its obli%ato y complements .di ect and indi ect ob4ects/# .=/ Ce %a!e the book to he . .I*a dat ca tea./ These ob4ects a e p es"pposed by "s whene!e we think of this !e b. -e do not p ess"pose howe!e somethin% like an ad!e bial item, s"ch as the manne ad!e bials with with pleas" eEwillin%ly. .?/ Ce willin%ly %a!e the book to he . .I*a dat ca tea de b"na !oie./ In .?/ we can identify the !e b+s obli%ato y ob4ects . the boo1, to her/ and one ext a*item, an additional one, which is the ad!e bial willin%ly. These non*obli%ato y items a e called ad4"ncts. ( second obse !ation, elated to example .:/, has to do with why we conside the s"bo dinate that he won+t come to be a p epositional ob4ect. The explanation is simple# this s"bo dinate can be easily eplaced by a ph ase p eceded by a p eposition, and this p eposition is in fact e'"i ed and p es"pposed as accompanyin% the ad4ecti!e af aid# .A/ a. I am af aid of his not comin%Eof this fact. .)i*e teama ca n*o sa !ina./ b. I am af aid that he won+t come. .)i*e teama ca n*o sa !ina./ -e belie!e that the s"bo dinatin% con4"nction TC(T has eplaced the p eposition, since En%lish no lon%e allows fo a con4"nction and a p eposition to be p"t to%ethe . .B/ @I am af aid of that he won+t come.

;?

-e p es"ppose that the p eposition of has been deleted, b"t its effect emains e!en afte its wipe*o"t. That is why we choose to call prepositional object the that*cla"se followin% the ad4ecti!e af aid. So fa we ha!e disc"ssed s"b4ect cla"ses and ob4ect cla"ses. The thi d class is made "p of .c/ ad4"ncts 0 those cla"ses .o ph ases/ whose p esence is not obligatorily e'"i ed by a !e b o an ad4ecti!e. They no mally ha!e an ad!e bial .ci c"mstancial/ inte p etation# .,N/Kefo e she left the oom she closed all the windows. .Inainte sa plece din came a, a inchis toate fe est ele./ .,,/ If yo" don+t ma y me, I+ll die. .&aca n" te inso i c" mine, am sa mo ./ .d/ att ib"tes o modifie s 0 those cla"se .o ph ases/ that cha acte iFe nominal ph ases# .,5/ The woman who was wea in% ed was sittin% next to him on the platfo m. .1emeia in os" statea lin%a el pe pe on./ .,9/The ed*wea in% woman was sittin% next to him on the platfo m. .1emeia in os" statea lin%a el pe pe on./

(cti!ity , )hich of the follo&ing underlined items are obligatory and &hich are notD ,.She came to him of he own will. 5. I cannot tell yo" what I hea d abo"t yo". 9. S"san disappea ed witho"t sayin% a wo d. :. She+s awa e of his a%e and that he mi%ht p"nish he . ;. She told whome!e wanted to listen abo"t he p oblems at home. =. (fte I told he the sto y, she looked at me sadly. (cti!ity 5 8ead the follo&ing and identify the subordinate clauses, stating their function#

;A

,.Ce took an intelli%ent inte est in he , which, tho"%h it was la %ely politeness, was a no!elty to )itFi. 5. -hen )itFi bo"%ht the ho"se in K ook 6 een she offe ed ("stin the best ooms, b"t he declined, as he had 4"st fo"nd the little Kayswate which he inhabited still. 9. (t this time we know that we a e mo tal bein%s with b"t a sho t span of days and that o" end as o" be%innin% belon%s to 6od. :. Sometimes she tho"%ht that he own fail" e to ma y )athew was act"ally the ca"se of ("stin+s ma yin% &o ina. ;. Po" m"st know that if yo" do not meet it i%ht he e at home, yo" a e choosin% exile f om what yo" a e fo t"nate eno"%h to call yo" homeland. =. Po" s"%%estion that we sho"ld, at o" a%e, emo!e o" home yet a%ain seems to "s me ely tho"%htless. .I is )" doch 0 (n (ccidental )an/

:.5. exhibit# a/ etc.

The second c ite ion we employ to diffe entiate between !a io"s s"bo dinate cla"ses is

the STRVCTVR($ one. -e classify dependent cla"ses aco din% to what int od"cto y element they complement cla"ses 0 mainly those cla"ses int od"ced by TC(T, -CETCER, 1OR,

.,:/ I knew that he liked me. .Stiam ca ma simpatiFeaFa./ .,;/ I didn+t know whethe he wo"ld !isit me in 4ail. .N*am sti"t daca o sa ma !iFiteFe la inchisoa e./ .,=/ It is ad!isable fo him to lea!e. .E de do it sa plece./ .,?/ I wanted to lea!e immediately. .(m ! "t sa plec imediat./ b/ wh*complements 0 those cla"ses int od"ced by a wh*wo dEph ase

These incl"de# ; indi ect '"estions .,A/ I didn+t know who had killed him.

;B

= ?

.N" stiam cine l*a "cis./ elati!e cla"ses .)i*e a % oaFa de ce a p"tea sp"ne./

.,:/ I was af aid of what he mi%ht say. A cleft sentences .Gohn este cel ca e a fac"t asta./ B pse"do*cleft sentences .Cel ca e a fac"t asta este Gohn./ b. -he e he went is $ondon. .$oc"l in ca e s*a d"s este $ond a./ .c/ ad!e bial cla"ses 0 those cla"ses s"bo dinated by s"ch con4"nctions as# altho"%h, if, befo e, etc. Vnlike complement cla"ses, these ones a e int od"ced by s"bo dinatin% con4"nctions with a distinct semantical chan%e. Compa e, fo instance, the followin% two cla"ses# .,?/ She told me that I was a fool. .)i*a sp"s ca sint "n p ost./ .,A/ She told me this befo e she left. .)i*a sp"s aceasta inainte sa plece./ In .,?/ the meanin% of the s"bo dinate cla"se is imposed by the !e b in the main cla"se. The s"bo dinatin% con4"nction that is abst act in meanin%. In .,A/, howe!e , the meanin% of the s"bo dinate .that of a time ad!e bial cla"se/ is offe ed and imposed by the s"bo dinatin% con4"nction not by the main cla"se !e b. .,=/ a. -ho did it was Gohn.

.,;/ It is Gohn who did it.

A%tivity " 8ead the te t belo& and try to identify subordinate clauses from a structural point of vie&:

=N

)y dea est son, Po" fathe has s"%%ested that I sho"ld w ite to yo" so that yo" can be s" e that he and I a e of one mind in this matte . I am not !e y %ood at this so t of lette and I did not ea lie w ite beca"se the disc"ssion was between yo" self and yo" fathe , yo" "nde stand. &ea $"dwi%, I cannot exp ess to yo" how m"ch we miss yo". To say that I think of my dea son e!e y day says little. I think of him e!e y min"te and emembe what times in o" day and ni%ht a e his bed*time and his %ettin%*"p*times, and e!e y ni%ht and indeed always in my tho"%hts I p ay fo him that he may be p otected and %"ided to do the i%ht. .X/ E!en lea!in% aside the conce n which I know yo" ha!e fo o" feelin%s, s" ely yo" cannot since ely belie!e, at yo" yo"n% a%e, that yo" will ne!e want to set foot in the VS in yo" life a%ain. -e so m"ch fea that yo" will s"ddenly decide to come late when it will all ha!e s"ch te ible conse'"ences. .I is )" doch 0 (n (ccidental )an/

:.9.

Oey Concepts

-e classify s"bo dinate cla"ses acco din% to thei f"nction into s"b4ects, ob4ects .which a e always obli%ato ily e'"i ed by a !e b o ad4ecti!e/, ad4"ncts and att ib"tes .o modifie s, beca"se they modify, offe a pl"s of meanin% to the nominal they accompany/. (cco din% to a st "ct" al c ite ion, which e%a ds the int od"cto y con4"nction E p ono"n of the s"bo dinate, these cla"ses can be complements, wh*complements, ad!e bials .they no mally co espond to he Romanian complement ci c"mstantial/.

A%tivity '

.O8tion!$ E9er%ises/

#ranslate the follo&ing, ma1ing use of the information on subordinate clauses supplied by this section :

=,

,.

C" cate!a l"ni inaintea aFboi"l"i (nton )odan n" stia ca de m"lt n" mai e a om

ind aFnet, atat de dem"lt incat in Fi"a cand afla nici maca n" se mai t "di c" %and"l sa se intoa ca inapoi si sa*si dea seama de cand. 5. Ne!asta sece a in tace e, fa a sa*si idice spina e, si din misca ile ei se p"tea intele%e ca e stapana pe "n %and ca e o tinea me e" inco data si inda 4ita. (nton se "ita la ea si se int eba, ce o fi a!and. Tot timp"l diminetii o !aF"se ca tace. 9. Cand (nton lasa sece ea "nii se "ita a la soa e sa*si dea seama daca mai e m"lt pana la p anF. .X/ S)a, da de! eme mai mananca (nton asta7T %andi a ei. (ltii, insa, ca e ii !aF"se a pe (nton si ne!asta*sa c"m statea" c" sece ile in mana si se "ita" "n"l la alt"l, isi sp"sese a ca (nton, d"pa ce ca a e % a" p"tin, nici pe ala n"*l sece a ca l"mea. :. ;. O Fb"%hi inapoi, da d"pa ce ale %a ! eo do"aFeci de pasi, simtind ca n" s*a l"at nimeni Toata l"mea intelesese ca, de fapt, ameninta ea aceasta semana mai m"lt c" o flaca a d"pa el, se op i si se "ita sa !ada ce isp a!a a fac"t. ca e amane o clipa in ae , desi paiele de dedes"bt s"nt cen"sa, decat c" ameninta e ade!a ata. 1iindca "n on ind aFnet n" se clatina pe d "m, sa" daca se clatina se intoa ce inda at si n" mai ameninta, fiindca si sa in%hiti n" e p"tin, si pent " asta iti t eb"ie c" a4. .)a in P eda 0 Ind aFneala/

1ILE REAATI?E CAAUSES ).1.Re$!tive C$!#ses !nd Ot.er Kinds o( Re$!tives ).2.T.e Core(eren%e Condition ).".T.e C$!ssi(i%!tion o( Re$!tive C$!#ses ).*.Restri%tions Im8osed On t.e Re$!tive C$!#se 2y t.e Determiner o( t.e ).,.Ante%edent ).-.Re$!tive C$!#se Introd#%ers ).@.+ied +i8in& !nd +re8osition Str!ndin& ).1<.Key Con%e8ts

;.,

Relati!e Cla"ses and Othe Oinds of Relati!es

=5

Ky elati!e cla"ses we "nde stand# a/ b/ ,N .,/ ,, .5/ ,5 .9/ all the wh*complements mentioned in the p e!io"s section. othe kinds of elati!e cla"ses s"ch as that elati!es .those elati!e cla"ses int od"ced by TC(T/ This is a %ift that yo" f"lly dese !e. pa ticipial elati!es The fellow wea in% those odd clothes is Gane+s h"sband. infiniti!al elati!es I need some tools with which to fix the ca .

.(cesta este "n cado" pe ca e il me iti pe deplin./

.Ka bat"l in haine ci"date este sot"l l"i Gane./

.(m ne!oie de "nelte c" ca e sa epa masina./ -e will mainly foc"s on wh*complements lea!in% aside othe kinds of elati!es and cleft sentences.

;.5. The Co efe ence Condition * a disc"ssion of att ib"ti!e elati!es (s we shall see, elati!e cla"ses can ha!e mo e than one syntactical f"nction. The best known f"nction, no mally associated with elati!e cla"ses is that of (tt ib"te. -e shall fi st disc"ss elati!e cla"ses f"nctionin% as att ib"tes in o de to establish the mechanism that % ants thei existence. These elati!e cla"ses ep esent a type of s"bo dination that is based on the fact the the main cla"se and the s"bo dinate cla"se sha e a nominal constit"ent. Conside the followin%# .:/ .;/ I met a woman. Gohn lo!es that woman. I met a woman whom Gohn lo!es. Ky combinin% these two cla"ses, we obtain .(m c"nosc"t o femeie pe ca e o i"beste Gohn./ -hat has happenedD The common element woman appea s in the main cla"se only and is es"med by the elati!e p ono"n int od"cin% the second cla"se. -e p es"ppose that the ph ase the woman in the second cla"se "nde .:/ has been t ansfo med into a elati!e constit"ent .it has been elati!iFed/ and mo!ed at the be%innin% of the cla"se to link it to the p e!io"s one. The place whe e the ph ase the woman "sed to stand has emained empty, like a %ap#
=9

.=/

I met a woman whom Gohn lo!es >>>>>.

Since the ph ase a woman and the elati!e p ono"n whom "nde .=/ efe to the same ob4ect, we can co*index them .that is we place the same index "nde each of them/# .?/ I met a womani whomi Gohn lo!es >>>>>. K"t how do we ma k the fact that the !e b lo!es "sed to ha!e a di ect ob4ect i%ht afte it that has been mo!ed "p f ontD -e place the same index "nde the lette t .that stands fo t ace/# .A/ I met a womani whomi Gohn lo!es ti . This way, we can clea ly indicate that the co efe ence condition that stip"lated the necessity of a sha ed nominal fo the main cla"se and the elati!e att ib"ti!e cla"se has been obse !ed. The elati!e p ono"n p ese !es its f"nction of a di ect ob4ect within the elati!e s"bo dinate. $et "s s"pply an example whe e the elati!e p ono"n f"nctions as a p epositional ob4ect# .B/ I met a woman. Gohn offe ed flowe s to that woman. The common element woman is p esent, so the co efe ence condition .that the two cla"ses sho"ld ha!e co efe in% elements/ is obse !ed. The es"ltin% st "ct" e can ha!e two fo ms# .,N/ a. I met a womani whoi Gohn had offe ed flowe s to ti b. I met a womani to whomi Gohn had offe ed flowe s ti In point of te minolo%y, we call the nominal that the elati!e cla"se efe s to the antecedent of the elati!e cla"se. The element that has been mo!ed in f ont position and t ansfo med into a elati!e p ono"n is called the elati!iFed constit"ent. The mechanism that allows fo the appea ance of elati!e att ib"ti!e cla"ses is mo!ement# the mo!ement of the elati!iFed constit"ent in initial position, by lea!in% behind a t ace.

(cti!ity , Combine the follo&ing sentences so as to get relative attributive clauses / some of the

sentences can be combined in t&o &ays0: ,.She came to $ondon. I went to $ondon, too. 5. Gohn told his f iend a sto y abo"t the kin%. The kin% was 4"st passin% by. 9. They met those st"dents. None of the st"dents a% eed with them. :. I bo"%ht Gim a book. Ce liked that book. ;. I int od"ced him to Gim. Ce told Gim e!e ythin% abo"t his

=:

plans. =. S"san wants to meet Gane. She doesn+t know anythin% abo"t Gane. ?. I had a book. I lost the book+s co!e . A. This is my h"sband. I am my h"sband+s wife. B. The st"dents like thei teache . (ny of the st"dents wo"ld answe to '"estions. ,N. The st"dents like thei teache . (ll of them wo"ld answe thei teache +s '"estions. (cti!ity 5 )rite a sentence as similar as possible to the given one. Hse the &ord in capitals &ithout changing it: ,. 5. 9. :. ;. =. ?. A. B. ,N. ,,. -hose is the ca which is blockin% the st eetD -CO) This is the town in which Cha les &ickens was b" ied. -CERE It was silly of him to tell he the sec et. -CICC Ce+s the a"tho who ecei!ed the p iFe. -CO These a e people abo"t whom we cannot tell m"ch. -CO That co"ple had thei child abd"cted by te o ists. -COSE It was s"ch a pity that yo" co"ldn+t 4oin the pa ty. -CICC To whom a e yo" w itin% this lette D -CO This is the %"y that they fi st met in )onte Ca lo. -CO) These a e the t"lips that we e awa ded the bi% p iFe. TO ( lot of to" ists went on a t ip to &elphiQ most of them we e f om En%land. -CO)

;.9. The Classification of Relati!e Cla"ses (cco din% to the c ite ion of fo m, elati!e cla"ses a e di!ided into ,. dependent elati!e cla"ses .cla"ses that ha!e an o!e t antecedent, i.e. whose main cla"se contains a nominal that can be co*indexed with the int od"cin% elati!e p ono"n/ .,,/This is the mani whomi I lo!e. .(cesta este ba bat"l pe ca e il i"besc./ Vnde .,,/ the elati!e s"bo dinate finds its antecedent in the main cla"se# the ph ase the man. 5. independent elati!e cla"ses o 1 ee Relati!e Cla"ses .those cla"ses which lack an o!e t antecedent, that do not ha!e an exp essed antecedent in the main cla"se/

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.,5/ .,9/

-ho b eaks pays. -hoe!e swims in sin shall swim so ow.

.Cine st ica plateste./ .Cine pacat"ieste m"lt !a s"fe i./ Example .,5/ is an instance of a elati!e cla"se .int od"ced by a wh*element/ whose antecedent has been deleted, is no lon%e o!e tly exp essed, "nlike in the case of .,:/, whe e we a e lookin% at a mo e obsolete .i.e. fa *fetched/ fo m of the same sentence# .,:/ Cei whoi b eaks pays. .Cel ca e st ica plateste./ So, in a manne of speakin%, we can ass"me that Independent o 1 ee Relati!e Cla"ses m"st ha!e o i%inated f om dependent onesQ only thei antecedent is no lon%e exp essed, it is co!e t. Vnlike thei siste s, these elati!es, cannot f"nction as att ib"tes, they c" ently f"lfill the f"nction of s"b4ects o ob4ects, as follows# .,;/ .,=/ .,?/ .,A/ .,B/ .5N/ S"b4ect 1 ee Relati!e Cla"se -hoe!e to"ches pitch shall be defiled. &i ect Ob4ect I wo"ld like to know what yo" need. Indi ect Ob4ect .the only cla"ses that can ha!e this f"nction in fact/ Ce %a!e whoe!e came to the doo a winnin% smile. P epositional Ob4ect Po" sho"ld !ote fo whiche!e candidate yo" think best. P edicati!e This was what she intended. Adver2i!$ 6o whe e!e yo" want.
==

.Cine se atin%e de smoala !a fi intinat./

.(s do i sa sti" ce ! ei./

.Ofe ea "n Fimbet c"ce ito o ic"i !enea la "sa l"i./

.T eb"ie sa !oteFi c" candidat"l pe ca e il conside i cel mai pot i!it./

.(sta e a ceea ce !oise ea./

.&"*te "nde poftesti./ The second c ite ion that f" the classifies elati!e cla"ses has to do with meanin% and is est icted to dependent elati!es only. They can be th"s di!ided into# ,. .5,/ definin% o est icti!e elati!e cla"ses .those dependent elati!e cla"ses that identify an The man who came to woo me was a %od. antecedentQ they offe c "cial info mation abo"t this antecedent, they define it/. .Cel ca e a !enit sa ma peteasca e a "n Fe"./ .Only that pa tic"la man that was my s"ito looked like a %od/ 5. non*definin% o non* est icti!e o appositi!e elati!e cla"ses .those dependent elati!e

cla"ses that do not offe c "cial info mation abo"t the antecedent. They only p o!ide s"pplementa y info mation abo"t it./ .55/ )e c" y, who is the %od of comme ce, is my fa!o" ite %od. .)e c" , ca e este Fe"l ne%ot"l"i, este Fe"l me" fa!o it./ .)e c" y, who incidentally is the %od of comme ce, is my fa!o" ite %od/ The f"nction of non* est icti!e elati!e cla"ses is that of Appositive att ib"tes. Thei meanin% is also einfo ced by o to% aphy, and by the intonation the speake "ses in "tte in% the whole sentence. In concl"sion, a dia% am wo"ld s"m "p the types of elati!e cla"ses disc"ssed# 8estrictive$defining &ep Relati!e cla"ses Inde pendent -hoe!e came to see me was a %eni"s. endent The man who came to see me is a %eni"s. +on!restrictive$non!defining That man, who came to see me, is a %eni"s.

A%tivity " "dentify the relative clauses stating their type in the sentences belo&#
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,.

This is the !illa%e whe e I spent my yo"th. 5. &id he mention the time when the plane

will take offD 9. &id they tell yo" the eason why they all leftD :. Shakespea e, who is a %eni"s, is a % eat playw i%ht. ;. The ad!anta%e of the s"pe ma ket is that yo" can b"y what yo" want at a place whe e yo" can pa k yo" ca . =. On the day on which this occ" ed I was away. ?. Ce cannot ha!e been mo e than twenty when we fi st met. A. I ha!e met him whe e I least expected. B She, on whom nobody co"ld depend, was the one we all welcomed and admi ed. ,N. They a e what thei pa ents made them, howe!e sad this may be.

;.: Rest ictions Imposed On The Relati!e Cla"se by the &ete mine of the (ntecedent ,. .59/ -hen the antecedent has no determiner, it can only be followed by a non!defining 1 eddie )e c" y, who died a few yea s a%o, composed The Kohemian Rhapsody. elati!e cla"se .an apposition/#

.1 eddie )e c" y, ca e a m" it ac"m citi!a ani, a comp"s The Kohemian Rhapsody./ -hen combined with a est icti!e elati!e cla"se, the p ope name is ecate%o iFed into a common name and ecei!es its own dete mine .the, a, etc./# .5:/ .5;/ The 1 eddie )e c" y I knew was a ock*sta . I know a 1 eddie )e c" y who %i!es piano lessons. .1 eddie )e c" y pe ca e*l c"nosteam e" e a o !edeta ock./ .C"nosc "n 1 eddie )e c" y ca e da lectii de pian./ 5. .5=/ .5?/ 1i st and second pe son p ono"ns do not no mally take est icti!e elati!e cla"ses. They I, who am yo" son, can see yo" sho tcomin%s only too well. (nybody else wo"ld ha!e done somethin% except myself, who am not a woman, b"t a

can be followed only by non* est icti!e ones .appositions/# .E", ca e*ti sint fi", iti !ad p ea bine defectele./ pee!ish, ill*tempe ed, d ied*"p old maid. .O icine a fi actionat, n"mai e" n", ca e n" sint o femeie, ci o fata bat ina mo ocanoasa, i itabila si "scata./ .5A/ They come to me, who neithe wo k no am anxio"s. .Ei apeleaFa la mine, ca e nici n" m"ncesc si nici n" sint in% i4o at./ Thi d pe son p ono"ns howe!e do accept est icti!e elati!e cla"ses#
=A

.5B/

Ce who la"%hs last la"%hs best .a chaic/.

.Cine ide la " ma ide mai bine./

(cti!ity : #ranslate the follo&ing, paying attention to the restriction imposed by antecedent determiners on relative clauses# ,. (cesta n" este K"c" esti"l pe ca e*l sti" e". 5. &int e toate pe sona4ele p eFente, p int"l a ales*o pe Cen"sa easa, ca e e a cea mai f "moasa fata din sala. 9. &int e toate pe soanele de fata a t eb"it sa ma ale%i pe mine sa !o besc, ca e n" sti" sa le% nici do"a c"!inte. :. Cine n" m"nceste n" iFbandeste. ;. Loi ca e ca c edeti ma i si ta i, poftiti in fata. =. C" totii do ea" sa*l a"da pe acel $"ciano Pa!a otti ca e incantase mii de i"bito i de ope a. ?. )ie, ca eia n"*mi placea sa las l"c " ile nete minate, n"*mi con!enea o astfel de sit"atie.

;.; Relati!e Cla"se Int od"ce s Relati!e cla"se int od"ce s a e "s"ally placed at the be%innin% of the elati!e cla"se. In lite a y En%lish they may sometimes be fo"nd late in the sentence# .9N/ .9,/ afte a p esent pa ticiple X sayin% which he left the oom afte an infiniti!e The (f ican '"een iss"ed fo th "pon the $ake to %ain which they had "n s"ch dan%e s

.X ca e l"c " i fiind sp"se, pa asi came a./

and "nde %one s"ch toils. .Re%ina af icana se nap"sti sp e lac sa edobindeasca cele pent " ca e t ec"se a p in atitea pe icole si a!"sese a pa te de atita t "da./ .95/ .99/ (s the ob4ect of a p eposition and afte than# Ce cons"lted his watch at ,N*min"te inte !als, in spite of which the se !ice finished late. Ce was a ailway fanatic, than whom few mo e can be mo e c ashin%.

.Se "ita la ceas din Fece in Fece min"te, si c" toate acestea sl"4ba s*a te minat ti Fi"./ .E a "n fanatic al me s"l"i c" t en"l, si p"tini oameni il int ecea" la asta./
=B

Sometimes the p eposition can ha!e partitive !al"e# .9:/ Ce was p one to an ine!itable se ies of moods, each of which has e!ol!ed its own system of ha mony. .E a inclinat sp e sta i schimbatoa e, si fieca e din aceste sta i isi dobindise p op i"l sistem de a monie./ .9;/ his possession. .CompoFitiile l"i Ca dan, ale ca o "ltime note de ha pa le a"Fise, e a" ac"m in posesia l"i./ (side f om these ma %inal examples, elati!e cla"se int od"ce s etain thei cla"se initial position. -e shall b iefly ha!e a look at the most impo tant ones. ;.;.,. Relati!e P ono"ns .9=/ -ho _`h"mana with its case fo ms whom _`h"mana and whose _b h"mana # a. The woman who came to see my paintin% was the W"een itself. .1emeia ca e a !enit saa imi !ada tablo"l e a Re%ina insasi./ b. The woman to whom yo" showed the paintin% was the W"een. .1emeia ca eia i*ai a atat tablo"l e a Re%ina./ c. The woman whose paintin% I sold was !e y yo"n%. .1emeia al ca "i tablo" l*am !ind"t e a foa te tina a./ d. The paintin% whose b"ye she was looked ma !elo"s. .Tablo"l al ca "i c"mpa ato e a a ata min"nat./ -hose appea s as the app op iate %eniti!e fo m fo both _`h"mana and _*h"mana ob4ects, as can be seen in .9=d/. The %eniti!e fo m with which is still in "se, too, b"t it is typical of the fo mal, lite a y style# .9?/ a. The book whose co!e I lost was !e y expensi!e. .Ca tea a ca ei cope ta am pie d"t*o e a foa te sc"mpa./ b. The book the co!e of which I lost was !e y expensi!e. .Ca tea a ca ei cope ta am pie d"t*o e a foa te sc"mpa./ .9?b/ is an example of elati!e cla"se int od"ced by a %eniti!al p ono"n whe e the e is a fo m of in!e sion imposed by the p esence of the %eniti!e fo m of &hich. The e a e sit"ations when in!e sion is not obli%ato y, b"t these ones a e e!en mo e inf e'"ent than those ill"st ated "nde .9?b/#
?N

The compositions of Ca dan, some of the last notes of whose ha p he hea d, we e now in

.9A/

Xas if she we e bein% % ad"ally co ne ed by a c "elty of which he was the almost

"nconscio"s a%ent. .I is )" doch, An Accidental Dan/ .X de pa ca e a incet*incet incoltita de o c "Fime al ca ei a%ent ap oape inconstient e a el./ .9B/ -hich _*h"mana The sto y which he claimed to ha!e told was too fantastic fo my taste.

.Po!estea pe ca e p etindea ca a sp"s*o e a p ea fantastica pent " %"st"l me"./ The e a e a few exceptions when which can ac'"i e the feat" e _`h"mana# (.:N/ )hen &hich has a partitive value: -hich of the two men is nice D

.Ca e dint e ei este mai d a%"tD/ Cowe!e in heto ical '"estion who is still p efe ed# .:,/ (2 .:5/ ,; .:9/ bottom he is. .Shaw este in %ene al p i!it mai de% aba ca "n tip haFli" decit ca e!ol"tiona "l ca e este in esenta./ b. 1 e"d is the analyst which we m"st en4oy. .1 e"d este psihanalist"l pe ca e t eb"ie sa*l citim/ c. Ce is not the man which he "sed to be. .N" mai este om"l ca e e a odata./ )hen its genitive form is used to give a very formal tone to the passage /but this is very infre'uent0: .::/ $i!ia had 4"st been deli!e ed of twin boys, of which, by the way, Se4an"s seems to ha!e been the fathe . .$i!ia tocmai nasc"se doi baieti %emeni, al ca o tata se pa e ca e a Se4an"s./ Koth who and which a e "sed fo #
?,

-ho of "s will stain his hands with m" de D &ith archaic value: O" 1athe , which a t in Cea!en X )hen a personal denotation refers not to an individual, but to a type or a function# a. Shaw is commonly e%a ded mo e as a f"nny man than as the e!ol"tiona y which at

.Cine dint e noi isi !a min4i miinile c" o c imaD/

.Tatal nost " ca ele esti in ce " iX/

(5 .:;/

collective nouns a. This was a t ibe who mo!ed f om the Kaltic Sea. b. X (siatic t ibes and (me ican t ibes which esemble each othe . .X t ib" ile asiatice si ame *indiene ca e seamana int e ele./ .(cesta e a "n t ib ca e !enise de la )a ea Kaltica./

(6 .:=/

states, animals, ships /that can be personified0 a. X Italy, which ente ed the wa in )ay ,B,; X .XItalia ca e a int at in aFboi in mai ,B,;X/

b. X 1 ance, whom it conce ned most closely, did howe!e take ce tain p eca"tions X .X 1 anta, pe ca e o p i!ea di ect, si*a l"at tot"si niste p eca"tiiX/ .:?/ what 0 can no mally int od"ce only f ee elati!e cla"ses# I didn+t know what they wanted.

.N" stiam ce !o ./ The a e occasions when &hat f"nctions as an int od"ce of est icti!e elati!e cla"ses, it is a/ .:A/ a chaic It is ich what %ets the peaches, It is poo what %ets the p"nches. .Cei bo%ati p imesc ono " i, cei sa aci p imesc ponoase./ b/ .:B/ dialectal a. Xthe bloke what si%ns o" books X .tip"l ca e ne semneaFa ca tile/ b. One can+t expect fo ei%ne s to <a!e the same ideas what we <a!e. .one cannot expect fo ei%ne s to ha!e the same ideas that we ha!e/ .N" poti sa te astepti ca st ainii sa aiba ce idei a!em noi./

;.;.5 Relati!e (d!e bs# &hen, &here, &hile, &hy, ho&, etc. -hen they int od"ce est icti!e elati!e cla"ses, thei antecedents a e no"ns exp essin% places, time, eason, etc. and can be eplaced by p epositional ph ases with ad!e bial f"nction# .;N/ a. Poland is the place whe e Ch istine was bo n. b. Poland is the place in which Ch istine was bo n.
?5

.Polonia este loc"l in ca e s*a nasc"t Ch istine./

.Polonia este loc"l in ca e s*a nasc"t Ch istine./ .;,/ a. Ten o+clock is the time when they ha!e l"nch. .O a Fece este moment"l cind ei ia" p inF"l./ b. Ten o+clock is the time at which they ha!e l"nch. .O a Fece este moment"l cind ei ia" p inF"l./ -hen they int od"ce f ee elati!e cla"ses, no antecedents a e e'"i ed# .;5/ a. Ce went whe e he had been befo e. .S*a d"s "nde mai f"sese./ b.They left when they decided it was p ope to. .(" plecat cind s*a hota at ca este pot i!it./ The e a e cases when these ad!e bs can appea in thei olde fo ms .in a chaic passa%es/# .;9/ a. The place whithe he %oes is "nknown. b. They et" ned to the land whence they had come. .S*a" into s in ta a din ca e !enise a./ c. ( system whe e by a new disco!e y will a ise. .Vn sistem p in ca e !a apa ea o no"a descope i e/ d. ( da k fo est whe ein dan%e s l" k. .O pad" e int"necata in ca e ne pandesc p ime4diile./ e. This is the place whe ef om they came. .(cesta este loc"l din ca e a" !enit./ ;.;.9. Relati!e TC(T Relati!e TC(T no mally appea s as the int od"ce of est icti!e elati!e cla"ses# .;:/ This is the book that pleased he most. .(ceasta este ca tea ca e o incinta cel mai m"lt./ It is in!a iable, ne!e p eceded by p epositions and e'"i es an antecedent with the exception of a chaic idiomatic contents# .;:/ Candsome is that handsome does. .Only the pe son that beha!es in a handsome way can be conside ed handsome/. )o eo!e , the elati!e int od"ce TC(T 0 "nlike its pai that int od"ces complement that* cla"ses 0 can ha!e almost any syntactic f"nction within the elati!e cla"se# .$oc"l cat e ca e me %e este nec"nosc"t./

?9

S#2>e%t .;;/ &id yo" see the lette _that came todayDa .(i !aF"t sc isoa ea ca e a sosit aFiD/ Dire%t O2>e%t .;=/ &id yo" %et the books _that I sent yo"Da .(i p imit ca tile pe ca e ti le*am t imisD/ +re8osition!$ O2>e%t .;?/ That is the man _that I was talkin% abo"t.a .(cesta este cel desp e ca e !o beam./ P edicati!e .;A/ Ce is not the man _that he was.a .N" este om"l ca e e a odinioa a./ Adver2i!$ .;B/ T"esday was the day _that he left.a .\i"a in ca e a plecat a fost o ma ti./ )hen do &e prefer to use #:A# instead of ):"C:$):O* .=N/ .=,/ little# .=5/ That "%ly little ho"se was all the home that I ha!e e!e had. -hen the "le of e"phony m"st be obse !ed .Cine dint e cei ca e o c"nostea" se p"tea" impiedica sa o i"beascaD/ b.@ -ho who knew he co"ld help lo!in% he D .Cas"ta aceea " ita e a sin%" "l camin pe ca e l*am a!"t ! eodata./ -hen the antecedent is a compo"nd nominal that efe s to a h"man and a thin%# The child en we e the pa cels that filled the ca . -ith a s"pe lati!e antecedent She is the p ettiest %i l that I ha!e e!e seen. -ith an antecedent p eceded by dete mine s s"ch as# all, e!e y, any, not any, m"ch,

.Copiii e a" pachetele ce "mplea" masina./

.Este fata cea mai f "moasa pe ca e am !aF"t*o ! eodata./

.=9/a. -ho that knew he wo"ld help lo!in% he D

?:

;.;.:. Othe elati!e int od"ce s The e a e of co" se othe b"t (7 in standard language .Cinstit c"m e a, e a cont a nat" ii sale sa il " meFe./ b. I+ll %et yo" s"ch thin%s as yo" may want. .O sa iti da" acele l"c " i pe ca e le do esti./ c. This is the same one thatEas yo" had befo e. .Este la fel c" cel pe ca e l*ai a!"t./ (9 .=;/ in dialect a. Vncle 6eo %e, him as was in China X .Vncle 6eo %e, who had been in China X/ .Vnchi"l 6eo %e, ca e f"sese in ChinaX/ b. The e+s not many as+ll say that. .The e a en+t many who will say that/ .N"*s m"lti ca e sa sp"ie astaX/ ,; .==/ feel pity X/ .N" e om ca e sa n" simta mila fata de copiii ca e mo de foame/ b. The e is no one of "s b"t wishes to help yo". .N" este nimeni dint e noi ca e sa n" ! ea sa te a4"te./ c. I ne!e had a slice of b ead Pa tic"la ly lon% and wide K"t feel "pon the sandy floo , (nd always on the b"tte ed side. .Niciodata n" s*a intimplat, cind am a!"t o b"cata de piine ma icica, sa n" imi cada pe podea"a m" da a, si intotdea"na pe pa tea "nsa c" "nt./ Sometimes in collo'"ial o dialectal En%lish, the elati!e cla"se int od"ce is omitted# .=?/ a. It+s the d y weathe does it. .It+s the d y weathe that is to blame./
?;

elati!e cla"ses int od"ce s, b"t they a e "sed !e y inf e'"ently# as,

.=:/a. Conest man as he was, it went a%ainst the % ain with him to step into his shoes.

archaic use a. The e is no man b"t feels pity fo sta !in% child en. .The e isn+t a man who doesn+t

b. It was me made he think that was the best thin% to do. .It was me who made he thinkX/ This phenomenon is "s"ally met with cleft elati!e cla"ses s"ch as those "nde .=?/. This ema k b in%s "s to anothe impo tant '"estion to ask# -hen can we delete elati!e cla"se int od"ce sD The answe to this '"estion is athe st ai%ht# relative introducers can be deleted &henever #:A# can be used as an alternative to the respective relative introducer. 1o instance in .=A/ The man whom Gohn met li!es in Koston. .Om"l pe ca e l*a intilnit Gohn loc"ieste in Koston/ The elati!e p ono"n whom can indeed be eplaced by that# .=B/ The man that Gohn met li!es in Koston. .Om"l pe ca e l*a intilnit Gohn loc"ieste in Koston/ This means that both whom and that can be deleted witho"t the sentence losin% its % ammaticality# .?N/ The man Gohn met li!es in Koston. Om"l pe ca e l*a intilnit Gohn loc"ieste in Koston/ Note that deletion is impossible in .?,/ The man whom Gohn spoke to is an idiot. .Cel c" ca e !o beste Gohn este "n idiot./ since a eplacement of the elati!e ph ase with that cannot be pe fo med in !iew of the fact that the elati!e int od"ce that cannot p eceded by p eposition .see s"bsection ;.;.9/# .?5/a. @ The man to that Gohn spoke is an idiot. b.@The man Gohn spoke to is an idiot. )hen the preposition appears at the end of the clause , the eplacement is allowed and deletion is indeed an option# .?9/ a. The man who Gohn spoke to is a %eni"s. .Cel c" ca e !o beste Gohn este "n %eni"./ b. The man that Gohn spoke to is a %eni"s. .Cel c" ca e !o beste Gohn este "n %eni"./ c. The man Gohn spoke to is a %eni"s. .Cel c" ca e !o beste Gohn este "n %eni"./
?=

(cti!ity ; Analyse the function of the relative clause and of the relative pronoun that introduces it# ,. She was a poo ho"sewife, b"t a passionate knitte , the p od"cts of whose nimble fin%e s we e wo n by Stollf"s. 5. It is the efo e not s" p isin% that the theolo%y "pon which the Refo mation was fo"nded sho"ld be d"e to a man whose sense of sin was abno mal. 9. Ce had ente tained hopes of bein% admitted to a si%ht of the yo"n% ladies, of whose bea"ty he had hea d so m"ch. :. Ce tho"%ht how like he he exp ession was then to what it had been the moment when she looked o"nd at the docto . ;. Ce is also handsome, which a yo"n% man o"%ht likewise to be. =. (nd that money, which will not be yo" s, "ntil yo" mothe +s decease, is all that yo" may e!e be entitled to. ?. (nd yet, yo" sho"ld %o to the place whe e the i!e is, to whe e the ich and powe f"l a e. A. I cannot see him whene!e he pleases. B. It was family p ide and filial p ide, fo he is !e y p o"d of what his fathe was. ,N. One e!enin% of each week was set aside fo the eception of whosoe!e chose to !isit him. ,,. This law was that which the senato tho"%ht of as his le%islati!e maste piece. ,5. Only th ee we e awa e of what was "ndo"btedly known the e. ,9. These people ne!e want to talk abo"t what yo" want to talk abo"t. ,:. Ce fl"nked whate!e st"dents he disliked. ,;. They listened to what he had to say.
A%tivity *

Comment upon the grammaticality of the follo&ing# a/ The man who.m/E@whichEthatE we saw was nice. b/ The book @who.m/EwhichEthatE I

ead last ni%ht s" p ised me. c/ The woman whoE@whomE@whichEthatE came to dinne was !e y late. d/ The book@whomEwhichEthatE@ deals with this p oblem is !e y %ood. e/ The man fo whomE@whoE@whichE@thatE@ we a e lookin% is not he e. f/ The man who.m/ I @whichEthatE we a e lookin% fo is not he e. %/ The book fo @whomEwhichE@thatE@ we a e lookin% is in my ba%. h/ The book @who.m/EwhichEthatE we a e lookin% fo is in my ba%.

(cti!ity ?

??

8ead the follo&ing and notice the literary effect caused by the phenomenon of recursiveness /repeated embeddings of sentences that become relative clauses0 in the passage= try to translate the 8omanian te t using the same techni'ue. This is the ho se that kicked the policeman, that I saw t yin% to clea away the c owd that had collected to watch the fi%ht that the sho t man had sta ted. .I is )" doch, The (ccidental )an/ S6"t" ai"lT. C"mnat"l me" a!ea, pe linie pate na, "n !a p ima , al ca "i "nchi pe linie mate na a!ea "n soc ", al ca "i b"nic pe linie pate na se*ns" ase in a do"a casato ie c" o tana a bastinasa, al ca ei f ate intalnise int *"na din calato iile sale o fata de ca e se ind a%ostise si c" ca e a a!"t "n fi", ca e s*a casato it c" o fa macista c" a4oasa, ca e n" e a altce!a decat nepoata "n"i s"bofite de ma ina din ma ina b itanica si al ca "i tata adopti! a!ea o mat"sa ca e !o bea c" %ato spaniola si ca e e a, poate, "na din nepoatele "n"i in%ine , mo t de tana , nepot la and"l l"i al "n"i p op ieta de !ie din ca e se obtinea "n !in modest, da ca e a!ea "n !a de*al doilea, !asnic, pl"tonie , al ca "i fi" se ins" ase c" o tana a foa te f "moasa, di!o tata, al ca ei p im sot e a fi"l "n"i pat iot since , ca e s*a p icep"t sa*si c easca "na din fete in do inta de a face a!e e si ca e a e"sit sa se ma ite c" "n !anato , ca e*l c"nosc"se pe Rothschild si al ca "i f ate, d"pa ce*si schimbase de mai m"lte o i mese ia, s*a casato it si a a!"t o fata, al ca ei st ab"nic, pi pi i", p" ta niste ochela i pe ca e*i p imise de la "n !a .al l"i, c"mnat"l "n"i po t"%heF, fi" nat" al al "n"i mo a , n" p ea sa ac, al ca "i f ate de lapte l"ase de ne!asta pe fiica "n"i fost medic de ta a, el ins"si f ate de lapte c" fi"l "n"i lapta , la and"l l"i fi"l nat" al al "n"i alt medic de ta a, ins" at de t ei o i la and, a ca "i a t eia sotie X .E"%en Ionesc", Teat "/

;.=. Pied Pipin% and P eposition St andin% If yo" %o back to o" disc"ssion in ;.5, e%a din% the mechanism that licenses the fo mation of elati!e cla"ses, yo" will emembe that a elati!e cla"se s"ch as that in .?:/ She was the woman _who e!e ybody listened toa .Ea e a cea ca e pe ca e o asc"lta" toti./ appea ed as a result of movement# .?;/ a. She was a woman. E!e ybody listened to that woman. b. She was the womani whoi e!e ybody listened to>>>>>> .

?A

c. She was the womani whoi e!e ybody listened to ti. The phenomenon by means of which the elati!iFed p epositional ph ase is mo!ed in cla"se initial position b"t lea!es its p eposition behind is called P eposition st andin%# the p eposition has been st anded at the end of the sentence. The opposite phenomenon, by means of which the whole ph ase is mo!ed "p f ont .p eposition and all/ bea s the name of pied pipin%, whe e the wh*wo d is the pied pipe that d a%s afte it anothe element# .?=/ She was the woman i to whomi e!e ybody listened. Ky extension, anothe case of pied pipin% is offe ed by the mo!ement of the %eniti!al ph ase at the be%innin% of the elati!e cla"se# .??/a. This is the book. I lost the co!e of the book. b. This is the booki whosei co!e I lost ti. .(ceasta este ca tea a ca ei cope ta am pie d"t*o./ In this case the wh*wo d d a%s the constit"ent co!e in cla"se initial position, actin% a%ain as a %en"ine pied pipe . The diffe ence between .?=/ and .??/, apa t f om the distinct syntactical f"nctions the p epositional and the %eniti!al ph ase ha!e, lies in the fact that in the case of .??/ pied pipin% is obli%ato y. -e co"ldn+t say somethin% like# .?A/@ This is the book whose I lost co!e .

(cti!ity A )hich of the follo&ing relative sentences can be reformulated by means of preposition stranding* ,.The fi st '"estion with which (mb ose had to deal was that of the stat"e of !icto y in Rome. 5. The time at which he ate b eakfast was incon!enient. 9. Th"s they emained "tte ly obsessed with themsel!es and each othe , and some nat" al healin% p ocess of which &o ina felt she o"%ht to know. :. In the inte est of p"blic decency, the safe%"a din% of which was act"ally not his task, he e'"ested that the p"blic be excl"ded. ;. The p oblem of safe t anspo tation, no easy answe s to which co"ld be offe ed, has been t o"blin% them fo e!e . =. She was the !e y woman abo"t whom I knew absol"tely nothin%. ?. This was the icepick with which one had seen he stab he h"sband to death. A. She had

?B

f"lly ealiFed how m"ch he lo!e fo ("stin c"t he off f om othe people, as if she we e bein% % ad"ally co ne ed by a elentlessness of which he was the almost "nconscio"s a%ent. B. 1o the intense anxio"s sense of he self with which she was s"ddenly in!ested she was '"ite "nt ained. ,N. I ene, fo whom he had sac ificed his ni%hts and days, he a ely saw now. (cti!ity B "dentify the cases of Pied Piping in the follo&ing sentences: ,.Cis fathe +s f iends, whose inte est he most since ely sha ed, we e now all %one. 5. This sto y, the "n a!ellin% of which had cost he many min"tes of he life, was now complete. 9. She had lyin% in f ont of he a n"mbe of books and dictiona ies most of which had been shipped f om emote co"nt ies. :. The only elati!es she wo"ld ha!e liked to p"t "p with we e he mothe +s siste s. ;. Cis f iends, no matte which, knew nothin% of what he had been s"b4ected to.

;.? Oey Concepts Relati!e Cla"ses can be dependent and in that case they need an antecedent in the main cla"se, that is nominal ph ase to which the elati!e cla"se int od"ce co"ld send back. The elati!e cla"se int od"ce is also called the elati!iFed constit"ent and it co efe s with the antecedent in the main cla"se. &ependent elati!e cla"se .so called beca"se they a e dependent on thei antecedent/ can f" the be split into est icti!e ones .that define and identify the antecedent/ and non* est icti!e ones .that offe additional info mation abo"t the antecedent and ha!e an appositi!e !al"e/. Koth these types of elati!e cla"ses f"nction as (tt ib"tes .appositi!e o not, as the case is/. Independent elati!e cla"ses a e also called 1 ee Relati!e Cla"ses beca"se thei antecedent is missin%, has been deleted. They do not f"nction as att ib"tes, b"t as s"b4ects o ob4ects .in fact f"lfillin% almost all syntactical f"nctions, incl"din% that of Indi ect Ob4ect which only they can ha!e/. The mechanism that lies at the basis of dependent .and independent/ elati!e cla"ses is mo!ement, as can be seen in those pa tic"la sentences exhibitin% p eposition st andin% o pied pipin%.

AN

A%tivity 1<

O8tion!$ E9er%ises

#ranslate the follo&ing ma1ing use of the 1no&ledge ac'uired about relative clauses# ,. plamanii la %i. 5. c"t em" ata. 9. 2nchip"i ea. :. Nel", al t eilea f ate in o dinea c onolo%ica, 2nchip"ia capitala ca "n fab"los %a a4 de "nde n" lipseste nici o ma ca de a"tomobil din cele mai a isime si ca o !asta a ena spo ti!a, "nde in fieca e Fi se deFlant"ie competitia int e do"a echipe .X/. ;. =. ?. A. Pent " altii, pent " d"mneata b"naoa a, p ecat am inteles din cele ce*mi !o beai ( !enit la mine sa*mi cea a sa*i n"mesc "n %ine e di ecto . I*am n"mit %ine ele c"m a N"*i % e" sa*si dea seama cat m*am scandaliFat si ce tambala" am fac"t cand !aF"i c"m La% isi amintea ca int *ade!a .X/ f"sese chemat sa deFle%e o intampla e t"lb" e si ca adinea" i, s"nt ! ednic de in!idiat. ! "t si "nde a ! "t, de altfel "n biat b"n7 0 si n" stia c"m sa*mi m"lt"measca. te*a" lasat toti sa m"ceFesti int *o asemenea p"t" osenie de ta %. in spi it"l sa" d ept si*a sac ificat p ieten"l pent " ade!a . &a ce an"me a fost si c"m s*a te minat po!estea n" mai stia si nici n*a fi c eF"t ! eodata ca exista cine!a ca e sa mai past eFe o atat de fidela aminti e. 1ost"l cama ad 2i apa " c" tot"l altfel de c"m il socotise pana ac"m. B. ,N. Esti p oaspat sosit aici, n"*ti dai poate inca deplin seama de cate int i%i si de cate &aca le con!in%ea ! eo ins"si e cat de mica, spe am ca a!eai sa faci d"mneata ceea ce p esi"ni "FeaFa politicianism"l chia in 4"stitie. face "n f ate mai ma e pent " "n"l mai mic. Imi sp"neam ca n" se poate sa n" ban"iesti in ce sin%" atate si deFnade4de se afla "n om tana int *"n o as "nde tot"l ii e d"smanos7 ,,. Tot ce*ai citit d"mneata inca n" inseamna nimic7 Sa*ti mai adao% si concl"Fia "ltima, ca e n" fi%" eaFa nici in deFbate ile p oces"l"i, nici in sea bada mea !e si"ne, la ca e !ad ca tot t a%i me e" c" ochii. .X/ Cat %olim cestile astea de cafea, ti*o eF"m la cate!a c"!inte. Caci pent " toti pat " copiii, c" toata deosebi ea de !a sta si fi e, capitala e a nec"nosc"t"l mi ac"los .X/ "nde fieca e !a afla tot ce*i pofteste inima si tot ce i*a " Fit, hime ic, Toate sfa sea". Ramanea "n !is " at si l"n% de ca e si aminti ea !a f"%i maine &e do"aFeci de ani, din sa aca " be p o!inciala "nde !e%eta" fa a spe anta, capitala le pa "se "n pisc inaccesibil, sp e ca e a!ea" d ept sa naF"iasca n"mai c"teFato ii c" %leFna ta e si

A,

,5.

Ceea ce n*a fac"t p esedintele de t ib"nal din 1 anta, cand il in!itase pe Cen i Rochefo t

sa ia in p imi e "n secto electo al si sa se alea%a dep"tat, c" s" le si c" tobe, a fac"t el. .CeFa Pet esc" 0 Calea Licto iei 0 sli%htly adapted/ ,9. 0 &e altfel chia si ideal" i de fel"l acesta ma st ad"iesc sa n"*mi mai fac pent " ca am obse !at ca mi se indeplinesc si n" pot ale%e ac"m ca e dint e ele me %e in sens"l !ietii mele ade!a ate si ca e n", inca nestiind ca e este ade!a ata mea !iata. ,:. ,;. ,=. Loi ince ca sa*mi explic de ce la incep"t mi s*a pa "t ca ai ochii !e Fi si de ce astaFi, (!ea ac"m "n fel de !e ti4, din ca e ca"Fa pe &o a, desi atat de ap oape, o !edea ca de In spatele lo , pe st ada Icoanei, t am!ai"l !enea c" d"d"it de a!alansa si batai de pana mai adinea" i, ochii tai a" fost cen"sii. la o ma e distanta. clopote t ase f" ios de o pe dea osie si %albena, de fie , int e ele si st aFile si casele din " ma*le, dinsp e )a ia Rosetti, din di ectia ca eia apoi, de "nde !enea si )a ta, apa " a, iF!o ande me e" insa ta e indepa tate, c" sclipi i abia !iFibile, oi" i de fetite. ,?. ,A. 0 E foa te f "mos ce*mi sp"i, Fise ea c" ochii ma i, pie d"ti int *o di ectie !a%a. Nici n" ind aFnesc sa ma %andesc la ban"iala ca e ma incea ca. &a n" !eFiD )ai intai

ideea ca a amas sa ac, apoi ca t eb"ie sa lichideFe tot si sa plece si ac"m ca e bolna! cand de fapt c" totii stim ca este santos. N" ti se pa e biFa la el ca e pana ac"m a fost "n ba bat atat de ene %ic, optimist si c"mpanitD .Rad" Pet esc" 0 )atei Iliesc"/

A5

SI[ CT1AT6 CAAUSES *.1.Synt!%ti% +ro8erties T.!t C.!r!%teriDe That Com8$ements *.1.1.E9tr!8osition *.1.2.To8i%!$iD!tion *.1.".C$!#se S.i(t *.2.T.e Distri2#tion o( That Com8$ements *.".That De$etion *.'.T.e Se:#en%e o( t.e Tenses in O2>e%t That C$!#ses *.).Key Con%e8ts

That 0 complements constit"te the most ep esentati!e class of complement cla"ses .see section :/. (pa t f om those int od"ced by that, complement cla"ses can be p eceded by .,/ .5/ .9/ .:/ fo It is %ood fo them to know )athematics. -hethe I don+t know whethe he will eco!e . If Tell me if yo" need anythin%. They wanted to lea!e immediately.

.E bine sa stie matematica./

.N" sti" daca se !a insanatosi./

.Sp"ne*mi daca ai ne!oie de ce!a./

.Loia" sa plece imediat./

=.,. Syntactic P ope ties That Cha acte iFe <That+ 0 Complements

A9

=.,.,.Ext aposition Ext aposition is a !e y f e'"ent st "ct" e in En%lish, bein% fo"nd not only in the case of that* cla"ses, b"t also of infiniti!al ones. The te m ext aposition efe s to a const "ction whe e the expleti!e .empty/ p ono"n it appea s in f ont position, followed by the complement cla"se in pe iphe al position. In othe wo ds, the cla"se is ext aposed, placed in a ma %inal position. This phenomenon is t "e of mo e than one syntactic f"nctions, b"t the s"b4ect positions the most f e'"ently met in En%lish# .;/ S"b4ect Cla"se T.!t &o othy flew f om Oansas was a s" p ise to e!e ybody.

"next aposed# .( fost o s" p iFa pent " toata l"mea fapt"l ca &o othy a plecat din Oansas./ ext aposed .=/ It was a s" p ise to e!e ybody that &o othy flew f om Oansas. .( fost o s" p iFa pent " toata l"mea fapt"l ca &o othy a plecat din Oansas./ .?/ &i ect Ob4ect Cla"se The pl"mbe w on%ly fi%" ed o"t that the pipe needed eplacin%.

"next aposed# .Instalato "l a conside at in mod % esit ca tea!a t eb"ia inloc"ita./ ext aposed .A/ The pl"mbe w on%ly fi%" ed it o"t that the pipe needed eplacin%. .Instalato "l a conside at in mod % esit ca tea!a t eb"ia inloc"ita./ .B/ P epositional Ob4ect Can yo" swea that the acc"sed spent the e!enin% with yo"D

"next aposed# .P"teti 4" a ca ac"Fat"l a pet ec"t noaptea c" d"mnea!oast aD/ ext aposed# .,N/ Can yo" swea to it that the acc"sed spent the e!enin% with yo"D .P"teti 4" a ca ac"Fat"l a pet ec"t noaptea c" d"mnea!oast aD/

A:

A%tivity 1 )hich of the follo&ing that clauses are e traposed ones* )hat is their syntactical function* ,.It occ" ed to him that people we e la"%hin% behind his back. 5. Nobody knew that they we e so y fo what they had done. 9. It was known to no one that Pete had t ied to take his own life. :.The c owd esented it that the police had been sent fo . ;. )a%ellan e% ets it that the wo ld is o"nd. =. It appea s that no one !oted fo him. ?. It was s"%%ested that they sho"ld meet the P esident. A. It is too bad that they always make f"n of 6ilian. B. I don+t like it that he sho"ld be left alone in my flat. ,N. Ce will answe fo it that his son is innocent. ,,. Po" may depend on it that I will pick yo" "p. (cti!ity 5 #ry to undo the effect of "t . traposition in the follo&ing sentences: ,.It wo ied me a bit that she didn+t !isit he a"nt. 5. It is not '"ite clea whethe the t ains wo"ld be "nnin% tomo ow. 9. It will be soon anno"nced when yo" can lea!e. :. Is it t "e that the child en a e sickD ;. It so happens that I know the sec et ciphe . =. It seems s"ch a shame that he ne!e takes he o"t. ?. It is inc edible how many %ood st"dents d op o"t of school fo lack of money. A. It will s"it me best fo yo" to a i!e befo e dinne . B. It is no "se t yin% to con!ince he . ,N. It will be a pity if we ha!e to tell he the t "th befo e he %i!es "s pe mission to. ,,. Po" know it only too well that he will not ma y yo". ,5 Po" may take it f om me that he is a stinkin% lia . ,9. R"mo" has it that V5 will !isit "s this yea . ,:. The pebble in my shoe made it painf"l to walk. ,;. It is nice to meet yo". ,= I fo"nd it dis% acef"l that she hid the t "th f om me ,?. They conside ed it !e y silly of he to ha!e ma ied Kill. ,A. I find it diffic"lt to tell he my tho"%hts. (cti!ity 9 Comment upon the grammaticality of the follo&ing sentences: ,.It bothe s me that it is ob!io"s that money means e!e ythin%. 5. It amaFes Kill that it bothe s me that it is ob!io"s that money means e!e ythin%. 9. It appea s that it amaFes Kill that it bothe s me that it is ob!io"s that money means e!e ythin%. :. That it is ob!io"s that money means e!e ythin% bothe s me. ;.That it amaFes Kill that it is ob!io"s that money means e!e ythin% bothe s me.

A;

(cti!ity : )hich of the follo&ing sentences are correct* %oes tense influence the validity of e traposition* ,.I was the one who %"essed it that he wo"ld come back. 5. I %"ess it that he will come back. 9. They ne!e expected it that he wo"ld come back. :. I don+t expect it that he will come back. ;. She was the woman who o de ed it that all men wo"ld be exec"ted in p"blic. =.( e yo" %oin% to o de it that all men be exec"ted in p"blicD7

=.,.5. TopicaliFation TopicaliFation is the e!e se of ext aposition# a s"b4ect cla"se which is initially placed in the sentence is said to be topicaliFed. Compa e# .,,/ .,5/ That my ho se is the best in the wo ld is absol"tely e!ident. It is absol"tely e!ident that my ho se is the best in the wo ld. .Este cla ca b"na Fi"a ca a masa "l me" este cel mai b"n./ .Este cla ca b"na Fi"a ca a masa "l me" este cel mai b"n./ Ext aposition is the st "ct" e that appea s m"ch mo e f e'"ently in En%lish and that is why we conside it to be the ma ked caseQ since topicaliFation appea s mostly when a w ite Espeake wishes to c eate a special effect of emphasis, we conside topicaliFation to be the ma ked case in the lan%"a%e.

A%tivity ) 8ead the follo&ing, noticing the effect of topicaliIation &ithin the literary passages belo&. "s the phenomenon of topicaliIation restricted to that complements only* %oes it apply to Subject Clauses e clusively* >ind counterarguments in the te ts. ,. 5. No wonde (lison had p"nished he and )atthew tho"%ht of he only as an inst "ment. That she condemned he self in mo al te ms b o"%ht no consolin% sp in% of !itality and That she co"ld still be an inst "ment mi%ht ha!e comfo ted he once, b"t not now. e!en %"ilt %a!e he no ene %y. -hen this is so one is in ext emity indeed.
A=

9. andom st oke. :. "tte ly %one. ;.

-hethe this despai made it easie o ha de to act, whethe it wo"ld finally ca y he

off, me e chance wo"ld decide. She had always been the sla!e of chance, let it kill he if it wo"ld by a This was anothe e a. That he sho"ld ha!e sat in his oom and penned the lette

yeste day, e!en today, was inconcei!able. ("stin had been lost in some ancient cataclysm. Ce was Cis own conf"sion and mise y we e so % eat that he felt "nable to cope with &o ina, he

felt no sp in% of inte est in he , he almost felt esentment at seein% he now. To walk by was an exp ession of his own despai . =. ?. A. -hy she had o i%inally left Lalmo ana she had by now fo %otten. To et" n to Lalmo ana seemed to he like death. To %o back the e now wo"ld be to That &o ina sho"ld ha!e elect oc"ted he self with an elect ic fi e on a ainy mo nin% in

climb into he coffin. a small hotel in Kloomsb" y made $"dwi% feel dis%"st with himself and the wo ld which was almost myste io"s in its intensity. Ce did not blame 6 acie. Ce did not think that &o ina had done it on p" pose. The thin% was p" e chance and yet wei%hted with a si%nificance of ho o which he co"ld not bea to contemplate. That he had act"ally seen &o ina on the day that she died and had passed he by was so ni%htma ish that he felt he wo"ld ne!e be able to tell anybody abo"t it. .I is )" doch 0 (n (ccidental )an/

=.,.9. Cla"se Shift Cla"se Shift is a syntactic ope ation that pa allels that of Cea!y NP Shift. ( NP .No"n Ph ase/ is said to be hea!y when it has a la %e st etch of modifie s accompanyin% it# fo instance the no"n ph ases the lette o the ed lette a e m"ch li%hte than the no"n ph ase the lette which he had 4"st ead. The "le of Cea!y NP Shift stip"lates that the hea!y NP sho"ld be mo!ed to the i%ht and of the sentence foe semantic easons# Compa e# .,9/ to .,:/ Ce th ew into the basket the lette which he had 4"st decoded. Ce th ew the lette which he had 4"st decoded into the basket. .( a "ncat sc isoa ea pe ca e abia o descif ase la cos./

A?

.( a "ncat la cos sc isoa ea pe ca e abia o descif ase./ The sentence "nde .,:/ had "nde %one hea!y NP shift by placin% the lon% NP at the end of the whole st "ct" e so that the sentence co"ld be mo e clea ly "nde stood. This "le is in fact an exceptional one in that it challen%es the fixed wo d o de "les in En%lish, acco din% to which a !e b sho"ld not no mally be sepa ated f om its obli%ato y complement. Clause Shift is a simila "le to Cea!y NP Shift as it allows fo the cla"sal st "ct" e to be mo!ed to the i%ht end of the sentence. This syntactic ope ation diffe s f om ext aposition in that the e is no p ono"n left behind and that clause shift ope ates only on ob4ect cla"ses. The cla"sal constit"ent is mo!ed o!e an ad!e b ph ase o a p epositional ph ase as follows# Since .,;/@)a y said _that she wanted to d i!ea '"ietly. is not semantically acceptable, beca"se the ad!e b ph ase 'uietly may e oneo"sly efe to the last !e b ph ase in the sentence .i.e. the !e b to d i!e/, cla"se shift ope ates and the es"ltin% % ammatical st "ct" e is# .,=/ )a y said '"ietly that she wanted to d i!e. .)a y sp"se linistit ca ! ea sa cond"ca masina./ This way the ad!e b can no lon%e ha!e ambi%"o"s inte p etation. It is ob!io"sly linked to the main cla"se !e b as intended. $et "s also s"pply an example whe e the cla"sal st "ct" e 4"mps o!e p epositional ph ase# 1 om the "n% ammatical st "ct" e "nde .,?/@They w ote that the fi m was %oin% bank "pt to the lawye s. we obtain, by means of cla"se shift, .,A/ They w ote ti to the lawye s _that the fi m was %oin% bank "pta i .$e*a" sc is a!ocatilo ca fi ma " ma sa dea faliment./ I ha!e "sed the notation ti .t ace co*indexed with the <that+ cla"se/ to "nde line the fact that the cla"sal st "ct" e has been mo!ed in a mo e semantically ad!anta%eo"s position.

(cti!ity = Comment on the follo&ing sentences from the point of vie& of the rule of :eavy +P$Clause Shift discussed above:

AA

,. 5. 9. :.

D S"san b" nt the lette .which/ she had 4"st w itten to the last pa%e. E S"san b" nt to the S"san told he mothe that she had 4"st been fi ed. E DS"san told that she had 4"st been Ce was info med on Sat" day at noon that he was %oin% to be fi ed. E Ce was info med :. Ce appointed p ime*ministe ) C"%h, who had 4"st et" ned f om (f ica. ED Ce

last pa%e the lette she had 4"st w itten. fi ed to he mothe . that he was %oin% to be fi ed Sat" day at noon. appointed ) C"%h, who had 4"st et" ned f om (f ica, p ime*ministe . E Ce appointed ) C"%h p ime*ministe , who had 4"st et" ned f om (f ica. ;. =. They dismissed s "n ealistic ) C"%h+s p oposal to b"ild a new hospital. E They D I conside ed to be o"t a%eo"s what he had done to his wife in f ont of so many dismissed ) C"%h+s p oposal to b"ild a new hospital as "n ealistic. people. E I conside ed o"t a%eo"s what he had done to his wife in f ont of so many people. E I conside ed what he had done to his wife in f ont of so many people o"t a%eo"s. ?. @I fo"nd fo S"san to beha!e like that in p"blic dis% acef"l. E@I fo"nd dis% acef"l fo S"san to beha!e like that in p"blic.E I fo"nd it dis% acef"l fo S"san to beha!e like that in p"blic.EI fo"nd dis% acef"l S"san+s beha!in% like that in p"blic. EI fo"nd S"san+s beha!in% like that in p"blic dis% ace. A. Ce sp inkled with wate the pa!ement he had been cleanin%. E Ce sp inkled the pa!ement he had been cleanin% with wate .

=.5. The &ist ib"ition of That Complements That complements can ac'"i e a whole an%e of syntactical f"nctions# S"b4ect .)a y e p"tin ene !ata de ideea ca sot"l ei a p"tea fi Gack Spintecato "l./ .5N/ .5,/ &i ect Ob4ect They epo ted that the b id%e had fallen down. P epositional Ob4ect She was awa e that he h"sband was lyin% to he .

.,B/ That he h"sband mi%ht be Gack the Rippe sli%htly annoys )a y.

.(" apo tat ca pod"l s*a p ab"sit./

.E a constienta de fapt"l ca sot"l ei o minte./

AB

 .55/ .59/ .5:/

(d!e bial She emained at home so that she wo"ld look afte the kids. P edicati!e The impo tant thin% was that nobody knew abo"t it. (tt ib"te The epo t that the b id%e had fallen down was not t "e.

.( amas acasa sa aiba % i4a de copii./

.$"c "l impo tant e a ca nimeni n" stia desp e asta./

.Rapo t"l in ca e se sp"ne ca s*a p ab"sit pod"l este fals./ $et "s s"pply a detailed list of !e bs o ad4ecti!es that e'"i e the p esence of these complements. -e will be%in by disc"ssin% the context whe e that complements appea as di ect ob4ects, since this is the most f e'"ent f"nction they f"lfill. =.5.,. That Complements as &i ect Ob4ect Ce e is a list of classes of !e bs afte which that complements f"nction as di ect ob4ects# a/ Simple t ansiti!e !e bs# s"ch as asse t, afi m, conside , deem, 4"d%e, estimate, deny, desi e, p edict, p efe , state, etc.# .5;/a. Ce anno"nced thei en%a%ement. .Si*a an"ntat lo%odna./ b. Ce anno"nced that they we e en%a%ed. .( an"ntat ca sint lo%oditi./ .5=/ .5?/ I eally dislike it that he is he e. .Ext aposed/ a. They belie!e that the man is %"ilty. .C ed ca om"l este !ino!at./ b. They belie!e the man is %"ilty. .with that*deletion/ .C ed ca om"l este !ino!at./ .5A/ b/ Ce asse ted fo cef"lly that he was innocent .with Cla"se Shift/ &it ansiti!e !e bs s"ch as# say, p omise, comm"nicate, explain, s"%%est, etc. .( s"stin"t c" ta ie ca este ne!ino!at./ These !e bs a e called dit ansiti!e beca"se they e'"i e two obli%ato y complements# a di ect ob4ect and an indi ect ob4ect#
BN

.)a de an4eaFa fapt"l ca este aici./

.5B/ .9N/

They p omised him a new ho"se. They p omised him that he wo"ld ecei!ed a new ho"se.

.I*a" p omis o casa no"a./ .I*a" p omis ca !a p imi o casa no"a./ Since the di ect ob4ect that cla"se is hea!y, it tends to appea in pe iphe al position by means of se!e al syntactic p ocesses# .9,/ .95/ I explained to S"san that I wo"ld be back !e y late. .Cla"se Shift/ a. I explained it to S"san that I wo"ld be back !e y late. b. Ce owes it to his fathe that he became lawye . .Ext aposition/ .1apt"l ca a de!enit a!ocat i*l dato eaFa tatal"i sa"./ =.5.5. That Complements as S"b4ects a/ .99/ This position is filled by that complements in combination with a athe limited n"mbe It appea ed that a life co"ld be inte estin%, am"sin%, and "ltimately t i!ial. of int ansiti!e !e bs# seem, aappea , haappen, t" n o"t, matte , come abo"t, follow, etc. # .I is )" doch, (n (ccidental )an/ .Se pa ea ca o !iata poate fi inte esanta, am"Fanta, si in fine t i!iala./ Some of these !e bs .seem, occ" , appea / may optionally be followed by an indi ect ob4ect# .9:/ a. It appea ed to him that she was lyin% to him. .I se pa ea ca il minte./ b. It occ" ed to Gohn that he needed a new ca . .Ii !eni ideea ca Gohn a e ne!oie de o masina no"a./ The most impo tant thin% to notice with this class of int ansiti!e !e bs is that only ext aposed st "ct" es a e % ammatical# .:5/ a. It appea s to me that this is a new be%innin%. .)i se pa e ca acesta este "n no" incep"t./ b. @That this is a new be%innin% appea s to me. b/ ad4ecti!es .e!al"ati!e ad4ecti!es, that exp ess a belief of the speake /# likely, "nlikely, ce tain, s" e, etc. clea , possible, p obable, app op iate, fai , %ood, inte estin%, etc.
B,

.I*am explicat l"i S"san ca ma !oi intoa ce foa te ti Fi"./ .I*am explicaat l"i S"san ca ma !oi intoa ce foa te ti Fi"./

.9=/

a. It was in any case ob!io"s that )a ia%e was &o ina+s lot. .E a in o ice caF cla ca i se pot i!ea &o inei sa fie casato ita./

b.It was not 4"st that ("stin was an ob4ect of inte est beca"se of the )atthew le%end. .I is )" doch, ibid./ .N" e a n"mai fapt"l ca ("stin constit"ia "n obiect de inte es din ca"Fa le%enda "l"i )atthew./ Sometimes the ad4ecti!e can appea alone, o witho"t the cop"la# .9?/ a. Odd that one sho"ld so nat" ally wish to lie "pon one+s bed to %o to sleep fo e!e . .I is )" doch, ibid./ .Ci"dat ca poti do i c" atita nat" alete sa te intinFi in pat si sa ado mi pe !ecie./ b. X fo a few days I tho"%ht it possible that yo" wanted simply to ne !e yo" self to b eak thin%s off. .I is )" doch, ibid./ .X cite!a File am c eF"t ca e posibil sa iti do esti p" si simpl" sa ai c" a4"l sa dist "%i tot"l./ Some of these ad4ecti!es my take indi ect ob4ects# .9A/ a. That he knew nothin% abo"t Poland was ob!io"s to all his f iends. .E a cla pent " toti p ietenii l"i ca n" stia nimic desp e Polonia./ b. It was ob!io"s to all his f iends that he knew nothin% abo"t Poland. .E a cla pent " toti p ietenii l"i ca n" stia nimic desp e Polonia./ b/ No"ns 0 that come f om the same semantic a ea as ad4ecti!es# p oblem, idea, impediment, s" p iFe, mi acle, pity, wonde , etc. .9B/ It is a wonde that yo" we en+t killed. .E ma e min"ne ca n" ai fost "cis./ The no"n can appea in isolation# .:N/ a. ( pity that men we e so impatient. .Pacat ca ba batii sint asa de lipsiti de abda e./ b. ( pity men we e so impatient. .that 0 deletion/ .G. 6alswo thy 0 O!e the Ri!e / .Pacat ca ba batii sint asa de lipsiti de abda e./ d/ 0in% fo ms .!e bal no"ns/ :,a. The e was no denyin% that b"siness was otten.
B5

.G. 6alswo thy 0 O!e the Ri!e /

.N" exista indoiala ca aface ile me %ea" p ost./ b. The e was no denyin% b"siness was otten. .that*deletion/ .I is )" doch, ibid./ .N" exista indoiala ca aface ile me %ea" p ost./ e/ psycholo%ical t ansiti!e !e bs # ala m, amaaFe, annoy, conf"se, please, f i%hten, inte est, pain, elie!e, soothe, tempt, t o"ble, etc.# .:5/ a. It sti s me that I was tho"%ht wo thy .)a imp"lsiona fapt"l ca ma c edea" ! ednic./ b. That e!e ybody blames him ob!io"sly dep essed him. .1apt"l ca toata l"mea da !ina pe el il dep ima e!ident./ =.5.9. That Complements as P epositional Ob4ects It is known that the p esence of TC(T no mally excl"des the possibility that a p eposition co"ld appea in f ont of the that complement. -e ass"me that p epositions a e d opped in f ont of that* cla"ses. -e etain howe!e the name p epositional ob4ect cla"se fo these pa tic"la that*complements beca"se the basic st "ct" e it is de i!ed f om is a p edicate ` a p eposition# e.%. decide on somethin% c decide that X .=9/ a. She decided on comin% he e. .S*a hota it sa !ina aici./ b. She decided that she wo"ld come he e. .S*a hota it ca !a !eni aici./ In example .:9/ we conside that the "nde lined cla"se f"nctions as p epositional ob4ect e'"i ed by the !e b decide. #hat complements appea as p epositional ob4ects afte # a/ simple int ansiti!e p epositional !e bs# decide on, p ay fo , see to, admit of, ask fo , b % abo"t, e4oice at, theo iFe abo"t, !ote fo ,etc.# .::/a. Ce wonde ed that she was still the e. .S*a mi at ca mai este acolo./ b. They !oted that the st ike sho"ld %o on. .(" !otat sa contin"e % e!a./ c. Po" may depend "pon it that he will a% ee with yo" te ms. .Ext aposed/ .Poti conta pe fapt"l ca !a fi de aco d c" conditiile tale./
B9

b/

t ansiti!e p epositional !e b# ad!ise somebody of, acc"se somebody of, blame

somebody fo , con% at"late somebody on ,etc.# .:;/ Ce info med them that he wo"ld lea!e. .I*a info mat ca pleaca./ c/ the exceptional case of the !e b emind somebody of whe e the e is an indi ect ob4ect p esent# .:=/ They emind him that she sho"ld lea!e. .I*a" amintit sa plece./ d/ .:?/ ad4ecti!es # af aid of, confident in, ala med at, happy abo"t a. I was af aid that she mi%ht not come. .)a temeam ca s*a p"tea sa !ina./ b. I was f"lly awa e of it that thin%s we e so bad. .Ext aposed/ .Imi dadeam pe fect seama ca l"c " ile statea" p ost./ =.5.:. <That+ complements as P edicati!es They appea in e'"ati!e cop"lati!e sentences .of the type [ is P o P is [/ when the s"b4ect is an abst act nominl s"ch as# fact, idea, statement, claim, eason, etc. # .:A/a The fact is that he cannot 4oin "s tomo ow. .1apt e ca n" poate !eni c" noi miine./ b. The second eason fo my depa t" e was that I didn+t lo!e Kill any mo e. .(l doilea moti! pent " pleca ea mea e a ca n"*l mai i"beam pe Kill./ =.5.;. <That+ Complements as (tt ib"tes 5, 55 .:B/ afte abst act no"ns .idea, fact, etc / afte de!e bal no"ns .no"ns de i!ed f om !e b/# The fact that she is in debt bothe s his wife immensely.

claim, wish, p oposal, etc. # .1apt"l ca a e dato ii o de an4eaFa eno m pe ne!asta*sa./ One has to bea in mind that the examples abo!e contain that complements, not wh*ones. -e incl"ded that* elati!e cla"ses in the la %e class of wh*complements .altho"%h elati!e that, like now, fo instance, a e not % aphically wh*wo ds/. The examples he e contain only that complements and this is explained by the fact that they a e e'"i ed only by no"ns that a e eithe abst act, o de i!ed f om !e bs.
B:

Compa e# .;N/ the book that I %a!e him .ca tea pe ca e i*am dat*o/ -he e that is eplaceable by which .i.e. the boo1 &hich " gave him/, to# .;,/ the wish that he sho"ld et" n the money. .do inta ca el sa et" neFe banii./ -he e in fact the that*cla"se can be seen as the fo me complement of the !e b wish# .;5/ She wished that he sho"ld et" n the money. .&o ea ca el sa et" neFe banii./ ( f" the a %"ment a%ainst inte p etin% the that*cla"se f om .;,/ as a elati!e cla"se is the fact that the introductory element cannot be replaced by &hich in this case# .;9/@ the wish which we sho"ld et" n the money.

(cti!ity ? )hich of the follo&ing are that!relative clauses and &hich are complement!clauses* ,.Cis idea that men a e sma te than women led him to total "in. 5. The idea that he had had ea ned him %ood money. 9. Cis o de that all the men in the !illa%e sho"ld be killed was instantly disobeyed. :. The o de that he had %i!en was instantly disobeyed. ;. Thei p oposal that he sho"ld "n fo Con% ess was the best e!e . ;. The p oposal that they came "p with was no bette than he s.

=.5.=. <That+ complements as (d!e bials (d!e bial that cla"ses can be di!ided into two classes acco din% to what patte n of s"bo dination they obse !e# a/the p epositionl ph ase model 0 whe e p epositional ph ases a e "sed to int od"ce that* ad!e bial cla"ses# fo fea that, on the % o"nd that, in o de that, to the end that, in the hope that, inEwith the intent that, on p" pose that, in e!ent that, on condition that, with a !iew that, etc.# .;9/ a. They dislike he on the % o"nd that she is too p o"d. .O antipatiFeaFa pe moti! ca e p ea mind a./
B;

b. They paid he a la %e sala y in the hope that she wo"ld stay with them. .I*a" dat "n sala i" ma e in spe anta ca !a amine la ei./ In example .;:/ the Con4"ncti!e ph ases int od"cin% it a e fo med by means of a p epositional ph ase and that. The no"n within the p epositional ph ase indicates the meanin%, the inte p etation of the ad!e bial cla"se# % o"nd Jc eason, hope Jcp" pose. The no"ns in these const "ctions tend to become % ammaticaliFed .i.e. they lose thei meanin%, become abst act/ and that is why they may lose thei ability to take dete mine s and ad4ecti!es# we say, fo example, on condition that, not @on the condition that exactly beca"se the no"n is losin% its a"tonomo"s meanin% and is becomin% mo e and mo e pa t of the con4"ncti!e ph ase. In olde sta%es of En%lish, p epositions we e allowed in f ont of that*cla"ses, b"t nowadays the e a e !e y few examples of this kind left# .;:/ .;;/ .;=/ En%lish./ .Imi place de el pent " ca e destept./ ( simila sit"ation is exhibited in# .;?/ &o ina X .I is )" doch, ibid./ .Xac"m ca Cha alote se insin"ase in apa tament n" mai a!ea "nde sa o ad"ca pe &o inaX/ b. She has e!e ythin% sa!e that she lacks intelli%ence. .N"*i lipseste nimic c" exceptia fapt"l"i ca n" e inteli%enta./ c/ ad!e bial s"bo dination 0 by means of that con4"nction ph ases whe e the e a e no p epositional ph ases a!ailable# 8esult# so `ad!e bEad4ecti!e X that 0 in this st "ct" e the de% ee wo d . so,such/ is c "cial fo the % ammaticality of the sentence in '"estion# .;A/ .;B/ Ce is so competent a teache that e!e y st"dent lo!es him. @Ce is a competent teache that e!e y st"dent lo!es him.
B=

Kefo e that man came I saw yo". .this example is a sample of a chaic lan%"a%e, simila Te*am !aF"t inainte ca el sa !ina./ I like him in that he is sma t. .this is one of the few examples still "sed in contempo a y

to the const "ction existent in Romanian#

a. X now that Cha lote had insin"ated he self into the flat the e was nowhe e to b in%

.Este "n p ofeso atit de competent incit toti st"dentii il i"besc./

.=N/ .=,/ .=5/

Ce is s"ch a nice man that women instantly fall fo him. @Ce is a nice man that women instantly fall fo him. Ce placed his chai by the window so he wo"ld see he pass.

.Este "n om asa de d a%"t ca femeile se ind a%ostesc imediat de el./ That can be deleted, as is shown in the followin%# .Si*a p"s sca"n"l lin%a fe east a, sa o !ada t ecind./ -hen the st "ct" e contains the wo d s"ch, the no"n followin% it is deletable# .=9/ a. Cis answe was s"ch an answe that we co"ldn+t do"bt its wisdom. .(stfel s"na asp"ns"l l"i incit n" ne p"team indoi de intelepci"nea sa./ b. Cis answe was s"ch that we co"ldn+t do"bt its wisdom. .(stfel s"na asp"ns"l l"i incit n" ne p"team indoi de intelepci"nea sa./ On some occasion SVCC can optionally mo!e# .=:/ a. Ce %a!e s"ch an answe that we co"ldn+t do"bt it. .I*a dat "n asemenea asp"ns ca n" ne*am p"t"t indoi de el./ b. Ce %a!e an answe s"ch, that we wo"ldn+t do"bt it. .I*a dat "n asemenea asp"ns incit sa n" ne p"tem indoi de el./ .=;/ a. Ce %a!e s"ch an answe as had expected. .I*a dat %en"l de asp"ns pe ca e il astepta./ b. Ce %a!e an answe s"ch that I had expected. .I*a dat "n asp"ns pe ca e il astepta./

A%tivity Comment on the distribution and syntactic function of the that complements in the follo&ing sentences# ,.-e disco!e ed that o" map has disappea ed. 5/ -as it t "e that she was illD 9/ They a e not awa e that they a e in a dan%e o"s position. :/ The idea that men f om )a s we e landin% was abs" d. =/ Gohn made it clea that he disa% eed. ?/ The t "th is that we ha!en+t met them. A/ I am af aid that I ha!e to %o now. B/ It st "ck me that the b"s was beha!in% p etty st an%ely. ,N/ She was so ca eless that she left the doo "nlocked. ,,/ The s"%%estion was that they sho"ld lea!e at once. ,5/ Ce lo!ed he to s"ch an extent that he co"ld %i!e his life fo he . ,9/ The shock of ha!in% been fo"nd by &o ina in

B?

)itFi+s a ms fi st p ost ated him with s"ch a sense of "ncleanness and shame that he co"ld not face his wife. .I is )" doch, ibid./ ,:/ It had also p od"ced the ce tainty that they belon%ed to%ethe and that, fo bette o wo se, they we e chained to each othe fo e!e . .I is )" doch, ibid./

=.9. <That &eletion =.9.,. -hen Can -e &elete <That+D .==/ .=?/ .=A/ It is impossible to delete that in "next aposed cla"ses# That he will e!e come back is a '"estion still. @ he will e!e come back is a '"estion still. That 0 deletion is mo e acceptable if the !e bEad4ecti!eEno"n e'"i in% the complement a. Ce showed he was able to do it.

.Inca ne int ebam daca se !a mai intoa ce./

cla"se is a f e'"ently "sed item o if it is f e'"ent in combination with that*cla"ses. .( do!edit ca poate sa faca asta./ b. Ce %ot wo d they we e comin%. .( p ins de !este ca ei !in./ c. Ce said he had bo owed he money. .( sp"s ca a imp "m"tat bani de la ea./ The ommision of that is an indication that the speake does not want to be fo mal, that he "ses a elaxed tone. If the !e b in '"estion is a not so o dina y one, omission of that is impossible# .=B/ @Ce ob4ected it was al eady too late to lea!e.

=.9.5. -hen is <That+ Obli%ato yD .?N/ That can be deleted if it follows the main !e bEad4.Eno"n di ectly, b"t it is "s"ally It had also p od"ced the ce tainty that they belon%ed to%ethe and that, fo bette o e'"i ed if the complement cla"se is sepa ated f om the main !e b by inte !enin% mate ial# wo se, they we e chained to each othe fo e!e . .I is )" doch, ibid./ .&e asemenea, cond"sese la ce tit"dinea ca t eb"ia" sa fie imp e"na si ca, b"ne, ele, e a" le%ati pe !eci "n"l de celalalt./

BA

.?,/

@It had also p od"ced the ce tainty that they belon%ed to%ethe and, fo bette o wo se,

they we e chained to each othe fo e!e . In example .?,/ we inte p et the last cla"se as bein% coo dinated with the main cla"se not with the fi st that cla"se, beca"se that has been deleted. .?5/ <That+ deletion is blocked if an ob4ect cla"se has been ext aposed# a. I like it that he was he e. .Imi place ca e aici./ b. @I like it he was he e. =.9.9. -hen is <That+ &eletion Obli%ato yD #hat deletion is absol"tely obli%ato y if the s"b4ect of the complement cla"se is '"estioned o elati!iFed# Po" say .?9/ -ho did yo" say was comin%D .Cine sp"i ca a !enitD/ K"t ne!e .?:/ @-ho did yo" say that was comin%D This is explainable by the fact that who is the s"b4ect of the that cla"se. The p esence of that can lead to a do"ble s"b4ect const "ction, which is "n% ammatical.

A%tivity @ %elete Cthat3 &here possible: ,/I didn+t %et the messa%e that they we e comin%. 5/ They cho tled that it was only a 4oke. 9/ That s"ch thin%s still happen is no wonde . :/ I hate it that yo" won+t be with me. ;/ -he e wo"ld yo" %"ess that he wentD .Compa e to# @-ho did they ima%ine that wanted to %oD/ =/ The fact that they we e "np epa ed leaked o"t. ?/ They maintain, yo" want me to belie!e, that they we e not too late to lea!e. A/ I eminded them that they had to lea!e.

=.:. The Se'"ence of the Tenses in Ob4ect That Cla"ses

BB

The tenses in complement cla"ses a e o iented towa ds the tenses of the main cla"se, th"s showin% the tempo al elation .ante io ity, s"m"ltaneity, poste io ity/ holdin% between the actions of the main and the s"bo dinate cla"se. The chan%es in the embedded cla"se a e as follows# P esent ***** Past .?;/ a/ SShe is the eT, he said. .SEste acoloT, sp"se el./ b/Ce told me that she was the e. .)i*a sp"s ca ea este acolo./ Past Past Pe fect .?=/ b. a a Past Pe fect a P esent Pe fect

a. SShe was he eT, he said. .SE a acoloT, sp"se el./ Ce told me that she had been the e.

.)i*a sp"s ca a fost acolo./ 1"t" e ******* 1"t" e in the Past .??/ a. I will lea!e he . .(m sa o pa asesc./ b. Ce said he wo"ld lea!e he . .( sp"s ca o sa o pa aseasca./ 1"t" e Pe fect ******1"t" e Pe fect in the Past .?A/ a. Ce will ha!e a i!ed by the time she lea!es. .Pina pleaca !ine el./ b. Ce said he wo"ld ha!e a i!ed by the time she left. .( sp"s ca o sa !ina el pina pleaca ea./ $et "s disc"ss those pa tic"la cases when these "les a e optional# ,. The P esent 0 Past "le can be optional with the so*called 1(CTILE !e bs .that is !e bs

that p es"ppose the t "th of thei complement/. 1o instance, when yo" say. .?B/ I ealiFe that he is a %eni"s.
,NN

.Imi da" seama ca este "n %eni"./ the complement cla"se is inte p eted as t "e. (nd that is demonst ated by the fact that e!en if we ne%ate the main cla"se, the t "th !al"e of the complement cla"se emains the same# .AN/ it/. -ith s"ch !e bs as ealiFe, fo %et, mention, e% et, disco!e , show, notice, be amaFedEconce ned, say, epo t, etc. the "le of the se'"ence of tenses P esent *** Past is optional# .A,/ a. Kill epo ted that cocon"ts % ew hi%h "pon t ees. .Kill a an"ntat ca n"cile de cocos sta" foa te s"s in copac./ b. Kill epo ted that cocon"ts % ow hi%h "pon t ees. .Kill a an"ntat ca n"cile de cocos sta" foa te s"s in copac./ On the othe hand, the e is a whole an%e on !e bs that e'"i e that the "le sho"ld be obse !ed# Onow, be awa e, think, belie!e, d eam, wish, hope, insist, whispe ,etc. .A5/ It seemedEwas likelyEpossibleE"nfo t"nate that the new leade of the % o"p wasE@is an "nde co!e a%ent. .Pa ea E e a p obabilE posibilE neplac"t ca no"l cond"cato al % "p"l"i e a a%ent sec et./ If we conside this "le o"tside the domain of that complements, we notice that %ene al t "ths, exp essed by the 6ene ic P esent a e no mally p ese !ed in the p esent e!en if they can be fo"nd i%ht in the middle of a na ation# .A9/ It was and was not like the fi st day of the honeymoon when the newly maa ied pai , in tende defe ence to each othe , fei%n habits which a e not thei own. .I is )" doch, The Klack P ince/ .E a si n" e a ca in p ima Fi a l"nii de mie e cind pe echea p oaspat casato ita, c" "n espect tand " "n"l fata de alt"l, sim"leaFa obicei" i ca e n" le apa tin./ The Past Tense imposes itself when the action exp essed by it is ele!ant to some point in the past, with which the speake does not wish to identify himself# .A:/ a. She still belie!ed that the ea th was flat. .Ea tot mai c edea ca pamint"l este plat./ b. She belie!ed that the ea th is o"nd. .Ea tot mai c edea ca pamint"l este ot"nd./ In .A:/ a The Past is "sed to show that the speake does not a% ee with what the cha acte <she+ conside s to be a %ene al t "th.
,N,

I don+t ealiFe that he is a %eni"s .that means still that he is a %eni"s, only I don+t ealiFe

Conside also# .A;/ a. She ealiFed that all men a e fools. .Si*a dat seama ca toti ba batii sint niste p osti./ b. Ce knew that she tho"%ht all men we e fools. .Stia ca ea c ede ca toti ba batii sint niste p osti./ In .A;b/ <he+ disa% ees with he opinion and that is why Past Tense is "sed. 5./ The "le Past ***** Past Pe fect is sometimes dis e%a ded in ce tain complements which contain a non*d" ati!e, simple Past Tense .that/ cannot be seen as sim"ltaneo"s with the !e b in the main cla"se# .A=/ a. She s"spected that Kill had left befo e the police a i!ed. .Ea ban"ia ca Kill plecase inainte sa soseasca politia./ b. She s"spected that Kill left befo e the police a i!ed. .Ea ban"ia ca Kill a plecat inainte sa soseasca politia./ Koth sentences a e % ammatical and the p esence of the ad!e bial cla"se befo e the police a i!ed cont ib"tes to the optional cha acte of the "le, since it indicates that the e!ent of Kill+s lea!in% is ante io to the a i!al of the police. Compa e this example to .A?/ She s"spected that Kill had been the e. .Kan"ia ca Kill f"sese pe acolo./ whe e the d" ati!e cha acte of the !e b be makes it impossible fo the "le to be b oken# .AA/ She s"spected the Kill was he e. .Kan"ia ca Kill este acolo./ in this case the meanin% of the sentence is chan%ed. .A?/ shows the ante io ity of Kill+s bein% the e whe eas .AA/ shows that the two e!ents s"spect and be the e a e sim"ltaneo"s. 9.1"t" e 0 1"t" e in the Past 0 this "le is a ely optional. The e a e howe!e cases, s"ch as .AB/ a. Pete said that Gohn wo"ld lea!e at ;. .Pete a sp"s ca Gohn o sa plece la ;./ b. Pete said that Gohn will lea!e at ;. .Pete a sp"s ca Gohn o sa plece la ;./
,N5

In .ABb/ the se'"ence of the tenses is not obse !ed beca"se fo "s it isn+t yet ; o+clock. Ima%ine, fo instance, that yo" a e "tte in% this sentence in f ont of yo" f iend. The time is 9 o+clock. Of co" se in this case yo" will "se the f"t" e not the 1"t" e in the Past.

A%tivity 1< Comment on the au iliary in the complement clause: ,. a/ Gohn hea d that )a y is p e%nant. b/ Gohn hea d that )a y was p e%nant. c/ Gohn said that Ca y is lea!in%. d/ Gohn said that Ca y was lea!in%. Gohn said that Ca y will lea!e. f/ Gohn said that Ca y wo"ld lea!e. %/ Gohn tho"%ht that Ca y an. h/ Gohn tho"%ht that Ca y had "n. 5. a/ Gohn said that Ca y was lea!in% tomo ow. b/ Gohn tho"%ht that )ont eal played Koston tomo ow. c/ @Ca y was lea!in% tomo ow. d/ @)ont eal played Koston tomo ow. e/ Ca y is lea!in% tomo ow. f/ )ont eal plays Koston tomo ow. 9. p o!ided. :. ;. =. ?. A. B. a/ She tho"%ht that )a%%ie a i!ed the day befo e b/ She tho"%ht that )a%%ie had I knew that poo Ch is belie!ed he was of oyal blood. a/ Gohn said that his ca @has "n o"t of %as. E b/ Gohn said that his ca is o"t of %as. $ook the dipstick shows oil i%ht "p to the f"ll ma k. K"t Gohn m"mbled that his ca Gohn indicated to )a y that she sho"ld %o to bed ea ly. a. Gohn told )a y that she sho"ld bake a pie. b. @Gohn told )a y that she had baked a a i!ed the day befo e. a/ It was ob!io"s that e!e yone wo"ld lea!e if coffee was not p o!ided at the meetin% next day. b/ It was ob4ected that people had left the meetin% the day befo e beca"se coffee had not been

wasE@is o"t of oil.

pie. c/ Gohn told )a y that she had baked an excellent pie.

=.; Oey Concepts That complements diffe f om that elati!es in that they appea as e'"i ed by a !e b, ad4ecti!e o a de!e bal no"n. The most impo tant syntactic p ope ties they ha!e a e e traposition .by means of which the cla"se is placed at the end of the sentence and anno"nced by the p ono"n it/, topicaliIation .the e!e se
,N9

of ext aposition and means of emphasis/ and clause shift .syntactic ope ation of placin% the cla"se at the end of the sentence when the main cla"se contains, ad!e bial o p epositional ph ases elated to the main cla"se !e b/. These syntactic ope ations a e sha ed by that*cla"ses with othe complement cla"ses .s"ch as TO*infiniti!es o wh*complements/. That*complements can hold any so t of syntactical f"nction, f om the o dina y s"b4ect, ob4ect ones "p to the att ib"ti!e f"nction, which they sha e with wh*complements. On ce tain occasions that can be deleted, on othe occasions it has to stay the e, o else. That ob4ect cla"ses no mally obse !e the "les of the se'"ence of the tenses with a few .si%nificant/ exceptions.

A%tivity 11

O8tion!$ E9er%ises

#ranslate the follo&ing by ma1ing use of the information on that!complements supplied in this section: ,. Cand m*a !aF"t a inchis alb"m"l, a sa it de pe banca si a ale %at sp e mine. &a cand a

a4"ns in fata mea mi*am dat seama ca n"*i pot sp"ne !estea cea ma e. C"m iti explici aceastaD )*am sfiit. Stiam ca o ice c"!inte as ale%e acelea n*a fi p"t"t c"p inde tot ce !oiam sa*i sp"n si nici fe ici ea ca !enise clipa sa*i an"nt ce*a!eam de an"ntat. 5. )ama, peste p"tin, s*a d"s acasa si e" am amas sin%" sa te min desen"l. Re% etam ca m*a lasat sin%" . Caci p esimteam ca mi se !a intampla ce!a neplac"t. Cand a" !aF"t ca mama a plecat, baietii s*a" ad"nat in 4" "l bancii mele. Isi tinea" mainile in b"F"na e. Vn"l din ei, cel mai ma e, c ed ca a!ea ! eo saptesp eFece*otsp eFece ani, a!ea albeata la "n ochi si p" ta "n t ico" albast " de ma ina . Pa "l a ii e a plin de mat eata. 9. Il p i!i "imita si c" toate ca din ca"Fa int"ne ic"l"i n"*i !edea chip"l distin%ea tot"si ca t em" a si n" sti" daca sa ada ca pent " a*i face o asemenea decla atie o desteptase in p"te ea noptii, o i sa se teama de t" ba ea l"i, ca e il impinsese la "n asemenea %est biFa , necon!enabil si p ime4dios. Tot"si sfa si p in a se simti bine la ideea ca da atat p et pa e ilo sale si ince ca do inta tand a de a*l linisti, de a*i a ata ca ia p ea m"lt in seama niste a"tati fa a consecinta. Vita o a si sit"atia scandaloasa.

,N:

:. ef"%i". ;.

0 Tot"si t eb"ie sa stii, sp"se domn"l (lb" la " echea l"i )atei, ca n" se !o beste atat

de m"lt c" so a (n%elei. 1iind de o idiotie celeb a, s*a p"tea inte p eta ca ti*ai ca"tat lan%a ea "n Se tem" ca ma t" isi ea pe ca e i*o fac"se el po nea din o %oli" si e% eta

s"sceptibilitatea l"i. Tot"si e a c" ios ca el se %andise ca, in!in"ind"*se de l"c " i atat de neplac"te, !a fi mai inte esant pent " ea. =. (bia p inse de !este cand ea il pa asi si n" se int eba de ce !enise, daca !a mai !eni. Simpl"l fapt ca ea f"sese acolo il stapanea ca o betie. Se mi a, fe icit, de ce constata in sine. Toate simt" ile i se asc"tise a, capatase deodata p"te ea de a !edea consistent, l"minos si ap opiat si cand, !enind de la a!ocat, ea, ca e il pandise, ii st ec" a in mana "n bilet in ca e citi ca, cel p"tin pent " "n timp, t eb"ie sa n" se mai !aada pent " a n" cadea amandoi p a ada "nei il"Fii !"l%a e ce i*a p"tea costa nesp"s de m"lt si ca, stiind ca el n" a iFb"ti sa se op easca de a o ca"ta, !a pleca din o as la !ie, pent " o sede e mai indel"n%ata ca e le !a face bine amaand" o a, n" intelese nici de data asta decat ca ea i*a sc is, ca tine in mana o ha tie ca e f"sese in mana ei si peste ca e se aplecase %andind"*se la el. ?. A. $"i )atei i se pa " ca mama stie mai m"lte desp e moti!ele pleca ii &o ei la !ie insa ii Vltima data cand ne*am !aF"t aci m*ai spe iat p etinFand ca n" ai nici o ambitie pent " f" c" nep"tinta sa o int ebe ce stie an"me. !iito . Stii ca n"*i deloc f "mos pent " "n tana ca tine sa n" fie ambitios, sa n" aibaa "n idealD C ed ca n" mi*ai sp"s ade!a "l. B. ,N. N" ti*a t ec"t, asa, niciodata p in minte ca t eb"ie sa a4"n%i "n Paste" sa" "n (lexand " .X/ )atei socoti ca e mai intelept sa bata in et a%e e..Rad" Pet esc" 0 )atei Iliesc"/ cel )a e, "n !is de acesta neb"nesc si inflaca at pent " ealiFa ea ca "ia sa*ti dedici toata !iataD

SELEN INFINITI?E CO3+AE3ENTS ,.1.7.!t Are In(initive Com8$ements ,.2.A C$!ssi(i%!tion o( In(initives ,.".T.e Distri2#tion o( +RO TO Constr#%tions ,.'.T.e Distri2#tion o( FOR TO Constr#%tions ,.).Synt!%ti% F#n%tions o( +RO TO !nd For TO Constr#%tions ,.*.?er2s o( O2$i&!tory Contro$ ,.,.T.e Distri2#tion o( t.e Nomin!tive E In(initive Constr#%tion ,.-.T.e Distri2#tion o( t.e A%%#s!tive E In(initive Constr#%tion
,N;

,.@.Key Con%e8ts

?.,. -hat ( e Infiniti!e Complements Infiniti!e complements can be inte% ated into# ,. complements# .,/ a. I told he that she sho"ld be mo e ca ef"l in the f"t" e. .I*am sp"s sa fie mai atenta pe !iito /. b. I told he to be mo e ca ef"l in the f"t" e. .I*am sp"s sa fie mai atenta pe !iito / One can easily notice the simila ities existin% between the two const "ctions, and the elati!ely synonymo"s dimension the two st "ct" es ha!e. Othe data that can be inte p eted as a %"ments fo this !iew .that infiniti!e and that complements sha e a lot of simila feat" es/ a e the followin%# .5/ like that complements, infiniti!e ones can be ext aposed# a. It is impo tant that yo" sho"ld know what yo" need. .E impo tant sa stii ce iti t eb"ie./ b. It is impo tant fo yo" to know what yo" need. .E impo tant sa stii ce iti t eb"ie./ .9/ like that complements, infiniti!e ones can be topicaliFed# a. That yo" lo!e he is somethin% wonde f"l. complement clauses .if we conside them f om a st "ct" al point of !iew 0 see section : fo f" the details/. 1 om this pe specti!e, infiniti!e complements a e pa t of the same class as that*

.E min"nat ca o i"besti./ b. To lo!e he is somethin% eally wonde f"l. .( o i"bi pe ea este ce!a de*a d ept"l min"nat/. .:/ he . .Isi do ea din tot s"flet"l ca toti ba batii de pe l"me sa stea depa te de ea./ b. She wished with all he hea t to be left alone by e!e y man in the "ni!e se.
,N=

like that complements, infiniti!e ones can be s"b4ect to the "le of cla"se shift# a. She wished with all he hea t that e!e y man in the "ni!e se sho"ld stay away f om

.Isi do ea din tot s"flet"l sa fie lasata in pace de toti ba batii de pe pamint/ c. @ She wished that e!e y man in the "ni!e se sho"ld stay away f om he with all he hea t. d. @ She wished to be left alone by e!e y man in the "ni!e se with all he hea t. 5. non!finite mood structures .if we look at what kind of mood the !e b inside the

const "ction has/ 1 om this point of !iew, we distin%"ish between# nepersonale/ Ky con!ention, En%lish % amma analyses non*finite st "ct" es as clauses, that can hold a syntactical f"nction within the complex sentence .so, when one p o!ides the syntactical analysis of a complex sentence, they will distin%"ish between infinitival cla"ses, gerundial cla"ses, participial cla"ses./ The main cha acte istic exhibited by non*finite st "ct" es, as opposed to the finite ones, is the fact that they do not have temporal features. 1o instance, the ph ase to %o the e o %oin% the e does not exp ess an e!ent that is ancho ed in a ce tain time. The speake cannot tell fo s" e when these e!ents of %oin% the e happened. The only feat" es these const "ctions still ha!e a e the aspectual features and that is why one can notice that the Infiniti!e has four tenses# .;/ p esent # to lea!e pe fect# to ha!e left contin"o"s o p o% essi!e # to be lea!in% pe fect contin"o"s o pe fect p o% essi!e# to ha!e been lea!in% a. To ha!e s"cc"mbed to s"ch base passions was a shame indeed. finite moods .s"ch as the Indicati!e, the Conditional, the S"b4"ncti!e/ .in Romanian we non*finite moods .s"ch as the Infiniti!e, the 6e "nd, the Pa ticiple/ .i.e. moduri

call these moods moduri personale/

Ce e a e a few examples with these fo ms# .E a "sinos ca s*a lasat p ada "no pasi"ni atit de 4osnice./ b. They a e known to be doin% all so ts of !ile thin%s. .Se stie ca se indeletnicesc c" tot fel"l de l"c " i " ite./
,N?

c. Ce knew he to ha!e been knittin% a sweate fo a yea . .Stia ca c oseteaFa o flanea de "n an de File/ &"e to this lack of tempo al feat" es, the infiniti!e const "ction is often subjectless .beca"se no mally the s"b4ect needs the Nominati!e case and the infinitive cannot assign it since the e a e no tempo al and pe sonal feat" es. If the !e b fo m has no tempo al and pe sonal feat" es, that is no endin%, it cannot be in agreement &ith the subject and cannot assign it the +ominative case./

A%tivity 1 $ook at the followin% sentences and comment "pon a/ the tense of the infiniti!e b/ the % ammaticality of the sentence# ,.She needed a stick with which she to beat "p the old man. 5. It was an awf"l thin% to be sittin% the e abandoned. 9. It is nice she to ha!e a do% as a f iend. :. It was nice fo he to ha!e a do% as a f iend. ;. To be lookin% at he fo ho" s seems his fa!o" ite pastime. =. She eminded him to pick "p the flowe s fo S"san+s bi thday. ?. Ce to be lookin% at he fo ho" s seems his fa!o" ite pastime. A. E!e ybody knew him to ha!e been wo kin% as a pl"mbe fo mo e than twenty yea s. B. It is !ital fo o" facto y to be eopened. ,N. It is !ital this facto y to be eopened.

?.5

( Classification of Infiniti!es

The e a e th ee c ite ia we shall employ in this classification# ,. .=/ .?/ the c ite ion of form, acco din% to which the e a e lon% o f"ll infiniti!e fo ms# They told he to lea!e. sho t o ba e infiniti!e fo ms# They saw he lea!e.

The !e bs that no mally e'"i e the ba e infiniti!e a e# #he modal verbs# he can come any time Da1e # he made he smile Jet# he let he %o :elp .optionally/# he helped he climb the stai s
,NA

:ave .with the meanin% to ca"se somebody to do somethin%/# he had he clea the table Pe ception !e bs s"ch as see, hear,&atch# they watched him c y (n impo tant thin% to emembe he e is that by passiviIation, the bare infinitive becomes a full form# .A/ She was made to %o the e. .( fost fo tata sa se d"ca acolo./ The only !e b that does not follow this "le is let# .B/ The % ass was let % ow. .Ia ba e a E a fost lasata sa c easca./

A%tivity 2 T anslate the followin% sentences# )*a" p"s sa*l d"c pe Tom la scoala. E E am deseo i lasat sa plec de acasa. E (" !aF"t*o ca pleaca. E I*a a4"tat sa idice pachet"l acela % e". E $*a obse !at c"m maninca "n pachet int e% de ciocolata. E ( fost obli%at sa il t imita pe Tom pe f ont. E ( p"s*o pe )a ia sa isi faca c" at in came a. E ( obli%at*o pe )a ia sa isi faca c" at in do mito . E $*a" a"Fit c"m a cintat do"a cintece pat iotice.

5. between# .,N/ .,,/ .,5/

acco din% to whethe an ad!e b appea s between to and the infiniti!e, we can distin%"ish "nsplit infiniti!e She likes to look at the paintin% often. Split infiniti!e .o the SSta T ekT infiniti!e/ She likes to o(ten look at the paintin%. Captain Pica d wanted Sta ship Ente p ise to 2o$d$y %o and explo e the "ni!e se.

.Ii place sa se "ite adesea la tablo"./

1o a lon% pe iod En%lish % amma ians conside ed the Split Infiniti!e to be a not !e y ele%ant const "ction, "ncha acte istic fo lite a y En%lish. Cowe!e , this st "ct" e is mo e and mo e f e'"ent in e!e y*day lan%"a%e and is no lon%e conside ed so inele%ant. Cowe!e , it is still typical of elaxed speech.

A%tivity " T anslate the followin%, t yin% to "se the Split Infiniti!e#
,NB

L ea sa fie int *ade!a

ec"nosc"ta pe plan mondial. E ( plecat in st ainatate ca sa in!ete mai

bine metodele mode ne de ed"catie. E ( fi in mod st"pid tentat sa iti !inFi loc"inta pe "n p et de nimic este exact l"c "l de ca e ne temem c" totii. E Ceea ce s*a intimplat I*a fo tat sa de!ina pe data constienti de p oblemele existente. E N" ! ea" sa te mai !ad niciodata.E Pent " a intele%e pe deplin ce sc ie in ca te, t eb"ie sa te concent eFi "n pic mai m"lt.

9.

the thi d c ite ion of classification efe s to the way in which the logical subject of the

infiniti!e is t eated .I "nde lined the ph ase logical subject, beca"se, as I ha!e al eady mentioned, we cannot speak abo"t a syntactical subject inside the infiniti!e, since its lack of tempo al feat" es p ecl"des the assi%nment of the Nominati!e case 0 see p e!io"s s"bsection./ 1 om this point of !iew we can distin%"ish between# .,9/ Infiniti!es whe e the lo%ical s"b4ect is not lexically o!e t# Ca y t ied >> to lea!e.

-e place a %ap between the main cla"se !e b and the infiniti!e to show that the a%ent of the action exp essed by the infiniti!e is not exp essed. Ky con!ention we can name the missin% lo%ical s"b4ect P8O, that is somethin% that stands fo an item missin%# .,:/ Ca y t ied PRO to lea!e. 1" the on, we can co*index the s"b4ect Ca y with the PRO fo m, so as to show that it is in fact Ca y that pe fo ms the action exp essed by the infiniti!e# .,;/ Ca yi t ied PROi to lea!e. In othe wo ds, to "se the app op iate technical te m, we say that the s"b4ect Ca y controls the lo%ical co!e t s"b4ect fo which we ha!e "sed the notation PRO# Ca y is the controller of PRO. Since we ha!e "sed the notation PRO fo the lo%ical "nexp essed s"b4ect of the infiniti!e, we call this class of infiniti!al cla"ses the P8O!#O constructions, o the control constructions. Infiniti!es whe e the lo%ical s"b4ect is lexically exp essed in the fo m of a p epositional

ph ase int od"ced by the p eposition 1OR. That is why this class of infiniti!al const "ctions is called the >O8 #O infinitives# .,=/ It is impo tant fo him to come back home. .E impo tant ca el sa se intoa ca acasa./ In this sit"ation, the lo%ical s"b4ect, namely the agent of the e!ent, %ets its case f om the p eposition fo and can appea in the cla"se.
,,N

So fa , we ha!e mentioned the control construction and the for!#O construction. -hat is it that they ha!e in commonD a/ b/ .,?/ the fact that they are not re'uired by a ce tain class of !e bs in the main cla"se both of them can hold p actically the same syntactical f"nction# a. PRO to e is h"man, PRO to fo %i!e di!ine. .E omeneste sa % esesti, si c estineste sa ie ti./ b. It is impo tant fo him not to e . .E impo tant ca el sa n" % eseasca./ Ob4ect# .,A/ a. Ce t ied PRO to pe s"ade he of his innocence. .( ince cat sa o con!in%a ca este ne!ino!at./ b. I hoped fo him to be the e in time. .(m spe at ca el sa !ina la timp./ (d4"nct# .,B/ a. Ce bo"%ht a new ho"se PRO to please his na%%in% wife. . ( c"mpa at o casa no"a ca sa o m"lt"measca pe cicalitoa ea l"i ne!asta./ b. Ce stepped aside fo he to ente . .S*a dat la o pa te ca sa ii faca loc sa int e./ .5N/ The Accusative K "nfinitive const "ction , whe e the lo%ical s"b4ect of the infiniti!e is in I belie!e him to be a %ood lin%"ist.

S"b4ect#

the (cc"sati!e and e'"i ed by the main cla"se !e b whe ef om it %ets its case# .C ed ca este "n lin%!ist competent./ The inte estin% thin% with this class of infiniti!es and in fact the eason why they a e so called is that the di ect ob4ect of the main cla"se !e b is in eality the lo%ical s"b4ect of the infiniti!e. In othe wo ds, the p ono"n him %ets the (cc"sati!e f om the !e b belie!e b"t it is the a%ent of the !e b ph ase to be a %ood lin%"ist. -e m"st distin%"ish between s"ch examples as that "nde .5N/ and the followin% one# .5,/ I pe s"aded him to be a bette lin%"ist. .$*am con!ins sa fie "n lin%!ist mai b"n./

,,,

-hat is the diffe ence between two examples that look so simila D The distinction lies in the fact that in .5,/, him is not the a%ent of the infiniti!e, b"t the patient of the !e b pe s"ade. Semantically, him is elated to the main cla"se !e b, not to the infiniti!e. The second example is not an acc"sati!e ` infiniti!e st "ct" e, b"t a PRO*TO one# .55/ .59/ .5:/ I pe s"aded himi PROi to be a bette lin%"ist. I want animals to be to t" ed. I hate animals to be to t" ed. (lso conside the followin% examples# .L ea" ca animalele sa fie chin"ite/ .N" s"po t ca animalele sa fie chin"ite./ ( %ood test by means of which yo" can decide which of these examples is an acc"sati!e ` infiniti!e const "ction and which is a PRO*TO one is that of inference# fo instance, f om example .5N/ yo" cannot infe the sentence I belie!e him, whe eas example .55/ implies I pe s"aded him. This fact indicates that in the fi st case him was i%htf"lly pa t of the infiniti!al const "ction, b"t in the second case it belon%ed with the main cla"se !e b pe s"ade. $ikewise, f om .59/ yo" hopef"lly cannot infe I want animals, no can yo" infe f om .5:/ that yo" hate animals. This means that both .59/ and .5:/ a e acc"sati!e ` infiniti!e st "ct" es, since the di ect ob4ect animals does not semantically belon% with the main cla"se !e bs, b"t with the infiniti!e in the s"bo dinate.

A%tivity ' %istinguish bet&een the follo&ing infinitive structures. )hich are accusative K infinitive ones and &hich are control constructions* I wo"ld like people to !isit me e!e y day. d She wanted him to lea!e. d She p omised him to lea!e. d They tempted him to lea!e. d I wo"ld lo!e them to come. d I allowed them to come. d Ce pe s"aded he to come. d They con!inced he to come back. d They wo"ld ha!e hated he to come back. d They eally asked he to come back. d They did not wish he to come back.

$ast b"t not least, the e is the +ominative K "nfinitive construction, so called beca"se

the syntactical s"b4ect in the main cla"se is in fact the lo%ical s"b4ect of the infiniti!e. Since this item cannot %et case f om the infiniti!e it %oes back to %et the Nominati!e f om the main cla"se !e b# .5;/ Ce appea s to be a %ood lin%"ist.
,,5

.Pa e sa fie "n lin%!ist b"n./ .5=/ Ce seems to be a %ood lin%"ist. .Pa e sa fie "n lin%!ist b"n./ In examples .5;/ and .5=/, the s"b4ect is not the a%ent of the main cla"se !e b, hence yo" cannot infe somethin% like# he appea s o he seems. K"t it is clea that he is a %ood lin%"ist .This means that the s"b4ect he is in fact elated to the infiniti!e !e b not to the indicati!e one. Compa e these examples to# .5?/ I mana%ed to %et a %ood 4ob. .(m e"sit sa obtin o sl"4ba b"na./ whe e the s"b4ect I is the a%ent of the main cla"se !e b, and yo" can infe I mana%ed somethin%. So, this example contains a PRO 0 TO infiniti!e# .5A/ Ii mana%ed PROi to %et a %ood 4ob. -hat is it that these last two classes of infiniti!e st "ct" es ha!e in commonD a/ 1i st, it is the fact that both of them bo ow items f om the main cla"se to o"nd "p thei meanin%. b/ Second, both of these const "ctions appea only with certain main clause verbs, with special semantic and syntactic p ope ties. In that they diffe f om the fi st two classes disc"ssed abo!e, which a e said to be f ee, that is not e'"i ed by ce tain !e bs. The last two st "ct" es a e said to be lexically %o!e ned beca"se they a e e'"i ed by special !e bs .s"ch as &ant, seem, hate, appear, etc./. To s"m "p the disc"ssion, he e is a dia% am# Infiniti!e complements * f ee# * cont ol const "ctions * fo 0to const "ctions * lexically %o!e ned# * acc"sati!e ` infiniti!e * nominati!e ` infiniti!e

A%tivity ) #ranslate the follo&ing sentences, bearing in mind that there are different classes of infinitival structures:

,,9

Se pa e ca a 4ef"it toate bancile din !ecinatate. E Se stie ca a ince cat sa se sin"cida. E Se c ede ca a sed"s*o pe fata miliona "l"i ca e sta lin%a noi. E (sasin"l nec"nosc"t se pa e ca a mai comis o c ima la eta4"l =. E E a impo tant ca el sa asc"lte toata ma t" ia ei. E E de do it sa !ina si sa ec"noasca fapt"l ca sint !ino!ati. E N"*i p ea ti Fi" sa in!ete. EI*am in!atat sa !o beasca co ect si sa sc ie fa a % eseli.E Se p es"p"ne ca o c"noaste de "n ca de ani. E N*am sti"t niciodata sa ma po t c"m t eb"ie in fata ei. E L ea" sa*ti sp"n ce c ed desp e tine. E L ea" sa pleci din casa mea. E E % e" sa il s"po ti.E S*a intimplat sa fie p in ap opie e, asa ca am in!itat*o sa bea o cafea.

?.9. appea # a/

The &ist ib"tion of PRO * TO Const "ctions

In this s"bsection we disc"ss which a e the most likely contexts in which these st "ct" es !e bs that imply the idea of esponsibility and cont ol# attempt, fail, try, manage, agree

to, aspire to, see1 /L try0, endeavour, contrive, refuse, decline, condescend, deign, presume, venture, arrange, omit, scheme, care to, etc. .5A/ b/ .5B/ c/ .9N/ Cei so"%ht PROi to find o"t the t "th abo"t 1 eddie )e c" y+s death. !e bs s"ch as abide, bear, afford, deserve, need, scorn, etc.# Ii cannot abide PROi to see s"ch c "elty. !e bs of likin% and dislikin%# choose, desire, e pect, li1e, disli1e, intend, mean, hate, Shei wanted PROi to become a famo"s ope a sin%e . .( ca"tat sa afle ade!a "l desp e conditiile in ca e a m" it 1 eddie )e c" y./

.N" pot s"po ta sa !ad asemenea c "Fime./ prefer, propose, &ant, &ish, hope, etc.# .&o ea sa a4"n%a o cinta eata de ope a en"mita./ Some of these !e bs accept an acc"sati!e ` infiniti!e !a iant as well. Compa e# .9,/ a. Shei expected PROi to ecei!e an expensi!e %ift f om he boy*f iend. .Se astepta sa p imeasca "n cado" sc"mp din pa tea p ieten"l"i ei./ b. She expected he boyf iend to %i!e he an expensi!e p esent. .Se astepta ca p ieten"l ei sa*i faca "n cado" costisito ./ Some of these !e bs also allow a 1OR*TO const "ction o a that cla"se# .95/ a. I wo"ld like fo him to become p esident of the co"nt y. .)i*a placea sa a4"n%a p esedintele ta ii./

,,:

b. I hate that yo" sho"ld say a thin% like this. .Imi pa e a" sa a"d asa ce!a./ d/ !e bs of mental state and lin%"istic comm"nication# remember, forget, as1, conclude, claim, threaten, suggest,etc. )ost of these !e bs allow alte nati!e that const "ctions# .99/ a. I emembe ed that I had to %o to the post office. .)i*am amintit ca t eb"ie sa ma d"c la posta./ b. Ii emembe ed PROi to %o to the post office. .)i*am amintit sa ma d"c la posta./ ?.:. The &ist ib"tion of 1OR 0 TO Const "ctions

These st "ct" es no mally appea in combination with int ansiti!e !e bs o ad4ecti!es# arrange, endeavour, verbs of li1ing and disli1ing, bear, stand, be important, possible, desirable, etc. The complement cla"se is "s"ally ext aposed# .9:/ a. 1o all of them to ha!e been killed is, howe!e , "nlikely. .Ca ei toti sa fie omo iti este p"tin p obabil./ b. It is howe!e "nlikely fo all of them to ha!e been killed. .Este p"tin p obabil ca ei toti sa fie omo iti./ The lo%ical s"b4ect of the 1OR*TO const "ction can be also ep esented by the expleti!e there s"b4ect as well# .9;/ It is impossible fo the e to be a wa between yo" co"nt y and mine. .E imposibil sa existe "n aFboi int e ta a mea si a ta./ ?.;. (. Syntactic 1"nctions of PRO*TO and 1OR*TO Const "ctions Subject Clauses

In this cate%o y we can mention the less f e'"ent cases, whe e PRO is co*indexed with a nominal in the main cla"se# .9=/ It was nice of yo"i PROi to allow me to come he e. .( fost amabil din pa tea ta sa*mi dai !oie sa !in aici./ The mo e f e'"ent sit"ation is when PRO is inte p eted %ene ically# .9?/ PRO to lo!e one+s pa ents so deeply is a nat" al thin%. . Este "n l"c " nat" al sa*ti i"besti pa intii atit de m"lt./

,,;

The %ene ic inte p etation of PRO is also s"ppo ted by the p esence of the %ene ic p ono"n one within the infiniti!e. The most f e'"ently met s"b4ect 1OR*TO infiniti!es a e those ext aposed# .9A/ It was impo tant fo them to be the e. .E a impo tant ca ei sa fie acolo./ ,. Predicative Clauses .Exista tendinta ca inst "cti"nile sa fie mai detailate./ b. O" i task is PROi to in!esti%ate the details of this case. .Sa cina noast a este sa in!esti%am detaliile le%ate de acest caF./ -. .9B/ %irect Objects a. I meant fo him to be alone with he toni%ht. .(m ! "t ca el sa amina sin%" c" ea in sea a asta./ b. Ii wo"ld lo!e PROi to listen to this conce t. .)i*a placea foa te m"lt sa asc"lt acest conce t./ 2. Prepositional Objects

.9B/ a. The tendency was fo the inst "ctions to be mo e detailed.

They appea afte !e bs o ad4ecti!es which no mally select P epositional complements. $ike in the case of that complements, the p eposition is deleted, b"t the meanin% emainsQ this is why we call these ob4ects prepositional objects# .:N/ a. I decided fo Gohn to ep esent "s. .(m hota it sa ne ep eFinte Gohn./ b. Ii am c" io"s PROi to see whethe they will come on time. .Sint c" ios sa !ad daca !o sosi la timp./ 4. Attribute This sit"ation happens with# a/ elati!e infiniti!e const "ctions .:N/ They bo"%ht he a book with which PROi to step on the path of knowled%e. .I*a" c"mpa at o ca te c" a4"to "l ca eia sa paseasca pe d "m"l c"noaste ii./ b/ complement const "ctions .afte abst act no"ns de i!ed f om !e bs o ad4ecti!es/
,,=

.:,/

)yi attempt PROi to escape he was a fail" e.

.Ince ca ea mea de a scapa de ea s*a soldat c" "n esec./ The distinction between elati!e infiniti!es and complement infiniti!es is simila with the one we made between elati!e cla"ses and complement cla"ses in a p e!io"s section. 5. a/ Adverbial when the infiniti!e f"nctions as a restrictive modifier the infiniti!e is !iewed as an ad!e bial, not as an ob4ect beca"se ad4ecti!es s"ch as

Ce e we can notice se!e al diffe ent cases#

pretty, delicious, bastard do not no mally e'"i e a p epositional ob4ect afte them like in the case of ad4ecti!es like a&are of, curious about,etc.# .:5/ a. She is p etty to look at. .Este o fata ca e iti b"c" a ochii./ b. The stew is delicio"s to eat. .Tocana e foa te b"na la %"st./ c. Ce is a basta d to wo k fo . .Este "n sef ca e te p"ne la m"nca din Fo i pina in sea a./ d. Po"+ e an idiot to %o the e. .Esti "n p ost daca te d"ci acolo./ e. This paint is like conc ete to wo k with. .Lopsea"a asta este ta e ca beton"l./ b/ .:9/ c/ .::/ .:;/ d/ .:=/ ad!e bial of p" pose .the most common f"nction met with ad!e bial infiniti!es/ Ii slapped him PROi in o de to calm him down. ad!e bial of es"lt The plate was too hot to to"ch. -ill yo" be so kind as to %i!e me the plateD exclamato y, final o int od"cto y infiniti!e To be pe fectly f ank, yo"+ e a bad d i!e . .int od"cto y/

.I*am t as o palma ca sa il calmeF./

.1a f" ia e a p ea fie binte ca sa poata fi atinsa./ .Esti asa d a%"t sa imi dai fa f" iaD/ In this case, the infiniti!e is an independent cla"se# .Sa*ti sp"n d ept, cond"ci p ost./
,,?

.:?/ .:A/

I+!e ne!e met him, to tell yo" the t "th. .final/ Oh, to be yo"n% a%ain7 .exclamati!e/

.N"*l c"nosc, d ept sa sp"n./ .Ehei, sa fii ia asi tina 7/

A%tivity * #ranslate the follo&ing sentences, trying to use the P8O!#O or >O8!#O infinitives &ith the syntactical functions discussed above: Oh, cind te %indesti ca pe ! em" i stia sa cinte asa de f "mos la !ioa a7 E Ia ba e a p ea "da ca sa stai pe ea.E Este indicat ca pe soanele fa a pasapo t sa se p eFinte la politie. E E dest"l de bo%ata sa*si pe mita o blana si o masina no"a. E Ehei, sa mai fii tina si sa te poti b"c" a din plin de !iataXE Si*a c"mpa at bilet din timp, sa n" pia da t en"l. E E int *atit de lipsita de inima incit e capabila sa n" ii mai dea banii pent " apa tament. E N"*i chia atit de bat in incit sa n" o ia de la capat. E Pe slea", n" mai am ne!oie de tine si nici de se !iciile tale. E Ca sa n" mai l"n%im !o ba, n" mai ! ea" sa te !ad. E S*a into s din calato ie doa ca sa dea de ne!asta*sa int *o poFitie comp omitatoa e. E (m o !o ba sa iti sp"n. E E o pe soana c" ca e poti com"nica "so . E N"*i % e" sa loc"iesti c" el. E T" esti de !ina ca a explodat fab ica.

?.=.

Le bs of Obli%ato y Cont ol

Ky verbs of obligatory control we mean those classes of !e bs that demand that only a ce tain nominal inside the main cla"se sho"ld be co*indexed with PRO, that is with the co!e t lo%ical s"b4ect of the infiniti!e. (cco din% to this, we can distin%"ish between# a/ .:B/ !e bs of s"b4ect cont ol .whe e the s"b4ect in the main cla"se m"st cont ol PRO/ 0 the a. Cei attempted PROi to m" de his wife. b. Cei p omised he PROi to %i!e he a new in%. .I*a p omis sa ii dea cado" "n inel./ The fact that only the s"b4ect he is allowed to cont ol .hence be co*indexed with/ PRO is einfo ced by the impossibility of inte p etin% PRO as cont olled by the indi ect ob4ect her: .;N/ @ Ce p omised he i PROi to watch a new show.
,,A

most f e'"ent case in fact# attempt, promise, s&ear,etc. .( ince cat sa isi "cida sotia./

b/

!e bs of di ect ob4ect cont ol .whe e the di ect ob4ect of the main cla"se !e b m"st

cont ol PRO/ 0 he e mostly !e bs of ca"sation a e incl"ded# authoriIe, direct, enable, encourage, induce, influence, oblige, need, inspire, press, urge, inform, etc.# .;,/ a. Ce fo ced the p isone i PROi to kneel down in f ont of him. .$*a obli%at pe p iFonie sa in%en"ncheFe in fata l"i./ b. Cis c" ses inspi ed the boyi PROi to "tte fo"l wo ds himself. .In4" at" ile l"i i*a" dat ideea baiat"l"i sa !o beasca si el " it./ In this cate%o y of !e bs one can also mention a small class incl"din%# appoint, elect, choose, nominate, name, vote, etc.# .;5/ She elected he h"sbandi PROi to "n the hospital. .$*a ales pe sot"l ei in cond"ce ea spital"l"i./ c/ !e bs of p epositional ob4ect cont ol .whe e the p epositional ob4ect inside the main

cla"se m"st cont ol PRO/# rely on, count on, prevail on, depend on, loo1 to, etc. .;9/ Po" may ely on mei PROi to help yo". .Te poti baFa pe a4"to "l me"./ d/ .;9/ .;:/ !e bs of indi ect ob4ect cont ol .whe e the indi ect ob4ect in the main cla"se m"st Ce told the maidi PROi to anno"nce he . I lea!e it to yo"i PROi to take ca e of it.

cont ol PRO/# tell, order, command, allo&, permit,etc.# .I*a sp"s se !itoa ei sa o an"nte./ .$as l"c " ile in % i4a ta./

A%tivity , "dentify the predicates re'uesting infinitival constructions= &hich of them are e pressed by verbs of obligatory control* I p es"me yo" do not want to fi%" e in my life me ely as a pest. E I do not intend to tell him that myself. E I ha!e no wish to "p oot o" sel!es at o" a%e and no inclination to et" n to a pa t of the wo ld which has fo "s only the "nhappiest of associations. E X and when yo" ha!e done so the e is little do"bt b"t that they will ad!ise yo" to yo" own co"nt y at once.E I hope to call on yo" and yo"

,,B

h"sband a day o two afte the f"ne al.E (nd now he ef"ses to see me and has w itten me a dis%"stin% missi!e. .I is )" doch, An Accidental Dan/

?.?. The &ist ib"tion of the Nominati!e ` Infiniti!e Const "ction (s p e!io"sly mentioned, this const "ction is le ically governed, i.e. it no mally appea s afte ce tain !e bs with special semantic p ope ties# a/ .;;/ b/ .;=/ c/ .;?/ (* !e bs# appear, seem, happen, etc.# She appea s to like him. inchoati!e !e bs .o chan%e of state !e bs/# get, gro&, come,etc. She % ew to like him in the end. const "ctions incl"din% the !e b be# be to, be about to, be going to, etc. Ce is to come any day now.

.Se pa e ca ii place de el./

.In cele din " ma a4"nse sa*l simpatiFeFe./

.T eb"ie sa soseasca Filele astea./ -ith be going to the e a e two inte p etations# .;A/ .;B/ The Nominati!e ` Infiniti!e one# I am %oin% to be late E faint. Cont ol const "ction Ii am %oin% PROi to meet he at ;.

.O sa inti FiiE lesin./

.)a intilnesc c" ea la ;/. The meanin% of .;A/, that of intention is well s"ppo ted by the syntactical analysis, that p es"pposes the fact that PRO is cont olled by the s"b4ect of the main cla"se. In .;?/, the s"b4ect cannot cont ol the action in any way .since we cannot speak abo"t the intention of the s"b4ect to be late o faint/, hence the e is no cont ol sit"ation whatsoe!e . d/ .=N/ e/ .=,/ modal exp essions s"ch as have to o ought to# Cei has PROi to tell he the t "th. !e bs of mental pe ception in the passi!e# be said, be thought, be rumoured, be claimed, Ce was "mo" ed to ha!e m" de ed his wife.
,5N

.T eb"ie sa*i sp"na ade!a "l./ be considered, be alleged, be reported, etc.#

.Se F!onea ca isi omo ise sotia./ ?.A.The &ist ib"tion of the (cc"sati!e ` Infiniti!e Const "ction This const "ction no mally appea s in combination with# a/ .=5/ .=9/ !e bs of physical pe ception basic ones that e'"i e ba e infiniti!al st "ct" es# see, hear, feel, &atch, overhear,etc.# They hea d him ins"lt he . neolo%ical !e bs that e'"i e f"ll infiniti!al st "ct" es# notice, observe, perceive,etc.# I pe cei!ed him to be known in his nei%hbo" hood.

.$*a" a"Fit ins"ltind*o./

.(m obse !at ca e a c"nosc"t in ca tie ./ (n inte estin% p ope ty of physical pe ception !e bs is that they can make "p both the Nominati!e ` Infiniti!e st "ct" e and the (cc"sati!e ` Infiniti!e one. Cowe!e , the e is a clea diffe ence in meanin% between the two possibilities# Compa e# .=:/ to .=;/ b/ .==/ .=?/ c/ .=A/ d/ 1 eddie )e c" y was hea d to sin% last ni%ht. .Nominati!e ` Infiniti!e/ ca"sati!e !e bs# with a ba e infiniti!e# ma1e, have, let I+ll ha!e yo" lea n this in no time. with a f"ll infiniti!e# get, cause, occasion, necessitate I co"ldn+t %et them to pay me my money. !e bs of mental pe ception # assume, believe, consider, understand, figure, picture, find, I belie!e him to be a %eni"s. !e bs of pe mission and command# allo&, permit, suffer, order, command, etc.#
,5,

They hea d 1 eddie )e c" y sin% last ni%ht. .(cc"sati!e `Infiniti!e/

.this is p obably beca"se he sin%s as a "le/

.this was an exceptional occ" ence, since he does not no mally sin% in p"blic/

.Te fac sa in!eti asta cit ai Fice peste./

.N*am e"sit sa*i fac sa*mi dea banii./ imagine, remember, recollect, judge, deem, presume, 1no&, discover, prove,etc.# .C ed ca este "n %eni"./

.=B/

I allowed the t ees in the ya d to be c"t down.

.(m pe mis sa fie taiati pomii din c" te./ These !e bs ha!e the special cha acte istic that can be combined with P8O!#O const "ctions as well# .?N/ e/ choose,etc.# .?,/ I wo"ld like him to be the e at ;. .(s ! ea sa fie acolo la o a ;./ $ike in the case of the p e!io"s class of !e bs, these ones allow PRO*TO const "ctions as well# .?5/ Ii wo"ld like PROi to %o the e. .(s ! ea sa ma d"c acolo./ I allowed the %a dene i PROi to c"t down the t ees. !e bs of likin% and dislikin%# li1e, love, prefer, &ant, &ish, desire, e pect, mean, .I*am pe mis % adina "l"i sa taie pomii./

A%tivity Identify the infiniti!e st "ct" es in the followin% textsQ state thei type and f"nction# a/ Ca old pe s"aded (lec to let him d i!e them home. The d inks hadn+t chee ed him "pQ they had dep essed and f"ddled him. Ca old, who wasn+t "sed to men with moods, tho"%ht that the best and kindest policy was to i%no e (lec+s. if he himself was o"t of spi its, he hated anyone to comment on it. It was a meas" e of self*p otection datin% f om his schooldays, when a lon% face was a si%n of weakness and the whole pack wo"ld t" n on him if they saw him lookin% sad. ( chee f"l co"ntenance was the fi st line of defence. )ost of Ca old+s men f iends felt the same, and if they had seen one of thei n"mbe lookin% '"ite s"icidal, wo"ld ne!e ha!e d eamt of askin% him the eason. b/ &" in% the !isit Ca old+s own o"tlook had "nde %one a %ood many chan%es. It was nat" al to him to feel c itical of anothe en!i onment than his own. Ce s"spected hostility at onceQ the he d instinct was !e y st on% in him. In so fa as he was a snob his snobbe y only ope ated within his own social % o"pQ he didn+t en!y those abo!e it, tho"%h he tended to look down on those below it. Koth seemed to him a little "n eal, and as if they didn+t know what life was abo"t. (nd this was especially the case with (lec and his wife+s o"tfit, fo (lec belon%ed to no % o"p o social st at"m, he appea ed to ha!e the f eedom of se!e al b"t to be indi%eno"s to none. .$.P.Ca tley 0 A Perfect )oman/

,55

?.B. Oey Concepts The analysis of infiniti!al st "ct" es is b"ilt "pon a few c ite ia of classification# f om this point of !iew, we can speak abo"t bare and full infiniti!es, abo"t split and unsplit ones and abo"t infiniti!es with no e pressed logical subject o &ith an e pressed logical subject. The last c ite ion, ha!in% to do with the p esence of a lo%ical s"b4ect inside the infiniti!e, is connected to the fact that infiniti!e const "ctions can ha!e no syntactical subject within them. This happens beca"se the infiniti!e mood exhibits no temporal features and is limited to aspectual features only. 1 om this pe specti!e, we can speak abo"t free constructions . e'"i ed by no special semantic class of !e bs/# the PRO*TO and the 1OR*TO const "ctions. -e can e'"ally speak abo"t le ically governed infinitive constructions .which appea afte special !e bs with semantic pa tic"la ities/# the Nominati!e ` Infiniti!e and the (cc"sati!e ` Infiniti!e const "ctions. Thei cha acte istic lies in the fact that both of them eso t to main cla"se !e bs to assi%n case to thei lo%ical s"b4ects. The lo%ical test of inference offe s the modality of checkin% whethe a st "ct" e belon%s to this class o not.

A%tivity @ this section# a/ b/ c/ d/

O8tion!$ E9er%ises

T anslate the followin% texts, makin% "se of the info mation on infiniti!al cla"ses s"pplied in Kietei mame i se "pea inima cind se %indea ca peste o l"na a e sa*i amiie casa p"stieQ E % e" de calc"lat efectele "n"i p incipi". Calato iile c" lift"l, sp e deosebi e de acelea c" t en"l o i c" a!ion"l, sin% m"lt p ea &e ce*o fi el atit de t istD C" ce a p"tea fi a4"tat, sa n" mai a ate atit de s"mb "D Exista

da cind a!em ne!oie sa min%iiem pe altii, pa e ca "itam p op ia noast a d" e e.

sc" te ca sa te infioa e c" %ind"l "nei p edestina i. cine!a ca e sa n" se simta sin%" D O ice om a e momente cind ii !ine sa se spinF" e, fi este, da t eb"ie sa ai o f e c" tot"l apa te ca sa ti se intimple asta tocmai cind cinta co "l acesta. e/ Cind doi oameni, "n ba bat si o femeie, sta" File int e%i int e Fid" ile in%hetate si tot ce le amine de fac"t e sa ciocane a si p "dent in pe etele ce*i despa te, ce e"sesc ei sa*si sp"na astfel p ec"m si ci c"mstantele in ca e com"nica n" seamana, de b"na seama, c" "na din disc"tiile acelea foa te a% eabile ce a" loc in caF"l "nei atin%e i de fi e, b"naoa a, sa" c" ocaFia "n"i n"ma fo mat

,59

% esit. E posibil, int *o Fi, ca om"l din spatele Fid"l"i sa fie schin%i"it, da sa n"*ti sp"na. Si t" sa fii, de asemenea, lo!it si "milit. .T"do Octa!ian 0 Mid intre un barbat si o femeie/ f/ E impo tant timp"l ca e t ece, e impo tant ce int eba i p"i, daca ! ei ca po!estea sa aiba "n sens, sa*l capete, mai bine*Fis, daca ! ei ca toate aceste obsc" e si candide neade!a " i, pe ca e le cladesti c" teama si infio a e, c" sila si "sinea de a fi ne!oit s*o faci, * sa se intoa ca la tine c" fieca e s"net, mai pline de inteles, mai !e osimile decit insasi e!identa. Sa sp"i de pilda, ca esti tina . Si sa incepi sa c eFi ca esti tina . .T"do Octa!ian 0 Mid intre un barbat si o femeie/ %/ h/ N" stia ce sa mai faca s*o op easca din plins. 0 L ea" sa me %em7 Rasp"nde apasat d*na )o oi. L ea" fiindca ! ea"X t eb"ie sa

intele%i odata ca n" pot t ai ca o p"stnica. Ne*a" in!itat oameniiX si e s"pe io "l d"mitale. (i do i sa te p i!esc ca p*o icoana, sa t aiesc n"mai c" t"sea c" 4"n%hi" ile si palpitatiile d"mitaleD .K.St.&ela! ancea, +uvele/ i/ Ideea d*a n" n" misca ne obosea si cap"l incepea sa ne t em" e. $oc"l "nde f"nd"l testii se in4"%a c" si a spina ii ne d" ea. &e e a !a a, nad"seala incepea sa ne c" %a pe ob a4i si pe d"pa " echi, in 4os, d*a l"n%"l %it"l"i. C" nep"tinta ca cei mai slabi sa n" miste o mina, "n picio Q sa", %idilati de si oaiele de nad"seala, sa n" ! ea sa se stea %a. .K.St.&ela! ancea 0 +uvele/ 4/ Pa"l (chim n" e a copt, inca, sa*si ad"ca aminte n" n"mai de docto "l St oesc", asa c"m ii apa "se el, in ploaie, ci si de con!e satia lo din acea noapte, pe ca e de4a o "itase. &esi disc"tia me ita sa fie tin"ta minte. Insa Pa"l (chim t aise, in pa te, mai bine de do"a decenii, ca sa n" si*o aminteasca, nici maca in acele p"ncte "nde, in pa te, a!"sese d eptate. &a e a m"lt mai comod sa*si "ite d eptatea, ca e exista p in opoFitie fata de l"c " i pe ca e fieca e om ap oape le t ece in tace e, in con!e satiile sale c" el ins"si. N" p"t"se sa*l lase in st ada pe docto "l St oesc", desi, de fapt, a fi ! "t sa fie lasat in pace, in acea clipa de aleasa fe ici e cind e a la incep"t"l "nei i"bi i, fie ea si % abita. .(l.I!asi"c 0 lluminari/ k/ 4" amint"l de a*mi schimba fel"l de !iata, i*as ad"ce acest"i ba bat o % i4a c"m n" s*a mai !aF"t, de a*i fi pe plac si de a*l sl"4i. )a la"d sin%" a, pent " ca n" incape "sine in p i!inta aceasta cind te sileste ne!oia. Int *"n c"!int, ! ea" sa sp"n ca e" ca"t "n sot ca e sa ma ape e, sa*mi po "nceasca si sa ma especte, si n" "n amant, ca e sa ma se !easca si sa ma in4" e. &aca domnia*ta accepti ceea ce*ti pot da "i, sint aici c" tot ce am, %ata sa maa s"p"n o ica ei po "nci, fa a sa ma p"n in !inFa e .pent " ca asta inseamna sa te dai pe mina mi4locitoa elo /, caci nimeni n" se p icepe sa mi4loceasca mai bine decit pa tile insele. C" Fest ea asta, ca"t "n sot ca "ia sa ma da "i si ca "ia sa*i fi" s"p"saQ deopot i!a c"

,5:

.ProIa picaresca/

EI6CT ING CO3+AE3ENTS -.1.T.e +!rti%i8$e -.1.1.+!rti%i8i!$ Constr#%tions -.1.2.C.!r!%teristi%s o( +!rti%i8i!$ Constr#%tions -.2.T.e Ger#nd -.2.1.A C$!ssi(i%!tion o( Ger#ndi!$ Forms -.2.2.C.!r!%teristi%s o( Ger#nds -.2.".Di((eren%es 2etween +!rti%i8$es !nd Ger#nds -.".T.e ?er2!$ No#n -.'.ING Forms !nd In(initives -.).Key Con%e8ts The last section of this co" se conce ns itself with the emainin% non*finite fo ms# Pa ticipial and 6e "ndial st "ct" es. The cha acte istic these fo ms sha e with the infiniti!al ones is the fact that they ha!e no temporal features. $ike in the case of infiniti!al const "ctions they exhibit aspect"al feat" es and cannot assi%n case to thei lo%ical s"b4ect. One of the p oblems always p esent when disc"ssin% the Pa ticiple and the 6e "nd is the fact that both of these moods ha!e the same endin%# * ing. This makes it sometimes diffic"lt fo "s to diffe entiate between them. &"e to this sit"ation, we shall ha!e to point o"t the specific feat" es of each const "ction. $et "s sta t with the Pa ticiple# A.,. The Pa ticiple The fi st distinction to be made he e is that between present participle and past participle. These a e the tenses of this mood and they diffe in point of endin%# the present participle ends in ing and makes the ob4ect of o" disc"ssion. The past participle ends in en .o *ed/ and will be ma %inally tackled in this section. $et "s now see the main contexts whe e we can identify pa ticipial fo ms# A.,.,. Pa ticipial Const "ctions

,5;

.,/

The main context in which the p esent pa ticiple appea s is when it is pa t of a S"san is sleeping.

contin"o"s tense fo m# .S"san doa me./ In .,/ the ing fo m that appea s within the P esent Contin"o"s LP .!e b ph ase/ is a p esent pa ticiple. This fact is also t "e of past participle fo ms and perfect or passive !e b ph ases# .5/ a. S"san has come. .( !enit S"san/ b. S"san has been 1illed. In .5/ the fo ms come, been and 1illed a e past pa ticiple fo ms. ( context whe e the p esent pa ticiple f e'"ently appea s is when it is combined with a

no"n ph ase and has a modifyin% f"nction, i.e. it f"nctions att ib"ti!ely. Ce e we ha!e two sit"ations# a/ when it appea s befo e the no"n in '"estion# .9/ The running man is my boss. .Om"l ca e alea %a este sef"l me"./ b/ when it appea s afte the no"n in '"estion# .:/ The man running on the t ack is my boss. .Om"l ca e alea %a pe pista este sef"l me"./ (s yo" can see in this second case, the pa ticiple may be accompanied by additional complements .on the trac1/. This sit"ation is also cha acte istic fo past pa ticiples, especially when they a e placed in f ont of the nominal and appea in compo"nds# .;/ Cis clean!shaved face was shinin% in the moonli%ht. .1ata l"i bine ba bie ita st al"cea in l"mina l"nii./ )o e inf e'"ently, the past pa ticiple can appea afte a no"n, too# .=/ Ce eye*lids, blood!shot and painted, we e closin%. .I se inchidea" ochii, c" pleoape in4ectate si fa date./ The pa ticiple can also f e'"ently appea as an adverbial and he e we can notice two

sit"ations#

,5=

a/ when it has no exp essed lo%ical s"b4ect .?/ a. Arriving he e, they sta ted sin%in%. .adverbial of time/ .adverbial of reason/ . adverbial of time K time .Sosind aici, incep" a sa cinte./ b. Nno&ing who the %"y was, she an away. .Stiind cine e a el, ea o l"a la f"%a./ c. )hen singing, people sho"ld pay attention to hi%h notes. conjunction/ .(t"nci cind cinta, oamenii t eb"ie sa fie atenti la notele inalte./ d. "f provo1ed, a lion can attack. .adverbial of condition K conditional conjunction0 .&aca este p o!ocat, le"l poate sa atace./ b/ when it has an exp essed lo%ical s"b4ect # the Absolute Participle .A/ a. <od &illing, I will a i!e the e on time. .C" !oia l"i &"mneFe", o sa a4"n% la timp./ b. )eather permitting, I will a i!e the e on time. .adverbial of condition/ .&aca ! emea imi pe mite, o sa a4"n% la timp./ The lo%ical s"b4ects in .A/ a e <od and &eather, especti!ely. This const "ction is called the Absolute Participle afte the model of $atin whe e the e is the (bsol"te (blati!e 0 an elliptical const "ction made "p of no"ns and non*finite fo ms in the (blati!e, which stands fo an ad!e bial cla"se. The pa ticiple may also appea in the so*called independent participial constructions# Nominati!e ` P esent E Past Pa ticiple a. :e was fo"nd stealing. .$*a" descope it ca f" a./ b. :e was fo"nd 1illed by a bullet. .$*a" %asit "cis de "n %lonte./ b/ .,N/ (cc"sati!e ` P esent E Past Pa ticiple a. I fo"nd him stealing. .adverbial of condition/

a/ .B/

.$*am descope it f" ind./ b. They fo"nd him 1illed by a bullet. .$*a" %asit "cis de "n %lonte./

,5?

$et "s make "p a list of !e bs and ad4ecti!es that e'"i e the p esence of the independent participial constructions# a0 .,,/ .,5/ .,9/ Oerbs re'uiring +ominative and Accusative K Present Participle Le bs of physical pe ception# see, hear, smell, &atch, behold, notice, perceive I felt her trembling. :e was noticed crying. Ca"sati!e !e bs# get, have, set, start, 1eep, send, leave,etc a. I+ll ha!e you all spea1ing fluent .nglish soon.

.(m simtit*o t em" ind./ .( fost !aF"t plin%ind./

.O sa !a fac sa !o biti toti c" ind o en%leFa b"na./ b. Ce+ll soon %et things going. .O sa p"na epede l"c " ile in misca e./ c. :e was sent rolling by the hea!y blow. .$o!it" a l*a t imis in!i tind"*se./ .,:/ mental pe ception !e bs# remember, recollect, find, etc.# Ima%ine him saying a thing li1e that.

.Inchip"ieste*ti*l sp"nind "na ca asta./ b0 .,;/ Oerbs re'uiring +ominative and Accusative K Past Participle Le bs of physical pe ception# see, hear, feel, etc.# a. I hea d it said that men a e a bo e.

.(m a"Fit sp"nind"*se ca ba batii sint plicticosi./ b. :e was seen covered in mud from head to toe. .$*a" !aF"t acope it de no oi din cap pina in picioa e./ .,=/ .,?/ !e bs of mental pe ception# imagine, confess, 1no&, recollect,etc.# -hen she hea d his wo ds, she knew herself dismissed. Ca"sati!e !e bs# get , have, ma1e a. I m"st %et my hair cut.

.Cind i*a a"Fit c"!intele si*a dat seama ca a concediat*o./

.T eb"ie sa ma d"c sa ma t"nd./ b. Po" m"st %et get that leg of yours ta1en care of.
,5A

.T eb"ie sa te d"ci la docto sa iti in% i4esti picio "l./ .,A/ .,B/ !e bs of pe mission, command I o de ed my bill made out. Le bs of likin% and dislikin% a. )en like shopping made easy.

.I*am sp"s chelne "l"i sa*mi ad"ca nota./

.Ka batilo le place sa te mine epede c" c"mpa at" ile./ b. Ce wanted his car fi ed immediately. .&o ea sa*i fie epa ata masina imediat./

A%tivity 1 #ranslate the follo&ing sentences into .nglish, using the types of participial structures discussed above: (m sa p"n sa fii a estat daca ma mai de an4eFi m"lt. E N" d"pa m"lta ! eme, il ! a4i in asa hal incit ii minca din palma. E $*a" descope it a "ncat int *"n colt.E Sa pofteasca in fata ele!ii ca e !o besc. E Cel ca e tocmai !o beste c" )a ia este f atele me".E $o!it" a l*a lasat lat s"b masa. E N"*l mai tine sa astepte.E Gim a po nit moto "l in doi timpi si t ei misca i.E S*a d"s sa*si ext a%a o masea. E L eti sa !a dam "n%hiile c" lacD E SSi de "nde ai %asit "n sifonie atit de incapato DT S$*am fac"t de comanda.T E &e ce ai "itat obinet"l deschisD E O sa p"n casa la p"nct apid.E $*a t imis la c"mpa at" i.

A.,.5. Cha acte istics of Pa ticipial 1o ms The main p ope ty pa ticiples ha!e 0 in opposition to %e "ndial fo ms 0 is the !e bal '"ality of these st "ct" es. Vnlike the %e "nd, the pa ticiple has no nominal properties whatsoe!e . -e shall enla %e "pon this point in the section on %e "nds. ( second diffe entiatin% feat" e is the f e'"ency with which the pa ticiple appea s as a modifier o as an adverbial. The only contexts in which the pa ticiple f"nctions as an ob4ect is when it is pa t of the independent pa ticipial const "ctions .i.e. Nominati!e o (cc"sati!e ` Pa ticiple/. The pa ticiple lacks tense b"t exhibits# .5N/ aspect"al feat" es# :aving seen this, I left.
,5B

.LaFind acestea, am plecat./ .5,/ .55/ .59/ Loice .can appea in the passi!e/ :aving been noticed by the teacher, I left. ( nominati!e s"b4ect .in absolute participial constructions0 <od &illing, the ain will stop. ( con4"nction to p ecede it optionally Although not 1no&ing the language, she en4oyed he t ip to Spain.

.&"pa ce m*a ema cat p ofeso "l, am plecat./

.C" !oia l"i &"mneFe", se !a op i si ploaia./

.&esi n" stia limba, a a!"t pa te de o exc" sie plac"ta in Spania./

A%tivity 2 Poin each of the follo&ing pairs of sentences, using either a present participle, or a past participle: ,.She didn+t want to hea the sto y a%ain. She had hea d it all befo e. 5. I t" ned on the li%ht. I was astonished at what I saw. 9. I ha!e looked th o"%h the fashion ma%aFine. I ealiFe that my clothes a e hopelessly o"t of date. :. In this chapte the cha acte s ha!e an "nintelli%ible con!e sation. They a e lyin% face downwa ds in a sea of m"d. ;. The t ee had fallen ac oss the oad. It had been "p ooted by the %ale. =. People we e sleepin% in the next oom. They we e wakened by the so"nd of b eakin% %lass. ?. I knew that the m" de e was still at la %e. I was ext emely el"ctant to open the doo . A. )othe p"nished me fo my mistake. I slammed the doo of my oom. B. Ce fed the do%. Ce sat down to his own dinne . ,N. They fo"nd the t eas" e. They be%an '"a elin% abo"t how to di!ide it. A%tivity " #he follo&ing sentences contain misrelated participles. 8ead the sentences and try to correct them. :o& do you account for the term misrelated* ,.R"nnin% into the oom, a "% ca"%ht he foot and she fell. 5. Ridin% in the fi st ace, his ho se fell at the last 4"mp. 9. Onowin% me to be the fool of the family, the news that I had won a schola ship astonished him. :. Readin% in bed, my hands often %et !e y cold. ;. $ea!in% the cinema, it seemed to him that the film had been exceptionally bad. =. Climbin% down the t ee, one of the e%%s b oke. ?. Ka kin% f" io"sly, I let the do% o"t of the oom. A. 6ettin% o"t of bed, a sco pion bit him. B. Sittin% in the dentist+s chai , an idea s"ddenly occ" ed to me. ,N. & opped by pa ach"te, the co"nt y seemed
,9N

enti ely "nfamilia . ,,. Tied to the post, the sea was tossin% the post "p and down. ,5. Passin% "nde a ladde , a pot of paint fell on my head. A%tivity ' Datch a &ord in list /a0 &ith a &ord in list /b0 to form a compound &ord: a/ b/ fai , b oad, ed .twice/, bald, th ee, many, cloth, stony, na ow, open, fishy, empty, lion, Ceaded .; times/, hai ed .twice/, eyed .9 times/,sho"lde , hea ted .twice/, co ne ed, sha p, wooden, '"ick, da k, ea%le, st ai%ht, open. colo" ed, co!e ed, minded .9 times/, skinned, handed. A%tivity ) Same instructions as before: a/ b/ d"ty, wealth. A%tivity * "n the follo&ing pairs of sentences, the same verb is missing t&ice, once used as a present participle and once as a past participle. "nsert the correct form in each gap: ,.Kooks >>>>>>>> o"t of the lib a y m"st be et" ned within th ee weeks. E People >>>>>> books oo"t which ha!en+t been stamped will be banned. .ta1e/ 5. The film, >>>>>>> by S.Spielbe %, is expected to be a % eat hit.E Powe stations >>>>>>> eno"%h ene %y to s"pply se!e al towns a e soon to be b"ilt on the so"th coast. .produce/ 9. C ops >>>>>>> "nde %lass mat" e mo e '"ickly than those in the open. E 1a me s >>>>>>>> s"ch c ops can the efo e catch the ea ly ma kets. . gro&/ :. I sta ed at the can!as fo a%es, >>>>>>>> the a tist+s skill and eye fo detail. E Swiss watches, >>>>>>> fo thei ele%ance and p ecision, a e sold th o"%ho"t the wo ld. . admire/ ;. The escaped p isone , >>>>>>>> hidin% in a ba n, was today taken back to p ison. E )any old people ,>>>>>>>that thei sa!in%s ha!e been eaten into by inflation, a e ha!in% diffic"lties in makin% both ends meet. . find/ =.I fell on the ice, >>>>>>> my a m. E Th ee people, >>>>> when thei ca c ashed on the ),, we e taken to hospital. .injure/. ?. -hales, >>>>>>> fo thei !al"able oil and meat, a e in % a!e dan%e of extinction. E Tho"sands of people went shoppin% in the sales today, >>>>>>> fo a ba %ain. .hunt/. molten, d "nken, li%hted, mown, oast, sha!en, st icken, s"nken, sho n, hidden, sh "nken, bo"nden, ill*%otten, otten, % a!en. 6 ass, candle, meat, dee , man, lead, eyes, head, meanin%, st eam, lamb, plank, ima%e,

,9,

A%tivity , ,.

FO8tion!$ e9er%iseG

#ranslate into .nglish: Toate liniile ei e a" pline si ot"nde# b"cla de pe f "nte si de pe lin%a " echile descop iteQ "me ii abia asc"nsi s"b o dantelaQ sinii chin"iti in st inso iQ sold" ile plesnind s"b "n co sa4 asc"tit ca e le taia, lasind"*le sa 4oace libe e si %hicite s"b la %ile fald" i. O "mb el"ta, cind st insa, cind deschisa, plina si ea de ape si !al" i, a "nca pe fata si fiinta femeii "mb e si c"lo i ce misca" si in!ia" neincetat toate liniile. 5. 9. &esi clipa ii e a t"lb" ata mai adinc, o place e nelam" ita a t ec"t i"te p in K"bi. S*a Se simti deodata incoltit de "n nec"nosc"t pe ca e il "itase si ca e !enea insp e el din simtit alat" i de tatal sa" si el stapin la c" tea lo , si inca ec"nosc"t de femeia pe ca e o do ea. toate pa tile. Inaltimea de ent"Fiasm "nde stat o clipa se ineca in apa ma e si t"lb" e de so!aieli. Si, desclestind"*si b atele de pe "me ii bat in"l"i, incep" sa p i!easca nelinistit p imp e4" , ca si c"m, deodata s"focat, a fi ca"tat ae si "n liman. :. Statea in 4" "l ei tot ce a!ea sa fie o masa imbels"%ata# ca nea osie, impanata c" !ine %albene de % asime, pestii c" solFi sa iti s"b c"tit, le%"me date p in mai m"lte ape, pasa i taiate, a "ncate in li%heane si isipind "n ab" % etos de pene opa ite, p ec"m si foile de placinta, intinse, si moi, c" p af de fainaa "soa a si lipicioasa pe ele, toate t ecind p in miinile p icep"te ale coanei )ita, ca e le ind"ia, le fie bea, le cocea. .Ion )a in Sado!ean" 0 Sfirsit de veac in Bucuresti/

A.5. The 6e "nd A.5.,. ( Classification of 6e "ndial 1o ms -e classify %e "nds, f"nction of the presence or absence of a logical subject within the %e "ndial st "ct" e. (cco din% to this c ite ion, one can distin%"ish between# a/ .5:/ b/ .5;/ %e "nds witho"t an exp essed lo%ical s"b4ect# PRO seein% is PRO belie!in%. %e "nds with an exp essed lo%ical s"b4ect# the full gerund .o the possessive "+</ Pohn3s coming here was a mistake.
,95

.&aca !eFi, c eFi./ This class of %e "nds can be f" the split into two s"bclasses#

.Leni ea l"i Gohn aici a fost o % eseala./ .5=/ the half gerund .o the Accusative "+</ It all depends on him coming here.

.Tot"l depinde de !eni ea l"i aici./ -e call the fi st s"bclass of b/ possessi!e IN6 beca"se of the %eniti!e fo m in which the lo%ical s"b4ect appea s. $ikewise, the second s"bclass bea s the name (cc"sati!e ` IN6 d"e to the case of the lo%ical s"b4ect within the %e "nd. If the e a e two possibilities with class b/ it means that the e m"st be some diffe ences between them. The main diffe ence lies in the fact that the accusative ` ing is mo e like a cla"se whe eas the possessive ing looks mo e like a nominal. Cow do we know thatD coo dinated# The possessive ing in a compo"nd s"b4ect a% ees with the !e b in the pl" al, 4"st as it happens with any no mal compo"nd s"b4ect made "p of two nominal ph ases# .5?/ a. :is &inning and your losing were both s" p isin%. .)*a s" p ins fapt"l ca el a cisti%at si t" ai pie d"t./ b. :is victory and your defeat were both s" p isin%. .)*a" s" p ins in e%ala mas" a !icto ia l"i si inf in%e ea ta./ Coo dinated accusative K ing e'"i es a sin%"la !e b, 4"st as it happens with coo dinated S"b4ect that cla"ses# .5A/ a. :im &inning and you losing w!s s" p isin%. .)*a s" p ins fapt"l ca el a cisti%at si t" ai pie d"t./ b. #hat he &on and you lost w!s s" p isin%. .)*a s" p ins fapt"l ca el a cisti%at si t" ai pie d"t./ A.5.5. Cha acte istics of 6e "nds pa ticiples. Pa ticiples look mo e like clauses and mo e often than not a e t anslated by means of a cla"se#
,99

Ky lookin% at the way these const "ctions a% ee with the main cla"se !e bs when

In the p e!io"s s"bsection on pa ticiples I was sayin% that pa ticiples ha!e _` !e bala

feat" es, whe eas %e "nds ha!e _ ` !e bal a and _ ` nominal a feat" es. In that, %e "nds diffe f om

.5B/

I saw him smiling and was s" p ised.

.$*am !aF"t ca Iimbeste si am fost s" p ins./ 6e "nds look mo e like no"n ph ases and a e often t anslatable by means of a no"n ph ase# .9N/ :is slapping Susan te ified the a"dience. .>aptul ca a palm"it*o pe S"san a in% oFit p"blic"l./ .9,/ (n impo tant cha acte istic of %e "nds is that they do not normally e trapose# a. It was ille%al to gro& a beard.

.N" e a le%al sa*ti lasi ba ba./ b. @It was ille%al gro&ing a beard. In .9,/ ext aposition is possible with infiniti!es b"t not with %e "nds. .9, b/ is "n% ammatical beca"se we %et a do"ble s"b4ect const "ction. This beha!io" of %e "nds conce nin% ext aposition esembles that of elati!e cla"ses which a e themsel!es !e y simila in beha!io" to no"n ph ases# .95/ @It was ille%al what she said. (%ain we a e faced with an "n% ammatical do"ble s"b4ect const "ction. The e a e !e y few exceptions to this sit"ation, and they no mally happen with idiomatic ph ases# .99/ a. It+s no "se c yin% o!e spilt milk. .p o!e b/ .)o t"l de la % oapa n" se mai intoa ce./ b. It+s no %ood talkin% to he . .N*a e sens sa !o besti c" ea./ .9:/ %e "nds can be combined with P epositions# a. She was s" p ised at his 1no&ing the business so &ell. b. Ce looked at their &restling on the muddy floor. .S*a "itat c"m se l"pta pe podea"a inno oiata./ A.5.9. (fte disc"ssin% the cha acte istics of %e "nds, it wo"ld be !e y "sef"l fo "s to ha!e a look at differences bet&een participles and gerunds# ,. Pa ticiples can appea in tense forms: fo ms.
,9:

.E a "imita de cit de bine stia el dedes"bt" ile aface ii./

6e "nds do not make "p tense

contin"o"s , pe fect, passi!e ones She &as crying. 5. Pa ticiples may be p eceded by conjunctions# prepositions# While sleeping, babies s"ck thei th"mb. 9. Pa ticiples may f"nction as adverbials# adverbials with Coming here, he b"ilt himself a ho"se. .ad!e bial of time/ :. Pa ticiples do not f"nction as objects prepositional "nless they appea in dependent const "ctions I saw her crying. ob4ect cla"se/ She was inte ested in him marrying her. .p epositional ob4ect cla"se/ ;. Pa ticiples may f"nction as attributes and a e 6e "nds may f"nction as pa aph asable by means of the for: the &al1ing man J the man who is walkin% walkin% the flying fish J the fish which is flyin% flyin% the flying sa"ce J sa"ce "sed for the &al1ing stick J stick "sed for .(cc"sati!e ` Pa ticiple/ objects# She sta ted crying. .di ect few exceptions# She an%e ed him by stealing his project. 6e "nds f"nction as direct and She waited for his coming home. 6e "nds do not f"nction as 6e "nds may be p eceded by

attributes b"t a e pa aph asable by &ho$that$&hich isGOerb K ing: p eposition

A%tivity -

,9;

#ranslate into .nglish, remembering that the gerund is al&ays used of a preposition, a prepositional verb or a phrasal verb: N" este nici o spe anta sa se %aseasca s"p a!iet"ito i d"pa p ab"si ea a!ion"l"i. E Te*ai sc"Fat pent " ca l*ai de an4atD E (m en"ntat sa 4oc E la 4oc"l de fotbal cind am te minat scoala. E Te*ai sat" at p obabil sa faci acelasi l"c " Fi de Fi. E Gohn a fost se!e m"st at pent " ca Ste o iFaT baietii mai mici decit el. E P"blic"l a fost a!e tiFat de pe icol"l de a se plimba p in pa c noaptea. E N"*l inte eseaFa deloc sa*si c easca copiii. E Se pa e ca*ti place foa te m"lt sa s"blinieFi defectele alto a. E )ine ii sint intotdea"na a!e tiFati sa n" d"ca chib it" i in mine. E Cine asp"nde de inc"iat"l "silo si paFa cladi ii noapteaD E ( t eb"i sa te %indesti sa economisesti bani in loc sa spe i ca !ei cisti%a la ca ti. E Rasp"ns"l la p oblema loc"intelo pa e sa eFide in const "i ea de noi bloc" i. E N" !edea" nici "n moti! pent " c ei sa n" faca asa c"m plan"ise a initial. E &octo "l m*a sfat"it sa en"nt la f"mat si % asimi. E ( t eb"it sa aminam pleca ea in !acanta. E Compania aceea este specialiFata in fab ica ea mobilei de bi o". E ( t eb"i sa se imp"na t"t" o si sa se abtina de la a f"ma in esta" ante si alte loc" i p"blice. E T eb"ie sa* mi ce sc"Fe ca am inti Fiat asa de m"lt. E G"decato "l a fost ac"Fat de a n" fi dat 4" i"l"i obiecti!e cla e. E Se mind este ca e totdea"na bine imb acat. E I*am sp"s sa n"*si bata cap"l sa p"na l"c " ile la loc. E ( t eb"it sa s"po tam mo4icia tot timp"l calato iei. E (m ce "t sfat"l "n"i a!ocat inainte de a ne decide sa actionam in 4"stitie. E &"pa ce a ha t"it*o bine pe !inFatoa e, a plecat din ma%aFin fa a sa c"mpe e nimic. E In ci"da fapt"l"i ca a t eb"it sa l"pte c" o ma e a%itata, inotatoa ea a e"sit sa t a!e seFe canal"l in timp eco d. A%tivity 1< "dentify the gerundial and participial constructions and state their function: ,. ( st an%e sha in% the t ip with "s was bad eno"%h. 5. Ce smiled to hea he talkin% in that way. 9. 6amblin% is his fa!o" ite pastime. :. It was wo th t yin% to contin"e the effo ts. ;. -hat I don+t "nde stand is yo" s"ddenly t" nin% a%ainst me. =. The only eason fo sellin% was the owne +s %ettin% a new ca . ?. Ce said he fa!o" ed people ha!in% decent hai c"ts. A. I can exc"se his bein% "de to me b"t I cannot fo %i!e his bein% "de to my mothe . B. Ce admitted d i!in% the lo y ecklessly. ,N. They we e inte ested in a t "e !ote bein% exp essed by the people. ,,. The ho"se is acc"stomed to epo ts bein% p esented o ally. ,5. The ce emony ended with his ha!in% to ecei!e a t ophy. ,5. Ce was spotted talkin% to he . ,9. I was af aid that my answe mi%ht lead to him bein% cha %ed fo the offence. ,:. She+s lookin% fo wa d to ha!in% lots of child en. ,;. The idea of himEhis %oin% to Pa is appalled he . A%tivity 11
,9=

%iscriminate bet&een gerunds and participles by means of paraphrase: Chewin% cowE chewin% %"mQ shootin% %alle y E shootin% sta Q boilin% wate is a 4ob I hate E I need some boilin% wate Q c yin% %ame E c yin% womanQ swimmin% d"ck E swimmin% t "nksQ p essin% needsE p essin% people to answe '"estionsQ eatin% habitsE eatin% peopleQ payin% %"ests E payin% %"ests to lea!e is w on%.

A.9. The Le bal No"n The !e bal no"n is he e placed in opposition with the %e "nd. The !e bal no"n is an IN6 fo m b"t is not part of non!finite forms# it is pa t of the nominal system, as it is a no"n ph ase which 4"st happens to look like a %e "nd o pa ticiple. K"t how can we tell when an IN6 fo m is a !e bal no"nD Compa e# .9;/ to .9=/ Shooting the attac1er was an "%ly episode. .Vcide ea cel"i ca e ii atacase e a "n episod " it./ (ltho"%h the meanin% of the two "nde lined st "ct" es is simila , they diffe formally# The fi st sentence contains a !e bal no"n, which can be identified by# The p esence of the /i.e. the determiner0 The p esence of the of ph ase .i.e. of the attac1er0 The fact that it can be combined with an adjective# #he shooting of the attac1er was an "%ly episode. .Vcide ea cel"i ca e ii atacase e a "n episod " it./

#he cruel shooting of the attac1er The second sentence contains a %e "nd d"e to # The absence of a dete mine like the, a The absence of an of ph ase, b"t the p esence of a di ect ob4ect .i.e. the attac1er/ The possibility of its combination with an adverb:

Shooting the attac1er cruelly T.e 8ro2$em wit. ver2!$ no#ns !nd &er#nds is t.!t t.ey !re 2ot. ended in ING !nd %!n t!5e ! 8ossessive# Georges shooting of the attac1er !s. Georges shooting the attac1er.
,9?

T.e test t.!t !$w!ys .e$8s yo# o#t o( tro#2$e is that of combinin% these const "ctions with an ad4ecti!e o an ad!e bial# The fi st const "ction takes an ad4ecti!e# Georges cruel shooting of the attac1er, whe eas the second st "ct" es takes an ad!e b# Georges shooting the attac1er cruelly. This means that the fi st st "ct" e is a !e bal no"n while the second is a %e "nd. Sometimes the !e bal no"n can appea witho"t its <of3 phrase# .9?/ :is beautiful singing was a blessing to e!e yone. In .9?/ the e a e two !e bal no"ns# his beautiful singing and a blessing. Cow can we tellD In the fi st case, we can identify the !e bal no"n by means of the ad4ecti!e that accompanies it. In the second sit"ation, the !e bal no"n blessing is accompanied by a dete mine which is an indefinite a ticle. These a e feat" es that no mally cha acte iFe any no"n.

A%tivity 12 "dentify the verbal nouns in the follo&ing: )en ha!e as m"ch patience fo cool philande in% as they ha!e fo shoppin%. E Shoppin% can be a nice acti!ity b"t shoppin% the e can only be a mistake. E Cis comin% the e p"FFled he .E Cis s"dden comin% p"FFled he .E The massi!e c"ttin% of f"nds shocked e!e ybody in the company. E C"ttin% f"nds so s"ddenly came down as a shock. E Thei lootin% and "thless m" de in% was ne!e fo %otten.E (ll newspape s commented on Gohn+s obbin% the bank. E Gohn+s obbin% of the bank was widely commented on. E The "nexpected obbin% of the bank didn+t pass "nnoticed.

A.:. IN6 1o ms and Infiniti!es. The aim of this s"bsection is mainly to help yo" bette "nde stand why those !e bs o ad4ecti!es that can be combined both with %e "nds and with infiniti!es ha!e a diffe ent meanin% in each case. It has been noticed that, whene!e a !e b can appea both with an infiniti!e and with a %e "nd, the meanin% is diffe ent. Cowe!e , we can t ace a common feat" e fo all these special !e bs. (ll of them chan%e thei meanin% acco din% to the % ammatical info mation offe ed by the const "ction they a e followed by.

,9A

1o instance, whene!e we meet an 0in% fo m, we expect it to ha!e somethin% to do with an e!ent that has al eady happened .and then we a e dealin% with a %e "nd/ o is happenin% .and we a e lookin% at a pa ticiple/. -ith the infiniti!e, we expect it it to efe to somethin% potential, that is %oin% to take place. $ook, fo example, at the followin%# .9A/ Ce saw S"san c ossin% the st eet. .( !aF"t*o pe S"san t a!e sind st ada./ as opposed to .9B/ Ce saw S"san c oss the st eet. .( !aF"t c"m S"san a t a!e sat st ada./ The diffe ence in meanin% is well exp essed by the Romanian t anslation and is moti!ated by what each fo m means# * the 0ing fo m . a pa ticiple/ exp esses somethin% still happenin% . so the %"y in the example is watchin% S"san as she ad!ances ac oss the st eet/. * the infiniti!al fo m .a ba e infiniti!e/ 0 by opposition with the pa ticiple 0 s"%%ests that we a e watchin% the whole e!ent of the c ossin% of the st eet .so the %"y in the example has watched the enti e c ossin%/ (nothe example, and the most well*known one, is that of the !e b stop# Compa e# .:N/ to .:,/ She stopped eatin% a sandwich. .S*a op it din mincat./ The fi st example, containin% an infiniti!e, s"%%ests the fact that the eatin% of the sandwich is %oin% to take place .the potential, f"t" e*o iented !al"e of the infiniti!e/. The second example 0 containin% a %e "nd 0 s"%%ests the fact that the eatin% of the sandwich had al eady commenced and was then inte "pted .the %e "nd exp esses an e!ent happenin% in the past, p io to the one exp essed by the main cla"se !e b./ (fte lookin% at this example, we can notice that the %e "nd exp esses somethin% that has al eady happened, ante io to the !e b in the main cla"se, whe eas the infiniti!e exp esses somethin%
,9B

She stopped to eat a sandwich.

.S*a op it sa manince "n sandwich./

that is yet to happen, poste io to the !e b in the main cla"se# the %e "nd is past!oriented, the infiniti!e is future!oriented. $et "s examine othe !e bs like these, that e'"i e both a %e "nd and an infiniti!e# a/ .:5/ !e s"s .:9/ Remembe to fill the tank with pet ol. .(d"*ti aminte sa "mpli eFe !o "l c" benFina./ The example with the %e "nd s"%%ests that the fillin% of the tank has al eady happenedQ the example with the infiniti!e s"%%ests that the fillin% of the tank is %oin% to happen. b/ .::/ !e s"s .:;/ I e% et to fill the tank with pet ol, b"t that+s it. .Imi pa e a" ca o sa "mpl" eFe !o "l c" benFina, da asta este./ The example with the %e "nd s"%%ests that the fillin% of the tank has al eady happenedQ the example with the infiniti!e s"%%ests that the fillin% of the tank is %oin% to happen. c/ .:=/ ty I t ied fillin% the tank with pet ol and then I did some ca washin%. .Intii am ince cat sa ma oc"p c" "mple ea eFe !o "l"i c" benFina, apoi m*am oc"pat de spala ea masinilo ./ !e s"s .:?/ I t ied to fill the tank with pet ol b"t fo"nd it no easy 4ob. .(m ince cat sa "mpl" eFe !o "l c" benFina, insa n" mi s*a pa "t t eaba "soa a./ The fi st example implies the fact that the %"y the e has al eady filled the tank with pet ol se!e al times. In the second example, the pet ol tank is not filled yet , the action is not completed. e% et I e% et fillin% the tank with pet ol. Remembe , ecollect, fo %et She emembe s fillin% the tank with pet ol.

.Si*ad"ce aminte ca a "mpl"t eFe !o "l c" benFina./

.Imi pa e a" ca am "mpl"t eFe !o "l c" benFina./

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d/ .:A/ !e s"s .:B/

mean I mean to tell he the t "th. .(m de %ind sa*i sp"n ade!a "l./ This means e!ealin% he all my sec ets. .(sta inseamna sa*i deF!al"i toate sec etele mele./

In the fi st example, the e!ent has not happened yet, it is bo"nd to happen as a es"lt of the s"b4ect+s intentions. In the second example, mean has the sense signify. e/ .;N/ need, want Ce wants E needs to lea n En%lish. .L ea E t eb"ie sa in!ete en%leFa./ -ith _* h"mana ob4ects, they can be combined with the %e "nd and ac'"i e the same inte p etation as when they a e followed by a passi!e infiniti!e# .;,/ a.The ho"se needs epai in%. .Casa t eb"ie epa ata./ b. The ho"se needs to be epai ed. .Casa t eb"ie epa ata./ f/ .;,/ !e s"s .;5/ (fte he st"died fo fo" yea s, he went on to become a lawye . .&"pa ce a in!atat pat " ani, s*a d"s sa se faca a!ocat./ In the fi st case we "nde stand that the e!ent of eadin% has al eady be%"n, whe eas in the second case, the e!ent of becomin% a lawye is yet to happen. %o on Ce %oes on eadin% f om that cheap no!el. .Contin"a sa citeasca din oman"l acela ieftin./

-ith _` h"mana ob4ects, these !e bs a e "sed in combination with the infiniti!e#

A%tivity 1" Complete the follo&ing dialogue by putting the verbs in bac1ets into the correct form, gerund or infinitive, as re'uired:

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(# Po" complain abo"t feelin% lonely b"t yo"+!e only yo" self to blame, yo" know. Po" don+t e!en t y .make/ new f iends. -hy don+t yo" 4oin a cl"b of some so t and stop .feel/ so so y fo yo" selfD K# $ook, Gohn, I know yo" mean .be/ kind, b"t I+d p efe .do/ thin%s my own way. I+!e t ied .4oin/ cl"bs in the past b"t I absol"tely hate .ha!e/ to meet a lot of new people and I "sed to d ead .%o/ to meetin%s so m"ch that I stopped .attend/ alto%ethe afte a few weeks, I e% et .say/. (# K"t if yo" don+t %o on .attend/ , how can yo" expect to make f iendsD Po" need .pe se!e e/ mo e. 1 iendship doesn+t 4"st happen. It means .spend/ time with people and .sha e/ expe iences with them. If yo" only stopped .think/ abo"t it fo a moment, yo"+d see I was i%ht. K# K"t I+!e so little time fo a social life. The e+s always wo k that needs .do/ in the ho"se and then the e+s the no!el I+m w itin%. I d ead .think/ what will happen if that+s not finished by the deadline. (nd that+s not all. (# OO, OO, befo e yo" %o on .%i!e/ me any mo e easons why yo" can+t %o o"t, let me make a final s"%%estion. &o yo" emembe .meet/ an (me ican f iend of mine at my ho"se ecentlyD -ell, he+s t yin% .make/ "p a paa ty to %o to the theat e to see SP i!ate $i!esT next week. Ce told me not to fo %et .in!ite/ yo". I know yo" p efe .%o/ to conce ts to .see/ plays, on the whole, b"t this p od"ction has had a!e notices and I+m s" e yo"+d en4oy it. -hat do yo" sayD K# Pes, I+d lo!e .come/, if yo" co"ld %i!e me yo" f iend+s n"mbe , I+ll emembe . in%/ him and .thank/ him.

A.;. Oey Concepts In this s"bsection we ha!e dealt with IN6 fo ms. These appea eithe as P esent Pa ticiples o as 6e "nds. The main diffe ence between these two fo ms lies in thei special feat" es. Pa ticiples mainly f"nction as ad!e bials, whe eas %e "nds f"nction mainly as ob4ects. The common f"nction these two st "ct" es sha e is that of attribute b"t the simila ity is decepti!e, since pa aph ase can co ectly identify which is which. (nothe special feat" e is which elements these two st "ct" es can be p eceded by# a p eposition fo %e "nds and a con4"nction fo pa ticiples. The e a e also impo tant diffe ences between %e "nds and !e bal no"ns, altho"%h one can mistake them d"e to the fact that both fo ms can combine with a possessi!e nominal. The main test of disambi%"ation is that of combinin% the two fo ms with eithe an ad!e b .fo the %e "nd/ o an ad4ecti!e .fo the !e bal no"n/.

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$ast b"t not least, don+t fo %et that ce tain !e bs can take both IN6 fo ms and infiniti!es afte them 0 but the meaning changes acco din% to the main shade of meanin% each of these const "ctions exhibits. A%tivity 1' "n the follo&ing te ts, identify the "+< forms and analyse them syntactically: a/ Ce emembe ed ente in% the !illa%e and then the % o"nd, the !e y ea th openin% "p.

1i st the c ack snakin% its 4a%%ed way alon% the conc ete, then the noise and the c ackin% stone, and then the inc edible so"nd of the % o"nd openin% "p, the eno mo"s split in the ea th. The two sides we e mo!in% apa t, thei ed%es c ashin% inwa ds, down, down into 6od knows whe e. The si%ht of the two child en, the man and his bike disappea in% in the hole. The collapsin% shops 0 he emembe ed seein% the shops on one side collapsin% 0 and then the a%%ed mo"th eachin% towa ds him. b/ The people abo!e hea d the c y fo help comin% f om the h"%e hole that had w ecked the b" nin% !illa%e. Ce looked "p towa ds the dayli%ht, hopin% he wo"ld see somebody "p the e, someone lookin% fo s" !i!o s. Then he saw mo!ement at his feet. (t fi st, he tho"%ht it was d"st ca"sed by the dist" bance, b"t then he saw it billowin% "p f om below. It was like a mist, slowly isin% in a swi lin% motion, sli%htly yellowish altho"%h he co"ldn+t be s" e in the %loom. It seemed to be sp eadin% alon% the len%th of the split, mo!in% "p towa ds his chest, co!e in% the %i l+s head. She sta ted co"%hin%. A%tivity 1) .Optional exe cise/

#ranslate into .nglish, ma1ing use of the information supplied in this section: ,.(sa ca ! ind*ne! ind, e am toti ad"nati in came a aceea, mama mea, cei doi )amona, La"che si c" mine, si asteptind ca tot ce a!ea sa se intimple sa se intimple c" ade!a at si n" n"mai in inchip"i ea mea sa" a lo . Si ca la "n semnal ca e an"nta "n incep"t, se deschise o "sa si !enind o sl"%a, tot"l se anima deodata. Ridicind"*se, )amona cel Tina pa asi incape ea fa a sa sp"na "n c"!int, da lasind in " ma l"i citi!a st opi de sin%e, in!eselind p i!i ea c" os"l lo fie binte si p e!estito . In " ma sl"%ii, impiedicind"*se de )amona cel Tina plecind, !eni a alte do"a si ca ind fieca e cite "n c"fa . 5.Int ind in casa noast a in an"l ,A,5, int *o 4oi, La"che a incep"t p in a*l bate pe )amona cel Tina s"b p i!i ile mele si aale mamei mele nepasatoa e si a sfi sit in an"l ,A5,, .X/ omo it fiind de cat e )amona cel Tina , "cenic"l sa" nec edincios. N"mai ca toate astea sint depa te si inca de

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neinchip"it. &a n" atit de neinchip"it incit, iesind din baltoaca l"i si ap opiind"*se de )amona cel Tina pent " a*l lo!i, sa n"*mi inchip"i ca peste p"tina ! eme ma !a lo!i si pe mine si at"nci, inchiFind ochii, apasind"*mi pleoapele peste p i!i ea din ei, f ica si nepasa ea m*a" c"p ins p ec"m si %ind"l ca int *o Fi cine!a il !a omo i pe La"che si stiind ca n" e" o !oi face, am sti"t si cine. Si poate ca stind in baltoaca l"i, La"che a sti"t si el, a ata in o ice caF ca cine!a ca e stie, da spe ind ca tot"l !a fi altfel pina la " ma. 9.(sa ca at"nci cind a int at )amona cel Kat in, c" "n sac "d pe "me i si mi osind ta e a ploaie si a s"doa e, ne*a %asit pe fieca e la loc"l l"i, pe mama mea pa ind absenta, da sti"toa e, aseFata c" spatele la noi, la mine, ca e stateam c" ochii ap oape inchisi, pe La"che , aseFat in baltoaca pe ca e o fac"se apa sc" sa din hainele l"i, si pe )amona cel Tina , stind c" cap"l in ta!an si c" o mina idicata in s"s, d"pa c"m ii sp"sese mama, pa ind insa ca ne sal"ta sa" ca ! ea sa*si ia amas b"n de la cine!a. Ne*a p i!it o clipa si, fa a sa*si lepede sac"l de pe "me i, neostenind"*se sa fac nici asta, nicidec"m sa ne sal"te sa" sa sp"na ce!a, se d"se lin%a mama si, aplecind"*se p"tin, o sa "ta pe f "nte. Neclintiti, contin"am sa stam si sa asteptam. .Stefan (%opian 0 #ache de catifea/ NINE RE?ISION EBERCISES E9er%ise 1 Analyse syntactically: ,. Of co" se it was no accident that he had mismana%ed the whole thin% so ho ibly. 5. Cow m"ch, apa t f om his dist ess fo pa ents, this wo"ld eally h" t, he had not yet been able to estimate. 9. Ce s"ffe ed his pan%s of %"ilt and fea and loss and waited fo these s"ffe in%s to pass. :. Ce did not know whethe he was %lad o so y that she had accepted them witho"t p"FFlement, witho"t p ofo"nd '"estionin%. ;. -ith his claim fo K itish nationality pendin% it was, he had been ad!ised, "nthinkable that he sho"ld be ext adited as a dese te . =. Ce had tho"%ht a %ood deal less abo"t 6a th in ecent weeks, tho"%h when he had fi st a i!ed li%ht months a%o the et" n of 6a th had been the thin% to which he had most looked fo wa d. ?. The e had seemed to be anothe place whe e &o ina walked ba efoot in the dew with he hai "ndone A. Cow this time was to come, "nless pe haps bo ne by a swift ho se, was "nclea to )itFi, and she kept intendin% to lea!e and then decidin% not to, beca"se of pity, beca"se she do"bted whethe she wo"ld find anothe 4ob and beca"se she tho"%ht that if she h"n% on
,::

she wo"ld %et some money, whe eas if she went away she wo"ld %et none. B. Po" ha!e been m"ch in my tho"%hts, and this pa tic"la ly of late, since I ha!e decided, fo a n"mbe of easons of which I shall tell yo" at leis" e, to eti e ea ly f om my employment. ,N. Po" m"st know that if yo" do not meet this matte p ope ly now, in some way, and meet it i%ht he e at home, yo" a e choosin% exile f om what yo" a e fo t"nate eno"%h to call yo" homeland. ,,. Ca!in% e%a d to the date of d aftin%, ) $i!in%stone ad!ises that yo" p ofess to ha!e been t a!elin% in continental E" ope and not ha!e ecei!ed the pape s. ,5. I am so y not to ha!e seen yo", b"t I am af aid I am te ibly b"sy at p esent. ,9. That they saw the wa diffe ently was p obably thei most ational a ea of disa% eement, and that was diffic"lt eno"%h. ,:. No one seemed to want to talk abo"t it o to be inte ested o to "nde stand. ,; )eanwhile the bi% talk with 6a th to which he had been so m"ch, e!en fo months, lookin% fo wa d had not yet taken place. ,= It was b"t too possible that 6a th despised him fo this match and felt al eady that they we e hopelessly di!ided. ,?. Sometimes too she wo"ld see somethin% in it which she knew to be a %host, the fi%" e of a woman p otectin% f om the waist "pwa ds hi%h "p in the wall opposite to he , like the p ow of a ship and mo!in% sli%htly as if to t" ed. ,A Ce s" o"nded he with anxio"s possessi!e 4ealo"s tende ness, b"t in obedience to what he p ofessed to think we e he wishes, he did not come to see he . ,B. Th"s they emained "tte ly obsessed with themsel!es and each othe , and some nat" al healin% p ocess of which &o ina felt she o"%ht to know the sec et co"ld not take place. .I is )" doch 0 An Accidental Dan/ E9er%ise 2 Correct the follo&ing sentences: Climbin% down the t ee, one of the e%%s b oke. E The sweetly*smellin% flowe s in the %a den a e his most p iFed possession. E Kefo e yo" %o on chan%in% the s"b4ect, please conside his p oposition. E Ce bo"%ht himself a new s"it of clothes, fo attendin% his siste +s weddin%. E The incessant sho"tin% a o"nd the ho"se woke S"san "pQ she co"ld hea he hea t beat wildly and he blood ace in he !eins. E -hene!e I !isited my a"nt, I was made say 6 ace befo e e!e y dinne . E I wo"ld !e y m"ch like walkin% o"t in the ain, so shall weD E Killy was said to m" de his pa ents when he was only fi!e. E In the end, I ne!e %ot "sed to listen to S"san+s endless %ossipin% abo"t he f iends. E Po" o"%htn+t beha!e so "dely to yo" best f iendsQ this always makes "s feel emba assed. E9er%ise " #ranslate the follo&ing:

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,.She acc"sed C"%h -hiteb ead, of all people, .and the e he was, he old f iend C"%h, talkin% to the Po t"%"ese (mbassado / , of kissin% he in the smokin%* oom to p"nish he fo sayin% that women sho"ld ha!e !otes. L"l%a men did, she said. (nd Cla issa emembe ed ha!in% to pe s"ade he not to deno"nce him at family p aye s 0 which she was capable of doin% with he da in%, he ecklessness, he melod amatic lo!e of bein% the cent e of e!e ythin% and c eatin% scenesQ and it was bo"nd, Cla issa "sed to think, to end in some awf"l t a%edy. Instead of which she had ma ied, '"ite "nexpectedly, a bald man with a la %e b"ttonhole who owned, it was said, cotton mills at )ancheste . (nd she had fi!e boys7 .Li %inia -oolf 0 Drs %allo&ay/

5.&"pa ce a fac"t ti %"l c" ne%"sto "l, KeliFa ie n" s*a % abit sa mea %a si sa !ada daca a e ce!a de fac"t sa" sa afle daca 6o a ! ea ce!a in afa a de plata c"!enita. Nici 6o a n" l*a chemat "n timp. Cind l*a chemat, n" a fac"t*o pent " asta. ea a fost me e" p int e p"tinii din Detopolis ca e l*a" socotit tot"si pe KeliFa ie medic si, c" ochi"l ei si%" de a cinta i oamenii, il n"mea pe KeliFa ie So fiinta mind a, sensibila si ofensata de a"tatile fa a si ale l"mii.T O i de cite o i s*a simtit bolna!a n" se tem"se sa*l cheme, dincolo de metodele l"i b "tale pe ca e n" le aplica o ic"i si o ic"m, e a "n b"n sfat"ito , n"mai sa fi sti"t sa*i cisti%i inc ede ea. N" la m"lta ! eme de la t ansfe "l de p op ietate, 6o a a incep"t sa*l cheme tot mai des. Kolna!a n" se simtea, da !iFitele acest"i om din topo , !i%" os si !esel in fel"l l"i, ii facea" bine. Se a"Fea ap oape Filnic din casa 6o ei is"l % os al l"i KeliFa ie. .Stefan Kan"lesc" 0 Cartea de la Detopolis/ 9.Rind" ile d!s.a" e"sit sa ma insenineFe o ! eme si sa*mi isipeasca t istetea nedesl"sita ca e a insotit apa itia G" nal"l"i. Pesemne inco da ea c" ca e am asteptat sa*l !ad apa "t mi*a ep"iFat es" sele b"c" iei. Sa" poate senFatia ca m*am despa tit, astfel, de ceea ce a fi t eb"it sa amina capital"l me" de intimitate in spi itD Pa%inile acestea, c e s*a" nasc"t lent, de*a l"n%"l a cinci ani de File, ep eFenta" fo ma mea de a*mi satisface ne!oia fi easca a pa ticipa ii la "n miste . &e "itat, n" p"team sa le "it, si in pl"s, a!eam tot mai m"lt imp esia ca expe ienta de exceptie c"p insa in ele implica " %enta com"nica ii. :.Cind a m" it 6o a Se afis, s*a intimplat ca KeliFa ie KeliFa ie sa fie in odaia ei. ( fost %asit plin%ind in " lete, pe sca"n"l l"i ta e, t opaind f" ios c" talpile late pe podea. .St. Kan"lesc" 0 ibid./ ;. )as" a pe ca e o foloseste Polide e aceea pe ca e I*o da memo ia l"i as"p a client"l"i, !aaF"t cind!a, o data sa" de do"a o i. Cind intilneste "n om sa" chia cind n"mai il Fa este de depa te, ochi"l l"i Polide ii c"p inde talia, l"n%imea picioa elo , latimea si asc"tis"l labei, chia daca om"l c" p icina n*a e deocamdata ne!oie de pantaloni. .St. Kan"lesc" 0 ibid./
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=.Nep"tinta bat inelo de a se in% i4i sin%" e si de a t ai omeneste, cit mai a" de t ait, poate fi compensata, in schimb"l micilo a!e i pe ca e le detin, p int *o asistenta acti!a din afa a, ca e insa t eb"ie sa n" s"stina, ci sa baFeFe ne%ot"l pa tic"la de ani, desfas" at haotic si fa a pe specti!a p i!ind enaste ea o as"l"i l"at in int e%imea l"i. .St. Kan"lesc" 0 ibid./ ?. Pe 6lad n"*l p icep si poate ca e in"til sa*l p icepi si sa*l explici. I*am dat haine de %ene al pent " ca in acelea de soldat n"*mi do!edea nimic si, mi*am Fis, ca si tine, sa ince c maxim"m"l pent " a obtine maca minim"m"l. Ce a iesit, se stie. Pe sonal, n" p icep nimic. &aca t", )iliona "le, poti face ce!a sa*l explici si sa*l 4"stifici, fa*o. a e ne!oie. E9er%ise 'H Consider the follo&ing te ts. #ranslate them, paying attention to the &ay symmetry is built through subordination: ,. (nd by the $eem li!ed a lock*keepe . -ho was may fathe . -ho was a phle%matic yet sentimental man. -ho told me, when I was e!en yo"n%e than yo", that the e was no one walkin% the wo ld who hadn+t once s"ckedX and that the sta sX -ho was wo"nded at the thi d battle of Pp es. (nd had a b othe killed in the same battle. -ho when asked abo"t his memo ies of the -a , wo"ld in!a iably eplay that he emembe ed nothin%. Pet who when he was not asked wo"ld sometimes eco"nt biFa e anecdotes of those immemo ial t enches and m"dscapes, as if speakin% of thin%s emote and fantastical in which his in!ole!ement was p" ely spec"lati!e. .../ -ho fell in lo!e with one of the n" ses. -ho came home f om the wa , a wo"nded soldie , and ma ied the n" se who n" sed him back to health. ( sto y*book omance. -ho, deli!e ed f om the holoca"st, co"ld sca cely belie!e that this enchanted chapte of e!ents was happenin% to him. -hose lo!e was et" ned 0 with s" p isin% eadiness. 5. Co"ld he be blamed, my % andfathe , E nest Richa d (tkinson, fo bein% a ene%ade, a ebelD Co"ld he be blamed fo showin% b"t scant inte est in his f"t" e p ospect as head of the (tkinson K ewe y and the (tkinson -ate T anspo t CompanyD Co"ld he be blamed 0 ha!in% been sent by his fathe , ( th" (tkinson ).P., to Emman"el Colle%e, Camb id%e, to ecei!e the finest ed"cation any (tkinson had so fa ecei!ed 0 fo s'"ande in% the time in "nde % ad"ate whims, fo fli tin% with ideas .E" opean socialism, 1abianism, the w itin%s of )a x/ di ectly aimed at his fathe To y p inciplesQ fo
,:?

.St. Kan"lesc" 0 ibid./

spendin% la %e pa ts of his !actions in nefa io"s so4o" ns in $ondon, whe e he was called "pon by the police to explain his p esence at a ally of the "nemployed .he was the e <o"t of c" iosity+/ and whence he b o"%ht back to Oesslin% Call in the yea ,AB; the woman, Rachel -illiams, da"%hte of an ill*paid 4o" nalist, to whom, he b aFenly decla ed .omittin% to mention othe ladies with whom he had toyed/, he had al eady en%a%ed himselfD 9. K"t does me iment belon% to him who %i!es itD Testimonies f om those times 0 amply confi med by his last yea s, and by the photo% aphs which I still possess of my mate nal % andfathe .b oodin% b ows, deep*set, %lowe in% eyes/ 0 s"%%est that e!en in his estless yo"th E nest (tkinson was a melancholy, a moody man. That the fli%htiness of those ea ly yea s was me ely p" s"ed 0 as is so often the case 0 to combat inne % a!ityQ that his dabblin% with socialist doct ines was not done solely to spite his fathe b"t o"t of an inclination .t "e to his name/ to take the wo ld in ea nestQ that he dedicated himself to the man"fact" e of me iment beca"se despondency " %ed him, and beca"se 0 b"t this is me e spec"lation, me e histo y teache s con4ect" e 0 he had lea nt s"ch da k thin%s .what death* bed confessions p eceded old ( th" to the % a!e in ,BN:D/ abo"t his fa * eachin% p o%enito s that he wished fo nothin% mo e than to be an honest and "nambitio"s p" !eyo of ba els of happiness. :. Ce desc ibed 0 I ha!e in my possession a !e batim copy of this b a!e and doomed speech 0 how it was conscience alone and no lo!e of takin% p"blic stances .heckles f om ea / that had sp" ed him into the political field. Cow fea fo the f"t" e had al eady so" ed his pleas" e*%i!in% ole of b ewe . Cow he fo esaw in the yea s ahead catast ophic conse'"ences "nless the p esent mood of 4in%oism was c" bed and the milita y poke *playin% of the nations halted. Cow ci!ilisation .had E nest inhe ited the p ophetic %ifts of Sa ahD O was he, as many s"spected and attested with n"d%es to thei nei%hbo" s, 4"st plain d "nkD/ faced the % eatest c isis of its histo y. Cow if no one took stepsX an infe noX .6 aham Swift 0 7!terwor$d/ E9er%ise ) #ranslate into .nglish, paying attention to the syntactical concepts studied in the classroom: ,.E "n ba ba ism monst o"s ca e a scoate din mo mint pe toti l"ptato ii limbii lite a e. $*a" de i!at cei din teat ", din f ant"Feste, mai intii int *o loc"ti"ne amasa c"liselo c" excl"si!itate# Sa

,:A

face foameT. Cind act ita, tina a si f "moasa, e ind a%ostita de "n acto , tina si f "mos si el, ca e*I ce e sa*l ia de ba bat, ea ii asp"nde c" chibF"inta# SEsti neb"nD L ei sa facem foame amindoi D+ 5.Pe lin%a noi t ecea" % "p" i ca e pa ca " a!ea" altce!a de fac"t decit sa ne examineFe. &esi%" ca toate % "p" ile se examina" si int e ele, da n" p"team sa imi da" seama efecti! de acest fapt, decit cind noi e am obiect"l l"i. Tot asa, de pilda, ne!asta*mea, "neo i si astaFi chia , p i!ind"*ma in ochi, !i" si c" o st al"ci e pasionata, imi dadea imp easia ca n"mai pent " mine a e aceasta p i!i e. 9.Saptaminile " matoa e m*am simtit din ce in ce mai m"lt con!alescent. (ceste int e!ede i c" ne!asta*mea ma facea" sa s"po t nesfi sit mai "so sistem de acomoda e. :.Int *o ! eme, pa ca incep"sem s*o "it. &escope isem "n soi de p eoc"pa i, ca e o lasa" pe ea pe plan"l al doilea. Niciodata n" a4"nsesem la o atit de ma e p"te e de concent a e. Rel"asem st"di"l si cite!a File am a!"t imp esia ca am %asit o explicatie menita sa e!ol"tioneFe filoFofia. E a in mine o cla itate binefacatoa e, asemeni calm"l"i pe ca e ti*l da mo fina. ;.Pe st ada "mblam ap oape a"tomat, c" toata atentia asf inta ina"nt ". N" stiam nici pe ce st aFi me %, n" a"Feam nimic in 4" "l me" si citeodata, t a!e sind, dam b"Fna peste a"tomobile. Tot ce e a aFa de l"mina e a abso bit in inte io . S*a intimplat sa patesc si necaF" i penibile, sa" idicole. =.N" tineam minte nimic din ceea ce faceam. E a sa am din ca"Fa asta "n d"el. (m fost op it pe bo"le!a d de "n domn si o doamna, fosta p ietena din copila ie. (m incep"t, pe 4"matate p eFent, sa*i sa "t mina ei si pe " ma, contin"ind, i*am sa "tat*o si domn"l"i. ( de!enit palid, si*a t as mina b "sc si m*a deFmeticit si pe mine. (bia mai ti Fi" l"c " ile s*a" lam" it. ?.(m incep"t, fi este, ia , sa me % intins, caci daca s"fe isem pina sa obtin in!oi ea, ac"m pa eam scapat ca dint *o p astie si neb"nia e!ede ii c estea in mine ca "n spasm, pe ca e nimic n" l*a mai fi p"t"t op i pina la isto!i ea l"i. (4"ns inca dimineata in piata, simteam ca mi se dilate inima, ca"tind o t as" a pent " Cimp"l"n%. A.In clipa aceea am simtit ca !oi deFe ta pent " t ei File, o ice s*a intimpla c" mine, ca sa !i" p in s" p inde e sa !ad ce face. I*am asp"ns ca n" sti", ca n" m*am %indit la asta. (de!a "l e insa ca ma %indisem. &e m"lte o i ima%inam cite o batalie si ma !edeam cond"cind"*mi pl"ton"l c" o b a!" a atit de ext ao dina a, incit toti sefii mei sa se ent"FiasmeFe. B.&aca nemtii inainta", ma p"tea" p inde fa a l"pta, caci e neindoios ca n*as fi fost in sta e sa ma apa . &e altminte i, nici n" mai a!eam c"i comanda, caci n" a!eam lin%a mine decit sapte oameni. E o p oblema, ca e si in cealalta !iata m*a obsedat me e", inca din "ltim"l an de lice" # sint infe io celo lalti de !i sta mea D
,:B

"pt" a si e am foa te m"lt"mit de b"n"l %ind pe

ca e*l a!"sesem, p o!ocind"*le. &epa ta ea n" mai e a o d ama "nica si dist "%atoa e de o %ane, ci "n

,N.&e la o ! eme oboseala imi da ca "n !al de neb"nie. &e t ei File si t ei nopti n*am do mit decit asea a, in sant"l soselei do"a o e si aFi d"pa*masa alte do"a. (c"m picioa ele n" mai %asesc nici maca sp i4in, in no oi"l ca e al"neca s"b ele, de pa ca am ca"ci"c la %en"nchi. (s ! ea sa ma las 4os, sa t eaca peste mine bocancii cama aFilo . ,,.&aca p in abs" d n" se intimpla nimic, si daca me % intins, asa ca "n cada! " amb"lant, sin%" in picioa e in tot la %"l cimp"l"i, fa a sa ma op esc o clipa, o ice s*a intimpla, sfe t"l de ceas t eb"ie sa t eaca. &a n" t eb"ie sa ma op esc s"b nici "n c"!int, si nici sa fi" atent la ce e in 4" "l me" ca sa*mi pie d c" a4"l, si sa n" ametesc, ca "n ac obat, ca e n" t eb"ie sa se "ite in 4os ,5. ( do"a Fi m*am m"tat la hotel pent " saptamina pe ca e a!eam s*o mai pet ec in pe misie. I*am da "it ne!esti*mi inca o s"ma ca aceea ce "ta de ea la Cimp"l"n% si m*am inte esat sa !ad c" ce fo malitate ii pot da "i casele de la Constanta. I*am sc is ca*i las absol"te tot ce e in casa, de la obiecte de p et, la ca ti... de la l"c " i pe sonale, la aminti i. (dica tot t ec"t"l. ,9.$a "n moment dat, P "noi" incep" sa sp"na c"m se m"ncise la fo ma ea comitet"l"i. ("Find"*l, (n%hel se dad" mai ap oape si se fac" atent. In c" ind, de "imi e, n" mai p icep" nimic. Se asteptase ca P "noi" sa n" pomeneasca nimic desp e o %aniFatie. N" n"mai ca pomeni tot timp"l de o %aniFatie, da si la"da 6 oFa! pe )it ica si pe Pasc". N"mai de (n%hel n" pomeni nici "n c"!int. ,:.Ilie i*a po!estit apoi ca acolo, la fata loc"l"i, a stat m"lt pe %ind" i pina sa le sp"na p ietenilo pe slea" ceea ce %indea. Ii !enea % e", stia bine ca d"pa aceea ei a" sa*l ocoleasca. Ii pa ea a" si de 6a! ila, ca e e a "n om de t eaba si c" ca e se a4"ta la ne!oie. 6 e" e a din pa tea asta, da n" se mai p"tea, t eb"ia sa le sp"na. ,;.Ilie se mi a de p" ta ea c" ie "l"i. Stan a ata foa te in% i4o at de ce*o sa pateasca Ilie ca n" !enise mai de eme. Se !edea ca f"sese el ins"si l"at la ost ca n"*l ad"sese pina ac"m pe Ilie Ka b". Ii sp"se sa mai astepte nitel, da n"*i sp"se si de ce, ca si cind fapt"l ca to!a as"l p esedinte si (n%hel se d"sese a sa stea la masa a fi fost "n sec et pe ca e Ilie n" t eb"ia sa*l stie. ,=.Ilie n"*l asc"lta. Se "ita nemiscat la Ianc", c" mi a e, c" "n soi de ci"data ned"me i e. N" semana deloc c" Ianc" acela de*ac"m cincisp eFece ani. Nici maca c" cel de ac"m t ei ani, de la p oces, n" mai semana. (c"m t ei ani i se "ita in fata c" ind aFneala. (c"m isi fe ea p i!i ea, se "ita in 4os, pa ca i*a fi fost f ica. ,?.$"i Ianc" ii e a f ica int *ade!a sa se "ite la Ilie, da n" pent " ceea ce*si inchip"ia acesta. Ianc" se stapinea sa n"*i sa a l"i Ilie in %it. T eb"ise sa se scoale la !ede ea l"i si sa mai 4oace si o comedie. Vite, ac"m t eb"ia sa*i asp"nda l"i 6hioceoaia # * )a, e" am !enit sa !a int eb, n" t eb"ie sa !a s"pa ati, sp"se el c" "n %las ci"dat, pa ca a fi !o bit in !is.
,;N

,A.\imbea si et, ba%ase de seama ca (n%hel se p eface. LaF"se apoi ca ceilalti se "ita" din cind in cind la om"l ala pe ca e Ilie n"*l c"nostea, apoi se "ita" la Ilie, apoi din no" se into cea" sp e om"l ala. Ilie n" intelesese nimic, da , fa a sa*si dea seama de ce, i se pa " ca aici e ce!a. Se "ita si el mai sta "ito la to!a as"l nec"nosc"t. Ridica sp incenele plin de "imi e # om"l ii intimpinase p i!i ea deschis, Fimbind foa te b"c" os si clatinind a m"st a e din cap. ,B.$"i P "noi" i*a fi plac"t mai m"lt ca Se %i" sa*I sp"na di ect ce c ede, asa c"m fac"se pina ac"m, n" sa*I pomeneasca de T" lea. (ici e a ce!a, t eb"ia sa se poa te c" % i4a. Ra" a fac"t ca a ba"t asea a la ci ci"ma c" ceilalti. N" e a ne!oie, le fac"se si*asa dest"la astmosfe a, c"m Ficea (n%hel. E ade!a at ca l"mea stie ca sint p ietenii l"i, da p ietenia e "na si t eaba e alta. 5N.* Ce sa fac, ma %indesc la l"mea asta ca e te da asa la o pa te, asp"nse Ilie a atind c" cap"l sp e bi o". Cel ca e int ebase n" Fise nimic, I se pa " p ea ind aFnet asp"ns"l l"i Ilie. ( fi ! "t sa a"da ce!a mai ocolit, !o be asa si*asa, ca e p"tea" fi intoa se d"pa c"m a fi fost e ne!oie f. se indepa ta nepasato . e N" poti !o bi ca l"mea c" Ilie asta f, pa ea sa sp"na c" nepasa ea l"i. E9er%ise *H Analyse the follo&ing te ts syntactically= comment on the underlined phrases: ,. Cen y wo"ld ha!e been so to"ched to belie!e that a man he deeply admi ed sho"ld ca e a st aw fo him that he wo"ldn+t play with s"ch a p es"mption if it we e possibly !ain. In a sin%le %lance of the eye of the pa donable )aste he ead * ha!in% the so t of di!ination that belon%ed to his talent 0 that this pe sona%e had e!e a sto e of f iendly patience, which was pa t of his ich o"tfit, b"t was !e sed in no p inted pa%e of a isin% sc ibble . The e was e!en elief, a simplification, in that# likin% him so m"ch al eady fo what he had done, how co"ld one ha!e liked him any mo e fo a pe ception which m"st at the best ha!e been !a%"eD 5. It was necessa y to Pa"l+s so eness to belie!e fo the ho" in the intensity of his % ie!ance 0 all the mo e c "el fo its not bein% a le%al one. It was do"btless in the attit"de of h"%%in% this w on% that he descended the stai s witho"t takin% lea!e of )iss 1anco" t, who hadn+t been in !iew at the moment he '"itted the oom. Ce was %lad to %et o"t into the honest d"sky "nsophisticated ni%ht, to mo!e fast, to take his way home on foot. Ce walked a lon% time, %oin% ast ay, payin% no attention. 9. -inte bo" ne wonde ed whethe she was se io"sly wo"nded, and fo a moment almost wished that he sense of in4" y mi%ht be s"ch as to make it becomin% in him to attempt to eass" e and comfo t he . Ce had a pleasant sense that she wo"ld be !e y app oachable fo consolato y p" poses. Ce
,;,

felt then, fo the instant, '"ite eady to sac ifice his a"nt, con!e sationallyQ to admit that she was a p o"d, "de woman, and to decla e that they needn+t mind he . K"t befo e he had time to commit himself to this pe ilo"s mixt" e of %alant y and impiety, the yo"n% lady, es"min% he walk, %a!e an exclamation. :.It was impossible to e%a d he as a pe fectly well*cond"cted yo"n% ladyQ she was wantin% in a ce tain indispensable delicacy. It wo"ld the efo e simplify matte s % eatly to be able to t eat he as the ob4ect of one of those sentiments which a e called by omance s <lawless passions.+ That she sho"ld seem to wish to %et id of him wo"ld help him to think mo e li%htly of he and to be able to think mo e li%htly of he wo"ld make he m"ch less pe plexin%. K"t &aisy, on this occasion, contin"ed to p esent he self as an insc "table combination of a"dacity and innocence. ;. Ce flatte ed himself on the followin% day that the e was no smilin% amon% the se !ants when he, at least, asked fo ) s.)ille at he hotel. She was one of those (me ican ladies who, while esidin% ab oad, make a point, in thei own ph ase, of st"dyin% E" opean societyQ and she had on this occasion collected se!e al specimens of he di!e sely bo n fellow*mo tals to se !e, as it we e, as text book. Ce da"%hte , on the othe hand, was not a yo"n% lady to wait to be spoken to. She "stled fo wa d, in adiant lo!eliness, smilin% and chatte in%, makin% Pa"l stop and look at he . =.-hen &aisy cane to take lea!e of ) s.-alke , this lady conscientio"sly epai ed the weakness of which she had been %"ilty at the moment of the yo"n% %i l+s a i!al. She t" ned he back st ai%ht "pon )iss )ille and left he to depa t with what % ace she mi%ht. &aisy t" ned !e y pale and looked at he mothe , b"t ) s )ille was h"mbly "nconscio"s of any !iolation of the "s"al social fo ms. She appea ed, indeed, to ha!e felt an incon% "o"s imp"lse to d aw attention to he own st ikin% obse !ance of them. ?.I p efe ed that c "mblin% thin%s sho"ld be allowed to c "mble at thei ease. )y %odda"%hte was '"ite of my way of thinkin%Q she had a hi%h app eciation of anti'"ity. (d!isin% with me, often, as to p o4ected chan%es, she was sometimes mo e conse !ati!e e!en than I, and I mo e than once smiled at he a chaeolo%ical Feal, decla in% that I belie!e she had ma ied the Co"nt beca"se he was like a stat"e of the &ecadence. I had a constant in!itation to spend my days at the Lilla, and my easel was always planted in one of the %a den*walksQ so I finally % ew to ha!e a painte +s passion fo the place. A. Ce left me m"sin%, "ncomfo tably, and wonde in% what the de"ce he meant. The Co"nt ce tainly chose to make a myste y of the G"no, b"t this seemed a nat" al incident of the fi st apt" e of possession. I was willin% to wait fo pe mission to app oach he , and in the meantime I was %lad to find that the e was a limit to his constit"tional apathy. K"t as the days elapsed I be%an to be conscio"s that his en4oyment was not comm"nicati!e, b"t st an%ely cold and shy and somb e. That he sho"ld admi e a
,;5

ma ble %oddess was no eason fo his despisin% mankindQ yet he eally seemed to be makin% in!idio"s compa isons between "s. B.C. was only half satisfied with this, fo it was by no means definite to him that Kohemians we e also to be sa!edQ if he co"ld be s" e pe haps he wo"ld become one himself. Pet he ne!e s"spected ) Letch of bein% a %o!e mental a%ent, tho"%h E. Po"pin had told him that the e we e a % eat many who looked a %ood deal like that# not of co" se with any p" pose of inc iminatin% the fiddle , whom he had t "sted f om the fi st and contin"ed to t "st. The a%ent became a !e y familia type to C, and, tho"%h he had ne!e ca"%ht one of the infamo"s b othe hood in the act the e we e plenty of pe sons to whom he had no hesitation in att ib"tin% the cha acte . ,N.C. wonde ed what they we e talkin% abo"t, and pe cei!ed that it m"st be somethin% impo tant, fo the st an%e was not a man who wo"ld take an inte est in anythin% else. C. was immensely st "ck with him, co"ld see he was ema kable, and felt sli%htly a%% ie!ed that he sho"ld be a st an%e # that is that he sho"ld be appa ently a familia of $isson and yet that ).Po"pin sho"ld not ha!e tho"%ht his yo"n% f iend f om $omax Place wo thy "p to this time to be made ac'"ainted with him. I know not to what de% ee the !isito in the othe chai disco!e ed these eflections on C+s face. ,,. The close lo%ic of this speech and the '"aint self*possession with which the little bed idden speake deli!e ed it st "ck C. as amaFin% and confi med his idea that the b othe and siste we e a most ext ao dina y pai . It had a te ible effect on poo $ady (" o a, by whom so ste n a lesson f om so h"mble a '"a te had e!idently not been expected and who so"%ht ef"%e f om he conf"sion in a se ies of pleadin% %asps, while Pa"l, with his h"mo o"s density, which was delibe ate, and ac"te too, not seein%, o at any ate not heedin%, that she had been s"fficiently sn"bbed by his siste , inflicted a f esh h"miliation in sayin%# <Rosy+s i%ht, it+s no "se t yin% to b"y yo" self off.+ ,5. She %ot "p '"ickly when Pa"l had ceased speakin%Q the mo!ement s"%%ested she had taken offence and he wo"ld ha!e liked to show he he tho"%ht she had been athe o"%hly "sed. K"t she %a!e him no chance, not %lancin% at him fo a moment. Then he saw he was mistaken and that if she had fl"shed conside ably it was only with the excitement of pleas" e, the en4oyment of s"ch o i%inal talk and of seein% he f iends at last as f ee and familia as she wished them to be. ,9. It may easily be belie!ed that he c iticiFed his inclination e!en while he %a!e himself "p to it, and that he often wonde ed he sho"ld find so m"ch to att act in a %i l in whom he fo"nd so m"ch to condemn. -hen he himself was not lettin% his ima%ination wande amon% the ha"nts of the a istoc acy and st etchin% it in the shadow of the ancest al beech to ead the last n"mbe of some fashionable ma%aFine, he was occ"pied with contemplations of a !e y diffe ent kind# he was abso bed in the

,;9

st "%%les of millions whose life flowed in the same c" ent as his and who, tho"%h they constantly excited his dis%"st and made him sh ink and t" n away, had the powe to chain his sympathy. ,:. (t his s"%%estion she had et acted the falsehoods with which she had p e!io"sly t ied to p"t the boy off, and had made at last a confession which he was satisfied to belie!e as complete as he knowled%e. C. co"ld ne!e ha!e told yo" why the c isis had occ" ed on s"ch a day, why his '"estion had b oken o"t at that pa tic"la moment. The st an%eness of the mate to himself was that the %e m of his c" iosity sho"ld ha!e de!eloped so slowlyQ that the ha"ntin% wonde which now, as he looked back, appea ed to fill his whole childhood, sho"ld only afte so lon% an inte !al ha!e c ept "p to the ai . ,;. Cis ha!in% the co" a%e to disinte f om #he #imes in the eadin%* oom of the K itish )"se"m a epo t of his mothe +s t ial fo the m" de of $o d P" !is, which was !e y copio"s, the affai ha!in% been '"ite a cause celebreQ his esol"tion in sittin% "nde that splendid dome and, with his head bent to hide his hot eyes, %oin% th o"%h e!e y syllable of the %hastly eco d had been an achie!ement of compa ati!ely ecent yea s. The e we e ce tain thin%s Pinnie knew that appalled himQ and the e we e othe s, as to which he wo"ld ha!e %i!en his hand to ha!e some li%ht, that it made his hea t ache s"p emely to find she was honestly i%no ant of. ,=.(t the theat e, he felt the e was a pleasin% inconse'"ence in )a y+s bein% mo!ed to tea s in the thi d act of the play, whe e the Pea l of Pa a%"ay, dishe!eled and dist acted, d a%%in% he self on he knees, implo ed the ste n hidal%o he fathe to belie!e in he innocence in spite of ci c"mstances appea in% to condemn he 0 a midni%ht meetin% with the wicked he o in the % o!e of cocon"ts. It was at this c isis none the less that she asked C. who his f iends we e in the p incipal box on the left of the sta%e and let him know that a %entleman seated the e had been watchin% him at inte !als fo the past half ho" . ,?. The e was not a co"nt y in the wo ld he appea ed not to ha!e ansacked, and to C. his t ophies ep esented a wonde f"lly lon% p" se. The whole establishment, f om the low*!oiced inexp essi!e !alet who, afte he had po" ed b andy into tall t"mble s, solemniFed the !e y poppin% of soda*wate co ks, to the '"aint little sil!e eceptacle in which he was in!ited to deposit the ashes of his ci%a , was s"ch a e!elation fo o" app eciati!e yo"th that he felt himself h"shed and dep essed, so poi%nant was the tho"%ht that it took tho"sands of thin%s he then sho"ld ne!e possess no know to make a ci!iliFed bein%. ,A. C. had seen plenty of women who chatte ed abo"t themsel!es and thei affai s 0 a !"l%a %a "lity of confidence was indeed a leadin% cha acte istic of the sex as he had hithe to lea ned to know it 0 b"t he was '"ick to pe cei!e that the % eat lady who now took the t o"ble to open he self to him was not of a %ossipin% habitQ that she m"st be on the cont a y, as a %ene al thin%, p o"dly, i onically
,;:

ese !ed, e!en to the point of passin% with many people fo a model of the "nsatisfacto y. It was !e y possible she was cap icio"sQ yet the fact that he p esent sympathies and c" iosities mi%ht be a cap ice wo e in he !isito +s eyes no siniste aspect. ,B. C. didn+t mind, with the poo , %oin% into '"estions of thei state 0 it e!en %a!e him at times a st an%e sa!a%e satisfactionQ b"t he saw that in disc"ssin% them with the ich the inte est m"st ine!itably be less# the ich co"ldn+t conside po!e ty in the li%ht of expe ience. Thei mistakes and ill"sions, thei thinkin% they had %ot hold of the sensations of want and di t when they hadn+t at all, wo"ld always be mo e o less i itatin%. It came o!e C. that if he fo"nd this deficient pe specti!e in $ady (" o a+s deep conscientio"sness it wo"ld be a '"ee eno"%h b"siness when he sho"ld come to p etendin% to hold the candle*stick fo the p incess. 5N. One e!enin% in No!embe he had afte discha %in% himself of a conside able indebtedness to Pinnie still a so!e ei%n in his pocket 0 a so!e ei%n that seemed to spin the e "nde the e'"al b eath of a doFen diffe ent "ses. Ce had come o"t fo a walk with a !a%"e intention of p"shin% as fa as ("dley Co" tQ and l" kin% within this neb"lo"s desi%n, on which the damp b eath of the st eets, makin% ob4ects seem that ni%ht pa tic"la ly dim and places pa tic"la ly fa , had blown a ce tain chill, was a sense of how nice it wo"ld be to take somethin% to Rose, who deli%hted in a sixpenny p esent and to whom he hadn+t fo some time ende ed any s"ch homa%e. .Cen y Games 0 T.e +rin%ess C!s!m!ssim!/ ;I;AIOGRA+10 Co nilesc", (. Co nilesc", (. #he #ransformational Synta of .nglish, TVK, ,B?= .nglish Synta , vol."", K"c" esti, TVK, ,BA5

Co nilesc", (. , IcleFan &imit i", I. Accuracy and >luency, Instit"t"l E" opean, ,BB= &ay, G. An Advanced .nglish Practice Course, $on%man, ,B=A 6 a!e , R. Co nby, (.S. et al. Advanced .nglish Practice, $on%man, ,B;B #he Advanced Jearner3s %ictionary of Current Co nby,(.S. A <uide to Patterns and Hsage in .nglish, $on%man, $ondon, ,B=, .nglish, $ondon, ,B=9. Gespe sen, O. A Dodern .nglish <rammar on :istorical Principles , !ol. ,*?, $ondon and Copenha%en, ,BNB 0 ,B:B Gones, $. Olima, E. Progress to Proficiency,CVP,,BB9 +egation in .nglish, in 1odo , G. and G.OatF, eds., ,B=:
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