UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA

DECLARATION OF THESIS / UNDERGRADUATE PROJECT PAPER AND COPYRIGHT

Authors full name : Date of birth Title : :

LEE KAH CHOON 21/04/1989 SIMULATION STUDY AND SETTING OF DISTANCE RELAYS ON DOUBLE CIRCUIT TRANSMISSION LINES USING PSCAD

Academic Session :

2012/2013

I declare that this thesis is classified as :

CONFIDENTIAL RESTRICTED OPEN ACCESS

(Contains confidential information under the Official Secret Act 1972)* (Contains restricted information as specified by the organization where research was done)* I agree that my thesis to be published as online open access (full text)

I acknowledged that Universiti Teknologi Malaysia reserves the right as follows: 1. The thesis is the property of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. 2. The Library of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia has the right to make copies for the purpose of research only. 3. The Library has the right to make copies of the thesis for academic exchange.

Certified by :

SIGNATURE

SIGNATURE OF SUPERVISOR PROF. IR. DR. ABDULLAH ASUHAIMI BIN MOHD ZIN NAME OF SUPERVISOR Date: 15 JUNE 2013

890421-04-5213 (NEW IC NO. / PASSPORT NO.) Date: 15 JUNE 2013 NOTES :

*If the thesis is CONFIDENTAL or RESTRICTED, please attach with the letter from the organization with period and reasons for confidentiality or restriction.

I hereby declare that I have read this thesis and in my opinion this thesis is sufficient in terms of scope and quality for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical)

Signature

: ..

Name of Supervisor : Prof. Ir. Dr. Abdullah Asuhaimi Bin Mohd Zin Date : 15th June 2013

SIMULATION STUDY AND SETTING OF DISTANCE RELAYS ON DOUBLE CIRCUIT TRANSMISSION LINES USING PSCAD

LEE KAH CHOON

A report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical)

Faculty of Electrical Engineering Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

JUNE 2013

ii

I hereby declare that this thesis entitled Simulation Study and Setting of Distance Relays on Double Circuit Transmission Lines Using PSCAD is the result of my own research except as cited in the references. The thesis has not been accepted for any degree and is not concurrently submitted in candidature of any other degree.

Signature Name Date

: .................................................... : .................................................... : ....................................................

iii

Special dedicated to my beloved father & mother Lee Chee Seng & Pang Siew Lan

Brother Lee Kah Hin

And My Entire Friend in SEE Program

For their encouragement, support, motivation and inspiration throughout this project

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to take this opportunity to express my utmost gratitude to my supervisor, Prof. Ir. Dr. Abdullah Asuhaimi Bin Mohd. Zin. He has given a lot of advice, guidance, comments as well as encouragement and support in order to complete this project smoothly and successfully throughout the two semester. Hereby, I am also grateful to En. Alias Bin Yusof and Dr. Mohd. Hafiz Habibuddin for their constructive criticism and suggestions on this project.

I would like to extend my sincere appreciation to my entire friend in 4SEE who helped me directly or indirectly, for the generous guidance, assistances and effort to lead me in completing this project. Lastly, I would like to thank my parents for the continuous motivation and encouragements throughout the progress of this project.

ABSTRACT

Modern electrical power system can be subdivided into four major subsystems which are the generation, transmission and subtransmission, distribution and utilization. In order to provide electrical energy to a multiplicity of users or consumers for various applications, distribution subsystem acts as a medium electrical power energy supplier where the electricity is carried from the transmission subsystem. However, fault sometime occurs in the process of distributing or transmitting the electricity caused by the physical accidents or insulation breakdowns. The occurrence of fault is inevitable problem which will threat the continuity of electricity supply. In the event of fault or interruption of power supply can result in many problem such as loss of stability and damage to the equipment. Hence, fault must be removed

instantaneously which in turn can minimize the trouble and damage to the equipment. Suitable and reliable protection system or device is required to be installed on the circuit and equipment. So, distance relay has been selected to be the protective device to sense the overcurrent by measuring the impedance on the transmission line and send the tripping signal to the circuit breaker to break the power line. In this project, the understanding on fault analysis and the principles and applications of distance relay is essential. Besides that, this project focuses on distinguishing the types of fault via waveform of voltage and current when difference type of fault is applied at the same location. Moreover, this project also focuses on the comparison between the

simulation results with the theoretical concept. In this project, a simple double circuit transmission line power system network is constructed by using PSCAD. The system circuit consists of two generators source, six fault location, four circuit breakers, and two 100km transmission line which are protected by distance relays. The

vi configuration or setting of the components can be determined by using PSCAD. The modelling and analysis of the test system circuit with corresponding relay circuits are completed by using PSCAD. From the simulation results, it can be found that the fault voltage and current characteristics are consistent with those from the theoretical concept.

vii

ABSTRAK

Sistem kuasa elektrik moden boleh dibahagikan kepada empat subsistem utama iaitu penjanaan, penghantaran, pengagihan dan penggunaan. Dalam usaha untuk menyediakan tenaga elektrik kepada kepelbagaian pengguna untuk pelbagai aplikasi, subsistem pengagihan bertindak sebagai kuasa elektrik pembekal tenaga medium di mana eletrik dibawa dari subsistem penghantaran. Dalam proses pengedaran atau penghantaran elektrik, kadang-kadang berlaku kerosakan sistem kuasa yang disebabkan oleh kemalangan fizial atau kerosakan penebat. Kejadian kerosakan sistem kuasa ini adalah masalah yang tidak dapat dielakkan dan ia akan mengancam kesinambungan bekalan elektrik. Sekiranya kerosakan atau gangguan bekalan kuasa berlaku, ia boleh menyebabkan banyak masalah seperti kehilangan kestabilan dan kerosakan kepada peralatan. Oleh itu, kerosakan sistem kuasa mesti diasingkan sertamerta dan seterusnya dapat mengurangkan kerosakan kepada peralatan elektrik. Sistem perlindungan yang sesuai perlu dipasang pada litar dan peralatan elektrik. Jadi, geganti jarak telah dipilih sebagai alat pelindung untuk mengesan lebihan arus dengan mengukur galangan pada talian penghantaran dan menghantar isyarat putus kepada pemutus litar untuk memutuskan talian kuasa. Dalam projek ini, pemahaman kepada analisis kerosakan dan prinsip-prinsip dan aplikasi geganti jarak adalah penting. Selain itu, projek ini memberi tumpuan kepada pembezaan jenis-jenis kerosakan melalui bentuk gelombang voltan dan arus apabila jenis lain kerosakan dipasang di lokasi yang sama. Begitu juga, projek ini memberi tumpuan kepada perbandingan antara keputusan simulasi dengan konsep teori. Dalam projek ini, litar dua talian penghantaran rangkaian sistem kuasa mudah dibina dengan menggunakan PSCAD. Litar sistem ini mengandungi dua penjana, enam kerosakan lokasi, empat pemutus litar

viii dan dua talian penghantaran 100km panjang yang dilindungi oleh geganti jarak. Konfigurasi komponen boleh ditentukan dengan menggunakan PSCAD. Pemodelan dan ujian analisis pada sistem dengan litar geganti dijalankan sepenuhnya dengan menggunakan PSCAD. Daripada keputusan simulasi, ia didapati bahawa sifat

kerosakan voltan dan arus adalah konsisten dengan konsep teori ataupun mematuhi sifat-sifat dalam teori.

ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER

TITLE

PAGE

DECLARATION DEDICATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ABSTRACT ABSTRAK TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS LIST OF SYMBOLS LIST OF APPENDICES

ii iii iv v vii ix xii xv xvi xvii

INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background

1 1

x 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Problem Statement Objective Scope Summary of Works Report Outline 2 3 3 4 5

LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 2.2 Introduction Fault Analysis 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.3 2.4 2.5 Single Line-to-Ground Fault Line-to-Line Fault Double Line-to-Ground Fault Three Phase-to-Ground Fault

6 6 7 8 11 13 15 16 17 18

Principles of Distance Relays Distance Protection Scheme Summary

METHODOLOGY 3.1 3.2 Introduction Characterization of Related Component 3.2.1 3.2.2 3 Phase Voltage Source 3 Phase Circuit Breaker

19 19 20 21 22

xi 3.2.3 3.2.4 3.2.5 3.2.6 3.2.7 3.2.8 3.2.9 Transmission Line 3 Phase Fault Controller Timed Fault Logic On-Line Frequency Transform (FFT) Sequence Filter Mho Circle Line to Line Impedance 22 23 24 25 26 27 27 28 29

3.2.10 Multimeter 3.2.11 Block Average Phase Comparator Relay 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 Process of Design and Analysis Circuit Design and Building Run Simulation Conclusion

30 30 33 34

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 Introduction No Fault Condtion Single Line to Ground Fault (A-g Fault) Double Line Fault (AB Fault) Double Line to Ground Fault (AB-g Fault) Three Phase to Ground Fault (ABC-g Fault) Conclusion

35 35 36 39 42 44 47 50

xii

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 5.1 5.2 Conclusion Recommendation

51 51 52

REFERENCES Appendices A - B

53 54 - 62

xiii

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. 1.1 2.1 2.2 2.3 Project flow chart Types of fault

TITLE

PAGE 4 8 9 11

Single line-to-ground fault with Zf = 0 Connection of sequence networks for L-G fault with Zf = 0

2.4 2.5

L-L fault on phases b-c Connection of sequence networks for L-L fault with Zf = 0

11 13

2.6 2.7

L-L-G fault on phases b-c Connection of sequence networks for L-L-G fault with Zf = 0

13 14

2.8 2.9

Balanced three phase-to-ground fault with Zf = 0 Connection of sequence networks for L-L-L-G fault with Zf = 0

15 15

2.10 3.1

3 zone distance protection scheme 3 phase voltage source

18 21

xiv 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 3 phase circuit breaker Transmission line 3 phase fault controller Timed fault logic configuration Configuration of 3 phase fast fourier transform Sequence filter Mho circle component Line to line impedance component Measurement device Block average phase comparator relay Project flow of a design power system network Project main circuit Sequence module for voltage and current Relay circuit Button to run simulation Control settings of no fault condition Dial position of fault type Dial position of fault location Voltage waveform of no fault condition Current waveform of no fault condition Breaker (B2) signal of no fault condition Control settings of single line to ground fault 22 23 24 24 25 26 27 28 29 29 30 31 32 32 33 36 36 37 37 38 39 39

xv (A-g Fault) 4.8 Voltage waveform of single line to ground fault (A-g Fault) 4.9 Breaker (B2) signal of single line to ground fault (A-g Fault) 4.10 Current waveform of single line to ground fault (A-g Fault) 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 Control settings of double line fault (AB Fault) Voltage waveform of double line fault (AB Fault) Breaker (B2) signal of double line fault (AB Fault) Current waveform of double line fault (AB Fault) Control settings of double line to ground fault (AB-g Fault) 4.16 Voltage waveform of double line to ground fault (AB-g Fault) 4.17 Breaker (B2) signal of double line to ground fault (AB-g Fault) 4.18 Current waveform of double line to ground fault (AB-g Fault) 4.19 Control settings of three phase to ground fault (ABC-g Fault) 4.20 Voltage waveform of three phase to ground fault 49 48 47 46 46 42 43 43 44 45 41 41 40

xvi (ABC-g Fault) 4.21 Breaker (B2) signal of three phase to ground fault (ABC-g Fault) 4.22 Current waveform of three phase to ground fault (ABC-g Fault) 50 49

xvii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

PSCAD

Power System Computer Aided Design Electromagnetic Transients including DC Flexible Alternating Current Transmission System Gate Turn-off Thyristor High Voltage Direct Current Static Var Compensator Fast Fourier Transform

EMTDC FACTS GTO HVDC SVC FFT -

xviii

LIST OF SYMBOLS

Ea Ia Ib Ic If Ia0 Ia1 Ia2 Va Vb Vc Va0 Va1 Va2 Zf Z0 Z1 Z2

Voltage source Current phase a Current phase b Current phase c Fault current Phase a zero sequence current Phase a positive sequence current Phase a negative sequence current Voltage phase a Voltage phase b Voltage phase c Phase a zero sequence voltage Phase a positive sequence voltage Phase a negative sequence voltage Fault impedance Zero sequence impedance Positive sequence impedance Negative sequence impedance

xix

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX

TITLE

PAGE

A B

Circuit Structure Power System Simulation Result

54 57

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1

Background

Electrical energy is the most popular form of energy as it can be transmitted easily at high efficiency and reasonable cost [8]. Modern power system comprises of four major subsystems, which is the generation, transmission, distribution and utilization. In order to deliver electrical energy to consumers in usable form, a transmission and distribution system must fulfill some basic requirements. Hence, it must [9]: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. Provide the power that users need at all times. Maintain a stable, nominal voltage that does not differ by more than +10%. Maintain a stable frequency that does not differ by more than +0.1Hz. Supply energy at a reasonable price. Meet criterions of safety. Regard environmental standards.

2 The electrical power is distributed to a multiplicity of users for various applications. In the process of distributing or transmitting the power, faults sometimes occur caused by the physical accidents or insulation breakdowns [1]. The occurrence of fault is inevitable problem which will threat the continuity of electricity supply. Therefore, the transmission protection system is used to detect fault on lines or at substations and then isolate those faults from the rest of the electrical network rapidly. The objective of a protection scheme not only is to minimize the trouble and damage caused by the faults, but also to keep the power system stable by isolating only the components that are under faults, while leaving as much of the network as possible in operation.

In general, distance relays are used for phase fault primary and back-up protection on transmission lines. This is because of distance relays meet the criteria of reliability, selectivity, sensitivity, stability and speed that needed to protect the circuit.

1.2

Problem Statement

Fault occurrence is inevitable problem which will threat the continuity of electric supply to a multiplicity of users in electric power system. In the event of fault or interruption of the power supply can result in many problem such as loss of stability and damage to the equipment. Therefore, fault must be isolated instantaneously in order to minimize the trouble and damage. Suitable and reliable protection system or device must be installed on the circuit and equipment. So, distance relay has been selected to be the protection device to overcome the fault occurs in the transmission line in this project.

3 1.3 Objective

Objectives of the project are as the following: i. To study the fault analysis and the principles and applications of distance relay in power system. ii. To model and simulate a simple power system network using PSCAD/EMTDC software. iii. To distinguish the types of fault via waveform of voltage and current when difference type of fault is applied at the same location. iv. To compare PSCAD simulation result with the theoretical concept.

1.4

Scope

Scopes of the project are as the following: i. ii. The study on the characteristics, operation and performances of distance relay. The study on the fault analysis on transmission line that consists of single line to ground fault, line to line fault, double line to ground fault and three phase fault. iii. iv. Bolted fault or solid fault is applied on the transmission line. Generating waveform of fault current and voltage by using PSCAD.

4 1.5 Summary of Works

Implementation and works of the project are summarized into the flow chart as shown in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1

Project flow chart.

5 1.6 Report Outline

The report for the project is divided into five chapters. For the first chapter, the introduction of project study which include problem statements, objectives and scope of the project is reviewed. While for the second chapter which is literature review, some important subject that contributed in this project is covered. The following chapter, chapter three will cover the related component used in PSCAD and also the process of design and analysis with the purpose of accomplishing the running simulation for the circuit. Next, result and discussion will be placed in fourth chapter. Result in fourth chapter will be used to compare with the theoretical concept in second chapter to prove that the system is valid. Lastly, the fifth chapter which is the last chapter in this project will provide the conclusion of the project study and some recommendation or suggestion for further analysis.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1

Introduction

Protection system is a system to detect fault, isolate the faulty plant and to minimize the damage to the power system [1]. Before designing the protection system, some problem and solution technique need to be planned as the system must meet certain minimum criteria such as reliability, selectivity, sensitivity, stability and speed. Therefore, deep knowledge and research need to be done with the intention of designing a complete system network which can operate functionality. Moreover, the concept can be better in understanding. This chapter will review more on the related information regarding to the fault type with theoretical calculation, principles of distance relays as well as brief review on the distance protection scheme.

7 2.2 Fault Analysis

The fault analysis of a power system is required with the purpose of providing information for the selection of switchgear, setting of relays and stability of system operation. A power system is not static but alters during operation for example switching on or off of generators and transmission lines. Besides that, it also alters during planning. Hence, fault studies are essential to be routinely executed by utility engineers [2].

Faults typically take place in a power system caused by several factors, either flashover, insulation failure, physical damage or human mistake. These faults may either be three phases in nature involving all three phases in a symmetrical method, or may be asymmetrical where typically only one or two phases may be involved. The faults occurrence may also due to either short-circuits to earth or between live conductors, or may be due to broken conductors in one or more phases. Sometimes simultaneous faults may occur involving both short-circuit and open-circuit faults [2].

Balanced three phase faults can be studied by using an equivalent single phase circuit. With asymmetrical three phase faults, the method of symmetrical components is very useful in an analysis to reduce the complexity of the calculations as transmission lines and components are by and large symmetrical, although the fault may be asymmetrical [2].

Fault analysis is typically implemented in per-unit quantities which give consistent solution over different voltage and power ratings, and operate on values of the order of unity [2].

8 Fault occurs in the transmission line can be either single line-to-ground fault, line-to-line fault, double line-to-ground fault, three phase fault or three phase to ground fault. Each fault has its own characteristic and condition that make the fault takes place. The types of fault condition are shown in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1

Types of fault.

2.2.1

Single Line-to-Ground Fault

The single line to ground fault can take place in any of the three phases. But, it is necessary to analyse only one of the cases. Looking at the symmetry of the symmetrical component matrix, it is found that the simplest way to analyse would be the phase a [2]. Consider a single line to ground fault with zero fault impedance, Zf as shown in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2

Single line-to-ground fault with Zf = 0.

= 0 = 0 = = 0 Where, = phase b current during fault = phase c current during fault = phase a voltage during fault

(2.1) (2.2) (2.3)

These can be changed to equivalent conditions in symmetrical components as follows. = 0 + 1 + 2 = 0 (2.4)

0 1 1 And, [1 ] = 3 [1 2 1

1 2

1 2 ] [ = 0] = 0

(2.5)

Giving 0 = 1 = 2 = 3 (2.6)

10 Mathematical analysis using the network equation in symmetrical components would produce the desired result for the fault current If = Ia. 0 0 0 [1 ] = [ ] [ 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 ] [1 ] 2 2

(2.7)

Thus, 0 + 1 + 2 = 0 = (0 + 1 + 2 ) 3 (2.8)

Simplification, with If = Ia, gives, = 3 1 + 2 + 0 (2.9)

Where, = fault current = fault voltage 0 = phase a zero sequence impedance during fault 1 = phase a positive sequence impedance during fault 2 = phase a negative sequence impedance during fault

Besides that, the equation can also be obtained from the equivalent circuit as shown in Figure 2.3 which shows the connection of sequence network for a single lineto-ground fault with Zf = 0.

11

Figure 2.3

Connection of sequence networks for L-G fault with Zf = 0.

2.2.2

Line-to-Line Fault

Line to line fault may take place in a power system, with or without the ground, and with or without fault impedance [2]. Consider a line to line fault with phase b and phase c are shorted together without fault impedance Zf as shown in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4

L-L fault on phases b-c.

Solution of the line-to-line fault provides a simpler solution when phases b and c are considered as the symmetrical component matrix is similar for phases b and c. The complexity of the calculations decreases on account of this selection [2]. At this fault, = 0, = = (2.10)

12

Mathematical analysis may be done by changing these conditions to the relevant symmetrical component matrix equation. The network solution becomes more convenient after converting the boundary conditions and will be considered here [2]. = 0 and = when substituted into the matrix equation gives 0 1 1 [1 ] = [1 3 2 1 1 2 = 0 1 2] [ ] = (2.11)

Which on simplification gives 0 = 0, 1 = 2 1 + 2 = 0 (2.12)

and = on substitution gives 0 1 1 1 [1 ] = [1 3 2 1 2 1 2 ] [ ] = (2.13)

Which on simplification gives 1 = 2

(2.14)

The boundary conditions 0 = 0 , 1 + 2 = 0 , and 1 = 2 show a solution where the two networks positive and negative are in parallel and the zero sequence on open circuit, as shown in Figure 2.5.

Fault current, = = = (2 )1 31

(2.15)

13

Figure 2.5

Connection of sequence networks for L-L fault with Zf = 0.

2.2.3

Double Line-to-Ground Fault

This type of fault takes place when two lines come into contact with the ground and each other as shown in Figure 2.6. Consider a double line to ground fault with phase b and phase c are shorted together to ground without fault impedance Zf. At this fault, = 0, = = ( + ) = 0 (2.16)

Figure 2.6

L-L-G fault on phases b-c.

Gives 0 + 1 + 2 = = 0

(2.17)

14 And the condition 0 = 1 = 2 (2.18)

These conditions taken together, can be seen to correspond to all three sequence networks connected in parallel which is shown in Figure 2.7.

Figure 2.7

Connection of sequence networks for L-L-G fault with Zf = 0.

The following equations are obtained based on the connection of sequence networks above: 1 = 0 1 + 2 2 + 0 (2.19)

0 2 = 1 ( ) 2 + 0 0 = 1 ( 2 ) 2 + 0

(2.20)

(2.21)

Fault current, = + = 30

(2.22)

15 2.2.4 Three Phase-to-Ground Fault

Since three phase to ground fault is a symmetrical fault also known as balance fault, the analysis for this type of fault becomes easier compared with asymmetrical fault. Figure 2.8 shows the three phases are shorted together to ground without fault impedance Zf.

Figure 2.8

Balanced three phase-to-ground fault with Zf = 0.

At this fault, = = = ( + + ) = 0 (2.23)

The fault circuit can be represented as a single line diagram. It is due to no negative sequence or zero sequence in the three phase to ground fault condition and is shown in Figure 2.9.

Figure 2.9

Connection of sequence networks for L-L-L-G fault with Zf = 0.

16 Positive sequence fault current, 1 =

1

(2.24)

2.3

Principles of Distance Relays

Since the impedance of a transmission line is proportional to its length, for distance measurement it is suitable to use a relay that able to measure the impedance of a line up to a predetermined point (the reach point). Such a relay is defined as a distance relay and is created to operate only for faults occurring between the relay location and the selected reach point, therefore giving discrimination for faults that may occur in different line sections [3].

The basic principle of distance protection involves the division of the voltage at the relaying point by the measured current. The apparent impedance so calculated is compared with the reach point impedance. If the measured impedance is less than the reach point impedance, it is assumed that a fault occurs on the line between the relay and the reach point [3].

The reach point of a relay is the point along the line impedance locus that is intersected by the boundary characteristic of relay. Since this is dependent on the ratio of voltage and current and the phase angle between them, it may be plotted on an R/X diagram. The loci of power system impedance as seen by the relay during faults, power swings and load variations may be plotted on the same diagram and in this way the act of the relay in the occurrence of system faults and disturbances may be studied [3].

17 2.4 Distance Protection Scheme

One of the most critical issues in power system protection is the speed with which a fault can be removed quickly to minimize its effect from abnormalities of a system.

Due to uncertainty in impedance measurements, when protecting a transmission line with non-pilot distance protection schemes, it is needed to rely upon stepped zones of protection. This method protects any given section of transmission line with multiple zones.

The typical practice in applying distance protection is to install three sets of distance relays at each relaying point, creating the 3 zone distance protection scheme as shown in Figure 2.10. The zone 1 unit relays have the shortest reach and the fastest operating speed, while zones 2 and 3 unit relays have successively longer reaches and slower speeds. Zone 2 unit acts as a backup for zone 1 unit and zone 3 unit acts as a backup for zones 1 and 2 unit.

An ordinary arrangement is to make zones 1 and 2 unit as polarised mho and zone 3 unit as offset mho. The first zone tripping usually is set to 80% of the protected line. A fault should be isolated instantaneously without the need to wait for other device to operate when detected by zone 1 unit. The zone 2 unit will cover the remaining 20% portion of the protected section.

18

Figure 2.10

3 zone distance protection scheme.

2.5

Summary

This chapter has linked up all the literature review that required to be as a reference to execute this project. The related subject aids to guide this project to be more comprehensible and easy to be done. These include all the information regarding to principles of distance relays and distance protection scheme. Besides that, it is also comprises of the information of the type of fault that might occur in the transmission line system which is useful for the project.

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1

Introduction

Power Systems Computer Aided Design which is known as PSCAD, a powerful and flexible graphical user interface to the world-renowned, EMTDC solution engine. PSCAD allows the user to schematically construct a circuit, run a simulation, analyze the results, and manage the data in a completely integrated, graphical environment. Online plotting functions, controls and meters are also

included, so that the user can change the system parameters during a simulation run and view the results directly [5].

PSCAD comprises of a library of pre-programmed and tested simulation models, ranging from simple passive elements and control functions, to more complex models, such as electric machines, FACTS devices, transmission lines and cables [5]. If a particular model does not exist, PSCAD provides ways for building custom models,

20 either by assembling those graphically using existing models, or by utilizing an intuitively designed Design Editor.

The following are some common models found in the master library of systems studied using PSCAD: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. Resistors, inductors, capacitors Mutually coupled windings, such as transformers Frequency dependent transmission lines and cables Current and voltage sources Switches and breakers Protection and relaying Diodes, thyristors and GTOs Meters and measuring functions Generic DC and AC controls HVDC, SVC, and other FACTS controllers Wind source, turbines and governors

3.2

Characterization of Related Component

First of all, there are some components have been used in constructing a simple power system network in this project. The components used have to be set up completely to ensure that the distance relay in the system operates functionality during the fault occur and after the fault disappeared. Hence, the understanding on the component characteristic and setting is essential in constructing this automatic tripping circuit. This is due to the whole circuit will not functioning by selecting the wrong

21 component or setting incorrectly of the component. Consequently, it will takes longer time to figure out the problem.

3.2.1

3 Phase Voltage Source

The 3 phase voltage source shown in Figure 3.1 that be used for each supply in the system where 230kV line voltage, 60Hz has been set up for voltage source with base MVA is 100. By using this 3 phase voltage source model, users able to select an ideal source impedance or choose to specify the positive sequence and zero sequence source impedance. In this system, 52.9 and 80.0have been set up as impedance and phase angle value respectively for the selected positive and zero sequence source impedance in each supply.

Figure 3.1

3 phase voltage source.

22 3.2.2 3 Phase Circuit Breaker

The function of a circuit breaker is to separate the faulty part of the power system in case of abnormal circumstances [1]. At normal condition, the circuit breaker is at CLOSE state which the breaker logic is 0. On the other hand, if the circuit breaker receives any tripping or fault signal from the relay system, circuit breaker will break the circuit that is at OPEN state which the breaker logic is 1 [5]. Besides that, the resistance of the breaker for both conditions must be specified along with its initial state. Figure 3.2 shows the single line view of 3 phase circuit breaker.

Figure 3.2

3 phase circuit breaker.

3.2.3

Transmission Line

A transmission line is a material medium or structure that forms a path for transmitting the electrical energy from one place to another along large distances. In this project, transmission line is an important component part that be used to perform the simulation. First of all, direct connection has been selected for the termination style or type of connection in the configuration of transmission line. Furthermore, 60Hz as the frequency value, 3 as the number of conductor for the transmission line and 100km as the length of transmission line have been set up. Moreover, PSCAD

23 also provide various type of model for transmission line and the Frequency Dependent (Phase) Model has been selected in this system which is shown in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3

Transmission line.

3.2.4

3 Phase Fault Controller

The 3 phase fault controller is a component in PSCAD that used to control or generate any desired type of fault at the transmission line. There are two type of fault control either by controlling internally or externally. In this system, it is controlled externally. Hence, an external connection is provided to the 3 phase fault controller so that the user may connect any type of external fault circuit directly to the fault common point [5]. The external 3 phase fault controller is shown in Figure 3.4.

24

Figure 3.4

3 phase fault controller.

3.2.5

Timed Fault Logic

The timed fault logic as shown in Figure 3.5 is a component that is used to simply open and close the fault at user specified times [5]. In this system, the time for fault start applied is at 0.2s and fault duration is 0.1s.

Figure 3.5

Timed fault logic configuration.

25 3.2.6 On-Line Frequency Transform (FFT)

The FFT is a component that used to determine the harmonic magnitude and phase of the input signal as a function of time which is shown in Figure 3.6. First of all, the input signals are sampled before they are decomposed into harmonic constituents. Besides that, options are provided to use one, two or three inputs. For the case of three inputs, the component can provide output in the form of sequence components. In this system, 3 phase as the type of FFT and 15 as the number of harmonics have been set up for this component. The sequence components are calculated based on the simple transformation equation [5]: 0 1 1 [1 ] = [1 3 2 1 1 1120 1 120 1 1 120] [ ] 1120

(3.1)

Figure 3.6

Configuration of 3 phase fast fourier transform.

26 3.2.7 Sequence Filter

The sequence filter as shown in Figure 3.7 is a component that used to compute the magnitudes and phase angles of sequence components, when the magnitudes and phase angles of the phase quantities are given by the 3 phase FFT component [5]. In this system, the input and output of phase angles are set up in radians unit instead of degrees unit.

Figure 3.7

Sequence filter.

27 3.2.8 Mho Circle

There are several type of trip devices such as trip polygon, distance relay apple, distance relay lens, and mho circle. In this system, the mho circle which is classified as an Impedance Zone Element is used to check whether or not a point described by inputs R and X, lies inside a specified region on the impedance plane. R and X represent the resistive and reactive parts of the monitored impedance, and may be input in per unit or ohms [5]. Please note however, that the units of the component input parameters should match that of the R and X inputs. If the point defined by R and X is inside the specified region, the component then will produce an output 1, or else the output will be 0 [5]. Figure 3.8 shows the mho circle component.

Figure 3.8

Mho circle component.

3.2.9

Line to Line Impedance

The component as shown in Figure 3.9 that is used to calculate line to line impedance as seen by a ground impedance relay. Furthermore, the output impedance is in rectangular format (R and X), and is optimized for use with the trip polygon, distance relay apple, distance relay lens, or the mho circle trip devices [5].

28

Figure 3.9

Line to line impedance component.

3.2.10

Multimeter

The component as shown in Figure 3.10 is multimeter which is used to perform virtually all possible system quantity measurements, all contained within a single, compact component. Besides that, it is inserted in series within the circuit either 3 phase, single line or 1 phase. Hence, bulky node loops are not required [5]. Below is the quantities that multimeter able to measure: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. Instantaneous voltage Instantaneous current Active power flow Reactive power flow RMS voltage Phase angle

29

Figure 3.10

Measurement device.

3.2.11

Block Average Phase Comparator Relay

In Figure 3.11, the component is the block average phase comparator relay that used to calculate a value through ( ) (3.2)

This quantity should be negative in value if impedance described by inputs V and I lies outside the protected zone. Moreover, it integrates the normalized quantity of with limits at 0.0 and 2.0, and if the integrator output exceeds 1.0, then it will produce a trip signal 1. The default output is 0 [5].

Figure 3.11

Block average phase comparator relay.

30 3.3 Process of Design and Analysis

In order to carry out the research, several steps that user need to be taken to get the result or output waveform at the output channel from the PSCAD simulation. The process of design and analysis for the system network or project flow is shown in Figure 3.12.

Figure 3.12

Project flow of a design power system network.

3.4

Circuit Design and Building

Before run the PSCAD simulation for the project, the main or major step that has to be done which is the circuit construction. This is the step where the complete circuit is designed and build up after setting the entire component in the system. In

31 the PSCADs master library, there are a lot of components such as sources, breakers and faults, transmission lines, I/O devices and so on. The user can simply pick and select any required component from the master library and put in the main page where the project main circuit is constructed. Furthermore, to edit the configuration of the component, user needs to double click on the component and the editing can be done. Figure 3.13, Figure 3.14 and Figure 3.15 show the project main circuit, sequence module for voltage and current, and distance relay circuit respectively that were built in this project.

Figure 3.13

Project main circuit.

32

Figure 3.14

Sequence module for voltage and current.

Figure 3.15

Relay circuit.

33 In Figure 3.15, the relay circuit is built by using line to line impedance, mho circle, comparator and gates. Each of the components is connected together to the circuit breaker in the project main circuit. The relay circuit is used to detect any fault occurs in the system. Hence, the relay circuit will send the trip signal to the circuit breaker and breaker will break or open the circuit.

3.5

Run Simulation

After the project main circuit is constructed completely, user needs to run the simulation by simply click on the Run button in the main toolbar. The location of Run button is shown in Figure 3.16. Once the Run button is pressed, PSCAD will go through several stages of processing the circuit before starting the EMTDC simulation. If there is no error in the setting or configuration of components in the circuit or all connection is connected, then the simulation will run successfully. On the other hand, the warning will appear if one or more error occurs, then the correction need to be done in order to obtain the graph and also the measurement depending on the selected node.

Figure 3.16

Button to run simulation.

34 3.6 Conclusion

To reduce the possibility of failure in running circuit, the understanding of each component is required and also the step or process in constructing the project main circuit is crucial. For the next chapter which is Chapter 4, the obtained result from the simulation is discussed and compared with the theoretical concept in the Chapter 2.

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1

Introduction

In this chapter, the result obtained for the five main type of fault condition such as no fault condition, single line to ground fault, line to line fault, double line to ground fault, and three phase to ground fault has been discussed very clearly. The discussion is based on the shape or pattern of the voltage and current waveform obtained. Furthermore, the result waveforms are used to compare with theoretical in Chapter 2.

There are six different location of fault in the project main circuit. However, it is mainly focus on the faults that are applied only at fault location 3, FT3. User can also simulate different type of fault at different location in this circuit. Besides that, the performance of the distance relay in the circuit will also be discussed according to the type of fault condition mentioned above. 4.2 No Fault Condition

36

Figure 4.1 shows the control settings of no fault condition that had been applied at the FT3. The input of dial position for fault type is set to 10 which represent no fault condition. The dial position of fault type and fault location are shown in Figure 4.2 and Figure 4.3 respectively.

Figure 4.1

Control settings of no fault condition.

Figure 4.2

Dial position of fault type.

37

Figure 4.3

Dial position of fault location.

Since there is no fault condition at LINE1, the waveform of voltage at B2 are same and stable. Figure 4.4 shows the voltage waveform when no fault condition occurs.

Figure 4.4

Voltage waveform of no fault condition.

38 While, the waveform of current at B2 also in stable and constant as supply which shown in Figure 4.5. There are no overcurrent occurs. If there is a fault occurs, the scale of current is not be in small value because of the measurement of fault current is too big which is exceed multiple times.

Figure 4.5

Current waveform of no fault condition.

The distance relay does not detect any fault in the LINE1, so the circuit breaker (B2) operates in a normal condition where it is in a CLOSE condition. Therefore, no tripping signal was sent to the breaker (B2) since there is no any detection of type fault occur at the LINE1 and it has been proved by the breaker (B2) signal in Figure 4.6 where the outputs are in 0 condition at all time.

39

Figure 4.6

Breaker (B2) signal of no fault condition.

4.3

Single Line to Ground Fault (A-g Fault)

Figure 4.7 shows the control settings of single line to ground fault that had been applied at the FT3. The input of dial position for fault type is set to 1 which represent the phase a to ground fault condition and also known as A-g fault. The time of the fault start applied is at 0.2 second and the fault duration is 0.1 second.

Figure 4.7

Control settings of single line to ground fault. (A-g Fault)

40 The voltage waveform of single line to ground fault at B2 has been obtained from the PSCAD simulation is shown in Figure 4.8. Since the fault occurred at 0.2 second, the voltage of the phase a is equal to zero because of the fault that occurs is bolted fault. It has been proved in Chapter 2 that when single line to ground fault occurred, = 0 or = 0 + 1 + 2 = 0. Besides that, voltage of the phase b and phase c also have been affected where both phases magnitude drop during fault.

Meanwhile, distance relay will send tripping signal to circuit breaker (B2). The breaker (B2) signal for single line to ground fault is shown in Figure 4.9. The breaker (B2) breaks the circuit at 0.22 second after fault occurs at 0.2 second, so the voltage at LINE1 will become zero. However, when the faults are cleared, breaker (B2) will reclose back the circuit at 0.31 second and there will some transient of voltage occurs in few microseconds.

Figure 4.8

Voltage waveform of single line to ground fault. (A-g Fault)

41

Figure 4.9

Breaker (B2) signal of single line to ground fault. (A-g Fault)

Figure 4.10 shows current waveform of single line to ground fault at B2. The existing current at the LINE1 is only the phase a current and the other phases current are equal to zero when fault occur. There also has some transient of current occurs in few microseconds when breaker (B2) reclosed at 0.31 second. By comparing with the theoretical, when single line to ground fault occur, = 0 and = 0.

Figure 4.10

Current waveform of single line to ground fault. (A-g Fault)

42 4.4 Double Line Fault (AB Fault)

Figure 4.11 shows the control settings of double line fault or line to line fault that had been applied at the FT3. The input of dial position for fault type is set to 8 which represent the phase a line to phase b line fault condition and also known as AB fault. The time of the fault start applied is similar with the single line to ground fault condition which is at 0.2 second and the fault duration is 0.1 second.

Figure 4.11

Control settings of double line fault. (AB Fault)

The voltage waveform of double line fault at B2 has been obtained from the PSCAD simulation is shown in Figure 4.12. From the voltage waveform, voltage of the phase b followed and overlapped with the voltage of the phase a when the fault occurred at 0.2 second. It has been proved in theory of Chapter 2 that when consider a line to line fault occurred with phase b and phase c are shorted together without fault impedance Zf, = . Since the fault type applied in this project is AB fault, therefore = . Furthermore, there is a decrease of phase magnitude for the voltage of the phase c during fault.

In the meantime, distance relay will send tripping signal to circuit breaker (B2). The breaker (B2) signal for double line fault is shown in Figure 4.13. The breaker (B2) breaks the circuit at 0.22 second after fault occurs at 0.2 second, so the voltage at LINE1 will become zero which similar as before. However, when the faults are

43 cleared, breaker (B2) will reclose back the circuit at 0.31 second and there will some transient of voltage occurs in few microseconds.

Figure 4.12

Voltage waveform of double line fault. (AB Fault)

Figure 4.13

Breaker (B2) signal of double line fault. (AB Fault)

By referring to the simulation result, current waveform of double line fault at B2 is shown in Figure 4.14. We can conclude that only current of phase c is zero during fault. On the other hand, current of phase a and phase b are in anti-phase condition. It is because of the touching lines or the fault lines are between phase a and phase b line only. Hence, the both phases line can be assumed connected in series and

44 the resultant of the current is zero. Furthermore, there also has some transient of current occurs in few microseconds when breaker (B2) reclosed at 0.31 second. From the theoretical, the relation between current of phase b and phase c is given as = or = 180. At the same time, the current of phase a is zero. Since the fault type applied in this project is AB fault, therefore = or = 180 and current of phase c is zero. As a conclusion, simulation result is same as the theoretical.

Figure 4.14

Current waveform of double line fault. (AB Fault)

4.5

Double Line to Ground Fault (AB-g Fault)

Figure 4.15 shows the control settings of double line to ground fault that had been applied at the FT3. The input of dial position for fault type is set to 4 which represent the phase a and phase b to ground fault condition and also known as AB-g fault. The time of the fault start applied is similar with others fault before which is at 0.2 second and the fault duration is 0.1 second.

45

Figure 4.15

Control settings of double line to ground fault. (AB-g Fault)

The voltage waveform of double line to ground fault at B2 has been obtained from the PSCAD simulation is shown in Figure 4.16. From Figure 4.16, we found that both voltages of phase a and phase b are equal to zero when the fault occurred. It is due to the value between generators and also the faulted point is too small. Besides that, voltage of phase c has been affected where its phase magnitude decrease during fault. It has been proved to be same as the theoretical in Chapter 2 that when the double line to ground fault occurred, = = 0. Since the fault type applied in this project is AB-g fault, hence = = 0.

When the double line to ground fault occurred, distance relay will send tripping signal to circuit breaker (B2). The breaker (B2) signal for double line to ground fault is shown in Figure 4.17. The breaker (B2) breaks the circuit at 0.22 second after fault occurs at 0.2 second, so the voltage at LINE1 will become zero which similar as before. However, when the faults are cleared, breaker (B2) will reclose back the circuit at 0.31 second and there will some transient of voltage occurs in few microseconds.

46

Figure 4.16

Voltage waveform of double line to ground fault. (AB-g Fault)

Figure 4.17

Breaker (B2) signal of double line to ground fault. (AB-g Fault)

The simulation result for current waveform of double line to ground fault at B2 is shown in Figure 4.18. From the current waveform in Figure 4.18, we found that only current of phase c is zero during fault. Also, the phases condition for both current of phase a and phase b are approximately same and close each other. Furthermore, there has some transient of current occurs in few microseconds when breaker (B2) reclosed at 0.31 second. From the theoretical, when the double line to ground fault occurred, the current is given as = + and = 0. Since the fault type applied in this project is AB-g fault, therefore = + and = 0. So when the phases

47 between current are in the approximately same and close each other at the moment of fault occur, it means that the type of fault is double line to ground fault.

Figure 4.18

Current waveform of double line to ground fault. (AB-g Fault)

4.6

Three Phase to Ground Fault (ABC-g Fault)

Figure 4.19 shows the control settings of three phase to ground fault that had been applied at the FT3. The input of dial position for fault type is set to 7 which represent the all three phases to ground fault condition and also known as ABC-g fault. The time of the fault start applied is similar with others fault before which is at 0.2 second and the fault duration is 0.1 second.

48

Figure 4.19

Control settings of three phase to ground fault. (ABC-g Fault)

The voltage waveform of three phase to ground fault at B2 has been obtained from the PSCAD simulation is shown in Figure 4.20. From Figure 4.20, when three phase to ground fault occurred, voltage of phase a, phase b and phase c become zero. From the theoretical, all voltage phases will become zero when three phase to ground fault occurred at transmission line. It is because of the value of the fault impedance that be assumed equal to zero. Hence, the output of voltage waveform obtained is same with the theory.

When the three phase to ground fault occurred, distance relay will send tripping signal to circuit breaker (B2). The breaker (B2) signal for three phase to ground fault is shown in Figure 4.21. The breaker (B2) breaks the circuit at 0.22 second after fault occurs at 0.2 second, so the voltage at LINE1 will become zero which similar as before. However, when the faults are cleared, breaker (B2) will reclose back the circuit at 0.31 second and there will some transient of voltage occurs in few microseconds.

49

Figure 4.20

Voltage waveform of three phase to ground fault. (ABC-g Fault)

Figure 4.21

Breaker (B2) signal of three phase to ground fault. (ABC-g Fault)

Figure 4.22 shows current waveform of three phase to ground fault at B2. We can conclude that all three phases fault current exist when the fault occurred. Besides that, there has some transient of current occurs in few microseconds when breaker (B2) reclosed at 0.31 second.

50

Figure 4.22

Current waveform of three phase to ground fault. (ABC-g Fault)

4.7

Conclusion

For the conclusion, the whole system circuit is constructed correctly and functionality in order to obtain the voltage and current waveform for different type of fault condition which is similar to the theoretical concept in Chapter 2. Besides that, the distance relay able to operate well during fault occur and after fault disappeared. Lastly, fault type can be determined easily by referring the fault current and voltage waveform obtained.

Some recommendations for further analysis and improvement for the project are provided for the next chapter.

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1

Conclusion

A simple power system network in this project has been successfully constructed by using the PSCAD simulation. PSCAD is an absolutely helpful tool in term of obtaining the waveform or pattern of the fault current and voltage. Besides that, it is important to fully understand the concept of distance relay type mho characteristic and also the calculation for different fault type condition in the literature review in order to compare the simulation result with the theoretical concept. In this project, it can be concluded that the simulation result is similar with the theoretical concept. The user able to know the type of fault in a very short time by referring to the waveform of fault current and voltage without doing any calculation.

Furthermore, the optimum setting of the distance relay is when the relay does not overreach or underreach and the relay only operates in its protection zone as

52 required. This is important as to make sure that the circuit will be only opened when fault occurs at transmission line. Therefore, the automatically tripping of circuit breaker by using relay system able to protect the generator, transformer and other electrical equipment that connected to the network.

5.2

Recommendation

For further analysis, several study can be conducted by considering: i. Mutual coupling effects between two circuits of a double circuit transmission line. ii. iii. Load flow and power flow of double circuit transmission lines system. Using different types of software such as Power World and Matlab.

Last but not least, PSCAD is a very useful software. However, it takes a lot of time for a beginner to master the software functionality. Moreover, the limitation number of node in the student edition could not run simulation for a big circuit that more than maximum of 15 nodes. It is recommended that to generate a free trial license request via the system settings inside the PSCAD software. Then, simply forward the request for an Educational or Professional Edition trial license via email to sales@pscad.com.

53

REFERENCES

1.

Abdullah Asuhaimi bin Mohd. Zin, Md Shah Majid, Ahmad Safawi Mokhtar & Saifulnizam Abd. Khalid, Power System Engineering, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, 2012. J.R. Lucas, Power System Fault Analysis, Faculty of Engineering, University of Moratuwa, October 2005. Alstom, Network Protection & Automation Guide, 2011 Edition, Stafford St Leonards Centre of Excellence, UK, 2011.

2.

3.

4.

A.Apostolov, D.Tholomier, S.Sambasivan & S.Richards, "Protection of Double Circuit Transmission Lines", Protective Relay Engineers, 2007. 60th Annual Conference for, vol., no., 27-29 March 2007 , pp.85-101.

5.

Craig Muller, User Guide: On The Use Of PSCAD, Manitoba HVDC Research Centre, Canada, 2005. J. Lewis Blackburn & Thomas J. Domin, Protective Relaying: Principles and Applications, Third Edition, Taylor & Francis, 21 December 2006. Mohd Wazir Mustafa, Power System Analysis, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, 2008. Hadi Saadat, Power System Analysis, Mc Graw Hill, 2004. Theodore Wildi, Electrical Machines, Drives, And Power Systems, Pearson Prentice Hall, 2006.

6.

7.

8. 9.

APPENDIX A

Circuit Structure Power System

Figure A1

Project Main Circuit.

55

Figure A2

Fault Location and Type Circuit.

Figure A3

Sequence Module for Voltage and Current.

56

Figure A4

Relay Circuit.

Figure A5

Breaker Controls Circuit.

57 APPENDIX B

Simulation Result

a) No Fault Condition at FT3

Figure B1

Voltage Waveform When No Fault Condition.

Figure B2

Current Waveform When No Fault Condition.

58

Figure B3

Breaker (B2) Signal When No Fault Condition.

b) Single Line to Ground Fault (A-g Fault) at FT3

Figure B4

Voltage Waveform When Single Line to Ground Fault. (A-g Fault)

Figure B5

Current Waveform When Single Line to Ground Fault. (A-g Fault)

59

Figure B6

Breaker (B2) Signal When Single Line to Ground Fault. (A-g Fault)

c) Double Line Fault (AB Fault) at FT3

Figure B7

Voltage Waveform When Double Line Fault. (AB Fault)

Figure B8

Current Waveform When Double Line Fault. (AB Fault)

60

Figure B9

Breaker (B2) Signal When Double Line Fault. (AB Fault)

d) Double Line to Ground Fault (AB-g Fault) at FT3

Figure B10

Voltage Waveform When Double Line to Ground Fault. (AB-g Fault)

Figure B11

Current Waveform When Double Line to Ground Fault. (AB-g Fault)

61

Figure B12

Breaker (B2) Signal When Double Line to Ground Fault (AB-g Fault)

e) Three Phase to Ground Fault (ABC-g Fault) at FT3

Figure B13

Voltage Waveform When Three Phase to Ground Fault (ABC-g Fault)

Figure B14

Current Waveform When Three Phase to Ground Fault (ABC-g Fault)

62

Figure B15

Breaker (B2) Signal When Three Phase to Ground Fault. (ABC-g Fault)