HEATING VENTILATION & AIRCONDITIONING SYSTEM DESIGN

FACULTY CO-ORDINATOR NEERAJ SHUKLA

CONTENTS
PAGE NO. 1.0 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW 2

2.0

FUNDAMENTALS OF REFRIGERATION

3.0

BASIC REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

12

4.0

ELEMENTS OF PSYCHROMETRY

16

5.0

APPLIED PSYCHROMETRY

23

6.0

HEAT LOAD ESTIMATION

33

.0

HEAT LOAD DATA SHEET ! TYPICAL CALCULATION

".0

HEATING VENTILATION ! AIRCONDITIONING SYSTEMS -

52

1.0 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW

INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW

A simple definition of air conditioning is the simultaneous control of temperature, humidity, air movement, and the quality of air in a space. The use of the conditioned space determines the temperature, humidity, air movement, and quality of air that must be maintained. The primary function of air conditioning is to maintain conditions that are (1) conducive to human comfort, or (2) required by a product, or process within a space. To perform this function, equipment of the proper capacity must be The equipment capacity is installed and controlled throughout the year.

determined by the actual instantaneous pea load requirements! type of control is determined by the conditions to be maintained during pea and partial load. "enerally, it is impossible to measure either the actual pea or the partial load in any given space! these loads must be estimated. The term #refrigeration$ may be defined as the process of removing heat from a substance under controlled conditions. %t also includes the process of reducing and maintaining the temperature of a body below the general temperature of its surroundings. %n other words, the refrigeration means a continued e&traction of heat from a body whose temperature is already below the temperature of its surroundings. 'or e&ample, if some space (say in cold storage) is to be ept at ( 2 )* (2+1 ,), we must continuously e&tract heat which flows into it due to lea age through the walls and also the heat which is brought into it with the articles stored after the temperature is once reduced to ( 2 )* (2+1 ,). Thus in a refrigerator, heat is virtually being pumped from a lower temperature to a higher temperature. According to second law of Thermodynamics, this process can only be performed with the aid of some e&ternal wor . %t is obvious that supply of power (say electric motor) is regularly required to drive a refrigerator. Theoretically, a

refrigerator is a reversed heat engine or a heat pump which pumps heat from a cold body. The substance which wor s in a heat pump to e&tract heat from a cold body and to deliver to a hot body is called a refrigerant. The refrigeration system is nown to the man since the middle of nineteenth century. The scientists, of the time, developed a few stray machines to achieve some pleasure. -ut it paved the way by inviting the attention of scientists for proper studies and research. They were able to build a reasonably reliable machine by the end of nineteenth century for refrigeration .obs. -ut with the advent of efficient rotary compressors and gas turbines, the science of refrigeration reached the used for the cooling of storage chambers in which perishable foods, drin s and medicines are stored. The refrigeration has also wide applications in submarine ships, aircraft and roc ets. Air conditioning has got wide range of applications and it is very much essential in these days. Air conditioning is provided for some of the following reasons 1) To improve productivity in offices, factories by maintaining comfort conditions for persons . 2) To maintain comfortable conditions for wor ing in hotels, labs, etc., 3) To avoid malfunctioning of some of the control panels in /lectrical *ontrol -uildings. 4) To maintain over pressure inside the premises for avoiding outside (dusty) air in to the room. 5) To create healthy atmosphere inside the room by supplying filtered air in to the room. 6) To provide clean, filtered, healthy, comfortable conditions in hospitals etc.,

2.0 FUNDAMENTALS OF REFRIGERATION

FUNDAMENTALS OF REFRIGERATION
0efrigeration is the process by which heat is removed from a low temperature level and re.ected at a relatively higher temperature level. The Americans define refrigeration in a somewhat different way, thus, refrigeration is the process by which heat is removed from a place where it is not required and re.ected into a place where it is not ob.ectionable. This is not, strictly spea ing, a proper scientific definition, since it does not ma e any mention of its temperature levels. 1o process can be called 2refrigeration3 unless removal of heat is at a temperature lower than the surrounding temperature. -y nature heat always flows from one body to another body which is relatively at a lower temperature. This law of nature cannot be altered by any means. Transferring heat from a low temperature level to a high temperature level is analogous to transferring water from a lower level to a higher level. %magine two water tan s, one located at the ground floor full of water and another empty, located at the roof level of a building. %f water from the ground floor tan is to be transferred to the roof tan , then the only thing to do is to bring a buc et, place it at a level lower than the ground floor tan and allow the water to initially drain into the buc et according to the law of nature. The second step would be to lift this buc et full of water to a level above the roof tan and now allow the water from the buc et to drain into the roof tan according to the natural flow by gravity. %n the foregoing process, we have used the buc et as the carrier and moved it up and down, first to a level lower than the ground floor tan and then to a level higher than the roof tan . 1eedless to add that in the process some mechanical wor has been performed for lifting the buc et from the lower level to the higher level.

Applying this analogy to the process of refrigeration, it is evident, that we require a substance as the carrier of heat analogous to the buc et. This substance should be first brought to a temperature which is lower than the low level temperature so that heat from the low temperature level will automatically flow into this carrier substance which has been brought to a still lower level of temperature. After this carrier substance has been fully loaded with heat it has got to be raised to a temperature which is higher than the high level temperature so that heat from this carrier will automatically flow according to the law of nature. The carrier substance referred to above is what is nown in refrigeration parlance as 2refrigerant3. 4e shall now see what a refrigerant is really li e. All volatile liquids including water have property whereby the temperature at which they evaporate changes according to the pressure it is sub.ected to. Ta e water for e&ample. At normal atmospheric pressure it boils at 155)* (212)'). 4hen the water is sub.ected to higher pressure its boiling temperature also becomes higher than 155)*. 6i ewise, if the water is sub.ected to pressures lower than the atmosphere its boiling temperature also falls below 155)*. %n fact water can boil even at as low a temperature as 7)* when it is ept in vacuum free of air. %n this case the only pressure it will have above is its own vapour pressure. 8ifferent volatile substances have different pressure(boiling point characteristics. 'or refrigeration purpose the most commonly used refrigerants are refrigerant 12 and refrigerant 22. -y reference to a table giving the properties of these refrigerants is will be seen that for each pressure there is a corresponding temperature at which only the refrigerant will boil. %t goes without saying that at any given pressure the temperature at which the liquid refrigerant boils is also the temperature at which the refrigerant vapour would condense bac to liquid form. 4hether it is boiling or condensing all depends on whether it is receiving heat or giving heat. 'or refrigerant purpose, therefore, we ma e use of this natural property of the volatile refrigerant. 'or e&ample, if the liquid refrigerant 0(22 is by some means or other brought down to an absolute pressure of say 9:.+2 psi, then this liquid is now in a position to boil at a temperature of 75)'. %n order to ma e this liquid at low pressure boil, you will have to supply heat equivalent to

the latent heat of vapori;ation. <o any body which is above 75)' in temperature can supply this latent heat to ma e this liquid boil and turn completely into gaseous form, it goes without saying that the substance which supplies the heat for boiling the refrigerant will itself naturally cool down, but in any case not to a temperature below 75)' which is the temperature at which the refrigerant is boiling. =nce the refrigerant liquid has completely vapori;ed, it has no further capacity to absorb heat from the heat supplying body, .ust in the same way that the buc et had no further capacity to ta e more water the moment it was full. %n the case of buc et in order to ma e it useful again, we had to raise this to a higher level and empty out its contents in the roof tan and then bring it bac once again to ta e another buc et full from the ground floor tan . %n a similar way the completely vapori;ed refrigerant will have to be raised to a high temperature level. -y raising it to a higher temperature level, we do not mean that you simply heat up the refrigerant. 4hat is really to be done is this low pressure refrigerant will have to be compressed in a compressor to a higher pressure. The pressure to which it is compressed must be such that the boiling point or conversely the temperature at which the refrigerant vapour would condense should be higher than the body to which we want to empty out the heat content of the carrier refrigerant. %f, for e&ample, the body to which we want to re.ect this heat is water which is at a temperature of >5)', then the boiling temperature or condensing temperature of the refrigerant should be higher than >5)', say 15?)'. 1ow 15?)' happens to be the boiling temperature of the refrigerant when it is at a pressure of 2:5 psi absolute. This means that the low pressure refrigerant will have to be compressed to a pressure of 2:5 psi absolute before it is in a position to empty out its heat content to the cooling medium, namely, natural water. 1ote that in the process we have not violated any natural law concerning heat flow. 4e have all along allowed heat to flow from a certain temperature level to a lower temperature level. 4hat we have done is that we have changed the temperature level of the carrier refrigerant to higher or lower temperature levels to conform to the natural law of heat flow.

This brings us to a stage where we have to now the definition of certain terms which are generally used in refrigeration parlance. S#$%&#$'() T*+,*&#$%&* 'or any given refrigerant the temperature at which the liquid refrigerant would boil (or conversely the refrigerant vapour would condense) when it is sub.ected to a certain pressure is defined as the saturation temperature corresponding to that pressure. %t is obvious that at this temperature and pressure, refrigerant in liquid and vapour form ept in a closed container would be in equilibrium with each other. <o long as the pressure inside this container is maintained steady the liquid portion will vapori;e if heat is added or the vapour portion will condense if heat is removed. =n this basis, saturation temperature for any given pressure is defined as that temperature at which liquid refrigerant and its vapour remain in contact with each other in equilibrium. S%,*&-*#$ 4e saw in the previous paragraph that liquid refrigerant and its vapour will be in equilibrium with each other in a closed container at the saturation temperature corresponding to the pressure. Any addition or removal of heat would only result in either liquid vapori;ing or the vapour condensing, pressure remaining same. @owever, if the vapori;ed refrigerant is separated from the liquid portion, then any heat added to this refrigerant in vapour form would only go to raise the temperature of the vapour above its saturation temperature corresponding to its pressure. This is superheated vapour. <uperheat is usually e&pressed in terms of degrees. 4hen we say 15) superheat, what we mean is the gaseous refrigerant is at a temperature 15) above the saturation temperature corresponding to its pressure.

S%.-/((0')1 %n a li e manner if the liquid portion of the refrigerant is separated and completely isolated from the vapour which is in equilibrium with it then any removal of heat from this refrigerant would lower its temperature to a value below its saturation temperature. <uch a liquid is called sub(cooled liquid. 4hen we say the liquid is 1A) below the saturation temperature corresponding to its pressure. %t is obvious that in the case of sub(cooled liquid when heat is added it will first rise up in temperature till it reaches its saturation temperature and thereafter only it will begin to boil as long as it is receiving heat. 6i ewise, in the case of superheated gas, when heat is removed from the same it will first fall down in temperature till it reaches the saturation temperature corresponding to its pressure (this is generally referred to as de(superheating). Any further removal of heat after this would result in condensation of the vapour into liquid form at constant temperature, namely, the saturation temperature. =ne thing that should be borne in mind is neither sub(cooling of liquid nor superheating of the vapour is possible when liquid and its vapour are in contact with each other in equilibrium, because as already e&plained earlier, any removal or addition of heat in this case would only respectively result in condensing of the vapour part or evaporating of the liquid part, at constant temperature. E)$-#0,2 /nthalpy is the terms which denotes the heat content of the refrigerant from a base saturation temperature of 75)'. At this temperature and the corresponding saturation pressure the heat content of the liquid has been arbitrarily fi&ed as 5. %t, therefore, follows that the enthalpy of the liquid above 75)' will be positive and that below 75)'. will be negative. The enthalpy of the refrigerant when it is in vapour form will be equal to the enthalpy of the liquid at the same pressure and saturation temperature.

A3'#.#$'/ C(+,&*44'() Any process which is performed without the addition of heat to or removal of heat from the process is said to be an adiabatic process. *ompression of gaseous refrigerant without addition or removal of heat is called adiabatic compression. The pressure enthalpy diagram of a refrigerant has also lines showing adiabatic compression. %t is, therefore, possible to find out the enthalpy and temperature of the gas at various pressures during the course of compression.

3.0 BASIC REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

BASIC REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

The various components which form part of a refrigeration system can be described as followsB E5#,(&#$(& 6et us start from the evaporator. 6iquid at high pressure has to be admitted into the evaporator. %n order that this liquid may evaporate at low temperature, it is essential that the liquid so admitted is simultaneously reduced in pressure. The level to which the pressure has to be reduced of course is determined by the temp. at which you want this liquid to evaporate. 'or e&ample, if you want evaporation of refrigerant 22 at a temperature of 75)', the absolute pressure should be brought down to 9:.+2 psi or if the evaporation has to be at 15)' the absolute pressure should be brought down to :1.2> psi. The pressures indicated above are the saturation pressures corresponding to the respective temperatures. This pressure reduction is brought about by the use of what is nown as an e&pansion valve. The e&pansion valve is .ust a needle valve which throttles the flow of liquid refrigerant thereby bringing about a pressure drop. This e&pansion valve can also be hand operated, automatic or thermostatic. 6iquid admitted into the evaporator now needs heat for evaporation. This head is supplied by the air which is flowing over the evaporator coil. %n the process, the air gets cooled and the liquid refrigerant evaporates. C(+,&*44(& 1ow if you have got to ensure continuous evaporation at the same temperature, it is very vital that the vapour evaporating in the coil is removed from it is as rapidly as it is evaporating. Cnless this is done the evaporated vapour will build up a pressure in the coil which would eep on rising. Any such rise in pressure will naturally raise the evaporating temperature also since, the evaporation temperature is higher and higher as the pressure increases. 0emoval of the evaporator vapour is achieved by connecting the outlet of the evaporator to the

suction side of a refrigerating compressor. =f course, the compressor has got to be si;ed so that it has got a volumetric rate of displacement which matches with the evaporation rate. Thus the evaporation pressure is maintained as steady and the liquid fed through the e&pansion valve continues to evaporate at a steady temperature so long as heat for evaporation is available at an equally steady rate from the air flowing over. C()3*)4*& The compressor compresses the vapour and discharges the same into the condenser. %t is in this condenser that the high pressure hot gas delivered by the compressor has to be condensed. 'or the purpose of condensing the gas it is necessary that heat is removed from the hot gas. water cooled condensers are used. This removal of heat is achieved by again creating an air flow over the condenser coil or water flow if The heat given up by the refrigerant is 1ow let us see how the pic ed up by the air or water. The hot gas which has given up the heat naturally condenses into liquid form at the same pressure. pressure built(up in the condenser coil it has got certain definite capacity to transfer heat from within to the outside air or water for each degree of temperature difference. 4e also now that for each 1b of refrigerant which has got to be condensed into liquid form a definite capacity to transfer heat from within to the outside air or water of refrigerant which has got to be condensed into liquid form, a definite amount of heat, namely, the latent heat of condensation has to be removed. %f in a refrigeration system the '(22 circulation is say, A 1bsDminute, then the amount of heat which has got to be removed for condensing this refrigerant gas is A & latent heat. This means that the temperature difference between the hot refrigerant gas within the condenser and the air or water flowing over it should be such that the total amount of heat transferred through the walls of the condenser tubes .ust balances with the total amount of heat which has got to be removed. The condensation rate would, therefore, automatically balance with the compressor discharge rate as soon as

the temperature difference has been built up.

The pressure inside the condenser also which initially starts building up will attain a steady level when the corresponding saturation temperature results in the desired temperature difference for creating the desired heat transfer rate. This is called the condesing temperature of the system. %t is obvious that if you use a small si;e condenser the temperature difference has necessarily to be higher and hence the condensing temperature and the corresponding pressure will also have to be relatively higher. R*/*'5*& A receiver is a pressure vessel which is used as a storage tan for the condensed liquid refrigerant leaving the condenser. %t is from this receiver that liquid is tapped and sent to the evaporator through the throttling device or e&pansion valve. %t is not on all systems that we have a separate liquid receiver. %n the case of systems having water cooled condensers, the shell of the condenser itself serves as a storage vessel for the liquid refrigerant. %n smaller systems even with air cooled condensers, it is possible to dispense with the use of a receiver if care is ta en to charge the system with the correct amount of refrigerant. %n order that the various components forming part of a refrigeration system can be designed, it is necessary to ma e a more scientific study of the entire operations. 'or this purpose we have to now the complete properties of the refrigerant concerned when it is at gaseous form and also in liquid form. The properties of each refrigerant are shown in what is called a Eressure /nthalpy 8iagram.

4.0 ELEMENTS OF PSYCHROMETRY

ELEMENTS OF PSYCHROMETRY
P42/-&(+*$&2 <ince air conditioning, by its very name means treating air with a view to altering its temperature and moisture content with the use of refrigeration, it is necessary that we should now how e&actly air would behave when it is sub.ected to cooling, heating, humidifying or dehumidifying processes. 'or this purpose, it is necessary to study the property of air at normal atmospheric pressure in so far as it concerns air conditioning. <uch a study is what is called psychrometry. 'or the study of psychrometry, a chart has been devised, which is called Esychrometric *hart. psychrometric chart are. D&2 B%0. L')*4 Any vertical line is a line of constant temperature. *ondition of air represented by any point on this line will have the temperature corresponding to this vertical line. These lines are called 8ry -ulb 6ines. -y dry bulb what we really mean is dry bulb temperature i.e., the temperature as recorded by a thermometer which is dry. M('4$%&* C()$*)$ /ach hori;ontal line in the chart is a line of constant moisture content. The condition of air represented by any point on this line will all have the same moisture content as applicable to this line. Through any point on the psychrometric chart you can always draw a hori;ontal line and a vertical line. Air represented by this point has, therefore, a dry bulb temperature corresponding to the vertical line and moisture content corresponding to the hori;ontal line. %t is easy to see that air at any given temperature can have varying moisture content. 6i ewise, air containing any given moisture content can have varying 4e will .ust now see what the various lines of the

temperature as well. S#$%&#$'() L')* The curved line on the e&treme left(hand side of the chart is what is called the saturation line. *ondition of air represented by any point on this line is said to be saturated air, which means that the air is having the ma&imum possible moisture content in it. %t cannot hold any further moisture. W*$ B%0. L')*4 There are number of parallel slant lines which are called wet bulb lines. -y wet bulb temperature what we really mean is the temperature of the air as recorded by a thermometer with a wet wic on its bulb. Fou will also understand for the moment that the air having a certain wet bulb temperature will have a definite heat content although its dry bulb temperature may be anything. R*0#$'5* H%+'3'$2 L')*4 4hen the air contains its ma&imum moisture content, we call it saturated air! when it contains anything less than this ma&imum limit then it is not saturated air because it has still capacity to have more moisture. 4e therefore, say that such air is, say A5G saturated or ?5G saturated. Another term used to denote the percentage saturation is 2relative humidity3. Thus it is one and the same thing whether you say air is A5G saturated or air has got a relative humidity of A5G. 1ote that we have used the word 2appro&imately3 because the strict scientific definition of relative humidity is not nearly the comparison of moisture content. %n fact relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the partial vapour pressure in the air to the ma&imum vapour pressure that saturated air will have at this temperature. @owever, for all practical purpose, this is equal to the ratio of the actual moisture content present to the ma&imum moisture it can hold at that temperature.

D*6 P(')$ 4e have seen that at any given temperature air has a ma&imum limit of moisture holding capacity when it is said to be saturated. 'or e&ample from the psychrometric chart we can see that +5)' saturated air can hold a ma&imum of 115 grains per 1b of dry air. All temperatures above +5)', air with the same moisture content will be, say 95G, >5G etc., saturated depending on what its dry bulb temperature would be. %f air with this moisture content and at temperature higher than +5) is cooled down, then its condition will move along the hori;ontal 115 grains line, till the temperature falls to +5)'. +5)' and 115 grains D 1b as we have seen corresponds to saturated condition. This is the temperature at which air with 115 grains of moisture D 1b will begin to shed its moisture by condensing if you continue to cool the air. This temperature is called the 8/4 E=%1T of the air. 1eedless to add, it is the moisture content which determines the dew point. All you have to do is to move hori;ontally on the psychrometric chart and read the temperature where you intersect the saturation line. E)$-#0,2 4e were .ust now referring to the wet bulb as line of constant heat content of air. /nthalpy is .ust another term used in place of 2heat content3. =f course, the enthalpies represented here are all values for samples of air containing 1 lb of dry air. The amount of moisture content in the air is generally e&pressed in terms of grains of moisture per 1b of dry air. 'or your information, grain is a weight measure. +555 grains ma e 1 lb. 4hen we say that the moisture content is 125 grains, what we mean is there is 1 lb, of dry air containing 125 grains of moisture. The total weight of this moist air would, therefore, by 1 H 125D+555 lbs I 1.51+1 lb. At any temperature there is a limit to the ma&imum moisture holding capacity of air. This limit is something definite and does not alter e&cept under different atmospheric pressures. At higher and higher atmospheric pressure the moisture holding capacity at any given temperature becomes less and less.

At any temperature when air contains the ma&imum amount of moisture it is said to be saturated air. 4hen air has attained saturation at any given temperature, it is impossible to add any further moisture in vapour form.

S-(&$ D*7')'$'()4 D&2-.%0. T*+,*&#$%&* The temperature of air as registered by on ordinary temperature. W*$-.%0. T*+,*&#$%&* The temperature registered by a thermometer whose bulb is covered by a wetted wic and e&posed to a current of rapidly moving air. D*6,(')$ T*+,*&#$%&* The temperature at which condensation of moisture begins when the air is cooled. R*0#$'5* H%+'3'$2 0atio of the actual water vapor pressure of the air to the saturated water vapor pressure of the air at the same temperature. S,*/'7'/ H%+'3'$2 (& M('4$%&* C()$*)$ The weight of water vapor in grains or pounds of moisture per pound of dry air. E)$-#0,2 A thermal property indicating the quantity of heat in the air above an arbitrary datum. %n -TC per pound of dry air. The datum for dry air is 5 )' and, for moisture content, :2 )' water. E)$-#0,2 D*5'#$'() /nthalpy indicated above, for any given condition, is the enthalpy of saturation. %t should be corrected by the enthalpy deviation due to the air not being in the saturated state. /nthalpy deviations in -TC per pound of dry air. /nthalpy deviation is applied where e&treme accuracy is required B however, on normal air conditioning estimates it is omitted.

S,*/'7'/ V(0%+* The cubic feet of the mi&ture per pound of dry air. S*)4'.0* H*#$ F#/$(& The ratio of sensible to total heat. A0'1)+*)$ C'&/0* 6ocated at 95 )' db and A5G rh and used in con.unction with the sensible heat factor to plot the various air conditioning process lines. P(%)34 (7 D&2 A'& The basis for all pyschrometric calculations, remains constant during all psychrometric processes. The dry(bulb, wet(bulb, and dewpoint temperatures and the relative humidity are so related that if two properties are nown, all other properties shown may then be determined. 4hen air is saturated, wet(bulb, and dewpoint temperatures are all equal. dry(bulb,

5.0 APPLIED PSYCHROMETRY

APPLIED PSYCHROMETRY
6et us now see how the various air conditioning procedures will be represented on a Esychrometric chart. 1. S*)4'.0* H*#$')1 -y sensible heating, we mean adding heat to air whereby the entire heat added goes to raise the temperature of the air. %t is obvious that in such a process there is no change in the moisture content of the air. %n other words, during sensible heating process the air retains a constant moisture content and accordingly, its condition will move on a hori;ontal line corresponding to its constant moisture content. <ince heat is being added during such process, its enthalpy also rises. Therefore, during the heating process the wet bulb temperature of the air will also rise, because as we have already seen, it is the wet bulb temperature lines which are identified as constant enthalpy lines. 2. A33'$'() (7 M('4$%&* 6i ewise, if moisture is somehow or the other added to the air without adding any sensible heat, the process would be represented by a vertical line corresponding to its dry bulb temperature. %n this case also, since the moisture added carries with it the latent heat of vapori;ation of water, the heat content of the air also rises and hence its wet bulb temperature also rises. 3. H*#$')1 #)3 H%+'3'72')1 %f heat is added so that part of it goes to raise the temperature and the remaining part goes to vapori;e water and add it to the air, such a process is called heating and humidifying.

4.

C((0')1 #)3 D*-%+'3'72')1 *ooling and dehumidifying is .ust the reverse of heating and humidifying. =n a psychrometric chart such a process will also be represented in the same manner as for heating and humidifying, the only difference being the arrows representing the direction of movement of conditions would be .ust reverse.

5.

E5#,(&#$'5* C((0')1 /vaporative cooling is the process by which air is simply sub.ected to a spray of re(circulated water .ust as in the e&periment described earlier, the only difference being, we do not provide an infinite number of spray ban s as in the e&periment. The chamber with the ban s of spray is called an Air 4asher. Air so sub.ected would of course tend to get saturated and change out at a temperature equal to its wet bulb temperature. @owever, since we do not provide adequate number of spray ban s to completely humidify, the air comes out not at 155G humidity but somewhat lower than that. 1eedless to say, since this process is adiabatic, the air has constant enthalpy throughout the process and hence its condition moves along the line representing its wet bulb temperature. P42/-&(+*$&2 #4 A,,0'*3 $( A'&/()3'$'()')1 %t now remains for us to study psychrometry as applied to air conditioning process. 4e will only see for the present what the heat load form is li e and also the various sections into which it is divided. %t is only after you understand this that you will be in a better position to understand psychrometry as applied to air conditioning.

4hen a space is maintained at a temperature below the atmospheric temperature surrounding the space, then there is a transfer of heat from outside into the conditioned area, which tends to raise the inside temperature unless this heat is removed as fast as it enters this space. Then you have heat or any other appliances which may be in the space. All such heat which are either transmitted into the room or generated from within due to occupants and appliances which tend to raise the inside temperature are termed as room sensible heat. %n the li e manner, the occupants within the room also release moisture from their body into the room. There may be other sources inside the conditioned area which add up more moisture into the atmosphere. %f the space has not only to be maintained at a particular temperature, but also to be held within certain limits of relative humidity, then it is necessary that such moisture gain inside the room should also be removed .ust as rapidly. -y removal of moisture what we have really mean is condensing this moisture from the air and discarding it outside. 'or condensing the moisture, you have to remove the latent heat of vaporisation of water. <o instead of stating that we have got to remove moisture gained, we state this in terms of the corresponding total amount of latent heat to be removed for condensing that quantity of moisture gained. This is also e&pressed in terms of heat units vi;. -TC. <o the heat to be removed per hour for condensing the moisture is termed as room latent heat. <o what we really mean by heat load is the room sensible heat and the room latent heat that are to be removed from within the space at a calculated rate to effect the gain of sensible and latent heats into the conditioned space.

%n heat load, there is one more source which contributes to the room sensible and room latent heat loads. This is on account of infiltration of fresh air directly into the conditioned space and bypass of certain amount of fresh air that is normally ta en into the system through the air handling apparatus. The form is designed so that the room sensible heat, latent heat and the additional load due to outside air, not forming part of room load are all calculated separately. @ere, we have used the term 2-ypass3. Fou must understand what

e&actly the meaning of the term 2-ypass3 is. 'or removing sensible heat and latent heat at the same rate at which they are being gained within the conditioned space, conditioned air is admitted within this space at a predetermined temperature and humidity condition such that this air would absorb the room sensible and room latent heat loads and in the process attain a final condition which is e&actly equal to the condition to be maintained in the room. This is achieved by continuously drawing from within the room certain amount of air and adding to it a certain percentage of fresh air for ventilation and cooling and dehumidifying this mi&ture in a cooling coil. %t is this treated air, which is supplied bac into the conditioned area. =n account of some free passages in between the fins and tubes a small percentage of the air comes out on the other side of the coil without undergoing any change. %t is this, which we terms as bypass of air. As far as the portion of the air, which is actually re(circulated from the room is concerned, bypass will have no influence on the ultimate result. %t only means that some air has been withdrawn from the room and .ust put bac into the same room without any change in its condition either upward or downward. -ut, what really influences is the bypass of the fresh air, which is also passed through the cooling coil along with the re( circulated air. <ince this outside air is at a much higher temperature and humidity conditions than the conditioned space, entry of such bypass air would tend to upset the room conditions unless this bypass air is also

brought down to the room condition. The general formula for arriving at the e&act air quantity isB cfm I I

@owever, you must realise it is not merely the selection of the condition of the supply air that is important. 4e have also to consider how air can be cooled down to the selected condition in a cooling apparatus. %n a cooling coil in which air is cooled, there is no practical means of ensuring that the air leaving the coil would be at the e&act temperature and humidity condition corresponding any condition selected by us on the sensible heat factor line. @owever, there is one temperature and humidity condition which is very easy to eep under control. This is the condition which lies not only on the sensible heat factor line but also on the saturation line on the psychrometric chart. %n other words, if the sensible heat factor line is e&tended till it meets the saturation line, then the condition represented by the point of intersection of these two lines is the one condition which can be under our control. This temperature is called apparatus dew point. B2,#44 F#/$(& The problem becomes a bit more complicated because in every cooling coil there is always a small percentage of the total cfm which escapes totally untreated. 4hen outside air ta en into the system bypasses the coil, it will tend to raise the room temperature and humidity conditions above the desired level. calculations. %t is, therefore, necessary to ta e into consideration the effect of bypass right at the time of ma ing the heat load

PSYCHROMETRIC FORMULAS A. AIR MI8ING E9UATIONS :O%$3((& #)3 R*$%&) A'&; tm I (1)

hm I

(2)

4m I

(:)

B.

COOLING LOAD E9UATIONS /0<@ /06@ /0T@ T<@ T6@ "T@ 0<@ 06@ 0T@ 0T@ =A<@ =A6@ =AT@ =AT@ I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 0<@ H (-') (=A<@) H 0<@<J 06@ H (-') (=A6@) H 06@<J /06@ H /0<@ 0<@ H =A<@ H 0<@<J 06@ H =A6@ H 06@<J T<@ H T6@ H "6@<J 1.59 & cfmsa & (trm ( tsa) 5.?9 & cfmsa & (4rm ( 4sa) 7.7A & cfmsa & (hrm ( hsa) 0<@ H 06@ 1.59 & cfmoa & (toa ( trm) 5.?9 & cfmoa & (4oa ( 4rm) 7.7A & cfmoa & (hoa ( hrm) =A<@ H =A6@ (7) (A) (?) (+) (9) (>) (15) (11) (12) (1:) (17) (1A) (1?) (1+)

(-') (=AT@) /0<@ /06@ /0T@ T<@ T6@ "T@ C.

I I I I I I I

(-') (=A<@) H (-') (=A6@) 1.59 & cfmda & (trm ( tadp)(1(-') 5.?9 & cfmda & (4rm ( 4adp)(1(-') 7.7A & cfmda & (hrm ( hadp)(1(-') 1.59 & cfmda & (tedb ( tldp) JJ 5.?9 & cfmda & (4ea ( 4ta) JJ 7.7A & cfmda & (hea ( hta) JJ

(19) (1>) (25) (21) (22) (2:) (27)

SENSIBLE HEAT FACTOR E9UATIONS 0<@' I I (2A)

/<@' I

(2?)

"<@' I D.

(2+)

BYPASS FACTOR E9UATIONS -' I !(1(-') I (29)

-'

!(1(-') I

(2>)

-'

!(1(-') I

(:5)

E.

TEMPERATURE E9UATIONS AT APPARATUS

tedb JJ I tldb I tadp H -' (tedb K tadp)

(:1) (:2)

tewb and tlwb correspond to the calculated values of h ea and hla on the psychrometric chart. hea JJ I hta F. I hadp H -' (hea K hadp) (:7) (::)

TEMPERATURE E9UATIONS FOR SUPPLY AIR tsa I t7m K (:A)

G.

AIR 9UANTITY E9UATIONS cfmda I (:?)

cfmda I

(:+)

cfmda I

(:9)

cfmda I

(:>)

cfmda I

(75)

cfmda I

(71)

cfmsa I

(72)

cfmsa I

(7:)

cfmsa I

(77)

cfmba I cfmsa ( cfmda

(7A)

1ote B cfmda will be less than cfmsa only when air is physically bypassed around the conditioning apparatus. cfmsa I cfmoa H cfmra H. DERIVATION OF AIR CONSTANTS 1.59 I .227 L <pecific heat of moist air at +5 ' db and A5G rh, -tuD(deg ') (lb dry air) ?5 1:.A .?9 I where I I L ?5 I minDhr minDhr <pecific volume of moist air at +5 ' db and A5G rh (7?)

4here .227 I

1:.A I <pecific volume of moist air at +5 ' db and A5G rh 15+? I Average heat removal required to condensate one pound of water vapor from the room air. +555 I "rains per pound 7.7A I where ?5 I minDhr 1:.A I <pecific volume of moist air at +5 ' db and A5G rh.

6.0 HEAT LOAD ESTIMATION

HEAT LOAD ESTIMATION I)$&(3%/$'() The primary ob.ective is to provide a convenient consistent, and accurate method of calculating heating and cooling loads and to enable the designer to select systems that meet the requirements for efficient energy utili;ation and are also responsive to environmental needs. The ability to estimate loads more accurately due to changes in the calculation procedure provides a lessened margin of error. Therefore, it becomes increasingly important to survey and chec more carefully the load sources, each item in the load and the effects of the system type on the load. This tightening up on the hidden safety factors occurs for a number of reasons. There is greater emphasis, by standards and codes, on si;ing equipment closer to the e&pected loads, as determined by outside design weather conditions. Also the suggested indoor design temperatures are now usually +A )' for cooling and +2 )' for heating. %nstalled lighting levels are being reduced and the calculations are using lighting loads closer to the actual loads. All of these factors require that the designer introduce any margin of safety by a positive action, rather than rely on an assumed hidden margin. P%&,(4* (7 L(#3 C#0/%0#$'()4 6oad calculations can be used to accomplish one or more of the following ob.ectives B 7) 8) 9) Erovide information for equipment selection and @MA* system design Erovide data for evaluation of the optimum possibilities for load reduction. Eermit analysis of partial loads as required for system design, operation and control These ob.ectives can be obtained not only by ma ing accurate load calculations but also by understanding the basis for the loads. There a brief description of cooling and heating loads are included.

P&')/',0*4 (7 C((0')1 L(#34 %n airconditioning design there are three distinct but related heat flow rates, each of which varies which varies with timeB 10) 11) 12) @eat "ain or 6oss *ooling load or @eating 6oad @eat /&traction or @eat Addition 0ate

@eat "ain, or perhaps more correctly, instantaneous rate of heat gain, is the rate at which heat enters or is generated within a space at a given instant of time. There are two ways that heat gain is classified. They are the manner in which heat enters the space and the type of heat gain. The manner in which a load source enters a space is indicated as followsB 13) 14) 15) 16) 17) 18) <olar radiation through transparent surfaces such as windows @eat conduction through e&terior walls and roofs @eat conduction through interior partitions ceilings and floors @eat generated within the space by occupants, lights, appliances, equipment and processes 6oads as a result of ventilation and infiltration of outdoor air =ther miscellaneous heat gains

The types of heat gain are sensible and latent. Eroper selection of cooling and humidifying equipment is made by determining whether the heat gain is sensible or latent. <ensible heat gain is the direct addition of heat to an enclosure, apart from any change in the moisture content, by any or all of the mechanisms of conduction, convection and radiation. 4hen moisture is added to the space, for e&ample, by vapor emitted by the occupants, there is an energy quantity associated with that moisture which must be accounted for.

%f a constant humidity ratio is to be maintained in the enclosure, then water vapor must be condensed out in the cooling apparatus at a rate equal to its rate of addition in the space. The amount of energy required to do this is essentially equal to the product of the rate of condensation per hour and the latent heat of condensation. This product is called the latent heat gain. As a further e&ample, the infiltration of outdoor air with a high dry(bulb temperature and a high humidity ratio, and the corresponding escape of room air at a lower dry(bulb temperature and a lower humidity ratio, would increase both the sensible heat gain and the latent heat gain of the space. The proper design of an airconditioning system requires the determination of the sensible heat gain in the space, the latent heat gain in the space, and a value for the total load, sensible plus latent, of the outdoor air used for ventilation. The sensible cooling load is defined as the rate at which heat must be removed from the space to maintain the room air temperature at a constant value. The summation of all instantaneous sensible heat gains at a specific time does not necessarily equal the sensible cooling load for the space at that time. The latent load however is essentially an instantaneous cooling load. That part of the sensible heat gain which occur by radiation is partially absorbed by the surfaces and contents of the space and is not felt by the room air until sometimes later. The radiant energy must first be absorbed by the surface that enclose the space such as walls and floor and by furniture and other ob.ects. As soon as these surfaces and ob.ects become warmer than the air some heat will be transferred to the air in the room by convection. The heat storage capacity of the building components and item such as walls, floors and furniture governs the rate at which their surface temperatures increase for a given radiant input. Thus, the interior heat storage capacity governs the relationship between the radiant portion of the sensible heat gain and how it contributes to the cooling load. The thermal storage effect can be important in determining the cooling equipment

capacity. The actual total cooling load is generally less than the pea total instantaneous heat gain thus requiring smaller equipment than would be indicated by the heat gain. %f the design is based on the instantaneous heat gain, the rest of the system may be oversi;ed as well. @eat e&traction rate is the rate at which heat is removed from the conditioned space. 1ormal control systems operating in con.unction with the intermittent operation of the cooling equipment will cause a 2swing3 in room temperature. There, the room air temperature is constant only at those rare times when the heat e&traction rate equals the cooling load. *onsequently, the computation of the heat e&traction rate gives a more realistic value of energy removal at the cooling equipment than does .ust the instantaneous value of the cooling load provided the control system is simulated properly. The determination of the heat e&traction rate must include the characteristics of the cooling equipment and the operating schedule of thee equipment, in addition to the various sources of cooling load. %f the equipment is operated some what longer before and after the pea load periods, and D or the temperature in the space is allowed to rise a few degrees at the pea periods during the cooling operation (floating temperature), a reduction in the design equipment capacity my be made. A smaller system operating for longer periods at times of pea loads will produce a lower first cost to the customer with commensurate lower demand charges and lower operating costs. "enerally, equipment si;ed to more nearly meet the cooling requirements result in a more efficient, better operating system particularly when is at a partially loaded condition. Csually a fraction of the sensible heat gain does not appear a cooling load, but instead is shifted to the surroundings. The fraction ' c depends upon the thermal

conductance between the room air and the surroundings. superimposed. The ad.ustment factor, 'c is calculated by the following equation. 'c I 1 ( 5.52 ,T

%t may be also

considered as a ad.ustment factor which results when the load components as

4here ,T the unit length conductance between the room air as surroundings in -tu D (hr. ft2 '), is given by ,T 4here 6' C I I 6ength of the e&terior walls of the room, ft. C(value of room enclosure element (subscript w for window, ow for outside wall and c for corridor), -tu (hr. ft 2 ') A I Area of the specific element I 1D6' (C4A4 H CowAow H CcAc)

%f the cooling load component has already been obtained by the technique used in this manual, multiply that result by the calculated ' c factor. The ad.ustment factor should be used only for individual small spaces or ;ones. %t is not to be used for bloc loads nor for industrial applications. D'5*&4'$2 (7 C((0')1 L(#34 8iverting of cooling load results from not using part of the load on a design day. Therefore diversity factors are factors of usage and are applied to the refrigeration capacity of large airconditioning systems. These factors vary with

location, type, and si;e of applicant and are based entirely on the .udgment and e&perience of the engineer.

"enerally, diversity factors can be applied on loads from people and lights! there is neither 155G occupancy nor total lighting at the time of such other pea loads as pea solar and transmission loads. The reductions in cooling loads from nonuse are real and should be accounted for. %n addition to the factors for people are lights a factor should also be applied to the machinery load in industrial buildings. 'or instance, electric motors may operate at a continuous overload, or may operate continuously at less than the rate capacity or may operate intermittently. %t is advisable to measure the power input whenever possible! this will provide a diversity factor. %t is also possible to determine a diversity factor for a large e&isting building by reviewing the ma&imum electrical demand and monthly energy consumption obtained from the utility bills. P&')/',0*4 #)3 P&(/*3%&*4 7(& C#0/%0#$')1 H*#$')1 L(#3 The pea heating requirements may occur either at night during unoccupied hours or in the morning pic up period following a shutdown. Therefore a number of calculations are helpful in ma ing a proper equipment selection and system design. I)7(&+#$'() R*<%'&*3 :I),%$; -efore a cooling or heating load can be properly estimated a complete survey must be made of the physical data. The more e&act the information that can be obtained about space characteristics, heat load sources, location of equipment and services, weather data, etc. the more accurate will be the load estimate. R*<%'&*3 I),%$ - E=$*&)#0 L(#34 - C((0')1 'or calculation of the outdoor loads the input information should includeB 19) 20) =rientation and dimensions of building components. *onstruction materials for roof, walls, ceiling, interior partitions, floors and fenestration

21) 22)

<i;e and use of space to be conditioned <urrounding conditions outdoors and in ad.oining spaces

R*<%'&*3 I),%$ - H*#$')1 L(#3 The input for calculation of heating load is essentially the same as that for the cooling load. @owever, it may not be necessary to calculate the internal sources and solar heat gain. %n heat load estimation we compute a. b. 0oom sensible and latent heat gains due to transmission, sunlight, occupancy and other internal sources of heat. "rand total heat comprising total room load under (1) plus additional loads due to outside air inta e, heat gains in return air ducts, in chilled water distribution systems, pumping horse power load, etc. 0oom load estimation under (a) is required for computing the condition and quantity of supply air while the grand total heat under (b) is required for terminating the total capacity of the cooling system. %n this discussion, we will confine ourselves to transmission gains and related sub.ects only. There are certain similarities between heat transmission through barriers and electric current transmission through conductors. 4e will use this similarly wherever required for better understanding of the sub.ect. The well nown formula relating to transmission of electric current isB % I 4here 2%3 I current in Amperes, 2M3 I Moltage N 203, the 0esistance of the conductor. %n this formula, if (%) D (0) is considered as the conductance of the conductor, say 2*3, then the formula can be rewritten asB % I M&*

'or transmission of heat through a barrier, the motive force corresponding to 2M3 is temperature difference between the two sides of the barrier. The formula for rate of heat transmission per hour @ isB @ I A & C & (T) 4here T is the temperature difference in )' and A is the area of the barrier in sq.ft. and C is the overall heat transmission coefficient e&pressed in -TCD@rD<q.ftD)' temperature difference. The product (A&C) corresponds to the conductance 2*3 of the electric conductor. Thermal conductivity of any material is the heat transmitted through the material e&pressed as -TCD@rD<q.ftD%nch thic nessD)' temperature difference and is referred to by the symbol 2,3. %t , is the conductivity of the material, then 1D, is the resistance of the material of 1 sq.ft. cross section and 13 thic ness. %f the thic ness 2t3 inches, the resistance becomes (t) D (,) per sq.ft. %n electrical system, resistance connected in series are added to find the total resistance. <imilarly, if a barrier is made up of several materials, the individual resistances of the components have to be added to arrive at the total barrier resistance. %f a barrier is made up of, say, three materials having thermal conductivities ,1, ,2 N ,:, the total thermal resistance of the barrier isB t1D,1 H t2D,2 H t:D,: 4here t1, t2 N t: are the thic nesses of the barriers. F'0+ C(*77'/'*)$ %n addition to the resistance of the various components of a barrier, we have to consider one more resistance offered by a film of air (or fluid if the barrier is in a

fluid) which clings on to the barrier surfaces. This resistance is more when the air is still and is relatively less when there is wind velocity. 6i e thermal conductivity, the heat transmission capacity of a film is e&pressed as the rate of heat of transfer in -TCD@rD<q.ftD)' temperature difference (1ote that this differs from thermal conductivity in the sense it is not related to any film thic ness as in the case of materials). This is called the film coefficient and is e&pressed by the symbol 2f3. The reciprocal of 2f3 is the thermal resistance of the film. 2f13 denotes the film coefficient on the interior surface of the barrier and 2f53 denotes the film coefficient on the e&terior surface of the barrier. The resistance of the complete barrier isB 1Df1 H t1D,1 H t2D,2 H t:D,: H 1Df5 %f 2C3 is the overall heat transmission of the barrier in -TCD@rD<q.ft.D)', then 1D5 is the overall thermal resistance of the barrier. 1DC I 1Df1 H t1D,1 H t2D,2 H t:D,: H 1Df5 C I 1D(1Df1 H t1D,1 H t2D,2 H t:D,: H 1Df5)

S$(&#1* E77*/$ <uppose T5 is the temperatures on both sides of the barrier. There will be no heat transmission through the barrier and the temperatures at all points within the barrier will also be the same. There is, therefore, no temperature gradient. 1ow suppose the temperature on one side of the barrier is raised from T5 to T+, do you thin that heat transmission through the barrier will commence immediatelyO 1o, since all points within the barrier is at the same temperature, no heat can flow through any interior section. The first thing that happens is the outermost layer of the barrier absorbs the heat from the outside and rises in temperature. @eat then flows over to the ne&t layer of the barrier because of the temperature difference between the first and second layers. The second layer also will first rise in temperature before heat begins to flow over to the third layer. Thus progressively all the layers within the barrier rise in temperature thereby

establishing the total temperature gradient from one side to the other side of the barrier. %t is only after the complete gradient has been established that heat will begin to flow to the other side of the barrier. The temperature at various points within the barrier will now be as determined by the gradient. A$$'/ S,#/*4 4henever a false ceiling is provided in a room, the space enclosed between the false ceiling and the concrete ceiling is called ATT%* <EA*/. %f the attic space is not ventilated the entire space within the attic will assume an intermediate temperature which will be more than the room temperature and less than the outside temperature. This temperature can be wor ed out as followsB Ag A1 C5 Cf T2 T1 T I I I I I I I area of the concrete ceiling area of the false ceiling 2C3 factor of the concrete ceiling 2C3 factor of the false ceiling =utside temperature %nside temperature Temperature of the attic space

4hen steady heat transmission from outside to inside ta es place through the attic space, then the rate of flow of heat from outside into the attic space is equal to the rate of flow of heat from the attic space into the room, i.e., Ac.Cc.(T2 K T) I Af.Cf.(T K T1) 2T3 can therefore be calculated from this equation. After 2T3 has been wor ed out, the transmission load into the room from the ceiling can be wor ed out by substituting the value of 2T3 in the above equation. S(0#& G#')

<olar "ain, as the name implies, comes from direct sunlight. There are two inds of solar gainsB a. 0adiation from sun which directly enters the conditioned space through glass and absorbed by ob.ects in the room and then by the air within the room. The effect of such gain into the space is felt almost immediate. The amount of radiation for various e&posures and time of the day and year are given in tables for the various latitudes on the earth. 8epending on the type of glass, about A to ?G of the radiation is reflected while the rest pass into the room. <olar gain is not confined merely to the side which directly faces the sun. Fou get solar heat even from other sides through glasses, but to a much smaller degree. This is diffused radiation. .. S(0#& ! T&#)4+'44'() G#') This is due to transmission through sunlit walls whose temperature rises above the ambient temperature due to absorption of direct radiation and hence causes a larger temperature differential than the ambient temperature. The equivalent temperature difference that is to be ta en are given in tables, ta ing into consideration the e&posure, sun time and storage effect. /. T&#)4+'44'() G#') $-&(%1- G0#44 ! P#&$'$'() %n addition to solar gain through glass, you have also to wor transmission gain through glass due to temperature out difference.

Transmission through partitions between conditioned and non(conditioned areas are wor ed out on the basis of actual temperature difference. 1o storage effect apply for these cases. 3. I)$*&)#0 L(#3 This comprises load fromB 23) =ccupancyB The sensibleDlatent heat gains from people are given

in tables, based on the nature of their activities in the room. 24) 6ightsB 6ighting is generally specified in terms of watts per sq.ft. The total watt has to be converted into -TCD@r by multiplying by conversion factors. 25) 26) AppliancesB /lectrical, gas burners, steam generation, etc. /lectric PotorsB applications. Applies generally in some of industrial This load will have to be properly analysed by

discussion with user and appropriate diversity factors should be applied for estimating the actual load. *onvert the @E into -TCD@r. 4e shall now briefly lay down the procedure for heat load estimating with e&planations wherever required.

1.

*ollect architect$s drawings for the building giving all details and dimensions of walls, floors, windows, etc. %f such drawings are not available, survey the place and get the particulars.

2.

'or every application, there are certain things which the ultimate user has to specify. These areB 27) Temperature N humidity conditions to be maintained inside the space and tolerance. 28) =ccupancy K i.e. ma&imum no. of people li ely to occupy the space and the nature of their activity. 29) 6ighting load and other internal source of heat generation. 30) Eeriod of operation K e.g. 9 a.m. to + p.m. or 15 a.m. to 9 p.m. etc. 31) 'or industrial application you require also the @E load in the conditioned space and diversity factor thereon. 32) Pinimum ventilation required.

3.

O%$4'3* D*4'1) C()3'$'()4

33) 'or comfort air conditioning application, use the mean ma&imum 8temperature N the 4- temperature which occurs simultaneously with the assumed 8-. 34) 'or industrial applications where temperatures and humidities are to be maintained within very close tolerance through the year, tan the ma&imum 8- and the simultaneously occurring 4- temperature. 7. A. 'or all applications ma e a second load estimate for monsoon conditions. 'or applications where the conditioned spaces are spread over very vast floor areas, divide the entire area into convenient ;ones and ma e load estimates.

?.

=ccupancy ( %n certain applications a diversity factor may have to be used even in respect of occupancy. /&amples areB =ffice areas where a separate conference room is also provided. The conference room may be designed for a large number of people. -ut you must reali;e that it is mostly the people in the office who go into conferences and hence any occupancy in the conference room brings about an equal reduction in the occupancy in other areas of the office.

.0 HEAT LOAD DATA SHEET ! TYPICAL CALCULATION

TYPICAL DIVERSITY FACTORS FOR LARGE BUILDINGS :APPLY TO REFRIGERATION CAPACITY;

DIVERSITY FACTOR

PEOPLE =ffice Apartment, @otel 8epartment storage %ndustrial 5.+A to 5.>5 5.75 to 5.?5 5.95 to 5.>5 5.9A to 5.>A

LIGHTS 5.+5 to 5.9A 5.:5 to 5.A5 5.>5 to 1.5 5.95 to 5.>5

'resh air requirement

2.5 air changes D hr. or 15 *'P per person

8esign conditions a ( indoor b ( =utdoor ( ( +5 )' Q 2 )' 8-T ! AAG Q AG 0@ 15: )' 8-T ! 92 ) ' 4-T

U - FACTOR CALCULATIONS #. E=,(4*3 W#004

Total resistance 0T

I I

0o H L1 01 H L2 02 H L: 0: H 0 i 5.2A H 12.A & 5.2 H 2:5 & 5.2 H 12.A & 5.2 H 5.?9 2A 2A 2A 2.>+ hr. ft2. )' D-TC

=verall heat transfer *o(efficient I 1R 0T I 1R 2.>+

I ..

5.::+ -TC D hr. ft2. )'

P#&$'$'()4 0T I 0i H L1 01 H L2 02 H L: 0: H 0 i

I I

5.?9 H 12.A & 5.2 H 2:5 & 5.2 H 12.A & 5.2 H 5.?9 2A 2A 2A :.75 hr. ft2. )' D-TC

=verall heat transfer *o(efficient I 1R 0T I 1R :.75

I /.

5.2>7 -TC D hr. ft2. )'

R((7 *=,(4*3 $( 4%)

0T

I I

0i H L1 01 H L2 02 H 0 i 5.2A H 1A5 & 5.2 H A5 & 7.5 H 5.>2 2A 2A 15.:+ hr. ft2. )' D-TC

=verall heat transfer *o(efficient I 1R 0T I 1R 15.:+

5.5>? -TC D hr. ft2. )'

".0 HEATING> VENTILATION ! AIRCONDITIONING SYSTEMS

HEATING> VENTILATION ! AIRCONDITIONING SYSTEMS

A.

AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

Airconditioning is defined as the simultaneous control of temperature, humidity, quality and movement of air in a conditioned space or building. An air conditioning system is therefore, defined as an arrangement of equipment which will air condition a space or a building. Thus, a complete air conditioning system includes a means of refrigeration, one or more heat transfer units, air filters, a means of air transport and distribution, an arrangement for piping the refrigerant and heating medium, and controls to regulate the proper capacity and operation of these components. The items outlined above are considered to be the components of a complete air conditioning system. There has been a tendency by many designers to classify an air conditioning system by referring to one of its components. 'or e&ample, the airconditioning system in a building may include a dual duct air transport arrangement to distribute the conditioned air and is then referred to as a dual duct system. This classification ma es no reference to the type of refrigeration, the piping arrangement or the type of controls. 'or the purpose of classification, the following definitions will be usedB A) A'&/()3'$')')1 %)'$ is understood to consist of heat transfer surface for heating and cooling, a fan for air circulation, means of cleaning the air, a motor, a drive, and a casing.

A 4*07-/()$#')*3 #'&/()3'$'()')1 %)'$ is understood to be an airconditioning unit that is complete with compressor, condenser, controls, and a casing. A) #'& -#)30')1 %)'$ consist of a fan heat transfer surface, a motor, a drive and a casing A &*+($* air handling unit or a &*+($* air conditioning unit is a unit located (%$4'3* of the conditioned space which it serves. The most common types of refrigeration machines, classified according to their type of operation are (1) mechanical compression, (2) absorption and (:) vacuum. Apart from 1. 2. :. 7. A. the above types the airconditioning system are generally

clarified is to following categoriesB 4indow (room) airconditioners <plit airconditioning units Eac aged airconditioning units *entralised airconditioning plant ( 8L system *entralised airconditioning plant K chilled water system

The details of the above are further detailed in the subsequent pages. The types of refrigeration machines which are further e&plained as underB M*/-#)'/#0 C(+,&*44'() machines may be divided into reciprocating, centrifugal, and rotary types. The term 2heat pump3 is occasionally used to describe a refrigeration machine. @owever, a heat pump is a refrigeration cycle K either

reciprocating, rotary or centrifugal ( in which the cooling effect as well as the heat re.ected is used to furnish cooling or heating to the air conditioning units, either simultaneously or separately. R*/',&(/#$')1 (& &($#&2 /(+,&*44(& can be used in systems that circulate the refrigerant through remote direct e&pansion heat transfer surfaces. Alternately they can be used in con.unction with a water chilling heat e&changer, to produce chilled water for circulation through remote heat transfer surfaces that cool and dehumidify the air.

C*)$&'7%1#0 &*7&'1*&#$'() machines are generally not suitable for circulating and e&panding the liquid refrigerant in remote heat e&changes surfaces. *entrifugal machines are therefore used only to chill water or brine for circulation through remote heat e&change surfaces.

A.4(&,$'() +#/-')* cycles are similarly to mechanical compression machine cycles only to the e&tent that both cycles evaporate and condense a refrigerant liquid. They differ in the mechanical compression cycle use purely mechanical processes, while the absorption cycle uses physiochemical processes to produce the refrigeration effect.

V#/%%+ &*7&'1*&#$'() machines, such as steam .et and water vapor units, are seldom used in modern airconditioning systems.

1.

R((+ A'&/()3'$'()*& This is the simplest form of an air conditioning system. coil, an evaporator coil, condenser fan and evaporator fan. %t has a %t has a hermetically sealed motor compressor assembly, an air cooled condenser capillary tube in place of an e&pansion valve for metering refrigerant flow to the evaporator. 0oom air conditioners are generally made of capacities ranging from :D7 ton to 1(1D2 tons suitable for operation on 2:5 M, single phase, A5 cycles supply. %t is completely factory assembled and can be straightaway plugged into power supply when installed. A,,0'/#$'() "enerally used for small office rooms, shops and residential rooms where the where the load will generally be within 1(1D2 tons. <ometimes, these units are used in multiple for larger areas. A35#)$#1*4 The main advantage is that the unit can be switched =1 and ='' as required. 4here multiple units are used, there is no fear of a total brea down of air conditioning since it is most unli ely that all the units will brea down simultaneously. D'4#35#)$#1*4 The hermetically sealed compressor is susceptible to burn out when the supply voltage fluctuates widely and whenever such burnouts occur, the whole system has to be thoroughly cleaned before a new compressor can be fitted. The life of the unit is generally between 15 to 1A years only.

2.

P#/?#1*4 $2,* #'& /()3'$'()*& These are larger versions of 0oom Air *onditioners e&cept that they are generally made with water(cooled condensers. They can also be made with air cooled condensers either built in with the pac age or for remote installation. They are generally made in capacities ranging from A to 15 tons. Cnits with water cooled condensers require condenser water circulating system and cooling tower. The units may also require e&ternal duct wor for air distribution. This unit operates on 755 M, phase, A5 cycles supply. A,,0'/#$'() These units are most ideal where the load is between A to 25 tons. <ometimes, they are also used for much larger loads by using more number of units interconnected on the supply air side. A35#)$#1*4 %nstallation and commissioning can be done in the shortest possible time since the field wor involved only relates to condenser water piping, air distribution system and electrical wiring. 4hen multiple units are used for larger areas, the number of units in operation can be varied according to the load requirement, thereby saving on power consumption. D'4#35#)$#1*4 These units also have hermetically sealed motor compressor assemblies and hence have the same disadvantage as 0oom Air *onditioners.

3.

G*)*&#0 ,0#)$ - D8 424$*+4 The system consists of an open type compressor ranging in capacity from A tons to 125 tons operating on refrigerant 22. They are motor driven either through belt drive or direct coupling. They can also be driven by diesel engine, but then only by direct drive. -elt drive should not be used

when diesel engine is used. condensers. A,,0'/#$'()

They are generally with water(cooled

condensers even though they can also be built with air(cooled

The 8L system of *entral Elant is perhaps the most widely used system for medium loads between 25 and 155 tons. %t can be used for almost all types of application. A35#)$#1*4 The 8L system is perhaps the most efficient of all system from a thermo dynamic point of view since the heat transfer is directly between the conditioned air and the refrigerant. The open type compressors used for these systems have built in capacity controls to ta e care of load fluctuations. Elants of any capacity can be built with 8L systems using multiple compressors, condensers and evaporators. Although it is preferable to eep each compressor with its condenser and evaporator as a single unit, these plants can also be built with interconnection between them on the refrigerant side. more fle&ibility in operation. D'4#35#)$#1*4 8L systems should not be used where air distribution through duct wor has to be carried out from a central air handling unit to various ;ones because of fire ha;ard. Therefore, a single air handling unit should necessarily be confined to a single ;one. 4here there are multiple ;ones use of 8L system is permissible only when separate 8L plants are used for each ;one without any interconnection on the air distribution si;e. 4here the building condition has got number of floors one above the other, 8L systems could be considered only if it is possible to install separate *entral Elant for each floor. =f course, such decision would <uch interconnections naturally provide

involve installation of the plant on upper floors where vibration and other problems have to be effectively tac led in order to eliminate transmission of vibrations to the occupied ;ones. *ost wise also, such individual systems in each floor may prove to be much higher.

4.

C*)$&#0 ,0#)$ - C-'00*3 W#$*& S24$*+ A central chilled water system is made up on one or more water chilling plants. /ach water chilling plant may be built with either one or two /ach such with the compressors to wor with one or two chillers (8L chiller or shell and tube flooded chiller) and one or two water cooled condensers. water chilling unit is field assembled on structural framewor

necessary refrigerant pipes so as to ma e a compact assembly. 4here such multiple water chilling units are used, they are generally interconnected on the water side both in the condenser circulating system and chilled water circulating system. A,,0'/#$'() Pultiple water chilling units with reciprocating compressors are generally suitable for multistoreyed office buildings where the load is between 155 and :55 tons. @owever, there is no bar against using more number of water chilling units with reciprocating compressors even for loads higher than :55 tons. 'or loads e&ceeding :55 tons. 4ater chilling units with centrifugal compressors would be preferable. 5. C-'00*3 W#$*& 7(& P&(/*44 C((0')1 A35#)$#1*4 The best advantage of a chilling water system in that the *entral Elant can be installed in as remote a location as desired from the conditioned areas. %n fact, they can even be built in a remote plant room with chilled water piping either underground or overhead running to all the ;ones where air

handling units are installed. This system provides ma&imum fle&ibility in operation since the air handling units serving individual ;ones can be cut off from the chilled water circulating system whenever air conditioning is not required in any particular ;one. <ince each ;one will have its own air handling unit, no interconnecting duct wor will be required thereby %n eliminating all possibilities of fire spreading from one ;one to another. the case of large hotels, fan coil units in individual rooms can be switched off whenever the room is not occupied. %ndividual temperature controls can be provided for each ;one or individual rooms by regulating the chilled water flow through the coil either thermostatically or manually. D'4#35#)$#1*4 =n application where the load is small, this system would prove very much costlier than the 8L system. Another disadvantage is that since one more heat transfer medium vi;. chilled water, has been introduced, the heat transfer is now from air to water and then from water to refrigerant. This naturally lowers the evaporating temperature as compared to a 8L system for the same load. @ence the power consumption will be relatively higher than that for 8L system. 6. A'& /()3'$'()')1 S24$*+ 7(& O,*&#$'() T-*#$&*4 %t is desirable that a 8L system is used for each =peration Theatre. @owever, in large hospitals, if there are several operation theatres located in various floors, there is no bar against using a central chilled water system, but e&clusively for the operation theatre only. /ach operation theatre must however have individual air treatment units with pre(filters on the air suction side of fan and supplementary microves filters on the air discharge side of the fan. 'or operation theatres no re(circulation of room air is permitted. Fou should, therefore, estimate the heat load on the

basis of 155G fresh air.

S/&*6 C-'00*&4 0efer to figure showing single line diagram of refrigeration cycle for the above and for piping schematics. /ach vertical screw compressor discharges hot, high pressure gas through a discharge service valve (A) (or chec valve in multiple compressor units) into the condenser, where it condenses outside tubes, re.ecting heat to cooling tower water flowing inside the tubes. The liquid refrigerant drains to the bottom of the condenser and e&its into the economi;er feed line. The refrigerant flows through the economi;er feed ball valve (-), dropping its pressure, causing it to flash. %t then flows into the flash economi;er tan (*) which is at an intermediate pressure between condenser and evaporator, liquid is centrifugally separated from the flash gas and the liquid drains to the bottom of the tan , e&its via the economi;er drain line, and passes through the economi;er drain ball valve (8). -oth economi;er ball valves are actuated by a modutrol motor (C) that ad.usts flow to maintain an appropriate refrigerant level in the evaporator, determined by a liquid level float switch (M). 'rom the drain line, liquid refrigerant flows into the flooded evaporator, where it boils, cooling the water flowing inside evaporator tubes. Mapor from the boiling refrigerant flows up the suction pipes through a shut(off valve (/) (optional), suction chec valve (') and suction filter (") (inside compressor) into the compressor where it is compressed and starts cycle again. Mapor flows from the top of flash economi;er into the compressor at the vapor in.ection port, which feeds it into the compressor part way through the compression process. *hec valve (@) prevents bac flow at shutdown in multi compressor units. Al compressors operate in parallel on a common evaporator and condenser.

". I/* S$(&#1* S24$*+4 7(& A'&/()3'$'()')1 A,,0'/#$'()4

U4* (7 I/* 7(& A'&/()3'$'()')1 -uilding air conditioning in summer daylight hours is one of the largest contributors to electrical utility demand pea s. Typically between 2(7 EP in the afternoon when solar loading pea s, more air conditioners are needed to maintain comfortable environments in buildings. Add to this the electricity utili;ed by lighting, computers, building subsystems plus other equipment and the utility is faced with a pea load condition dictating that it bring on(line additional, more costly pea power generating sources to handle the load. Traditional air conditioning systems operate during the day to meet cooling demand and remain idle at night. *hillers are selected to satisfy the ma&imum demand, which occurs only a few hours per year, and thus spend the ma.ority of their operational life at reduced capacity and low efficiency. The ice storage system, which is suitable for any AD* application, allows installed chiller capacity (and si;e of other components) to be significantly reduced K typically between 75G and ?5G. This enables efficient and real energy management whilst ta ing advantage of low tariff electricity. 6arge commercial users whose air conditioning loads contribute to the utility pea ing problem are assessed an added charge typically based on their highest 1A minutes window of pea demand for electricity. This is called a 2demand charge3 which in many areas of the country can account for as much as 75 percent of the building owner$s total electrical bill.

The use of ice storage to minimi;e pea energy usage is not a new or e&perimental idea. %t has been used for years on applications with short pea energy usage such as churches, meeting facilities and theaters. =n these applications, however, the longer pea uses were handled by conventional rooftop cooling or water chilling D air handling systems. 1ow, however, there is renewed interest in a broad use of ice ma ing and storage systems by both users and utility companies as the best way of offsetting rising demand loads and resulting utility cost increases. %ce storage systems can not only cut operating costs substantially, but they can also reduce capital outlays when systems are properly applied for both new and e&isting buildings and commercial and industrial types. <imply stated, engineers can specify smaller chillers operating 27 hours a day rather than larger chillers operating 15(12 hours a day and cut the capital outlay for air conditioning equipment substantially. An ice storage system can utili;e either a load shifting or a load leveling strategy to significantly lower demand charges during the cooling season. -ecause this lowers energy demand, it substantially lowers the total energy costs. %t typically utili;es a standard pac aged chiller to produce ice at night or during off(pea periods when the building$s electrical needs are at a minimum. The ice is stored in modular tan s to provide cooling ton(hours to help meet the buildings cooling load requirements the following day. -y doing so, it minimi;es the pea energy usage during the utility daylight pea ing period.

F%00 S$(&#1* O& P#&$'#0 S$(&#1*@ Two load management strategies are possible with ice storage systems. 4hen utility rates call for complete load shifting, a conventionally si;ed chiller can be used to shift the entire load into off(pea hours. This is called a full storage system and is used most often in e&isting building renovation or retrofit applications using e&isting installed chiller capacity. %n new construction, a partial, storage system is usually the most practical and cost effective load management strategy. %n this load leveling method, the chiller is si;ed to run continuously e&cept for scheduled preventive maintenance down time. %t usually charges the ice storage tan s at night and cools the load directly during the daytime pea hours with help from stored cooling capacity. This will greatly reduce the installed chiller capacity and its required capital e&penditure, as well as the demand charge for electricity to run the chiller during utility pea ing periods. Typically reductions can be A5 percent or more.

H(6 $-* I/* S$(&#1* S24$*+ W(&?4 A common ice storage system is a modular, insulated tan . Tan s are typically available in several ton(hour rated si;es. Typically at night a mild concentration of glycol(water solution (typically 2A percent ethylene glycol based industrial coolant such as 8ow *hemical *ompany 8owtherm <0(1 or Cnion *arbine *orporation$s C*A0 Thermofluid 1+) from a standard pac aged air conditioning water chiller system circulates through the heat e&changer and e&tracts heat until eventually all the water in the tan is fro;en solid. The ice is built uniformly throughout the tan .

Typical schematic flow diagrams for a partial storage system are shown in figure1N2. At night, the water(glycol solution circulates through the chiller and the ice ban heat e&changer, bypassing the air handling coil that from A2 ' to :7 '. A temperature supplies conditioned air to occupied building spaces. 8uring the day, the solution is cooled by the ice ban modulation valve set at 77 ' in a bypass loop around the ice ban permits a sufficient quantity of A2 ' fluid to bypass the ice ban permits a sufficient quantity of A2 ' fluid to bypass the ice ban , mi& with the :7' fluid, and achieve the desired 77 ' temperature. The 77 ' fluid then enters the coil, where it cools air from appro&imately +A ' to AA '. The fluid then leaves the coil at an elevated temperature (appro&imately ?5') and enters the water chiller where it is cooled ?5' to A2 '. %t is important to note that while ma ing ice at night, the chiller must cool the water( glycol solution down to 2? ', rather than producing 77 ' water required for conventional air conditioning systems. *hillers with air(cooled condensing also benefit from cooler outdoor ambient dry bulb temperatures to lower the system condensing temperature at night. The temperature modulating valve in the bypass loop has the added advantage of providing e&cellent capacity control. 8uring mild temperature days, typically in the spring and fall, the chiller will often be capable of providing all the necessary cooling capacity for the building without the use of cooling capacity from the ice storage system. 4hen the building$s actual cooling load is equal to or less than the chiller capacity at the time, all of the system coolant will flow through the bypass loop as shown in fig.:

%t is important that the coolant chosen by an ethylene glycol(based industrial coolant, such as 8owtherm <0(1 or C*A0 Thermofluid 1+, which is specially formulated for low viscosity and good heat transfer properties. /ither of these fluids contain a multi(component corrosion inhibitor which is effective with most materials of construction including aluminium, copper, silver solder and plastics. 'urther, they contain no anti(lea efficiency. agents and produce no films to interfere with heat transfer They also permit use of standard pumps, seals and air

handling coils. %t should be noted, however, that because of the slight difference in heat transfer properties between water and the mild glycol solution, the cooling coil capacities will need to be increased by appro&imately A percent. %t is also important that the water and glycol solution be thoroughly mi&ed before the solution is placed into the system. The use of ice storage system technology opens new doors to other economic opportunities in system design. These offer significant potential for not only first(cost savings but also operating cost savings that should be evaluated on a life cycle cost basis using a computeri;ed economic analysis program.

B#/?-U, Post AD* and refrigeration systems require some form of stand(by, or bac (up, facility to protect against system failure and costly lost production time. The ice storage system, is an ideal, efficient solution for these applications. The ice storage system offers rapid response bac (up in the form of an independent, static technology solution which ensures the highest degree of reliability.

A35#)$#1*4 (7 I/* S$(&#1* S24$*+4 0educed installed plant capacity. 0educed electrical installation for lower investment and saving in demand charges. 0educed installed cooling tower capacity incase of water cooled system. 0educed installed 8.". set capacity. -etter plant utili;ation with longer equipment life and lower operating costs. Cse of off(pea applicable. energy for lower energy bill, where differential tariff is

A,,0'/#$'()4 (7 I/* S$(&#1* S24$*+ Air(conditioning of industrial and commercial buildings ( =ffices, @otels, <hopping *omple&es, <upermar ets, etc. Air(conditioning of data(processing centers, hospitals, telephone e&changes, etc. requiring added system reliability and security. 8airy plants, -reweries, 'ood Erocessing, -ottling Elants, *hemical and 'ertili;er Elants, Eharmaceuticals, etc.

DUCTING DESIGN The satisfactory distribution of conditioned air requires a well designed and energy efficient air transport system with appropriate ducts and fans plus air treatment and control devices. The various method of duct designs, proper fan selection and control and methods of air distribution system control for acceptable comfort and air quality in the conditioned spaces are some of the points to be discussed. The various methods of duct designing are a. b. c. *onstant Melocity method /qual friction method <tatic regain method

C0#44'7'/#$'() (7 D%/$4 <upply and return duct systems are classified with respect to the velocity and pressure of the air within the duct. V*0(/'$2 There are tow types of air transmission systems used for airconditioning application. They are called *oventional or 6ow Melocity and @igh Melocity system. The dividing line between these systems is rather nebulous but, for the purpose of this section, the following initial supply air velocities are offered as a guide. 1. *ommercial comfort air conditioning a. b. 2. 6ow velocity K upto 2A55 fpm normally between 1255 N 225 fpm @igh velocity K above 2A55 fpm

'actory comfort airconditioning a. 6ow velocity ( upto 2A55 normally between 2255 and 2A55 fpm.

b.

@igh velocity ( above 2A55 to A555 fpm

1ormally return air systems for both low and high velocity supply air systems are designed as low velocity systems. The velocity range for commercial and factory comfort application is as followsB 1. 2. *ommercial comfort airconditioning ( low velocity upto 2555 fpm. 1ormally between 1A55 and 1955 fpm. 'actory comfort airconditioning ( low velocity upto 2A55 fpm. 1ormally between 1955 and 2255 fpm. P&*44%&* Air distribution systems are divided into three pressure categories! low, medium and high. These divisions have the same pressure ranges as *lass %, %% N %%% fans and indicatedB 1. 2. :. 6ow pressure ( upto :S inch wg ( class % fan Pedium pressure ( from :S to ? S inch wg ( class %% fan @igh pressure ( from ? S to 12 S inch wg ( class %%%

These pressure ranges are total pressure, including the losses through the air handling apparatus, ductwor and the air terminal in the space. The choice of design method depends almost entirely upon the si;e of the ductwor installation. <mall duct systems (homes, shops or a few office rooms) are commonly designed by the velocity method. 6arge high pressure systems are most frequently designed by computer software programs using the static regain method. 8uct arrangements between these two e&tremes are nearly always laid out by the equal friction method. <ometimes a duct arrangement will be designed by a combination of two methods. 'or instance, the trun duct will be laid out by the static regain method and the branch duct runs designed by the

equal friction method.

%n designing ductwor , a new term called 2unit friction3 will be utili;ed which means the friction loss per 155 ft of duct wor equivalent length. 0egardless of the duct design method chosen by the air transport system designer, the final design and duct layout will li ely result from the use of computeri;ed duct design and drafting programs available that are based on algorithms from the A<@0A/ hand boo of fundamentals and other test data from <PA*1A. R*/(++*)3*3 #)3 +#='+%+ D%/$ V*0(/'$'*4 7(& C()5*)$'()#0 S24$*+ DESIGNATION =utdoor air inta es1 'ilters1 @eating coils1,2 *ooling coils1 Air washers1 'an outlets Pain ducts2 -ranch ducts2 -ranch risers2 =utdoor air inta es1 'ilters1 @eating coils1,2 *ooling coils1 Air washers 'an outlets Pain ducts2 -ranch ducts2 -ranch risers2
1

RECOMMEND VELOCITIES> FPM RESIDENCES SCHOOLS> THEATERS> INDUSTRIAL PUBLIC BUILDINGS BUILDING A55 A55 A55 2A5 :55 :A5 7A5 A55 ?55 7A5 A55 ?55 A55 A55 A55 1555 ( 1?55 1:55 ( 2555 1?55 ( 2755 +55 ( >55 1555 ( 1:55 1255 ( 1955 ?55 ?55 ( >55 955 ( 1555 A55 ?55 ( +55 955 Pa&imum velocities, 'EP 955 >55 1255 :55 :A5 :A5 A55 ?55 +55 7A5 A55 ?55 A55 A55 A55 1+55 1A55 ( 2255 1+55 ( 2955 955 ( 1255 1155 ( 1?55 1:55 ( 2255 +55 ( 1555 955 ( 1:55 1555 ( 1955 ?A5 ( 955 955 ( 1255 1555 ( 1?55

These velocities are for total face area, not the net free area B other velocities in

table are for net free are

2

'or low velocity systems only.

T 1>?A American society of heating, refrigerating and airconditioning engineers, inc. reprinted by permission for A<@0A/ guide and data boo .

PIPING DESIGN The water piping system are divided into once thru and re(circulating types. %n a once thru system water passes thru the equipment only once and is discharged. %n a re(circulating system water is not discharged, but flows in a repeating circuit from the heat e&changer to the refrigeration equipment and bac to the heat e&changer. O,*) #)3 C0(4*3 -oth types are further classified as open or closed systems. An open system is one in which the water flows into a reservoir open to the atmosphere! cooling towers and air washers are e&amples of reservoirs open to the atmosphere. A closed system is one in which the flow of water is not e&posed to the atmosphere at any point. This system usually contains an e&pansion tan that is open to the atmosphere but the water area e&posed is insignificant. W#$*& P',')1 D*4'1) There is a friction loss in any pipe thru which water is flowing. This loss depends on the following factorsB 1. 2. :. 7. 4ater velocity Eipe diameter %nterior surface roughness Eipe length

<ystem pressure has not effect on the head loss of the equipment in the system. @owever, higher than normal system pressures may dictate the use of heavier pipe, fittings and valves along with specially designed equipment.

To properly design a water piping system, the engineer must evaluate not only the pipe friction loss by the loss thru valves, fittings and other equipment. %n addition to these friction losses, the use of diversity in reducing the water quantity and pipe si;e is to be considered in designing the water piping system.

P',* F&'/$'() L(44 The pipe friction loss in a system depends on water velocity, pipe diameter, interior surface roughness and pipe length. Marying any one of these factors influences the total friction loss in the pipe. Post air conditioning applications use either steel pipe or copper tubing in the piping system. *harts enclosed are for schedule 75 pipe upto 27 inch diameter. *hart shows the friction losses for closed re(circulation piping systems and for once thru D open re(circulation piping systems. These charts show water velocity, pipe or tube diameter, and water quantity, in addition to the friction rate per 155 ft of equivalent pipe length. ,nowing any two of these factors, the other two can be easily determined from the chart. The effect of inside roughness of the pipe or tube is considered in all these values. The water quantity is determined from the airconditioning load and the water velocity by pre(determined recommendations. These two factors are used to establish pipe si;e and friction rate. W#$*& V*0(/'$2 The velocities recommended for water piping depend on two conditions! 1. 2. The service for which the pipe is to be used. The effect of erosion.

The design of the water piping system is limited by the ma&imum permissible flow velocity.

R*/(++*)3 W#$*& V*0(/'$2

SERVICE

VELOCITY RANGE :FPS; 9 ( 12 7(+ 7(+ 7 ( 1A : ( 15 : ( 15 :(+

Eump discharge Eump suction 8rain line @eader 0iser "eneral service *ity water

B.

VENTILATION SYSTEM =utdoor air that flows through a building either intentionally as ventilation air or unintentionally as infiltration (and e&filtration) is important for two reasons. 8ilution with outdoor air is a primary means of controlling indoor air contaminants and the energy associated with heating or cooling this outdoor air is a significant, if not a ma.or, load on the heating and air( conditioning system. 'or ma&imum load conditions, it is essential to now the magnitude of this air flow to properly si;e equipment! for average conditions, to properly estimate average or seasonal energy consumption! and for minimum conditions, to assure proper control of indoor contaminants. the event of fire. Mentilation occurs by two means, natural and forced, 1atural ventilation can be classified as (1) infiltration or (2) controlled. Panually controlled natural ventilation is the ventilation from operable windows, doors or other openings in the buildings envelope. The latter is an important means of ventilation in residences in mild weather when infiltration is minimal or in warm climates to avoid air conditioning costs. 'orced ventilation is mandatory in larger buildings where a minimum amount of outdoor air is required for occupant comfort. Air contaminant measurement technology has advanced to include alternate methods designed to assure that indoor air quality meets specified conditions. These methods permit the amount of outdoor air to vary according to the actual requirements of occupants in the space. %n larger buildings, it is important to now ventilation effectiveness. ,nowledge of smo e circulation patterns can be crucial in

This chapter focuses on envelope or shell(dominated buildings! i.e., residences or small commercial buildings in which the energy load is determined by the construction and performance of the building envelope. The physical principles discussed also apply to large buildings. @owever, in large buildings, ventilation energy load and indoor air quality conditions depend more on ventilation system design that on building envelope performance. V*)$'0#$'() R*<%'&*+*)$4 The amount of ventilation needed has been debated for over a century, and the different rationales developed have produced radically different ventilation standards. *onsiderations such as the amount of air e&pel e&haled air, moisture removal from indoor air and control of carbon dio&ide (*=2) were each primary criteria used at different times during the nineteenth century. This research investigated the ventilation rates required to levels of temperature and humidity. eep body(

generated odors below an acceptable level in rooms with comfortable %t was found that the required ventilation rates varied considerably, depending on the cleanliness of the sub.ects and the number present in the room. 0esearches also found that *=2 concentration was not a good indicator of the ventilation rate above 1+ m:h per person! the *=2 concentration was almost always lower than e&pected for a given ventilation rate. @owever, below 1+ m :Dhr per person the discrepancies were not so great and in fact the current rationale for the 9.A m:Dh per person minimum outside air requirement in <tandard ?2 is based on the *= 2 produced by an individual depends on diet and activity level. A representative value of *= 2 production by a sedentary individual who eats a normal diet is 5.51> m :Dhr.

T2,*4 (7 V*)$'0#$'() <everal techniques are possible to achieve the ventilation specified in the standards! in decreasing order of desirability they are B (1) forced ventilation that affords automatic control, (2) natural ventilation with manual control. 'orced ventilation is rarely used in envelope(dominated structures. @owever, tighter, more energy conserving buildings with less infiltration require mechanical ventilation systems. 4hen coupled with an air(to(air heat e&changer, adequate ventilation is provided at lower operating cost. 1atural ventilation is driven by pressures from wind and indoor(outdoor temperature differences, causing air movement. This type of ventilation is characteri;ed by occupant control. Airflow through openable windows, doors and other design openings can be used provide adequate ventilation for contaminant dilution and temperature control.

N#$%&#0 V*)$'0#$'() 1atural or passive ventilation occurs because of wind and thermal pressure that produce a flow of outdoor air through openable windows, doors and other controllable openings. This is in contrast to infiltration, airflow through the unintentional openings of a buildings. control. 1atural ventilation can be used effectively for both temperature and contaminant Temperature control by natural ventilation conserves energy during the cooling season and is particularly effective in mild climates. The arrangement, location and control of ventilation openings should be designed to combine the driving forces of wind and temperature.

N#$%&#0 V*)$'0#$'() O,*)')14 Types of natural ventilation openings includeB (1) windows, doors monitor openings and s ylights, (2) roof ventilators, (:) stac s connecting to registers and (7) specially designed inlet or outlet openings. 4indows transmit light and provide ventilation when open. They may

open by sliding vertically or hori;ontally! by tilting on hori;ontal pivots at no near the center ! or by swinging on pivots at the top, bottom or side. The type of pivoting is an important consideration for weather protection. 0oof ventilators are determined to provide a weatherproof air outlet. *apacity is determined by the ventilators offer to air flow! its ability to use inetic wind energy to induce flow by centrifugal or e.ector action! and the height of the draft. 1atural draft or gravity roof ventilators can be stationary, pivoting or oscillating, and rotating selection criteria areB ruggedness! corrosion( resistanceB storm proofing features! dampers and operating mechanism! possibility of noise! original cost! and maintenance. 1atural ventilators can supplement power(driven supply fans the motors need only be energi;ed when the natural e&haust dampers or dampers controlled by thermostat or wind velocity. A roof ventilator should be positioned so that it receives the full, unrestricted wind. Turbulence created by surrounding obstructions, including higher ad.acent buildings, impairs a ventilator$s e.ector action. The ventilator inlet should be conical or bell mounted to give a high flow coefficient. The opening area at the inlet should be increased if screens. -uilding air inlets at lower levels should be larger than the combined throat areas of all roof ventilators.

<tac s or vertical flues should be located where wind can act on them from any direction. 4ithout wind, stac effect alone removes air from the room with the inlets.

R*<%'&*3 F0(6 The ventilation flow needed to remove a given amount of heat from a building can be calculated from /q. (1) if the quantity of heat to be removed and the average indoor(out(door temperature difference are nown. U I 4here U @ *p cf1 cf1 I I I I I Air flow removed, m:Dhr @eat removed, 4 <pecific heat of air at constant pressure, 1 ,V., Average indoor(outdoor temperature difference, , *onversion factor, 5.29 *onversion factor, 5.:7

T1(T5 I

F0(6 C#%4*3 .2 W')3 'actors that affect ventilation wind forces include average speed, prevailing direction, seasonal and daily variation in speed and direction, and local obstructions such as nearby buildings, hills trees and shrubbery. 4ind speeds are usually lower in summer than in winter! frequency from various directions differs in summer and winter. There are relatively few places where speed falls below half the average for more than a few hours a month. Therefore natural ventilating systems are often designed for wind speeds of half the average seasonal velocity. /quation (2) shows the quantity of air forced through ventilation inlet openings by wind or determines the proper si;e of openings to produce given airflow ratesB

U 4here U A *v cf

I I I I I

(cf)*vAv Air flow m:Dhr

(2)

'ree area of inlet openings, m2 /ffectiveness of openings (*v) is assumed to be 5.A5 to 5.?5 for perpendicular winds *onversion factor, :?55

4ind speed, mDs

%nlets should face directly into the prevailing wind direction. %f they are not advantageously placed flow will be less than in the equationB if unusually well placed flow will be slightly more. 8esirable outlet locations are (1) on the leeward side of the building directly opposite the inlet (2) on the roof.

V*)$'0#$'() #)3 I)7'0$&#$'() %n the pressure area caused by a flow discontinuity of the wind, (:) on the ad.acent to the windward face where low pressure areas occur, (7) in a monitor on the leeward side, (A) in roof ventilators or (?) by stac s. 0efer to *hapter 17 for a general description of wind on a building.

F0(6 C#%4*3 .2 T-*&+#0 F(&/*4 %f there is not significant building internal resistance, the flow caused by stac effect isB U I (cf)AWh(T1 K T5)DT1X1D2 4here U A @ T1 I I I I Air flow, m:Dhr 'ree area of inlets or outlets (assumed equal), m : @eight from lower opening to 1E6, m Average temperature of indoor air in height h, ,WIt(deg.c)H2+:.1AX

T5 cf

I I

Temperature of outdoor air, , *onversion factor, including a value of ?AG for effectiveness of openings! this should be A5G if conditions are not favourable (cf I 15:?5)

The height h is the distance from the lower opening to the neutral pressure level.

N#$%&#0 V*)$'0#$'() G%'3*0')*4 <everal general rules should be observed in designing for ventilationB 1. <ystems using natural ventilation should be designed for effective ventilation regardless of wind direction. direction. 2. :. 7. %nlet openings should not be obstructed by buildings, signboards or indoors partitions. "reatest flow per unit area of total opening is obtained by inlet and outlet openings of nearly equal areas. The neutral pressure level tends to move to the level of any single openings, resulting in pressure reduction across the opening. Two openings on opposite sides of a space increase the ventilation flow. %f the openings are at the same level and near the ceiling, much of the flow may bypass the occupied level and the ineffective in diluting contaminants at the occupied level. A. There must be vertical distance between openings for temperature difference to produce natural ventilation! the greater the vertical distance, the greater the ventilation. ?. =penings in the vicinity of the 1E6 are least effective for thermally induced ventilation. Mentilation must be adequate when the wind does not come from the prevailing

+.

=penings with areas much larger than calculated are sometimes desirable when anticipating increased occupancy or very hot weather. The openings should be accessible to and operable by occupants.

9.

4hen both wind the stac separately. separately.

pressures act together, even without

interference, estimated resulting airflow is not equal to the two flows 'low through any openings is proportional to the square root of the sum of the squares of the two flows calculated

C.

FORCED VENTILATION This involves forced supply systems, forced e&haust systems or both, depending on the requirements. This is done by fans of various types, including propeller fans, a&ial flow fans and centrifugal fans. Eropeller fans are generally wall mounted type and cater to small capacity D small pressure static requirements. A&ial fans can either be duct mounted or wall mounted type and cater to medium capacity requirement. *entrifugal fans, which are a separate topic by themselves, cater to a wide range of capacity and static pressure requirements. The later two types of fans can be hoo ed up to a supply or e&haust duct system. They can also be hoo ed up to an air washer D fan(filter system. 'orced ventilation systems can also be classified into dry or wet systems. 8ry systems involve the use of fans alone or with filter ban s for dust removal. 4et ventilation involves the use of fans with filters and a water spray D water logged fill arrangement which will humidity hot, dry air and cool it. These systems are suitable for hot and dry areas and are not effective in high humidity D coastal areas.