Poljoprivreda 2000 Br.1 (En.)

Agriculture 6 (2000)
8th International Symposium
ANIMAL SCIENCE DAYS
ANIMAL PRODUCTS AND HUMAN HEALTH
Organized by
JOSIP JURAJ STROSSMAYER UNIVERSITY OF OSIJEK FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE ZOOTECHNICAL DEPARTMENT
in collaboration with University of Zagreb, Faculty of Agronomy, Zagreb, Croatia University of Kaposvar, Faculty of Animal Sciences, Kaposvr, Hungary University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Domàle, Slovenia
Coordination Committee Gordana KRALIK, Full Prof., President Antun PETRIÊVI], Prof. Emer., Deputy Ivan JURI], Full Prof. Marija IKI], Assoc. Prof. Melinda ZOMBORSKY-KOVCS, Assoc. Prof. Jnos EMBER, Full Prof. Slavko ÊPIN, Full Prof. Franc HABE, Full Prof.
Organizing Committee Gordana KRALIK, Full Prof., President Antun PETRIÊVI], Prof. Emer., Deputy @eljko BUKVI], Full Prof. Blaènka BERTI], Full Prof. Draènka JURKOVI], Full Prof. Ivan KNE@EVI], Full Prof. Sonja JOVANOVAC, Full Prof.
Kazalo
The Review is published twice a year in 300 copies. AGRICULTURE Scientific and Professional Review is cited by the data: 1. CAB International 2. Agricola 3. National and University Library Croatian Bibliography
Kazalo
UDC 63
ISSN 1330-7142
AGRICULTURE
Scientific and Professional Review
Published by
Faculty of Agriculture Osijek 31000 Osijek, Trg Sv.Trojstva 3 Republic of Croatia ( ++385 31 224 200 Fax: ++385 31 207 017
Agricultural Institute of Osijek 31000 Osijek, Ju`no predgra|e 17 Republic of Croatia ( ++385 31 500 685 Fax: ++385 31 503 404
Osijek, 2000
Kazalo
CONTENTS
PRELIMINARY REPORTS
Cs. Szabo, A.J.M. Jansman, L. Babinszky, E. Kanis, M.W.A. Verstegen: ILEAL DIGESTIBILITY OF AMINO ACIDS IN PIG FEEDS AND ITS USE IN DIET FORMULATIONS . . . . . . . . 61 J. Csap, F. Hsvth, Zsuzsanna Csap-Kiss, va Varga-Visi, P. Horn: FATTY ACID COMPOSITION AND CHOLESTEROL CONTENT OF THE FAT OF PIGS OF VARIOUS GENOTYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 S. Szsz, F. Bogenfrst, Lvia Ks: UNTERSUCHUNGEN BER EINIGE SCHLACHTVERLUSTE BEI DEN ENTENRASSEN PEKING ENTE, FLUGENTE UND DEREN HYBRID MULARDE . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 D. Ter~i~, Jana Puhar, Antonija Holcman, R. Vadnjal, B. @lender: THE INFLUENCE OF REARING SYSTEM ON SKIN COLOUR IN BROILERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Romana Marinek-Logar, K. Salobir: OXIDATIVE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT DIETARY FATS ON MOUSE DNA DETECTED BY COMET ASSAY . . 74 A. Szabo, H. Febel, R. Romvri, P. Bogner: EXAMINATION OF MUSCLE AND ERYTHROCYTE MEMBRANE LIPID COMPOSITION BY MEANS OF GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY ON MEAT TYPE RABBITS . . . 77 M. truklec, B. @lender, Ajda Kermauner, Milena Kova~, pela Malovrh: THE COMPARISON OF TREATMENT WITH FARMATAN AND FLAVOMICIN ON FATTENING AND SENSORY TRAITS IN RABBITS . . . . . . . . . . 79 L. Csat, A. Obornik, I. Nagy, Gyuln Berzsn: NOTWENDIGKEIT UND MGLICHKEITEN DER VERBESSERUNG DER SCHLACHTKRPERQUALITT BEIM SCHWEIN IN UNGARN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Marija iki}, I. Juri}, M. Gaparovi}, M. @ugaj: RELATION BETWEEN QUALITY TRAITS AND VALUE OF HALVES IN THE FATTENED PIGS PRODUCED FROM DOMESTIC AND IMPORTED PIGLETS. . . . . 86 pela Malovrh, Milena Kova~: GENETIC CHANGES FOR PERFORMANCE TRAITS IN SLOVENIAN PIG NUCLEUS HERDS . . . . . . . . 90 Aleksandra Jug, Milena Kova~, pela Malovrh: ON-FARM MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 I. Nagy, L. Csat, J. Farkas, L. Radnczi: CONNECTION BETWEEN PERFORMANCE TESTING METHODS IN HUNGARIAN PIG BREEDING BASED ON GENETIC CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS . . . . 98
Gordana Kralik, Jasmina Havranek-Luka~, A. Petri~evi}, I. Juri}: ANIMAL PRODUCTS IN NUTRITION OF HUMAN POPULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Melinda Zomborszky-Kovcs, F. Kovcs, P. Horn: TOXIC SUBSTANCES IN THE FOOD CHAIN - RISK ASSESSMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 K. Salobir: THE ROLE OF MEAT IN BALANCED NUTRITION . . . 16
SHORT REPORTS
A. Kirbi, J. Marinek, Stanka Grebenc: HEALTH SUITABILITY CRITERIA OF FOOD OF ANIMAL ORIGIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 M. Gajster, J. Jeretina, S. êpin, M. Mravljak: TRACEABILITY OF BEEF MEAT FROM SLAUGHTER LINE TO CONSUMERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 I. Juri}, Marija iki}, A. Kolega: COMPARISON OF THE CONDITION OF ANIMAL PRODUCTION BETWEEN CROATIA, HUNGARY AND SLOVENIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 S. Kav~i~, E. Erjavec: INCOME AND WELFARE INDICATORS OF SLOVENIAN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION IN VIEW OF FUTURE ACCESSION TO THE EU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 G. Kemny, Gy. Alpr: PLANUNGSPRAXIS IN DER AGRARUNTERNEHMEN 37 K. Ben~evi}, I. Katalini}, A. Petri~evi}, G. Kuec: ECONOMIC UNITY OF PRODUCTION AND TRADE OF SLAUGHTER ANIMALS AND MEAT (PATHS OF INITIATION OF LONG TERM SOLUTIONS IN CROATIAN ANIMAL BREEDING) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 S. êpin, S. @gur: POSSIBILITIES FOR THE REDUCTION OF FAT AND CHOLESTEROL LEVEL IN MEAT ANIMALS . . . . . 44 C. Varga, V. Strelec, M. Volk: POULTRY MEAT IN THE PRODUCTION OF MEAT PRODUCTS . . . . . . . . . 49 B. @lender, Antonija Holcman, Vekoslava Stibilj, T. Polak: FATTY ACIDS COMPOSITION OF POULTRY MEAT FROM FREE RANGE REARING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 V. Strelec, M. Volk, C. Varga: INFLUENCE OF ADDED FAT ON THE QUALITY OF POULTRY MEAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
S. @gur, M. êpon: INFLUENCE OF BREED ON CARCASS CUTS COMPOSITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Irena Rogelj: FERMENTED MILK AS A FUNCTIONAL FOOD . . 105 Slavica Golc-Teger, Marta Berlec: EVALUATION OF MILK QUALITY ON THE BASIS OF TRUE PROTEIN VALUE WITH FT-IR SPECTROMETRY. . . . . . . 108 A. Z. Kovcs: THE MILK PRODUCTION OF HUNGARIAN GREY CATTLE IN THE RESPECT OF THE COMPOSITION OF COLOSTRUM . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Vlasta Mandi}, Tatjana Tuek, D. Alagi}, J. Ljubei}: SOME SLAUGHTER-HOUSE RATES OF HORSES . 114 Vlasta Mandi}, J. Ljubei}, T. Rastija, @. Bonjak, M. Sukali}: BREEDING AND UTILIZATION OF ARABIAN HORSE TODAY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 J. Ljubei}, M. Sukali}, J. Sele, Vlasta Mandi}, Marija Metrovi}: CROSSING OF HOLSTEIN HORSE BREED WITH SOME OTHER BREEDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 I. Bogut, Elizabeta Has-Schn, R. Janson, Z. Antunovi}, D. Bodako: CONCENTRATIONS OF Pb, Hg, Cd AND As IN MEAT OF FISH-POND CARP (CYPRINUS CARPIO). . . . . 123 T. Molnr, Cs. Hancz, M. Molnr, Gabriella Stettner: INVESTIGATIONS ON TECHNOLOGICAL PARAMETERS IN INTENSIVE REARING OF PIKE-PERCH (STIZOSTEDION LUCIOPERKA) . . . . . . . . . . 126 Z. Tucak, A.Tucak, Z. Pukadija, Marijana Tucak: NUTRITIOUS-HEALING COMPOSITION OF SOME KINDS OF HONEY IN EASTERN CROATIA . . . . . 129 J. Csap, Zsuzsanna Csap-Kiss, va Varga-Visi, L. Kametler, G. Pohn, P. Horn: THE D-AMINO ACID CONTENT OF FOODSTUFFS SUBJECTED TO VARIOUS TECHNOLOGICAL PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . 132
Tnde Gyarmati, Zs. Szendr, L. Maertens, Edit Bir-Nmeth, I. Radnai, G. Milisits, Zs. Matics: NEW POSSIBILITIES OF RAISING RABBIT YOUNG BY ALTERNATIVE NURSING METHODS . . . . . . . 136 A. Lvai, G. Milisits, Zs. Szendr, I. Radnai, Edit Bir-Nmeth: EINFLUSS DES FETTGEHALTES IM ORGANISMUS VON MUTTERKANINCHEN AUF EINIGE VERMEHRUNGSBIOLOGISCHE EIGENSCHAFTEN . 140 Mnika Pandr, F. Bogenfrst: INVESTIGATIONS ON THE NATURAL EGG LAYING HABITS OF DOMESTIC GEESE . . . . . . . . . . 143 Gy. Toldi, A. Lengyel, D. Mezszentgyrgyi, R. Romvri: THE EFFECT OF CHAROLLAIS SHEEP ON THE MEAT PRODUCTION AND THE SLAUGHTER VALUE OF THE HUNGARIAN MERINO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 . Tth, Melinda Zomborzsky-Kovcs, G. Tornyos, N. Szalai, Krisztina Kbler: EFFECT OF LOW DOSES OF THE MYCOTOXIN FUMONISIN B1 ON THE BODY MASS GAIN, FEED INTAKE AND FEED CONVERSION RATE OF PIGS . 149 Z. Tucak, T. Florijan~i}, P. Dragi~evi}, Tatjana Tuek: INCIDENCE OF TRICHINELLOSIS IN WILD BOAR IN HUNTING AREAS OF OSIJEK-BARANJA COUNTY . . . . . . . . . . 152 A. Petri~evi}, Gordana Kralik, Draènka Gutzmirtl, G. Kuec: SHARE AND QUALITY OF MUSCLE TISSUE IN CARCASSES OF PIGS PRODUCED ON FAMILY FARM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 . Sen~i}, Gordana Kralik, G. Kuec, V. Margeta: SLAUGHTERING QUALITY OF CROSSBREED PIGS WITH GERMAN LANDRACE AND PIETRAIN AS TERMINAL BREEDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
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ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 637.1/6:612.39
ANIMAL PRODUCTS IN NUTRITION OF HUMAN POPULATION

Gordana Kralik(1), Jasmina Luka~ Havranek(2), A. Petri~evi}(3), I. Juri}(4) Scientific review ABSTRACT
In this paper, the significance of animal food (meat and milk) in human nutrition and satisfaction of life needs with special look on health is reviewed. Meat is excelent source of proteins with high biological value.The proteins from meat are of high quality because they contain high share of essencial amino acids which are necessary for human organism. Polyunsaturated fatty acids, esspecialy those from w-3 group, became very importat to human nutritionists because they have significant role in prevention of stress induced deseases and of those induced by improper diets. New findings from western industrial countries point out the fact that longer intake of LA (w-6) with relative deficiency of w-3 is the main risk factor in occurence of cancer, coronary deseases (CHD), cerebrovascular deseases (CVD) and alergic hyperactivity; not cholesterol as was considered till now. Therefore it is important to reduce the w-6 / w-3 acids ratio in meat and milk using some feedstufs in diets of animals. Dairy products contribute to health throughout life. Epidemiological researches as well as studies in animals and humans indicate that dairy food and/or their components have a protective effect against cancer. The potential anticancer agents identified so far in dairy foods include conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), calcium, vitamin D, sphingomyelin, butyric acid, ether lipids, protein and lactic acid bacteria. Milk is exclusive source of nutrients for the young and it also represents a high grade source of dietary nitrogen and indispensable amino acids for adults. Consumers are increasing looking for animal products, which could prevent disease or illness. Keywords: animal products, polyunsaturated fatty acids, meat, milk, nutrients
INTRODUCTION Human nutrition is up-to-date issue in developed countries as well as in developing countries and countries which are underdeveloped. Food is necessary prerequisite of human survival and the main task of human society is to secure enough food. According to FAO the nutrition of about 800 million people in the world is not satisfactory in quantitative and qualitative sence. The contradictions containted in the background of not having enough food and special requests for biological (nutritional) value of the food should be overcame in near future (Roman declaration, 1996). Croatia has good conditions for production of significant amounts of food; for its own needs and for export. In this paper, the significance of animal food (meat and milk) in human nutrition and satisfaction of life needs with special look on health is reviewed. MEAT IN HUMAN NUTRITION Meat is excelent source of proteins with high biological value.The proteins from meat are of high quality because they contain high share of essencial amino acids which are necessary for human organism. Meat is also significant source of water soluble vitamines from B complex; pork contain 5-10 times more tiamine than other meats. It contains significant amounts of riboflavine, niacine, folic and panthotenic acids, vitamines B6 and B12 which are also essential for humans. In smaller amounts it
contains vitamines A, C, D, E and K, and significant quantities of iron, zinc and phosphorus. Although muscle tissue contains only 2-3% of fat, depending on the species of the animal and anatomical location, the composition of the fat i.e. content of some fatty acids and their influence on health has become the subject of study of many authors. The consumption of fresh meat per member of household in 1998 (table 1) was 45.10 kg; processed meat 15.88 kg (dried, smoked, cured as well as cconserved and processed meat) The most consumed meat per member of the household is poultry meat (17.78 kg), than follow pork (13.45 kg) and beef (11.59 kg).The comparison of fresh meat consumption per household member in 1988 and 1998 shows that in 10 year period there were 3.2 index points decrease in consumption of all kinds of meat: beef 12.2; pork 19; sheep, lamb and goat 37; organs 3 index points, but poltry meat consumption increased for 26.1 index points. The decrease of standard in Croatia was factor influencing the increase of concumption of cheaper poultry meat. In the nutrition structure of a household ni 1998, meat and processed meat take part with 13.66%, fish and processed fish 0.84%, milk, processed milk and eggs
(1) Gordana Kralik , Full Professor, Dr.h.c, (3) Antun Petri~evi}, Professor Emeritus - J. J. Strossmayer University of Osijek, Faculty of Agriculture, Trg sv.Trojstva 3, 31000 Osijek, Croatia, (2) Jasmina Havranek Luka~, Full Professor, (4) Ivan Juri}, Full Professor - University of Zagreb, Faculty of Agronomy, Sveto{imunska cesta b.b., 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
9.43%, oils and fats 16.39% and weat products 34.07%. Daily energy consumption per household member is 12,604.71 joule. Analysis of biochemical composition of household nutrition in 1998 shows that animal proteins make 49.08% from total of daily consumed proteins (table 2). Market has great influence on producers; it forces them to turn their orientation on complex technological processes. Technologies for production of so called designed food are investigated because they, beside already known quality, suit better for human heatlth by stimulation od functional processes in organism. Taste and juicyness are important properties of meat for consumers and they are in positive correlation with fat content in meat. The demands of producers today go in the direction of lowering the fats with simultaneous modification of some fatty acids in meat. Although chicken meat is considered as dietetic product, technologies which alter its nutritive composition in direction of reducing the cholesterol level and increasing the content of essencial fatty acids are developing today which should give positive impact on human health. Polyunsaturated fatty acids, esspecialy those from w3 group, became very importat to human nutritionists because they have significant role in prevention of stress induced deseases and of those induced by improper diets (Barlow and Pike, 1991; Albrecht and Klein, 1995). Unsaturated w3 type fatty acids decrease the risk of heart
deseases and psoryasis; moreover, they are necessary for normal development of brain and nerve tissue (Leaf and Weber, 1988; Barlow and Pike, 1991). Altering the fat composition in broiler diets by inclusion of some feedstufs results in so called designed food, rich in w3 polyunsaturated fatty acids such as a-linolenic (C 18:3w3), eicosapentaenic (C 20:5w3) and docosahexaenic (C 22:6w3), stated Haumann (1993). Plant sources of fats, rich in w3 fatty acids are added into diets for broilers in order to improve the fatty acids profile in the meat and eggs with satisfactory flavor of the product (Chanmugam et al. 1992; Ajuyah et al. 1993). The possibilities of increasing the a-linolenic fatty acid using the rape products have been acknowledged in researches of Zollitsch et al. (1993), Lettner and Zollitsch (1993), Kralik et al. (1997) and Lopez-Ferrer et al. (1997). Linolic acid, LA (C 18:2w6) and a-linolenic (aLNA) are not synthetised in higher animals but in plants. In metabolism of linolic acid, the chain is desaturated and elongated till m-linolenic acid and arachidonic acid, AA (C 20:4w6), while aLNA is metabolised till eicosapentaenic (EPA) and docosahexaenic acid (DHA). The possibilities of alteration of acids from w-6 to w-3 and vice versa does not exist. For this reason tissues with polyunsaturated fatty acids vary a lot regarding the composition (w-6 / w-3 ratio) depending on the selection of feedstufs in the diet. Omega-6 / w-3 ratio in fatty tissue influence many aspects in physiology of animals including behaviour and health
Table 1. Meat and processed meat consumption in households 1988 and 1998 in Republic of Croatia - annual mean per household member
Meat and meat products kg Fresh meat - Total Beef Pork Sheep, lamb, goat meat Poultry meat Other meats and organs Source: SGH, 1989 and SLJH, 1999 46.60 13.20 16.60 1.00 14.10 1.70 1988 % 100.00 28.33 35.62 2.15 30.26 3.65 kg 45.10 11.59 13.45 0.63 17.78 1.65 1998 Index 1998/1988 % 100.00 25.70 29.82 1.40 39.42 3.66 96.8 87.8 81.0 63.0 126.1 97.0
Table 2. Biochemical composition of nutrition in households in 1998

Nutritional ingredient Carbohydrates Fats Proteins - from this of animal origin Total Source: SGH, 1989 and SLJH, 1999 Daily consumption, g 370.80 126.74 93.39 45.84 590.93 Structure of the composition, % 62.75 21.45 15.80 49.08 100.00
status. Consequently, there is an influence on human health as well. New findings from western industrial countries point out the fact that longer intake of LA (w-6) with relative deficiency of w-3 is the main risk factor in occurence of cancer, coronary deseases (CHD), cerebrovascular deseases (CVD) and alergic hyperactivity; not cholesterol as was considered till now. Therefore it is important to reduce the w-6 / w-3 acids ratio in meat and milk using some feedstufs in diets (Okuyama and Ikemoto, 1999).
THE IMPORTANCE OF DAIRY FOODS IN HEALTH AND DIET Dairy products contribute to health throughout life. For children, according to the American Academy of Paediatrics (AAP), dairy food, in-between a wide variety of foods is nutrient dense food with good amounts of proteins, vitamins and minerals necessary for growth and development. Total milk and milk products consumption in analysed period (Table 3) was increased for 3,1 index points; cheese and other products increased for 96,2 index points and fresh milk decreased for 2,1 index points. Many studies indicate that intake of calcium rich foods such as all dairy products during childhood and adolescence is an important determinant of peak bone mass and future risk of osteoporosis. Today osteoporosis is a major public health problem in many countries. This disease is responsible for millions and millions fractures a year, including spine, hip, wrist and other sites. Moreover, many older patients with osteoporosis hip fractures fail to regain their former engineered for added value (Harlander, 1998). Dairy food can make a significant contribution to the nations supply of nutrients. In Home Economics Research Report by Gerrior and Bente (1997), dairy foods (excluding butter) contributed only 9% of the total calories available. Yet, these foods provides 73% of the calcium, 31% of the riboflavin, 33% of the phosphorous, 19% of the proteins, 16% of the magnesium, 21% of the vitamin B12, 17% of the vitamin A, 10% of vitamin B6 and 6% of the thiamine. Milk and dairy foods are therefore nutrient dense food, supplying a high concentration of much mobility.
Milk, particularly casein, has been demonstrated to decrease the adherence of carity cansing bacteria to the teeth. Researchers have demonstrated an anti-cariogenic effect of aged Cheddar, Swiss, Edam, Gouda, Mozzarella, Roquefort, Tilzit, Menster, Port Salut, Roman, Stilton, Monterey Jack and American processed cheese (U. S. Department of Health and Human Service, 1996; Jenkins, 1990; Bowen and Pearoon, 1993). Adolescent period is characterised by rapid physical growth as well as maturational changes. Fleming and Heimbach (1994) compared the nutrient profiles of teenage girls who drank milk to those who did not. Milk drinkers consumed 80% more calcium, 59% more vitamin B12, 56% more riboflavin, 38% more folate, 35% more vitamin A, 24% more of each vitamin B6 and potassium and 22% more magnesium than non-milk drinking teenagers. The main characteristic of that age is lack of knowledge, eating away from home, soft drinks substituted for milk, body image / weight concerns. Adults the main characteristic of that age is stability, but a prolonged low calcium intake has been linked to the development of several chronic diseases, including osteoporosis, hypertension and cancer (Fleming and Heimbach, 1994; Heaney et al, 1994; McCarron et al, 1990). Number of risk factors for osteoporosis have been identified, but both genetics and environmental lifestyle factors influence developing of this disease (Christiansen, 1993; Melton et al, 1992; Norris, 1992). Gender, race, age, hormonal status and body frame/weight are other factors that influence bone mass and the development of osteoporosis. Women, because of generally smaller, lighter bones, rapid loss of bone at menopause and lower calcium intake are about four times more likely to develop osteoporosis than are men (Matkovic et al, 1993). There are many research papers where authors suggest milk intake to postmenopausal women, because of beneficial effect on bone health (Laccy et al, 1991; Callegari, 1990; Hu, 1993). In 1980, McCarron and colleagues hypothesised that chronic calcium deficiency may lead to hypertension. After that many trials and papers presents explanation what happened in restricted calcium intake. Two meta analysts
Table 3. Milk and milk products consumption in households 1988 and 1998 in Republic of Croatia - annual mean value per household member
Milk and milk products Total Fresh milk Butter Cheese and other products Source: SGH - 1989 and SLJH, 1999 1988 kg or l 110.6 97.9 0.4 12.3 % 100.0 88.5 0.4 11.1 kg or l 114.0 91.9 0.4 21.7 1998 % 100.0 80.6 0.4 19.0 Index 1998/1988 103.1 93.9 100.0 196.2
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found calcium to be significantly effective in reducing blood pressure in normotensive and hypertensive individuals and in preventing induced hypertension and preeclampsia (Sowers et al, 1991; Bucher et al, 1996; Bucher et al, 1996). Colon cancer in susceptible persons may also be the unfortunate results of adaptation to a low calcium intake. On a high calcium diet much of the unabsorbed calcium (7585 %) remains in the intestinal lumen where it forms insoluble complex with the bile acids and unabsorbed fatty acids, and protects the mucosal lining of the colon from their toxic effects. On low calcium diet, the body adapts by increasing calcium absorption, leaning less unabsorbed calcium reaching the colon to complex with irritant acids. This increases the likelihood that the cells living the colon will be damaged, proliferate and progress toward cancer. Epidemiological researches as well as studies in animals and humans indicate that dairy food and/or their components have a protective effect against cancer. The potential anticancer agents identified so far in dairy foods include conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), calcium, vitamin D, sphingomyelin, butyric acid, ether lipids, protein and lactic acid bacteria (National Dairy Council, 1997). Halt et al. (1998) made a controlled trial to evaluate whether increasing the intake of low-fat dairy foods in patients at high risk of colon cancer would normalise changes in the colon believed to be pre-cancerous (Halt et al, 1998). The trial found out (established) that significantly reduced cell proliferation of the colon mucosa, cell differentiation and maturation was significantly return toward normal. The authors do not attribute these results to calcium alone. Calcium or any of dairy food components, first mentioned, could have produced the positive effect. Since the sequel of calcium deficiency appear to rise of several chronic disease, and several components of dairy food are potentially protective, it makes sense for health practitioners to encourages a lifelong adequate intake of milk and milk products. There is a suggestive evidence that intake of culture containing dairy foods such as yoghurt may protect against colon cancer also more research is needed to confirm this finding as well as to delineate the potential anti-cancerogenic role of CLA. Dairy foods are an important source of calcium, vitamin D, and CLA and if cultured, bacterial cultures, all of which have been suggested to protect against colon cancer. Individuals, especially those at risk of colon cancer, should consume the recommended number of servings from milk and other food groups each day. There are some more information in research work about milk and milk products. One of those is very important nutritional and physiological role of milk protein components. Milk is exclusive source of nutrients for the young and it also represents a high grade source of dietary nitrogen and indispensable amino acids for adults. A physiological role has also been proposed for milk protein
component. Milk components including lactoferrin, vitamin B12 binding protein, folate binding protein, b-lactoglobulin, a-lactoalbumin and casein phosphopeptides are assumed to interact with either minerals and vitamins absorption. Imunoglobulins, enzymes (lysozyme, lactoperoxidase) and other proteins or derived peptides can also contribute to provide passive protection against infection by a growth or inhibiting activity on bacterial strains and by an antiviral effect. Some casein derived peptides have been identified as angiotesin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors that could result in an anti-hypertensive effect. Peptides from k-casein and human lactoferrin could have anti-trombotic properties (Jolles et al, 1986). Like a special subject interest can also be many other components of milk and milk products. Great interest can be how milk components act on the immune system. Detailed information on these is essential for developing dairy ingredients or products with immunomodulatory (immunoenhancing, immunosuppressive, or anti-inflam- matory) properties for human consumption (Gill et al, 1998). On the other hand bioviability in dairy products is very important for supporting normal growth, comparing with the other food sources. But not only in growth phases, also in adult life (Horowick et al, 1987).
CONCLUSION Consumers are increasing looking for animal products, which could prevent disease or illness. Future production of that type of products must have reliable scientific nutrition information, so that they do not mislead and that consumers can understand all of them. The place of animal products will be still very important, and subject of many scientific exploration to find real position of them in human well being, and future strategy of public health no risk.
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1. Albrecht, M., Klein, M. (1995): Oleum Lini: Portrait eines pflanzlichen Oels. Pharmazie 7, 36-40. 2. Ajuyah, A.O., Hardin, R.T., Sim, J.S. (1993): Studies on canola seed in turkey grower diet: Effects on w3 fatty acid composition of breast meat, breast skin and selected organs. Can. J. Anim.Sci. 73: 177-181. 3. Barlow, S., Pike, I.M. (1991): Humans, animals benefit from omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Feedstuffs 63 (19): 18-26. 4. Bowen, W. H., Pearoon, S. K.(1993): Effect of milk on cariogenesis, Caries Res., 27:461. 5. Bucher, H. C., Cook, R. J., Guyatt, G. H., Lang, J. D., Cook, D. J., Hatala, R., Hunt, D. L.(1996): Effects of dietary calcium supplementation on blood pressure, JAMA, 275 (3):1016.
6. Bucher, H. C., Cook, R. J., Gnyatt, G. H., Lang, J. D.,, Cook, D. J., Hatal, R., Hunt, D. L.(1996): Effects of dietary calcium supplementation on blood pressure, JAMA, 275 (14):1113. 7. Callegari, C., Lami, F., Levantesi, F., Andreacchio, A. M., Tatali, M., Miglioli, M., Gnuki, S., Barbari, L.(1990): Post menopausal bone density, lactase deficiency and milk consumption, J. Hum. Nutr. Dietetics, 3: 159. 8. Chanmugam, P., Boudreau, M., Boutte, T., Park, R.S., Hebert, J., Berrio, L., Hwang, D.W. (1992): Incorporation of different types of n-3 fatty acids into tissue lipids of poultry: Poultry Science. 71: 516-521. 9. Christiansen, C. (1993): Skeletal osteoporosis, J. Bone Miner Res., 8 (suppl. 2): 475. 10. Fleming, K. H., Heimbach, J. T. (1994): Consumption of Calcium in the U. S.: food sources and intake levels, J. Nutr. 124: 1426. 11. Gerrior, S., Bente, L..(1997): Food Supply, 1909-1994, Nutrient Content of the U. S. Home Economics Research Report, No. 53, U. S. Department of Agriculture Centre for Nutrition Policy and Promotion. 12. Gualtiery M., Pali, B., Rapaccini (1993): Fatty acid composition of broilers meat as influenced by diet supplementation with fishoil. In 11th European Symposium on the Quality of Poultry Meat. Tours, 4-8 October, Vol.1: 136-141. 13. Gill, H. S., Rutherfurd, K. J. (1998): Immunomodulatory properties of bovine milk, Bulletin of IDF 336. 14. Halt, P. R., Atillasay, E. O., Gilman, J., Guss, J., Mass, S. F., Newmark, H., Fan, K., Yang, K. and Lipkin, M. (1998): Modulation of abnormal colonic epithelial cell proliferation and differentiation by low-fat dairy foods, JAMA, 28 (12):1074. 15. Harlander, S. (1998): Food for 21st Century, Bulletin of the International Dairy Federation No. 336/1998. 16. Haumann, F.B. (1993): Deisgner eggs already on supermarket shelves.INFORM, 4 (4), 371-373. 17. Heaney, R. P., Barger-Lux, J. (1994): Low calcium intake, the culprit in many chronic disease, J. Dairy Sci. 77: 1195. 18. Horowick, M., Wiskart, J., Mundy, L., Nardin, B. E. C. (1987): Lactose and calcium absorption in postmenopausal osteoporosis. Arch. Int. Med. 147: 534-536. 19. Hu, J. F., Zhao X-H., Jia, J. B., Parpia, B., Campbell, T. D. (1993): Dietary calcium and bone density among middle age and elderly women in China, Ane. J. Chin. Nutr. 58: 219. 20. Jenkins, G. N. (1990): Cheese as a Protection against dental caries. Nutr. Q., 13.33. 21. Jolles, P., Lery-Toledono, S., Fiat, A. M., Soria, C., Gillesen, D., Thomaidis, A., Dunn, F. W., Caen, J. P. (1986): Analogy between fibrinogen and casein. Effect of an undecapeptide isolated from k-casein on platelet function. Eur. J. Biochem. 158: 379-382. 22. Kralik, Gordana, Boì~kovi}, P., Galonja, Marica, krti}, Z., Canecki, Katica (1997): Mogu}nost pove}anja sadràja viestruko nezasi}enih masnih kiselina u pile}em mesu putem hranidbe. Krmiva 39 (5): 223-231. 23. Laccy, J. M., Anderson, J. J., Fujita, T., Yoshimato, Y., Fukase, M., Tsuchie, S. and Koch, G. G. (1991): Correlates of cortical bone mass among pre-menopausal and
11
post-menopausal Japanese women, J. Bone Miner. Res., 6:651. 24. Leaf, A., Weber, P.C. (1988): Cardiovascular effects of w3-fatty acids.N.engl.J.med. 318:549. 25. Lettner, F. Zollitsch, W.(1993): Ersatz von Sojaoel durch Rapsoel im Huehnermastfutter. Voerderungdienst 41 (3), 69-72. 26. Lopez-Ferrer,S., Baucells, M.D., Barroeta, A.C., Blanch, A., Grashorn, M.A. (1997): w3 Enrichment of Chicken Meat: Use of Fish, Rapeseed and Linseed Oils. Polutry Meat Quality. Proceedings of the XII European Symposium on the Quality of Poultry Meat, September 21-26, Poznan, Poland, 74-82. 27. Matkovic, V., Ilich, J. and Hsich, L.(1993): Influence of age, sex and diet on bone mass and fracture rate, Osteop. Int., Suppl. 1: 20. 28. McCarron, D. A., Pingree, P. A., Rubin, R. J., Gancher, S. M., Malitch, M., Krutzik, S.(1980): Enhanced parathyroid: a homeostatic response to a urinary calcium leak, Hypertension, 2: 162. 29. McCarron, D. A., Lipkin, M., Rivlin, R. S., Haney, R. P.(1990: Dietary calcium and chronic diseases, Med. Hypath., 31: 265. 30. Melton, L. J., Chriscilles, E. A., Cooper, C., Lane, A. W., Riggs, B. L.(1992): Pespectice. How many women have osteoporosis? J. bone Miner. Res. 7 : 1005. 31. Norris, R. J. (1992): Medical costs of osteoporosis, Bone, 13, S11. 32. Okuyama H., Ikemoto, A. (1999): Needs to modified the fatty acid of meats for human health. Proceedings of 45 ICoMST, Yokohama, Japan, P. 638-639. 33. Petri~evi}, A., Boàc, R. (1991): Mogu}nosti i razvoj proizvodnje tehnoloki kvalitetnog i zdravog mesa. Poljoprivredne aktualnosti, 39(3-4):685-690. 34. Sowers, J. R., Zemel, M. B., Zemel, P. C., Standley, R. P.(1991): Calcium metabolism and dietary calcium in salt sensitive hypertension, J. Am. Hypertension, 4: 557. 35. Zollitsch, W., Wetscherek, W., Lettner, F. (1993): Einsatz von Rapsoel im Huehnermastfutter. Archiv fuer Gefluegelkunde, 56 (4), 182-186. 36. ....... Statisti~ki godinjak Hrvatske, 1989. god. 37. U. S. Department of Agriculture and U. S. Department of Health and Human Service, Nutrition and Your Health: Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 4th ed. Home and Garden Bulletin No. 323, Washington D. C. USDA/DHHS 1995. 38. U. S. Department of Health and Human Service, Public Health Service, Healthy People 2000, 1995-1996, DHHS Publ. No. (PHS) 96-1256, Hyattsrille, M. D., November 1996. 39. . International Dairy Food Association, Cheese Facts 1997, Edition, Washington D. C.-a 40. . National Dairy Council, New perspective on diet and cancer, Dairy Council Digest, Sep./Oct. 1997. 41. . Council for Agricultural Science and Technology (CAST). Contribution of Animal Products to Healthful Diets, Task Force Report. 131, Ames, Iowa, October 1997. 42. . American Association of Paediatrics, Committee on Nutrition, Paediatric Nutrition Handbook, 4th Ed. American Academy of Paediatrics, Elk Grove Village, IL 1998. 43. . Statisti~ki ljetopis Hrvatske, 1999. god.
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Poljoprivreda 6 (2000)
ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 636.085.19+613.2
TOXIC SUBSTANCES IN THE FOOD CHAIN RISK ASSESSMENT

Melinda Zomborszky-Kovcs(1), F. Kovcs(2), P. Horn(3) Original scientific paper ABSTRACT
It seems to be impossible to keep toxic substances out of the food chain. Interaction of natural environmental toxins and other chemicals or residues in food may result in harmful synergistic effects. In order to protect human health against the deleterious effects of different toxic substances it is imperative that tolerance levels be established. Tolerance levels can only be established on the basis of comprehensive risk assessment studies. Keywords: cadmium, fumonisins, ochratoxin A, food chain
INTRODUCTION Scientific results support the presumption that animal- and human health problems in majority of cases can be due to environmental pollution. According to some estimations the human health state is determined in 25% by the environment. Among environmental factors food is a source of essential nutrients sustaining life and in some aspects ensuring life quality. Some constituents of food however may decrease nutritional value, some of them like heavy metals and mycotoxins may be even harmful. So the food chain may contain natural environmental pollutants. Interaction of environmental toxins and other chemicals or residues in food may result in harmful synergistic effects. Assessment of whether a food is safe, should be based on its inherent toxicity and on what kind of a hazard is created. CADMIUM MOVEMENT IN THE FOOD CHAIN In a series of experiments we examined the kinetics of cadmium in the food chain in one region of Hungary. The aim of the study was to get more information about the kinetics and cumulating of Cd in the soils, plants, animal and human organisms and organs.
2.1. Methods applied
of the soils and the Cd level of pigmented hairs of the animals kept in this region. Cd concentration of the blood, the milk and hair samples were also in close correlation, the minimum lowest levels were measured subsequently after calving. According to the data of the National Institute for Food Control, the highest amount of Cd (450-560 mg/kg in case of cows) was detected in the kidneys of the slaughtered animals, less Cd was in the liver, muscles contained the least amount. According to the preliminary examinations, Cd was detectable in the blood and colostrum of woman in amount of 18-20 and 24-30 nmol/l, respectively.
2.3. Conclusions
Cd is detectable in every elements of the food chain, even in the colostrum of women, the first nutriment of newborns. Data show that Cd accumulates in the kidney of the animals. The Cd content of pigmented hair of animals may indicate the degree of Cd contamination of soils. Vegetables, cereal products and foods of animal origin (meat, liver, kidneys) were considered as the most important factors of Cd accumulation in human.
Cd level of grains grown on different soils, in the blood serum of cows before and after calving, in colostrum and milk, in pigmented hairs, in different organs of cows and in blood and milk of women was measured. Details of the analyses are published by Kovcs et al. (1998).
2.2. Results
Blood serum of cows fed corn grains grown on acid soils contained 23 nmol/l Cd, measured 10-14 days before calving. The Cd content of the colostrum was 30-32 nmol/l and remained 16 nmol/l during lactation. Close significant correlation was found between the Cd content
DETECTION OF OCHRATOXIN A IN HUMAN BLOOD AND COLOSTRUM Ochratoxin A (OA) is one of the commonest naturally occurring mycotoxins in Hungary, synthesised by numerous species of the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium. Its high prevalence and incidence can be attributed partly to the higher resistance of the strains to environmental conditions (relative humidity, temperature). OA has nephrotoxic and hepatotoxic effects. The long known human disease designated 'Balkan endemic nephropathy has been assumed to be caused by OA. Because of the high
(1) Melinda Zomborszky-Kovcs, Associate Professor, (2) Ferenc Kovcs, Full Professor, (3) Peter Horn, Full Professor - University of Kaposvr, Faculty of Animal Science,Guba S. str. 40, 7400 Kaposvr, Hungary
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prevalence of OA in Hungary, the OA levels in human blood and colostrum were determined.
Blood samples and mothers colostrum samples were collected by a randomised method, in different parts of Hungary. The OA content of the blood samples was determined by the method described by Sndor et al. (1991). The determination of OA in mothers colostrum was carried out by the method described by Gareis et al. (1988), the HPLC method applied in this study is described in detail by Kovcs et al (1995).
3.2. Results
As had been expected OA could be detected in a relatively high proportion (52%) of the human blood samples tested. 34% of the samples showed OA level below 1 ng/ml, 16% between 1 and 5 ng/ml. In one sample the concentration of OA was above 10 ng/ml. Ninety-two mothers colostrum samples were collected from parturient mothers within 24 hours after delivery, and 38 of these were found to be positive. The average toxin concentration was 1.4 ng/ml.
3.3. Conclusions
ppm for 4 weeks; 0, 1, 5 and 10 ppm for 8 weeks; 0, 1, 5, and 10 ppm for 5 months. The piglets were subjected to computer tomography (CT) examination for the purpose of establishing diagnosis of newly developing or progressive changes to the lungs. Using the data referring the tissue density obtained so-termed HU indices, referring the water content of the lung were determined. Magnetic resonance (MR) examinations were performed in order to examine any changes occurring in the cerebral matter (e.g. oedema or encephalomalatia). Certain haematological (WBC, RBC, Htc, haemoglobin concentration), blood biochemical parameters (total protein, albumin, cholesterol, AST, ALT, GGT, ALKP) and serum free sphinganine and sphingosine concentrations were determined. At the end of the experiments the pigs were slaughtered, gross pathological and histopathological examinations were carried out. Methods applied are described in detail in Zomborszky-Kovcs et al. (2000b).
4.2. Results
The results obtained indicate that human exposure to OA is a distinct possibility. This is a serious risk because of the teratogenic, mutagenic and carcinogenic properties of the toxin. Mycotoxins, which are also excreted in the mothers milk, pose a serious risk to the health of newborn infants, considering that susceptibility to the effects of toxins is inversely related to age. DETERMINATION OF TOLERANCE LIMIT VALUE OF FUMONISIN B1 IN PIGS The metabolites of Fusarium moniliforme, the fumonisins (FB1, FB2, FB3 and FB4), constitute one of the five major toxin groups which play a role proving detrimental to human health. FB1 causes oesophageal cancer in humans, pulmonary oedema in pigs, and encephalomalacia in horses (Riley et al., 1996). In Hungary almost 70% of mouldy maize inspected since 1993 has shown FB1 contamination (mean 2.6-8.65 mg/kg; maximum 9.8-75.1 mg/kg), the degree of this contamination increasing from year to year Fazekas et al., 1997). There is no generally accepted, uniform system of standards with respect to this toxin; thus the assessment, by means of determination of the tolerable limit values and the critical concentration, of the detrimental effect elicited in the human organism is unavoidable.
Three experiments were carried out with weaned piglets, in order to study the dose and time dependent effect of FB1. Fungal culture of Fusariun moniliforme was added to the diet so that the FB1 exposure was: 0, 10, 20 and 40
In none of the experiments and the periods examined had FB1 any significant effect on feed consumption, body weight gain and feed conversion of weaned pigs (for further data see Tth et al., 2000). No clinical signs due to toxic effect was observed. However, in computer tomography examinations performed, the development of mild and severe pulmonary oedema could be detected. On examination of the changes in the HU indices (referring to the water content of the lung tissue) significant difference between the healthy and pathological lungs could be statistically proven. In the images obtained from the magnetic resonance (MR) examinations performed at the same points in time as the CT examinations none of the animals showed significant change in the cerebral tissue, indicating, that no changes occurred that could be detected using this technique. Of the biochemical parameters examined, the aspartate aminotransferase (AST) activities increased dependent upon the dose administered. This finding indicated pathological change in the liver. It has recently been shown that fumonisins are specific inhibitors of sphingolipid biosynthesis, reducing conversion of sphinganine (SA) to sphingosine (SO), with a consequent increase in the SA to SO ratio. The free SA to SO ratio in the blood serum is considered as the most sensitive biomarker of fumonisin toxicoses (Riley et al, 1993). In our experiments SA to SO ratio examined increased in proportion to the dose of the toxin administered. By dissection the number of the animals showing pathological changes, and the severity of the alterations were in accordance with the dose and time of exposure. In the case of pulmonary oedema infiltration and widening of the septa between the lobules were observed. The lungs were found to be slightly enlarged and stiff to the touch. Histopathological examination revealed mild intraalveolar and milder or more severe cases of subpleural and interlobular pulmonary oedema. The septa between the lobules of
14
the lung were observed to be widened, the lymphatic vessels in this area were filled up with lymph, and there was serious infiltration between the constituent parts of the connective tissue.
4.3. Conclusions
No clinical signs were observed although mild and more severe pulmonary oedema had developed in the experimental animals. The CT examination and the mathematical and statistical analyses performed were adequate to diagnose pathological changes in the lung. This facility for for diagnosis can be used in the examinations to follow, for the detection of microscopic changes which do not give rise to the development of clinical symptoms. The results obtained in the first experiment (10, 20, and 40 ppm FB1) prompted further experiments to be performed using even smaller doses in order to determine the No Observed Effect Level (NOEL) of the fumonisins. In the experiments with lower doses (1, 5 and 10 ppm) at the 1 ppm level only one animal showed slight pulmonary oedema at the end of the 2nd month. However when using 1 ppm for long term period (5 months) there were 2 cases of oedema. As the SA/SO ratio in these animals did not differ significantly from the controls, we suggest that the limit value of tolerance for FB1 is bellow 1 ppm for pigs in case of long term exposure. These findings may provide useful data for the recommendation of permissible levels of mycotoxin contamination allowed in basic materials for animal feeds and in mixed diets.
each sow, slaughtered and processed, followed by two more per sow on the 7th day after parturition. Blood samples of piglets were analysed for certain biochemical parameters (total protein, albumin, cholesterol, AST, ALT, GGT, ALKP) and serum free sphinganine and sphingosine concentration. FB1 concentration in sows milk was determined. Analytical methods applied are described in Zomborszky-Kovcs et al. (2000a).
5.2. Results
EXAMINATION OF PERINATAL TOXICOSIS OF FUMONISIN B1 IN PREGNANT SOWS AND NEWBORN PIGLETS

There are no literature data available concerning possible harmful effect on pig foetuses of fumonisin B1. It was also not known whether FB1 is secreted in milk. The objective of the study was to establish whether FB1 or any of its metabolites, can harm foetuses in utero when fed to sows in the advanced stage of pregnancy.
The results obtained appear to corroborate that FB1 toxin fed to sows in the advanced stages of pregnancy can harm foetuses while still in the uterus. Of the disorders characteristically caused by this toxin, pulmonary oedema of particular severity was observed in the piglets slaughtered immediately after parturition, before suckling could take place. Histopathological examination and increases in the activities of the plasma aspartate aminotransferase (AST), gamma glutamyl transferase (GGT) and alkaline phosphatase (ALKP) indicated pathological changes in the liver. The serum free SA/SO ratio varied in accordance with the degree of severity of the changes which occurred. These disorders could still be observed in piglets slaughtered 24 hours after parturition and on the 7th day. On the 7th day no change indicating pulmonary oedema was observed in the lungs of the piglets of the third sow, which was fed a toxin-free diet after parturition. In milk samples taken from sows on the 1st and 2nd day following parturition, FB1 could be detected in quantities of 18-27.5 ppb. FB1 was not present in detectable quantities in the milk of that sow, to which no toxin was administered after parturition.
5.3. Conclusions
Three pregnant sows were fed a diet mixed with Fusarium moniliforme fungal culture from the 107th day of pregnancy so that the daily FB1 intake was 300 mg FB1 per sow. Two of the sows were given the toxin for a further 7 days after parturition, i.e. 14-16 days in total, while the third sow was given this dosage only until parturition, i.e. for a period of 7 days. Directly following parturition and before the first suckling two piglets from each sow were slaughtered. Subsequently, after 24 hours two more piglets which had had access to colostrum were taken from
This study has confirmed that FB1, when fed to sows in the latter stage of pregnancy, exerted harmful effect on the foetuses in utero. The toxin was detectable in the sows milk in quantities of ppb. The effects of fumonisins on the reproductive processes of domestic livestock and on foetal development is not yet known. However further studies should primarily focus on the effects of the toxin ingested in low doses and causing no apparent clinical symptoms to the mother animal. The determination of the tolerable limit values for the foetus developing in the uterus is of particular importance.
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6. Riley, R.T., Wang, E., Schroeder, J.J., Smith, E.R., Plattner, R.D., Abbas, H., Yoo, H-S., Merrill Jr., A.H. (1996): Evidence for disruption of sphingolipid metabolism as a contributing factor in the toxicity and carcinogenity of fumonisins. Natural Toxins, 4: 3-15. 7. Sndor, G., Busch, A., Watzke, H., Reek, J., Vnyi, A. (1991): Subacute toxicity testing of ochratoxin A and citrinine on swine. Acta Vet. Hung., 39: 149-160. 8. Tth, ., Zomborzsky-Kovcs, M., Tornyos, G., Szalai, N., Kbler, K. (2000): Effect of fumonisin B1 produced by Fusarium moniliforme on feed consumption and body weight gain of weaned pigs. 8th International Symposium 'Animal Science Days , Osijek, Croatia (in press). 9. Zomborszky-Kovcs, M., Vetsi, F., Kovcs, F., Bata, ., Tth, ., Tornyos, G. (2000a): Examination of the harmful effect to foetuses of fumonisin B1 in pregnant sows. Teratogenesis, Carcinogenesis and Mutagenesis (in press). 10. Zomborszky-Kovcs M., Vetsi, F., Repa, I., Kovcs, F., Bata, ., Horn, P., Tth, ., Romvri, R. (2000b): Experiment to determine limits of tolerance for fumonisin B1 in weaned piglets. J. Vet. Med. B., 47: 277-286.
REFERENCES
1. Fazekas, B., Bajmczy, E., Glvits, R., Fenyvesi, V. (1997): Fumonisine mycotoxicoses in Hungary. Leucoencephalomalatia in horses, fattening pulmonary oedema in pigs. Magyar llatorvosok Lapja, 119: 137-139. 2. Gareis, M., Martbauer, M., Bauer, J., Gedek, B. (1988): Bestimmung von Ochratoxin A in Muttermilch. Z. Lebensmittel Unters. Forsch., 186: 114-117. 3. Kovcs, F., Sndor, G., Vnyi, A., Domny, S., Zomborszky-Kovcs, M. (1995): Detection of ochratoxin A in human blood and colostrum. Acta Vet. Hung. 43(4): 393-400. 4. Kovcs, F., Brydl, E., Berta, E., Zomborszky-Kovcs, M., Sas, B., Tegzes, L., Sarudi, I. (1998): Cd movement in the soil-plant-animal-man biological chain. llattenyszts s Takarmnyozs, 47(4): 315-336. 5. Riley, R.T., Showker, N-K., Yoo, H-S., Norred, W.P., Chamberlain, W.J., Wang, E., Merrill Jr., A.H., Motelin, G., Beasley, V.R., Haschek, W.M. (1993): Alteration of tissue and serum sphinganine to sphingosine ratio: an early biomarker to fumonisin-containing feeds in pigs. Toxicol. And Appl. Pharmacol., 118: 105-112.
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ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 637.5:613/614
THE ROLE OF MEAT IN BALANCED NUTRITION

K. Salobir
Scientific review ABSTRACT

Meat is a rich source of nutrients which human nutrition often lacks. It is a rich and important source of essential amino acids, vitamins, minerals and also long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. Moderate intake of lean meat enables easier composition of balanced diet. On the other hand, excessive meat intake supersedes from the diet foodstuffs which supply dietary fibers, vitamins, and also non-vitamin antioxidant active substances and minerals. Not meat itself but imbalanced nutrition with too much fat and saturated fatty acids and deficient intake of w-3 fatty acids, antioxidant vitamins and phytochemicals, minerals and dietary fiber present a risk for the development of cardiovascular disease and cancer. Because of its distinct and high nutritional value meat preserves its role in a rational human nutrition. Keywords: meat, balanced nutrition, health, proteins, fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, nutritional value
Ever since the ancestors of human species, about 7.5 to 4.5 million years ago, gave up vegetarianism (mainly frutarianism) and started to consume more and more meat, meat has obtained a special place throughout the evolution of human history. It is believed that about 2 million years ago Homo habilis started to produce stone tools and after that his follower Homo erectus, about 1.8 to 1.6 million years ago started to consume much more meat. However, Homo erectus and Homo sapiens (about 400.000 years ago) still consumed diet with more than half of the food of plant origin. Nutrition reconstruction (Table 1), on the basis of paleonthological finds and the comparison of the sources of food of that time with contemporary human tribes, who still today live of hunting and gathering food, showed that the Paleolithic man of the modern human species (Homo sapiens sapiens), 400.000 years ago, consumed daily about 913 g of meat and 1697 g of food of plant origins (Eaton, 1992; Eaton and Konner, 1985; Eaton et al., 1997). In these, at least 4.5 million years long period of meat consumption, the human being has become omnivorous. It means, he has developed a suitable structure and constitution of digestion and metabolism. Human digestive tract has a relatively small volume of which only relatively small part presents large intestine designed for the fermentative digestion of non-starch polysaccharides. For that reason humans have to consume food with high digestibility and relatively high concentration of nutrients, in order to provide proper balance of energy and nutrients. Table 1 illustrates that Paleolithic nutrition was very rich. It contained a big amount of proteins. This amount actually nearly exceeds the amount which is today considered still tolerable. The proportion of energy provided by the proteins is greater than the one found in modern nutri-
tion. The diet was poor in fats, however, the ratio between unsaturated and saturated fatty acids was very high. This was due to abundance of food of plant origin and quality of game, which is rich in unsaturated fatty acids. Because of high meat consumption, the Paleolithic man consumed also a great amount of cholesterol. His diet was rich in dietary fibers, vitamins especially with antioxidants and minerals. All nutritional parameters exceed modern nutritional recommendation. It is because of the quality of nutrition that the Paleolithic man was of bigger build than his successor of later period who turned to agriculture. It is only in the latest era, as man started to consume more meat again, that his body constitution is becoming bigger (Eaton and Konner, 1985). The current meat consumption also shows its importance. Nowadays the average world consumption of meat per inhabitant is modest. However, the calculated total world consumption is much greater than the one in the Paleolithic Age. Rosegrant et al. (1999) summarise the annual consumption of meat in different parts of the world in 1993 and predicted consumption in 2020 (Rosegrant et al., 1999). It is clear from these data that the consumption of meat in different parts of the world varies greatly. It is lower in poor countries, higher in rich countries. A distinctive trend of increase is visible. The increase is relatively greater if the current consumption is lower. In countries with low consumption they strive to increase the consumption of meat to create a good diets with favourable effects on the health of inhabitants. In contrary to developed countries, the official Chinese nutritional recommendation is consumption of lean meat (McNutt, 1999). Pensel
Karl Salobir, Full Professor - University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical faculty, Department of Animal Science, Institute of Nutrition, Groblje 3, 1230 Domàle, Slovenia
Agriculture 6 (2000) Table 1. Average nutritional value of Paleolithic nutrition and modern nutrition recommendation according to RDA (comparison according to Eaton et al., 1997)
Parameter of reconstruction Meat, g/day Food of plant origin, g/d Energy, kJ/day kcal/day Proteins, g/day Proportion of energy: in proteins, % in carbohydrates, % in fats, % Fatty acids ratio P/S Ratio w-6/w-3 Cholesterol, mg/day Dietary fibers, g/day 41 22 1.4 1 1 to 4 1 480 100 55 - 70 15 - 30 > 0.5 4 1 to 10 1 300 20 - 30 Paleolithic nutrition 913 1697 12558 3000 123 37 9200 - 12140 2200 - 2900 50 - 63 10 - 15 Modern nutrition Parameter of reconstruction Vitamins: Vitamin E, mg/day Tiamin, mg/day Riboflavin, mg/day Folic acid, mg/day Vitamin C, mg/day Minerals: Calcium, mg/day Sodium, mg/day Potassium, mg/day Iron, mg/day Zinc, mg/day 1956 768 10500 87 43 800 1200 500 - 2400 3500 10 - 15 12 15 32.8 3.9 6.5 0.357 604 8 - 10 1.1 1.5 1.3 1.7 0.18 0.20 60 Paleolithic nutrition
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Modern nutrition
(1997), on the other hand, foresees that in countries with a high level of meat consumption the meat consumption will decrease to the benefits of more diverse nutrition. The countries with a low level of meat consumption will for the same reason increase the level of meat consumption as the growth of economy increases. However, Rosegrant et al. (1999) calculated that such an increase of meat production to cover the needs is not possible to attain. He predicted a possible realisation of 65% of the calculated increase. Also in Slovene diets less meat is consumed nowadays compared to Slovene Paleolithic period. Koch (1997) assessed on the basis of a survey that Slovenes consume an average of 114 g of meat a day. On the other hand, ~epin (1997) calculated, on the basis of data of the production, export and import of meat, that Slovenes consume annually 67.7 kg (185 g/day) of meat (including fish), which by converting to edible part of meat presents 44.2 kg per year (120 g/day). This raises the question what should be the recommended meat consumption. None of nutritionists advocate the amount consumed in The Stone Age. On the contrary, it is advised to consume meat in moderate amounts. Proportionally small amount of meat meets substantial part of requirements for proteins, essential amino acids, vitamins and some mineral elements. The proportion of requirements that can be met with a 100 g of lean beef, pork or chicken is illustrated in Table 2. The table 2 shows the nutritional characteristics of meat as part of requirements that can be met with a 100 g of meat. The characteristics with the value greater than the proportion of energy supplied by the meat indicates that
the meat is according to these characteristic a supplement. It is evident that an appropriate daily intake of lean meat meets only small part of energy requirements, supplies only small amount of fat, but provides a substantial amount of crucial nutrients. Meat is the most valuable as source of proteins, essential amino acids, vitamins B group, iron and zinc. The importance of meat as significant source of zinc has been established in recent years. Red meat in particular is an excellent source of zinc. Zinc, as the essential constituent of most enzymatic systems, is involved in many cell functions, as for example in the immune mechanisms, and also in the protection of cell structure against free radicals. Fortes et al. (1997) found that in elderly population zinc supplementation reduces the concentration of plasma lipid peroxides. Consequently, an appropriate supplementation of zinc can play a major role in the prevention and development of diseases in the elderly population. This can also be applied to the younger population. Golub et al. (1999) investigated the influence of iron and zinc deficient diets and the influence of powdered beef supplementation on the haematology parameters and behaviour of adolescent monkeys. They concluded that the marginal iron-zinc supply in the earlier stage of growth leads to the behavioural and haematological disturbances, which can be prevented and some even abolished by nutritional supplementation with beef. Due to its rich composition and therefore its great value as supplement, meat is very important in the nutrition of the most sensitive groups of population: pregnant women, lactating mothers, children and elderly. Very interesting and also surprising are the results of the recently published study by Campbell et al. (1999) in which the ef-
18
Table 2. The part (%) of RDA (1989) that can be meet with a 100 g of meat in women aged between 25 and 50 (calculated according to the data by Souci et al., 1994; Oster, 1994; Wenk and Leonhardt, 1996)
Criteria of allow. Energy Fats Proteins Essential amino a. Vitamins: B1 B2 Niacin B6 B12 Beef, lean 4.9 2.7 49.0 > 100 21.0 20.0 51.0 11.2 250.0 Pork, lean 4.8 2.7 44.0 > 100 81.8 17.7 33.3 35.0 100.0 Chicken 7.5 13.7 40.0 > 100 7.3 12.3 45.3 31.2 20.0 Criteria of allow. Minerals: Fe Zn I Se Ca Mg K Na Beef, lean 14.6 35.8 4.6 9.0 0.4 10.1 20.9 13.2 Pork, lean 7.3 16.6 6.0 9.0 0.3 10.3 23.2 7.8 Chicken 4.6 8.0 10.9 1.5 13.2 17.9 16.5
fects of a lactoovovegetarian and omnivorous diet on changes of skeletal muscle mass in older men under 12 week training conditions were compared. Both groups were supplied with equal amount of proteins. Half of the proteins in the omnivorous diet were provided with meat (beef, poultry, pork and fish). The training increased muscle mass in the omnivorous diet group for 16.2% and in the laktoovovegetarian diet for 7.3%. It is not possible to attribute favourable results in the omnivorous diet only to differences in protein quality, since the quality of milk proteins is equal or even superior. It is certain that the effect is a consequence of more complex way of complementing a diet. Meat adds up a different and wider spectrum of nutrients, which are needed as co-factors in the formation of muscle tissue, and which should not be deficient for the efficient amino acids utilisation in the muscle protein synthesis (vitamins, trace elements). Meat is also a significant source of w-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, especially long-chain fatty acids (C20 and longer). To these fatty acids more and more importance has been attributed due to their importance in the process of growth and development, and also in the prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancerogenesis. Connor (1997) summarised positive effects of w-3 fatty acids in fish and fish oil as follows: prevents ventricular arrhythmias and cardiac arrest, have an antithrombotic effect; lower the level of plasma lipids, especially VLDL and triglycerides, and inhibit the growth of atherosclerotic plaques, inhibit interleukin-aand cytokins; promotes endothelial relaxation, which is induced by nitric oxide. In the continental diet (exception diets for babies) which does not include fish, is meat apart from eggs, the only important source of long-chain w-3 fatty acids and cannot be ignored. For those who do not consume fish it is even more important. In recent years meat has been exposed to great criticism because it contains fats, saturated fatty acids, cholesterol, purine and also carcinogenic substances. Meat is often considerate as energy reach food. Because of the
above mentioned points of view, meat is often related to diseases of civilisation such as: overweight, increased blood pressure, diabetes, gout, cardiovascular diseases and cancerous diseases. All these reproaches can be supported only in the case that the excessive meat consumption leads to an imbalanced diet. Excessive consumption of meat or any other foodstuffs in a diet supersede other foodstuffs which would add to the diet the nutrients missing in the excessively consumed foodstuff. Meat, for example, does not contain any dietary fibers, some of the vitamins and antioxidant active substances. Most unfavourable influences on health, on the account of meat, holds true for the meat with a greater proportion of fats. Therefore, lean meat has a low energy value, which, in an appropriate diet, even lowers the concentration of plasma lipids (stated for example by: Watts et al., 1988 and Wolmarans et al., 1999). Scott et al. (1994) assessed that lean beef and skinless chicken have similar effects on the plasma lipoproteins and that they are mutually exchangeable in diets for the reduction of cholesterol level. In a similar research, Davidson et al. (1999) compared the effect of lean red meat and lean white meat. In the 36 week long experiment they stated that in the selected population diets with either of the two kinds of meat reduced the level of LDL and increased the level of HDL-cholesterol in plasma. The use of meat in diets for the lowering of blood cholesterol level holds true only for lean meat. Already in 1990 ODea et al. discovered that a diet with a very low proportion of fat (9% energy from fats) and containing 500 g of lean beef per day decreased the concentration of cholesterol already after one week from 5.9 to 4.7 mmol/l. After three weeks of experiment the diet was supplemented with beef fat (19% energy from fat in week 4 and 29 % in week 5) which led to the increased cholesterol concentration (5.45 mmol/l). Animal fats contain a great proportion of saturated fatty acids, which is especially high in deposited fats of
19
ruminants. However, only three of these unsaturated fatty acids increase the level of cholesterol in the blood, namely: lauric (12:0), myristic (14:0) and palmitic (16:0), also stearic acid (18:0) is undesirable since it is considered to be thrombogenic (Ulbricht and Southgate, 1991). The effect of individual fatty acids on plasma cholesterol is very significant, the undesirable influence of saturated fatty acids on the total and LDL-cholesterol is really high. Thus it is necessary to avoid the consumption of fats with high proportion of these fatty acids, this is, particularly animal fats. Proportion of fat in the diet is also positively related to the frequency of cancer formation on different organs (Carol et al., cit. FAO/WHO, 1994). Therefore, it is necessary to avoid fats in general, including animal fats. Addressing the undesirability of fats in the meat through the use of animal selection and animal nutrition has led to a considerable decrease in carcass fats (Garrow et al., 2000). The nutrition of animals or rather the dietary fatty acid composition has a great impact on the fatty acid composition of animal fats. By using specially adjusted animal nutrition it is possible to considerably increase the proportion of w-3 fatty acids in fats of various foods of animal origin as well as in the meat. In monogastric animals it is possible to change the fatty acid composition of animal fats (fats in the fat tissues as well as in the muscle tissues, and also egg lipids) to a large extent by changing the quality of dietary fats. In ruminants, on the other hand, the effect of dietary fats, due to microbiological hydrogenation of double bonds of fatty acids in the rumen, is less evident. However, from many aspects even more important. Also our investigations show that for example in chicken meat, following the addition of w-3 fatty acids in feed, the weight proportion of w-3 fatty acids of the total of fatty acids increases by 5 times (from 1.6 to 8.4%), whereas long-chain fatty acids up to even 9 times (from 0.79 to 6.83 %) (Peterka, 1998). Much attention concerning fatty acid was recently provoked by publications on the content and effects of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA). CLA contain fats of ruminants, milk as well as body fats. Already in 1979, Pariza et al. (cit. Pariza and Ha, 1990) discovered in the extracts of roasted beef a substance inhibiting the activity of mutagenic substances. Later on, it was demonstrated that this substance was a conjugated dien derivate of linoleic acid, in other words, conjugated linoleic acid, which carries a very strong anticancerogenous properties (Pariza and Ha, 1990; Belury, 1995; Parodi, 1997). Conjugated linoleic acid shows its anticancerogenous activity already in relatively small concentrations, that is in less than one percent of food. The action does not depend on the presence, or rather, the combination of other fatty acids in the food. Conjugated linoleic acid functions antiatherogenously. This was also proved in the investigation carried out on rabbits (Li et al., 1994). It is interesting that among other effects CLA also influences the metabolism of fats and in experimental animals reduces the amount of body
fat (Park et al., 1997). The content of conjugated linoleic acid in milk and meat of ruminants is affected by the diet, especially by the content of polyunsaturated fatty acids in it (Enser et al., 1999) and conditions in the rumen. Dietary CLA intake in our diet is practically completely dependent on the intake of fats of ruminants, especially on the intake of milk fats and meat. Many researches have shown that there is a positive relation between the intake of red meat and frequency of cancer, especially cancer of the large intestine (Willett et al., 1990; Primic-"akelj, 1997; Bingham, 1999). However, these relations are very weak and mostly linked to other accompanying risk factors, and not to consumption of meat alone. On the opinion of Hill (1999) the cohort studies have not discovered any links between the consumption of meat and colon-rectal cancer, yet protective factors, such as the consumption of vegetables and non-refined cereal products are the main determinants to trigger the formation of that type of cancer. Also Cox (1997) established that the consumption of meat and cancer of the large intestine are not related, yet the frequent consumption of fruits and vegetables significantly reduces the risk of its formation. Cox and Whichelow (1997) investigated the effect of fruit consumption on the morbidity and mortality due to coronary diseases. They established small amount of relative risk (rr) 1 in those who frequently consumed fruits in winter and summer, rr 1.3 in those who consumed moderate amount in winter and more frequently in summer, rr 1.35 in those who rarely consumed fruits in winter and frequently in summer, and rr 1.88 rarely in winter and moderately to rarely in summer. In recent years, apart from studying fats, the research was focussed also on other factors, which could be related to the frequency of cardiovascular diseases and cancer. In a cohort study on 73757 people in the health service, aged between 40 and 75 years, Ascherio et al. (1996) studied the relation between the consumption of fats, fatty acids and cholesterol and frequency of coronary diseases. A significant positive relation was found between the frequency of coronary diseases and consumption of some saturated fatty acids, cholesterol and trans-fatty acids, and also an independent negative relation between the consumption of a-linolenic acid and the risk for coronary diseases. Ascherio et al. (1996) recommends (according to their results and the results of other studies), for a rational prevention of coronary diseases, a reduction in the intake of saturated fat, cholesterol and trans-fatty acids, which should be accompanied by a greater consumption of food rich in fibers and should include cereals, vegetables and fruits in the diet. Similarly, also Hu et al. (1999) established that an increase in consumption of a-linolenic acid reduces the incidents of coronary infarction. The meat consumption is frequently being related to the diseases of civilisation or diseases of abundance, such as: overweight, cancer, coronary artery diseases. All three are related to an excessive intake of calories and fat, disproportional relationship among fatty acids or quality of
20
Table 3. Influence of diet with an increased proportion of -3 fatty acids and oleic acid on events in the 5-year period after first myocardial infarction (De Longeril et al., 1998) Group on diet with more w-3 fatty acids 302 7 14 6 18 26 0.05 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.001
Parameters Number of patients Cancers Total deaths (including cancer deaths) Cardiac death Total deaths + nonfatal cancers Total deaths + nonfatal cancers + nonfatal myocardial infarctions fats and also to carcinogenic substances originating from the termal meat preparation. These diseases are related especially to red meat and meat products (beef, mutton and pig). For these reasons, the Department of Health (Department of Health, 1998) in Great Britain recommends a moderate consumption of meat. The importance of meat in the diet is evident from the research carried out by ElmstDhl et al. (1999) who investigated the dietary patterns in people with high and low meat consumption. The increased consumption of red meat, expressed in quintiles and corrected to energy intake, is in both sexes related to the reduced intake of poultry, fish, fruit, bread, cereal products and cheese. A negative correlation between the consumption of meat and consumption of vitamin C and fibers was shown. Average consumption of fats originating from meat was 13.6% in men and 11.9% in women. However, no relation between the consumption of meat and consumption of some fatty acids (neither the blood cholesterol increasing fatty acids nor arachidonic and linolenic acid) was established. Also these authors conclude that the high meat intake reduces the consumption of the group of foodstuffs, which are rich in antioxidants and fibers. The positive relation between the consumption of meat and frequency of cancer and coronary diseases (which was found by some experts) is according to Elmstahl et al. (1999) most likely not related to the composition of meat but to the fact that high meat intake supersedes from the diet already mentioned foodstuffs and protective substances. The importance of the antioxidants for the protection against atherosclerosis is illustrated in the research carried out by Sharma et al. (1999) on rhesus monkeys weighing 6-8 kg. The monkeys were consuming an atherogenic diet, daily containing one gram of cholesterol and 15 g of butter. Two groups of monkeys were supplemented daily with 25 and 50 mg of E vitamin per kg body weight, respectively. The vitamin E supplemented groups had a much lower level of blood cholesterol, triglycerides
Control group 303 17 24 19 35 60
and smaller and less frequent atherosclerotic changes on the aorta. One of the most interesting and most frequently cited studies regarding the frequency of coronary diseases is most likely the one from Lyon reported by De Lorgeril et al. (1994, 1996, 1998 and 1999). The objective of the study was to found out the effects of a rich Mediterranean type of diet in patients, who had already once recovered from myocardial infarction. The diet differed from an ordinary coronary diseases preventive diet in that that it contained more bread, vegetables, legumes, fruits and fish, margarine rich in a-linolenic acid (rapeseed oil) and less red meat, butter and cream. The diet did not exclude meat but contained somewhat less calories, less fats and saturated fatty acids, more oleic and a-linolenic acids, and less linoleic acid and less cholesterol. Although there is a rather small difference between the two diets, the effect is surprising and is mainly seen in the changes of the content of fatty acids in plasma lipids and in the number of fatal and non-fatal myocardial infarctions (Table 3). Within four years this experiment also showed distinct effect on the rate of cancer cases, as illustrated in Table 3. Trying to define the importance of meat in modern diets on the basis of the refereed investigations, it could be concluded that new researches actually establish a special place for meat of modern quality (lean meat) in a balanced diet as a nutrient rich and physiologically safe foodstuff. In one way or the other, meat complements diets with the greater proportion of food of plant origin and assures a safe way of meeting dietary recommendations without demanding daily diet calculations. In addition, meat adds up to a diet the needed diversity and taste Excessive meat intake supersedes from the diet foodstuffs which supply dietary fibers, vitamins, and also non-vitamin antioxidant active substances and minerals. Every one-sided diet, meat or vegetarian diet can present risk for health.
21
19. Eaton, S.B., Konner, M. (1985): Paleolitic nutrition. A consideration and current implication. New. Engl. J. Med., 312: 283-289. 20. Elmsthl, S., Holmquist, O., Gullberg, B. et al. (1999): Dietary patterns in high and low consumers of meat in a Swedish cohort study. Appetite, 32: 191-206. 21. Enser, M., Scollan, N.D. et al. (1999): Effect of dietary lipid on the content of conjugated linoleic acid CLA in beef muscle. Animal Science, 69: 143-146. 22. Fortes, C., Agaliti, N., Fano, V. et al. (1997): Zinc supplementation and plasma lipid peroxides in an elderly population. Eur.J.Clin.Nutr., 51: 97-101. 23. Golub, M.S., Keen, C.L., Gershwin, M.E. (1999): Behavioral and hematologic consequences of marginal iron-zinc nutrition in adolescent monkeys and the effect of a powdered beef supplement. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 70: 1059-1068. 24. Garrow, J.S., James, W.P.T., Ralph, A. (2000): Human nutrition and dieteties. Edinburgh, Churchill Livingstone, 367. 25. Hill, M.J. (1999): Meat and colo-rectal cancer. Proc. Nutr. Soc., 58: 261 264. 26. Koch, V. (1997): Uìvanje mesa v prehranskih navadah odraslih v Sloveniji. In: Meso v prehrani in zdravje. Posvet posve~en 50 letnici Biotehnike fakultete (Eds.: @lender B., Gaperlin L.), Ljubljana, Biotechnical faculty, Dept. of Food Science and Technology, 85 93. 27. Lee, K.N., Kritchevsky, D., Pariza, M.W. (1994): Conjugated linoleic acid and atherosclerosis in rabbits. Atherosclerosis, 108: 19-25. 28. Lupton, J.R./Cross, H.R. (1994): The contribution of meat, poultry and fish to the health and well being of man. Advances in Meat Research Vol.9, London, Blackie Academic & Professional, 479 499. 29. McNutt, K. (1999): Bright paths to good health: a comparison of the chinese and U.S. road maps. Nutrition Today, 34: 242-245. 30. Oster, O. (1994): Der Balitrag von Fleisch zur Spurenelement-, Elektrolyt- und Mineralienversorgung des Menschen in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland unter besonderer Bercksichtigung von Selen. In: Kuthe, R., Kapar, H. Fleisch in der Ernhrung. Stuttgart, Georg Thieme Verlag. 31. ODea, K., Traianedes, K., Chrisholm, K. et al. (1990): Cholesterol-lowering effect of a lowfat diet containing lean beef is reversed by the addition of beef fat. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 52: 491-494. 32. Pariza, M.W., Ha, Y.L. (1990): Conjugated dienoic derivates of linoleic acid: a new class of anticarcinogens. Medical Oncology & Tumor Pharmacotherapy, 7: 169-171. 33. Park, Y., Albright, K.J., Liu, W. et al. (1997): Effect of conjugated linoleic acid on body composition in mice. Lipids, 32: 853-858. 34. Parodi, P.W. (1997): Cows milk fat components as potential anticarcinogenic agents. Journal of Nutrition, 127: 1055-1060. 35. Payne, E. (1988): The place of T3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the New Zealand diet (or why we should eat meat from ruminants). Proceedings of the Nutrition Society of New Zealand, 13: 158. 36. Pensel, N. (1997): The future of red meat in human diets. Pig News and Information, 18: 107 N 110 N. 37. Peterka, D. (1998): Fatty acid composition of meat lipids and adipose fats of laying hens. B.Sc thesis, Biotechnical faculty, Ljubljana, 60 p.
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1. Ascherio, A., Rimm, E.B., Giovannucci, E.L. et al. (1996): Dietary fat and risk of coronary heart disease in men: cohort follow up study in the United States. Brit. Med. J., 313: 84-90. 2. Ascherio, A., Rimm, E.B., Stampfer, M.J. et al. (1995): Dietary intake of marine n-3 fatty acids, fish intake, and risk of coronary disease among men. N. Engl. J. Med., 332: 977-982. 3. Belury, M.A. (1995): Conjugated dienoic linoleate: A polyunsaturated fatty acid with unique chemoprotective properties. Nutrition Reviews, 53: 83-89. 4. Bingham, S.A. (1999): High meat diets and cancer risk. Proc.Nutr. Soc. 58: 243-248. 5. Campbell, W.W./Barton, M.L. et al. (1999): Effects of an omnivorous diet compared with a lactoovovegetarian diet on resistance training induced changes in body composition and skeletal muscle in older men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 70: 1032-1039. 6. Connor, W.E. (1997): The beneficial effects of omega-3 fatty acids: cardiovascular disease and neurodevelopment. Current Opinion in Lipidology, 8: 1-3. 7. Cox, B.D. (1997): Frequent consumption of red meat is not risk factor for cancer. Br. Med. J. 315: 1018. 8. Cox, B.D., Whichelow, M.J. (1997): Seasonal fruit consumption in relation to the development of, or death from cardiovascular disease. Proc. Nutr. Soc., 57: 61 A. 9. êpin, S., êpon, M., alehar, A. et al. (1997): Trendi prireje in porabe mesa v svetu in pri nas. In: Meso v prehrani in zdravje. Posvet posve~en 50 letnici Biotehnike fakultete (Eds.: @lender B., Gaperlin L.) Ljubljana, Biotechnical faculty, Dept. of Food Science and Technology, 29-39. 10. Davidson M.H., Hunninghake D., Maki K.C. et al. (1999): Comparison of the effects of lean read meat vs lean white meat on serum lipid levels among free-living persons with hypercholesterolemia. Arch. Intern. Med., 159: 1331 1338. 11. De Lorgeril, M., Renand, S., Mamelle, N. et al. (1994): Mediterranean alfa-linolenic acid-rich diet in secondary prevention of coronary disease. Lancet, 334: 1454-1459. 12. De Lorgeril, M., Salen, P., Martin, J. (1996): Effect of a Mediterranean type of diet on the rate of cardiovascular complications in patients with coronary artery disease. Insights into the cardioprotective effect of certain nutriments. J. Am.Coll. Cardiol., 28: 1103 1108. 13. De Lorgeril, M., Salen, P., Martin, J.-L. et al. (1998): Mediterranean dietary pattern in a randomized trial. Arch. Intern. Posible reduced cancer risk. Med., 158: 1181-1187. 14. De Lorgeril, M., Salen, P., Martin, J.-L. et al.(1999): Mediterranean diet, traditional risk factors and the rate of cardiovascular complications after miocardial infarction. Final report of the Lyon diet heart study. Circulation 99: 779-785. 15. Enser, M., Scollan, N.D., Choi, N.J. et al. (1999): Animal Science, 69: 143-146. 16. Hu, F.B., Stampfer, M.J., Manson, J.A. et al. (1999): Dietary intake of a-linolenic acid and risk of fatal ischemic heart disease among women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 69: 890-897. 17. Eaton, S.B. (1992): Humans, lipids and evolution. Lipids, 27: 814-820. 18. Eaton, S.B., Eaton, S.B. III/(1992): Paleolitic nutrition revised: A twelve-year retrospective on its nature and implication. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr., 51: 207-216.
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38. Primic-@akelj, M. (1997): Meso v etiologiji raka. In: Meso v prehrani in zdravje. Posvet posve~en 50 letnici Biotehnike fakultete (Eds. @lender B., Gaperlin L). Ljubljana, Biotechnical faculty, Dept. of Food Science and Technology, 57-62. 39. Rosegrant, M.W., Leach, N., Gerpacio, R.V. (1999): Alternative futures for world cereal and meat consumption. Proc. Nutr. Soc., 58: 219-234. 40. Scott, L.W., Dunn, J.K., Pownal, H.J. et al. (1994): Effects of beef and chicken consumption on plasme lipid levels in hypercholesterolemic men. Arch. Intern. Med., 154: 1261 1267. 41. Sharma, N., Desigan, B., Ghosh, et al. (1999): Effect of antioxidant vitamin E as a protective factor in experimental atherosclerosis in rhesus monkeys. Ann. Nutr. Metab., 43: 181-190. 42. Sonci, W., Fachmann, W., Kraut, H. (1994): Food composition and nutrition tables. Sttutgart, Medpharm Scientific Publishers. 43. Ulbricht T.L.V.; Southgate, D.A.T. (1991): Coronary heart disease: seven dietary factors. The Lancet, 338: 985-992.
44. Watts, G.F., Ahmed, W., Quiney, J. (1988): Effective lipid lowering diets including lean meat. British Medical Journal, 296: 235-237. 45. Wenk, C., Leonhardt, M. (1996): Fleisch und Fett in der menschlichen Ernhrung. Agrarforsch., 3: 443-446. 46. Willett, W. C., Stampfer, M. J., Coldits, G. A. et al. (1990): Relation of meat, fat and fibre intake to the risk of colon cancer in a prospective study among women. New England Journal of Medicine, 323: 1664-1672. 47. Wolmarans, P., Lanbscher, J.A., van der Merwe, et al. (1999): Effects of a prudent diet containing either lean beef and mutton or fish and skinless chicken on the plasma lipoproteins and fatty acid composition of triacylglycerol and cholesteryl ester of hypercholesterolemic subjects. J. Nutr. Biochem, 10: 598-608. 48. . FAO/WHO (1994): Fats and oils in human nutrition. Report of a joint expert consultation. Rome, Publication Division Food and Agriculture Organisation of the united Nation, 147 p. 49. . Department of Health (1998): COMA 1998 Annual report Appendix IV. Nutritional aspects of the development of Cancer, 28-29.
ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 619:637.1+637.1+637.5
HEALTH SUITABILITY CRITERIA OF FOOD OF ANIMAL ORIGIN

A. Kirbi(1), J. Marinek(2), Stanka Grebenc(3)
Professional paper ABSTRACT

Criteria of health suitability of food of animal origin are presence of causing agents of zoonosis and alimentary diseases, presence of environmental pollutants and substances, used in the veterinary treatments, radioactive contamination and senzoric changes. Hygienic irrevocability is guaranteed by a conscientious veterinary-sanitary inspection, strict discipline of breeders of slaughter animals and producers of milk but also by well-informed consumers and especially those who are professionally involved in the preparation of food. Keywords: meat, milk and milk products, hygienic irrevocability, criteria
INTRODUCTION There are several criteria available to evaluate the hygienic flawlessness of food of animal origin. Such food is hygienically flawless when it is free of pathogenic bacteria or viruses, agents of zoonoses and alimentary diseases, further, when it does not contain bacteriological toxins, ecological pollutens or veterinary drug substances above the permissible quantities, and when, there are not radiologically contaminated above the allowed level. Food of animal origin can also be hygienically questionable due to changed sensorial characteristics, mostly caused by spoilage micro-organisms. Zoonoses and Alimentary Diseases Zoonoses are diseases transmitted from animals to people and vice versa. The transmission from animals to people can take different forms, but in any case food of animal origin plays an important role as far as the possibilities of infection are concerned. Many diseases are transmitted to people through people consuming raw milk from sick animals or if milk is not heat-treated to a sufficient extent, or through meat which can only be a transmission vector or the only source of infection of people. In consuming milk and milk products, infection is practically impossible if milk and milk products are in line with Statute (Ur. list RS, 1999) and if the following conditions are fulfilled: animals (cows) must be under ongoing veterinary sanitary control; animals must be free of tuberculosis and brucellosis; animals must not show any signs of infectious diseases that could be transmitted to people through milk; and animals must not have any diseases of the genital tract with exudate, digestive inflammation with diarrhoea and increased body temperature or clinical mastitis. The milk of healthy animals belonging to a flock where tuberculosis has been detected can only be used in
the production of heat-treated milk or of milk products after heat treatment under the supervision of an authorised veterinarian.The causes of alimentary diseases in humans are consumption of milk that has not been heat treated to a sufficient extent, contamination of milk with pathogenic bacteria or subsequent contamination when manipulating milk (cooling, transport). According to the information found in the literature (Bryan, 1997), the most common causes of alimentary diseases are bacteria of the following types: Salmonella, Campylobacter jejuni/coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Clostridium perfrigens/botulinum, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli O157 H7, Yersinia enterocolitica and Bacillus cereus. In the past, human diseases were frequently caused by bacteria Listeria monocytogenes and Escherichia coli O157 H7, and unfortunately these diseases often ended with the patients dying. Therefore, our Institute has also conducted studies regarding the presence of these bacteria. The research on the presence of Listeria (Florjanc, 1996) showed that Listeria monocytogenes. was not present in 249 samples of raw milk, while in research done in 1999 (Vauda, 2000) this bacteria was isolated in 13 of the 178 samples of raw milk. We also conducted research on the presence of E. coli O157 H7, and in the period 1996-1999 we did not obtain a positive result among 307 samples of raw milk. Like in milk, in meat the probability of infection is small if animals are under ongoing veterinary sanitary control. Of course, the possibility of such infection nevertheless exists. Tuberculosis, brucellosis, anthrax, erysipelas, listeriosis, tularemia, rabies, Q-fever, chlamydia are the best known bacteria or viral zoonoses transmitted from animals to people through the latter consuming contaminated
(1) Andrej Kirbi, Asisstant (2) Janez Marinek, Full Professor (3) Stanka Grebenc, Assistant Professor - University of Ljubljana, Veterinary Faculty, Department of Food Hygiene and Bromatology, Gerbi~eva 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
24 Table 1. Tolerances for bio-residua as per the Statute

Analysed substance Raw milk DDT HCH Lindan PCB Pb Cd Hg As Sulphonamide Antibiotics 0.5 mg/kg as to the contents of fat 0.05 mg/kg as to the contents of fat 0.1 mg/kg as to the contents of fat 1.0mg/kg as to the contents of fat 0.1 mg/kg 0.01 mg/kg 0.03 mg/kg 0.1 mg/kg 0.1 mg/kg zero tolerance*1 Foodstuff
Milk products 0.5 mg/kg as to the contents of fat 0.05 mg/kg as to the contents of fat 0.1 mg/kg as to the contents of fat 1.0 mg/kg as to the contents of fat 0.4 mg/kg 0.02 mg/kg 0.03 mg/kg 0.1 mg/kg 0.1 mg/kg zero tolerance*1
*following the use of the prescribed or acknowledged methods. *1since 11th may 2000 the directive EEC2377/90 is in effect
meat. The probability of people getting infected from the agents causing these zoonoses is very low, as hygienically questionable meat is eliminated from public consumption on the basis of veterinary sanitary inspections pre- and post-mortem. Among parasitic diseases, the best known are trichinosis and tapeworms, which can only cause disease in humans if they consume meat infested with the nascent forms of the causal agent. Humans become ill with trichinosis if they consume meat that has not been treated thermally to a sufficient extent and contains live larvae of Trichinellae spiralis. Most frequently, it is the meat of pigs (domestic or boars) and bears, more rarely horses, which is infected by T. spiralis. Apart from T. spiralis, which is the most dangerous, there are also T. nativa, T. britovi, T. nelsoni and T. psevdospiralis (Marinculi~ and Gaper, 1999) In Slovenia, the disease is practically non-existent, as all meat used for public consumption is inspected and removed from public consumption in the case of infection. Tapeworms in humans are most frequently caused by Taenia saginata and Taenia solium. Infection with T. saginata is among the most widespread parasitic zoonoses in the world. The reason is mostly that in some areas people eat raw meat or meat that has not been treated thermally to a sufficient extent, and thus get infected by a development form (Cisticercus bovis) of this tapeworm. In domestic animals, the development forms are only found in beef, as cattle is the only interim host. Recently, there has been an increase in the number of animals infected by C. bovis. The reason is most probably that an increasing number of people are venturing into nature, where some people, due to poor hygienic habits, pollute animal food with excrement (in humans infested with
tapeworms, the eggs of T. saginata are in excrement), thus closing the human-food-cattle cycle. During the technological processes of slaughtering and treating meat after slaughtering, meat can become contaminated. Consumption of contaminated meat can cause alimentary diseases in humans. The most frequent causal agents of alimentary diseases are the same as those already mentioned for milk (Bryan, 1997; Leistner, 1997). The so-called subsequent contamination of meat can occur despite utterly scrupulous and strict veterinary sanitary control. For it is known that a relatively high number of clinically completely healthy animals contain in their digestive organs various pathogenic bacteria which can contaminate the meat surface during its technological treatment. This is a technological fault that we simply must accept as fact. And how do we nevertheless provide people with safe meat? It is necessary to prevent subsequent contamination through regular veterinary sanitary control and a flawless hygienic regime of work in production, processing and handling of meat. With the procedure of an uninterrupted cold chain, cooling of meat on the way from the slaughterhouse to the kitchen, it is necessary to prevent the multiplication of bacteria that have contaminated meat subsequently and prepare meat in an appropriate culinary way.
Environment polluters and veterinary drug substances Food of animal origin can also be hygienically inappropriate if it contains environment pollutens like pesticides, heavy metals and non-metals, etc. or if it contains residua of veterinary drug substances.
Agriculture 6 (2000) Table 2. Tolerances for bio-residua as per the Statute

Analysed substances DDT HCH Lindan PCB meat Pb (mg/kg) Cd (mg/kg) Hg (mg/kg) As (mg/kg) Sulphonamide (mg/kg) Antibiotics *following the use of the prescribed or acknowledged methods. 1since 11th may 2000 the directive EEC2377/ 90 is in effect 1.0 1.0 0.1 0.5 kidney 0.5 0.1 0.03 0.1 Foodstuff: Cattle Pigs 0.5 mg/kg as to the contents of fat 0.1 mg/kg as to the contents of fat 0.1 mg/kg as to the contents of fat 2.0 mg/kg as to the contents of fat meat 1.0 1.0 0.1 0.5 0.1 zero tolerance*1 kidney 0.5 0.1 0.03 0.1 meat 1.0 1.0 0.1 0.5 kidney 1.0 0.5 0.1 0.5 liver 0.5 0.1 0.03 0.1 Poultry Game 1.0 mg/kg as to the contents of fat 0.10 mg/kg as to the contents of fat 0.5 mg/kg as to the contents of fat 2.0 mg/kg as to the contents of fat meat 1.0 1.0 0.1 0.5 kidney 1.0 0.5 0.1 0.5 liver
25
The Table no.1 presents the tolerances for certain environment pollutens and residua of veterinary drug substances in milk and milk products as prescribed by Statute (Ur. list SFRJ, 1983; Ur. list SFRJ, 1987). In 1997 and 1998 (Kova~ et al., 1999), we analysed 78 samples of raw milk for the presence of pesticides and chlorinated hydrocarbons; the results did not exceed the limit values in any case. Also as far as PBC is concerned, where we analysed 36 samples in the same period, the results were appropriate. The results as to the content of Cd, Pb, As and Hg were also negative, i.e. below the tolerance level. In the same period, we inspected 1,564 samples of raw milk as to the content of antibiotics, and only obtained positive results in four cases, while among 218 samples tested as to the content of sulphonamides, there were no positive results. In the case of the antibiotics found, the reason was probably that the breeders did not respect the withdrawal period. The safety of meat regarding the content of environment pollutens and veterinary drug substances is also provided in Slovenia through performing systematic supervision. Table No. 2 presents the tolerances for certain environment pollutens and residua of veterinary drug substances in meat and organs prescribed by the Statute (Ur. list SFRJ, 1983; Ur. list SFRJ, 1987). In terms of the hygienic flawlessness of meat, environment polluters are not a special problem. The only information worth mentioning here is the content of
cadmium found in the kidneys of game and older cattle and pigs (Kova~ et al., 1999) in amounts exceeding those prescribed in the Statute (Ur. list SFRJ, 1983; Ur. list SFRJ, 1987). To ensure safety, the Decree by the Veterinary Administration of the Republic of Slovenia stipulates that kidneys of all older cattle and pigs as well as game must be regarded as being hygienically inappropriate. Like with milk, meat can also be hygienically inappropriate due to the content of veterinary drug substances used for preventive, therapeutic or nutritive purposes. Most frequently, the reason for this is not respecting the withdrawal period for individual substances, rather than the intentional use of prohibited substances.
CONCLUSION The results of research following the criteria of the hygienic flawlessness of milk, milk products and meat in Slovenia show that these foodstuffs are hygienically pure. This is by all means due to the well-organised veterinary service, ensuring that these foodstuffs are hygienically flawless by performing veterinary sanitary control. This was also largely contributed to by the increasing awareness of breeders who do not use the various prohibited substances for nutritive purposes in feeding animals and also (in most cases) the allowed substances for preventive and curative purposes without veterinary supervision. Much more could be done in this direction by educating and advising consumers and training those who professionally prepare food.
26
Resarch- Volume 11. Oregon state University, cowwallis, USA. 347-360. 5. Marinculi~, A., Gaper, A. (1999): Trihineloza svinja, nova razmiljanja o epizootiologiji bolesti. Praxis veterinaria 47 (1-2): 59-61. 6. Vauda, M. (2000): Higienska kvaliteta surovega in pasteriziranega mleka v Sloveniji glede na vsebnost bakterij Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes in skupnega tevila mikroorganizmov. Ljubljana: Veterinary faculty. Master deegree thesis. 7. . Ur. list SFRJ, no. 59/83 and 79/87.Statute on the quantity of pesticides and other patogenic substances, hormones, antibiotics and mycotoxins which are tolerated in foodstaffs. 8. .. Ur. list RS no. 100/99 Statute on the veterinary-sanitary control of food-processing plants, veterinary-sanitary check-ups and the conditions of sanitary appropriateness of foodstaffs and primary materials of animal origin.
REFERENCES
1. Florjanc, P. (1996): Pogostnost in soodvisnost vrst Listeria monocytogenes in Listeria innocua v ìvilih ìvalskega izvora v Sloveniji. Ljubljana: Veterinary faculty. Doctoral thesis. 2. Frank, L. Bryan (1997): Food of animal origin and risks for the consumer. World congress of food hygiene. Den Haag, Proceedings, s.K-23 to K-37. 3. Kova~, Z., Boì~, P., Florjanc, P. (1999): Veterinary Residua Monitoring and Surveilance of Food of Animal Origin in the Republic of Slovenia in 1997 and 1998. Veterinary Administration of the Republic of Slovenia. 4. Leistner, L. (1997): Microbial stability and safety of healthy meat, poultry and fish products. Advances in Meat
27
ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 637.562:621.391
TRACEABILITY OF BEEF MEAT FROM SLAUGHTER LINE TO CONSUMERS

M. Gajster(1), J. Jeretina(2), S. êpin(3) , M. Mravljak(4) Professional paper ABSTRACT
Pilot project of traceability and meat labelling system was used to build up database of Cattle Breeding Service of Slovenia. We have developed software for identification of beef carcasses on the slaughter line and the comparison between central data base and slaughterhouse database. The software enables automatic input of carcass weights, conformation scores and printing of labels. The system is involved in WEB and enables the consumers to check up the origin of meat they had bought.
Keywords: traceability, meat labelling, identification
Introduction The first case of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in Europe was established in England in 1985 and described two years later. This led to loosing the trust into beef market in many European countries. Vigorous resistance of consumers was observed. In opposition to that some countries and cattle breeding unions started to establish trade marks to protect both the consumers and the breeders. To ensure authenticity of trade marks and beef market it was very important to achieve and improve the transparency of conditions for the production and marketing of products concerned, particularly the traceability. A lot of work was done in the legislation area of EU with the adoption of Council Regulation (EC) No. 820/97 of 21 April 1997 which established a system for identification and registration of bovine animals and labelling of beef and beef products. Slovenia has to adjust its legislation to that of EU before it becomes the full EU member. Animal identification and labelling of beef is one of the most important tasks to be solved before the beginning of the year 2003. For this reason, two years ago, we started a pilot project on traceability of beef meat from slaughter line to the end user. DOCUMENTATION Beside monitoring the movement of goods, traceability of beef meat must also fulfil the accompaniment of information stream. This means that all events concerning the animal in its lifetime must be registered in individual registers kept on each holding and on a central database (CD) too. In the project we also implemented the supply order. The paper represents a basic form in five copies for the purpose of traceability of origin and it is fully compliant with EU regulations. The breeder has the block with him and he fills in the form before moving the animal to slaughterhouse. He must write down code number of the holding with full address and name, aim of the transport (slaughterhouse/other location), registration number of carrier
and address of buyer. In accordance with EU Directive No. 425/90 and No. 496/91 it is necessary to write down place of loading, beginning of transport, last feeding and watering of the animal, place of unloading. In the other half of the document there is place for data covering ten animals. Required data are the following: original number of the animal, sex, category (calf, cow, young cattle,) date of birth, origin, state of breeding trade marks.
TAKING OVER ANIMALS IN THE SLAUGHTERHOUSE All animals which come to slaughterhouse must be accompanied by supply order.
Input of data into database
Data from the forms are entered into slaughterhouse database (SD) (Figure 1). The application allows the connection with CD through the internet, checking and adjustments of data between CD and SD, printing of labels for carcass labelling and printing of different reports for the purposes of inspection service,
Checking of data according to CD prepared by Agricultural Institute of Slovenia
The connection between SD and CD occurs after entering of data from the form into SD. Some logical controls are made in the time of data input but the majority of them
(1) Mihael Gajster, DSc - Emona Razvojni center za prehrano, Kav~i~eva 72, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia, (2) Janez Jeretina, MSc - Agriculture institut of Slovenia, Hacquetova 17, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia, (3) Slavko êpin, Full Professor - University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical faculty, Groblje 3, 1230 Domàle, Slovenia, (4) Milan Mravljak, BAg, Private Researcher, Tomi~eva 37, 2380 Slovenj Gradec, Slovenia
28
Figure 1. Function diagram of the process in slaughterhouse
29
Figure 2. An example of a label
are made on CD. The main reason for this is to avoid the potential errors to be printed on labels. If it happens that the code number of the farm and the original number of the animal are not equal to those on CD, the record gets a mark Without origin.
Weighing of live animals
This protocol is necessary when checking of data is not done immediately after entering of data from supply order into SD but later after the classification of carcasses from inspect. In this case carcasses with incorrect data have to be found on labels and the label marked with No origin. The person who makes this correction must draw up the minutes which have to be archived for 12 months.
Labelling of big pieces of meat
When animals leave the collection place and go to the place of stunning, they are stunned and lifted on slaughter line. In the project we also plan to collect live weight (scanning of eartag, weighing and putting data into database). Practically, this is very difficult to realise but it is a desired option for the needs of selection service.
Weighing and classification of carcasses
This is the most important point of the whole process. In the course of the procedure the carcass is moved on the scale where the inspector identifies the number of animal by scanner. He removes tags from the carcass and classifies carcass quality. All the data are entered into SD except for the weight which is collected from the scale automatically.
Labelling of carcasses
In the process of traceability of meat ID number of the animal must be transmitted from carcass to big parts of meat all the way to the end users. Even when the organisation of work and meat distribution of slaughterhouses differ between them it is important that the consumers know from which animal and breeder originates the meat they had bought.
Traceabiality through the internet
The traceability of meat is completed on internet. In the WEB the consumers can find out data of origin of meat they had bought. This segment is the most important one, as the trust of consumers into goods represent the preliminary condition of commercial success.
Data from the supply order form, weights and classification of carcass quality are printed on labels (Figure 2). Four labels (or sixteen) in the dimension of 87 x 57 mm are printed directly from database to minimise the possibility of disagreements. They are made from special robust material.
Checking of data with the central database of Agricultural Institute of Slovenia
REFERENCES
1. Gajster, M., êpin, S., Jeretina, J., Mravljak, M (1999) Sledljivost porekla govedi in govejega mesa : zaklju~no poro~ilo. (KIS - Poro~ila o raziskovalnih nalogah, 212). [s.l.]: [s.n.], 1 zv. (lo~. pag.), graf. prikazi. [COBISS-ID 860520]. 2. .Council regultion (EC) no 820/97 of 21 april 1997 establishing a system for the identification and registration of bovine animals and regarding the labelling of beef and beef products. 3. . Odredba o ozna~evanju in registraciji govedi. Uradni list republike Slovenije, t. 86 Ljubljana, 22.10.1999.
The aim of this process is to make logical controls of all data, entries of carcass weights, classification scores and registration of culling of animals. Protocol of errors and correction methods
30
ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 636(497.13 439.1 497.12)
COMPARISON OF THE CONDITION OF ANIMAL PRODUCTION BETWEEN CROATIA, HUNGARY AND SLOVENIA
I. Juri}(1), Marija iki}(2), A. Kolega(3)
Original scientific paper ABSTRACT

Development of animal production in Hungary and Slovenia, neighboring countries that are members of CEFTA is exceptionally important for Croatia because of possible small border traffic and markedly higher trade due to low transport costs. As the animal products have a big share in small border traffic, competitiveness of animal production between these three countries is highly important for Croatia. The analysis of animal production in Croatia, Hungary and Slovenia shows that Croatia produces per capita: 132 kg of milk, 11.3 kg of eggs and 24.4 of all kind of meat, Hungary produces 198; 17.7 and 117.8 kg of milk, eggs and meat, respectively; while Slovenia produces 309, 11.4 and 92.6 kg. Arable land in Croatia is 0.275 ha per capita, in Hungary 0.482 ha and in Slovenia 0.120 ha. Other types of land in Croatia are in amount of 0.94 ha per capita, in Hungary 0.42 ha and in Slovenia 0.899 ha. Level of analyzed production and retail prices of animal products is in Croatia 10 to 35% higher than in Hungary and Slovenia. Per each 100 USD of exported live animals, Croatia imports 977 USD of live animals, Hungary only 9 USD and Slovenia 547 USD. Per each 100 USD of exported meat and meat products, Croatia imports 207 USD, Hungary 8 USD and Slovenia 96 USD. For milk, dairy products and eggs Croatia for each 100 USD of export imports 92 USD, Hungary 62 and Slovenia 35 USD. The main objective of strategy in animal production and processing in Hungary and in Slovenia is the competitiveness in relation to the neighboring countries, while in Croatia strategy of high prices exists, as it is defined by the Croatian Employers Association as their interest. System of stimulating measures in the animal production of Hungary and Slovenia is essentially different from that in Croatia. Newly formed associations of animal producers in the field of animal breeding in Hungary and Slovenia became a factor of breeding politics, and in the same time in Croatia they should, according to the Law on Animal Production, carry out the breeding programs passed by the government and implemented by a state institution. Keywords: Croatia, Slovenia, Hungary, animal production
INTRODUCTION Development of animal production in neighboring countries, Hungary and Slovenia is exceptionally important for Croatia because of small border traffic and low transportation cost in trade exchange. As the animal products have a big share in small border traffic, competitiveness of animal production between these three countries is highly important for Croatia. METHODS Comparison is made between arable and total land per capita and volume of animal production: milk, eggs and meat. Each type of meat was analyzed separately: cattle, pig and poultry. Total meat production includes horse and sheep meat, too.
Proportion between import and export was analyzed using the value of export marked as 100 as a base. Source of data were FAO publications up to year 1997 because the 1998 publication gives only preliminary data for Croatia which would probably be changed because they are not realistic, especially those for milk production.
(1) Ivan Juri}, Full Professor, (2) Marija iki}, Associated Professor, (3) Ante Kolega, Full Professor - University of Zagreb, Faculty of Agriculture, Svetoimunska cesta 25, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
31
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Land per capita is given in Table 1.

Table 1. Land per capita (ha)
to the period from 1988-91 Croatia has decreased its production markedly, as given in Table 3.
Land arable Croatia Hungary Slovenia Source: FAO Croatia has the most land in total and considerable arable areas per capita, so fodder cannot be the reason for
Table 2. Animal production per capita (kg)
other 0,940 0,420 0,899
total 1,216 0,902 1,019
0,275 0,482 0,120
Regarding the situation illustrated in Table 2 and 3 it is to be expected that Croatian trade exchange, compared
Milk Croatia Hungary Slovenia 132 198 309
Eggs cattle 11,3 17,7 11,4 4,4 6,3 25,5 pig 9,8 72,2 32,3
Meat poultry 8,4 36,9 34,9 total* 24,4 117,8 92,6
*Horse and sheep meat added Source: FAO
lower production. Animal production per capita is shown in Table 2.

Table 3. Agricultural production 1989-91=100
to Hungarian and Slovenian becomes more unfavorable, as shown in Table 4.
1995 Crop production Croatia Hungary Slovenia

Source: FAO
1996 Animal production 62,2 67,9 98,4 Crop production 59,6 80,1 102,2 Animal production 64,3 74,7 99,5
1997 Crop production 59,7 80,8 102,5 Animal production 51,6 74,3 99,9
56,7 70,9 98,0
Volume of production analyzed per capita is a lot behind the production of Hungary and Slovenia. Compared
Insufficient volume of animal production and higher prices had to result not only in strong interest for importing
Table 4. Value of import and export of animal products (export = 100)
Food + animals Croatia Hungary Slovenia

Source: FAO 1997
Live animals 977 9 547
Meat +poultry 207 8 96
Milk + eggs 92 62 35
217 33 241
32
Table 5. Prices in Croatia and Hungary, December 1999 (kn/kg) CROATIA Pigs Bulls Cows 9,43 13,08 7,09 HUNGARY 6,58 7,04 4,57
those products by private entrepreneurs, but among citizens to buy them in neighboring countries, too. Marketing Information System in Agriculture (Croatian: Trìni informacijski sustav u poljoprivredi TISUP) compares prices of pigs and cattle in Hungary and Croatia on regular basis. Prices in Hungary are regularly lower, what is illustrated with December 1999 prices given in Table 5. Level of production per capita in Croatia is significantly lower than in Hungary. Situation in animal production, relation between export and import in Croatia is more unfavorable than in Hungary and Slovenia. Law on animal production (NN 70/97) did not change previous relations in animal production in Croatia and did not enable free association of producers in the sense of selection improvement of animal production. Planning and problem analysis connected to the market liberalization is done more thoroughly in the animal production of Slovenia and Hungary. High pressure made by Croatian Association of Employers in Food Industry, Agriculture and Forestry successfully resulted in higher prices. The Association is the author of formulation: In creation of price policy it has to be taken into account that all of the previous experimenting in agriculture has to be paid through the prices of agricultural products or state funds. Money that could cover all the bad moves in Croatian agriculture does not exist, nor will exist in some short period. Therefore, prices remain as a sole source of paying for the past misses and lower prices in agriculture could be expected after the present situation is solved and the production is stabilized. This can not be expected until the period of 6 10 years passes and the period such in which would different moves in agriculture without a backup in prices or in existing money be paid for. Cited formulation also defines a strategy in the Croatian agriculture which is an important factor for unstableness of animal production on the market that becomes more and more free under the influence of globalization of world relations.
REFERENCES
1. êpin, S., Osterc, J. Juri}, I. (1993): Komparativne prednosti i konkurentnost sto~arske proizvodnje izme|u Slovenije i Hrvatske. Slovenski potencijali proizvodnje, mogu}nost uvoza i izvoza u Hrvatsku. Poljoprivredne aktualnosti 29(3-4): 507-512. 2. Ember, J., Stefler, J. (2000): Kako iskoristiti kapacitete sto~ne hrane u Ma|arskoj? Me|unarodno savjetovanje Krmiva 2000. Opatija 7-9. lipanj, 2000. Zbornik radova, 77-82. 3. Horn P., Stefler, J. (1999): Strategie zur Entwicklung der Tierproduktion in Ungarn. Acta Agraria Kaposvriensis. Vol. 3(2): 7. 4. Juri}, I., Kolega, A., iki}, Marija (1992): Ograni~avaju}i faktori obnove i razvoja sto~arstva u Hrvatskoj. Poljoprivredne aktualnosti, 40, 141-147. 5. Juri} I., êpin, S., Petri~evi}, A., iki}, Marija, Kolega, A. (1993): Komparativne prednosti i konkurentnost sto~arske proizvodnje izmedu Slovenije i Hrvatske. Hrvatski potencijali proizvodnje, mogu}nost uvoza i izvoza u Sloveniju. Poljoprivredne aktualnosti 29, 1-2. 6. Maceljski, M. (1994). Prilog strategiji dugoro~nog razvitka hrvatskog poljodjelstva. Savjetovanje: Strategija dugoro~nog razvitka hrvatske poljoprivrede. Zagreb, 21-22. travnja 1993. 7. Politiek, R.D., Bakker, J.J. (1982): Livestock production in Europe. Perspectives and prospects. Elsevier scientific publishing company. 8. . FAO Production razna godita. 9. . FAO Trade razna godita. 10. . Strategija razvoja slovenskega kmetijstva (1992). MKG. Ljubljana, 88. 11. .. Hrvatske udruge poslodavaca (Udruga poslodavaca prehrambene industrije, poljoprivrede i umarstva Hrvatske). Prilozi za strategiju razvoja poljoprivrede i prehrambene industrije Republike Hrvatske. Pismo Vladi Republike Hrvatske, predsjedniku mr. Zlatku Matei od 13. listopada 1998. 12. .. Trìni informacijski sustav u poljoprivredi (1999): br. 72. 13. .. Zakon o sto~arstvu. Narodne novine br. 70/97.
CONCLUSION 1. Volume of animal production in Croatia is getting behind the production of Hungary and Slovenia. 2. Getting behind Hungary and Slovenia for Croatian animal production is not a result of natural resources (amount of land), but subjective factors, i.e. wrong development strategy.
33
ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 631(497.12)
INCOME AND WELFARE INDICATORS OF SLOVENIAN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION IN VIEW OF FUTURE ACCESSION TO THE EU
S. Kav~i~(1), E. Erjavec(2)

Slovenian livestock production is facing different agricultural policy and economic environment as is the case in EU. Despite modest reforms of national agricultural policy it is still incomparable with common market organisations of CAP. Different levels of market-price support for major livestock commodities is another aggravating circumstance for efficient adjustment. Therefore different policy measures have to be taken into account simultaneously for policy relevant analysis (income effects, welfare efficiency). Applying APAS-PAM agricultural sector model for Slovenian agriculture the most important income and welfare effects of Slovenian EU accession on producers, consumers and taxpayers as well as net welfare effects for baseline and three accession scenarios have been simulated. Results obtained show potential improvement of incomes in dairy farming and cattle fattening only for most optimistic accession scenario (complete adoption of Agenda 2000 CAP), while deterioration is foreseen in pig and poultry farming irrespective of accession conditions. Producer surplus indicates similar trends, while consumers are expected to be beneficiaries due to lower market-price support. Main part of producer income support burden will be transferred to taxpayers. Irrespective of accession scenario net welfare effects for pork and poultry are favourable, while opposite could happen in milk and beef sectors. Keywords: livestock production, income, economic welfare, agricultural policy, modelling, Slovenia
INTRODUCTION By the final decision of the Berlin Summit of EU leaders in March 1999 on the scope and contents of the CAP in the 2000-06 financial perspective, the EU withdraws eligibility for compensation payments to the candidate countries. The reason should lay on the lower current price level as well as on the negative social and macroeconomic effects in candidate countries (European Commission, 1996). Higher prices are also expected to be a stimulus to the growth of agricultural production within the new members, and this could consequently contribute to serious additional budget pressures on CAP. The estimated costs of enlargement could be made mainly by the direct payments. They are estimated to be relatively high, which obviously alludes to the need for a thorough reform of the existing CAP or, at least, to a special status of the new candidates after accession (Tangermann and Josling, 1994; Baldwin et all, 1997). Therefore, it can be expected that the questions about compensation payments will be on the top of the political agenda in the negotiation process of the next enlargement of the EU. There are some reports that Slovenian agriculture should be treated differently than the general picture of CEEC (Bojnec and Swinnen, 1997; European Commission, 1995). In difference with the other applicant countries, the
producer prices are almost at the level of the EU and due to the natural and structural conditions, Slovenia is a net importer of food items with a smaller potential for production growth. In addition, the Slovenian agricultural policy framework (objectives and measures) is rather close to that of the CAP. In case of Slovenia, therefore, the enlargement should be less expensive for the EU, and the adjustment of the policy proposed in Agenda 2000 less dramatic than in case of other candidates. This question has only been discussed rather generally in literature and some detailed analysis of the impact of economic integration on Slovenian agriculture could be of a broader interest. The objective of the paper is, therefore, to contribute to the discussion on the EU enlargement with the estimation of the possible income and welfare consequences for the livestock sector in Slovenia by the use of empirical tools. One of the main objectives of the paper is to determine the real financial and policy dimension of the direct payments issue for Slovenian livestock production. In this way, a hypothesis emphasising the substantial dependence of the livestock sector in Slovenia on the level of EU direct payments after the accession is going to be tested.
(1) Stane Kav~i~, MSc, (2) Emil Erjavec, Associate Professor - University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Animal Science, Groblje 3, 1230 Domàle, Slovenia
34
METHODOLOGY In order to get some quantitative estimates of likely effects of different policy scenarios APAS and PAM models for Slovenian agriculture have been developed. The APAS is designed as econometric multi-commodity model, taking into account specific features of Slovenian agro-industry and recent policy changes. It is a partial equilibrium, dynamic, multi-market, synthetic, policy oriented simulation model, suitable to conduct sensitivity analysis and in this simple way incorporates different policy scenarios. On the other hand PAM has been used for analysing income, protection and competitive issues of the same policy options. Some results of APAS simulation are directly incorporated in PAM calculations both at individual producer as well as aggregate level, relaxing static nature of the original PAM. Also PAM results are fed back in APAS to perform simplified welfare analysis. APAS and PAM spreadsheet model for Slovenian agriculture is prepared to cover a period until 2010. For validation purposes the historical simulation method was used, comparing results for the past. Originally the model was used to compare pure price effects of different EU accession policy scenarios, but it has also the ability to simulate technological progress, incentive policy measures and production quotas. In the model, net income is calculated as: NI = VP - SS + Sb - Tx - Am - Nj - Int - Dp
where: NI net income (per hectare or head); Dp paid (hired) labour; VP value of production (at incentive prices); Am depreciation; SS intermediate consumption (variable costs); Nj brents (accounted also for own land); Sb subsidies; Intinterest (capital costs); Tx taxes. Table 1. Multipliers at different policy analysis levels Indicator (policy level) Income effects on the basis of incentive prices Producer surplus ( PS) on the basis of incentive prices Consumer surplus ( CS) on the basis of retail prices
Welfare effects are measured with producer and consumer surplus, taxpayers and net welfare effects. Different multipliers, shown in table 1, have been used for policy analysis. Welfare equations used in the model are: DPS = (PMod - PW)*QSW + 2 (PMod - PW)*(QSD-QSW) DCS = -[(PD - PW)*QDD + 2 (PD - PW)*(QDW-QDD)] DT = -[(PMod - PD)*QSD - (PD - PW)*(QDD-QSD)] DNW =DPS +DCS +DT where: DPS change in producer surplus; PW (reference) world price;DCS change in consumer surplus; QSW domestic production at world price (PL scenario);DT taxpayers effect; QSD actual domestic production (at model price); DNW change in net economic welfare; QDDdomestic consumption (at producer price); PMod model price; QDW domestic consumption at world price (PL scenario); PD (domestic) producer price.
Scenarios
To simulate possible EU accession effects, three basic questions of possible EU CAP adoption have been simulated: potential producer price level, eligibility to direct payments and structural support schemes with their impact on agricultural markets. Main features of investigated scenarios are presented in table 2.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Income and welfare model results are summarised in tables 3 to 5. Incomes of producers are extremely sensitive to different economic environment. Dairy farming is more profitable under EU+++ (income growth by 4%), while under EUo there is 36 % income reduction in compari-
Producer price 1.0 1.0 1.0

1.0
Direct payments 0.9 0.9 0.0

0.9
Structural payments 0.6 0.6 0.0

1.0
Taxpayers effects (DT) on the basis of agricultural policy costs (market costs only) Table 2. Description of investigated policy scenarios* Denotation BS PL EU+++ EU+-o EUo Description (all scenarios include world price trends)
Baseline scenario - continuation of current national agricultural policy (NAP) Complete price liberalisation - world price level Complete CAP adoption in accordance with Agenda 2000, higher producer price level, direct payments and whole package of structural payments Equal as EU+++, but without direct and only half structural payments Equal as EU+-o, but lower producer price levels
*BS scenario serves for comparison, while PL scenario makes it possible to simulate welfare effects.
Agriculture 6 (2000) Table 3. Income effects of Slovenian EU accession in livestock - projection for 2003 (per head of cow and bull, per 100 pig fatteners and 1000 broilers)
35
BS 2003 Milk [SIT/cow] Beef [SIT/head] Pork [SIT/100 fatteners] Poultry [SIT/1000 broilers] 143.894 37.203 112.385 6.534
EU+++ 149.930 47.026 -4.009 -23.787
EU+ - o 122.549 21.553 -44.829 -25.047
EU - - o 92.722 10.069 -142.791 -41.803
Table 4. Producer and consumer surplus at aggregate level - projection for 2003 mio SIT
Pruducer surplus Milk Beef Pork Poulty Milk Consumer surplus Beef Pork Poulty
BS EU+++ EU+-o EUo
14.033 12.821 11.503 7.196
10.837 10.406 7.036 4.412
7.897 6.819 6.750 5.079
3.973 2.875 2.859 1.567
-13.640 -11.307 -11.307 -7.184
-10.283 -6.914 -6.914 -4.223
-13.258 -11.431 -11.431 -8.760
-3.657 -2.704 -2.704 -1.527
Table 5. Taxpayers and net welfare effects at aggregate level - projection for 2003 mio SIT
Budget costs Milk Beef Pork Poulty Milk Net welfare Beef Pork Poulty
BS EU+++ EU+-o EUo
-4.641 -7.933 -3.970 -2.809
-3.178 -10.739 -3.320 -3.190
-318 -1.056 -532 -518
-764 -532 -452 -178
-4.248 -6.419 -3.774 -2.796
-2.624 -7.248 -3.199 -3.001
-5.679 -5.668 -5.213 -4.199
-448 -361 -297 -138
son with BS. Relative effect is even more emphasised in beef sector, with improvement of income situation by 26% or deterioration by 73% for the same comparisons. The worst prospective is foreseen in poultry production, where high losses are expected independently of accession scenario. Producer price in this sector is close to world price, with no accompanying support or protection measures, and effect of possible feed price reduction almost completely exhausted already in BS. Intensive pig rearing at family farm level should not expect much better income situation than in poultry, taking into account comparable size of production. To summarise, income situation of cattle production could improve in the case of eligibility for direct payments (premiums per head), but dramatic income deterioration is expected in the case of incomplete CAP adoption in all sectors under investigation and independently of accession conditions especially in poultry and pork sectors. Measures of economic welfare show that pork and poultry producers (each approx. 1 billion SIT), and despite higher income per dairy cow also dairy farmers (1.2 billion SIT) are losers even under EU+++ scenario, the latest due to decrease in aggregate milk production in comparison with BS. Under other accession scenarios reduction in producer surplus is even higher - in dairy farming decrease could achieve as much as 7 billion SIT and in beef
production nearly 6.4 billion SIT. These negative effects of accession on producer side are almost completely compensated by consumers. Their losses for four markets, when summed up, are reduced for 8.5 billion SIT under EU+++ and EU+-o, and for nearly 19 billion SIT under EUo, but still remains at the level of 22 billion SIT also under EUo. Budget costs of CAP implementation (EU+++) for 4 investigated commodities are the highest in beef (nearly 11 billion SIT) and milk production (8 billion SIT), and for 4 commodities together approx. 20 billion SIT (in comparison with less than 9 billion SIT under BS). Other accession scenarios are less expensive, since costs of taxpayers at aggregate level are reduced (by 2.2 billion SIT under EUo comparable to BS). Net economic welfare as aggregate measure of individual policy options economic efficiency is deteriorated due to increased budget costs under EU+++ scenario (with dead-weight loss of nearly 20 billion SIT in comparison with 13 billion SIT under BS), but remains on the level of BS under EU+-o scenario and brings relatively small improvement (approx. 3 billion SIT) under EUo scenario. Favourable net welfare effects are achievable only on the costs of producers (extreme income deterioration), while consumers benefit due to lower food prices irrespective of Slovenian EU accession conditions.
36
CONCLUSION Results obtained show extreme sensitivity of Slovenian livestock production on accession conditions, related with importance of pre-accession period and negotiation process. Differences of accession effects between products are very distinctive, from almost neutral effects in milk and beef sector under EU+++ to drastic deterioration in pork and poultry irrespective of accession scenario. In beef production the key question are direct payments. The future of meat production on pastures and grassland (beef, also lamb and goat) is dependent also on structural measures (foremost for less favoured areas), which could be of equal importance as direct payments (premiums per head). Measures of structural policy are even more important for milk production. In short term dairy sector is threatened also by likely negative impact of non-competitive dairy industry. In longer term dispersed production structure could leave even more negative effects than price adjustment (i.e. reduction), especially in milk sector operating under the environment of individual production quotas. Pork and poultry sectors will be in single European market confronted with very competitive and less protected conditions. Outlook for dispersed Slovenian family farms production is not rewarding, and difficult fight for survival is expected also for relative well organised large scale farm production, especially when taking
into account European trends and requirements in the fields of ecology and animal welfare.
REFERENCES
1. Baldwin, R., Francois, J. F., Portes, R. (1997): The costs and benefits of eastern enlargement: the impact on the EU and central Europe. Economic Policy, 24: 125-176 2. Bojnec, . and J. Swinnen (1997): The pattern of agricultural price distortion in Central and Eastern Europe. Food Policy, 22(4): 289-306. 3. Kav~i~, S. (2000): Ocena ekonomskih u~inkov agrarnopoliti~nih razmer v slovenskem kmetijstvu (Estimation of economic effects of agricultural policy options in Slovenian agriculture). Ph.D. Thesis. Domàle, Biotechnical Faculty, Dept. of Animal Science (v postopku) 4. Tangermann, S., T.E. Josling (1994): Pre-accession Agricultural Policies for Central Europe and the European Union. Final Report, European Commission, Phare Program, Brussels. 5. . European Commission (1995): Agricultural Situation and Prospects in the Central and Eastern European Countries: Slovenia. Working Document, European Commission DG VI, Brussels. 6. . European Commission (1996): The CAP and enlargement: economic effects of the compensatory payments. Reports and studies, 2: 1-16
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ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 631.1.016
PLANUNGSPRAXIS IN DER AGRARUNTERNEHMEN

G. Kemny(1), Gy. Alpr(2) Preliminary communication ZUSAMMENFASSUNG
Wir verffentlichen der Analyse und Bewertung der ersten 35 verarbeitenden Unternehmen einer Umfrage. Eine gewisse Unberechenbarkeit der mit der landwirtschaftlichen Produktion verbundenen Bedingungen verursachen bei den Unternehmen (80%) eindeutige Unsicherheit. Fast alle Unternehmen erstellen Produktions- und Finanzierungsplne. Es kann als typisch angesehen werden, dass die Plne der Unternehmen sind meinst kurzfristig, Jahresplne sind (77%) Schlsselwrter: Planung, Unsicherheit, Finanzierungsplan, Produktionsplan
EINFHRUNG Nach dem Systemwechsel vollzogen sich groe Vernderungen im ungarischen politischen und wirtschaftlichen Leben. Diese Vernderungen betrafen auch die ungarische Landwirtschaft. Durch die Umgestaltung der Eigentumverhltnisse gelangten 85% der landwirtschaftlichen Flchen im Privateigentum, die Zahl der Angestellten in der Landwirtschaft verminderte sich auf ein Drittel. Neue Agrarunternehmen wurden gegrndet, vorhandene umstrukturiert. Mit den Vernderungen in der Wirtschaftswelt, dem Strkerwerden der Elemente der Marktwirtschaft verschrfte sich auch die Konkurenz, was zur Aufwertung der Rolle der Managementfunktion und somit auch der Planung fhrte. Wir mchten in dieser Arbeit darauf hinweisen, in welcher Weise das Management der Agrarunternehmen plant und inwiefern diese Planungsarbeit den vernderten Anforderungen entspricht. Unsere Ziel ist es nicht, die gesamte Planungspraxis und deren Zusammenhnge zu beleuchten, sondern wir untersuchen nur einige uns wichtig erscheinende Parameter. MATERIAL UND METHODE Wir fhrten eine Umfrage in den Agrar-Gesellschaftsunternehmen mit unterschiedlichen Hauptttigkeiten in der sdtransdanubischen Region Ungarns durch. Die Umfrage bezog sich auf die Grunddaten der Unternehmen, das Sammeln von fr Entscheidungen notwendiger Informationen, die Unternehmensplanung und die Kontrollarbeit in den Unternehmen. Den Fragebogen lieen wir von den Unternehmensleiter in Form eines Standardinterviews ausfllen. In unserer Arbeit verffentlichen wir der Analyse und Bewertung der ersten 35 verarbeitenden Unternehmen der Umfrage. Die Zahl der Angestellte der Agrarunternehmen lag zwischen 4 und 145, der Jahreseinkommen zwischen 80000 und 1141156 Tausend Forint.
EIGENE UNTERSUCHUNGEN
a) Steigende Anforderungen an die Planung
In den folgenden Punkten fassen wir die Ursachen der steigenden Anforderungen an die Planung zusammen: Unternehmungen sind einer wachsenden Dynamik der Umwelt ausgesetzt. Im Zuge der Mrkte und infolge technologischen Fortschritts macht sich ein Innovationsdruck bemerkbar. Die Komplexitt der Probleme nimmt allgemein zu. Die Kapitalintenzitt der Agrarproduktion nimmt zu. Die stndige Bewertung der Produktions-, Wirtschaftsund Finanzierungsprozesse ist unerllich. b) Unsicherheit der Produktion Die Unsicheheit der mit der landwirtschaftlichen Produktion verbundenen Bedingungen steigt. Das belegen auch die Ergebnisse der Umfrage. Den Unter- nehmensleiter stellten wir folgende Frage: Halten Sie die heutigen Produktionsbedingungen fr sicher?. Die Antwort musste auf einer Skala von 0-6 eintragen werden. 0 bedeutet vllige Unsicherheit, 6 vllige Sicherheit. Der folgenden Abbildung ist die Verteilung der Punkt- bewertung zu entnehmen:
(1) Gabor Kemeny, Ph.D Student, (2) Gyorgy Alpar, Dozent - Kaposvrer Universitt, Fakultt fr Tierproduktion, Guba S. u. 40, 7400 Kaposvr, Ungarn
38
12 12 10 Unternehmen 8 6 4 2 0 0 1 2 3 Punkte 4 5 6 5 5 2 0 0 11
Abschluss von Vertrgen (6.) und hierher gehrt auch die Planung (4.). Wir stellten den Unternehmern die Frage: Mit welchen Methoden erhhen Sie die Sicherheit des Produktions?. Das Gewichtigkeit der angegebenen Methoden maen wir auf eine 7-Stufen-Skala. Die Methode, die gar nicht angewandt wurde, bewerteten wir mit 0, jene, die bei der Senkung der Unsicherheit und des Risikos eine groe Rolle spielte, mit 6 Punkten.
5 Punktedurchschnitt 4 3 2 1 0 1. 2. 3. Methode 4. 5. 6. 4,6 3,457143 2,457143 2,542857 1,714286
Abbildung 1. Bewertung der Produktionssicherheit
4,285714
Die Unternehmen insgesamt bewerten die Produktionsbedingungen als sehr unsicher. 11 Unternehmen bewertete die Produktionssicherheit mit 0, 5 mit 1, 12 mit 2 (das sind 80% der Befragten). Der gewichtete aritmetische Durchschnitt der angegebenen Punkte liegt bei 1,485, das sind nur 25% des erreichbaren Maximums.
c) Faktoren der unsicherheit
Die Unsiherheit und das Risiko knnen von innerbetriebliche Faktoren (zB. Technologie) und die auerbetrieblichen Faktoren (natrliche Gegebenheiten, Markt, Preise usw.) bestimmt werden. Die Unternehmen sehen die Ursachen der Unsicherheit und des Risikos in folgenden Faktoren:
Tabelle 1. Faktoren der Unsicherheit und des Risikos
Abbildung 2. Verwendete Methoden zur Steigerung der Sicherheit
Bei der Senkung der Unsicherheit wurde den Vertragabschlssen die grte Bedeutung (77%) beigemessen, an zweiter Stelle lag die Diversifikation mit 71% und an dritter die Versicherungabschlsse mit 58%. Beachtenswert ist die Streuung der angegebenen Punktzahl bei der Bewertung der einzelnen Methoden.
Faktoren 1. Produktions- und Witterungsfaktoren 2. Mangel an auerbetrieblichen Informationen 3. Unsichere Marktlage 4. Unberechenbare Absatzpreise 5. Vernderungen im Subventionssystem
Als grten Unsicherheits- und Risikofaktor gaben die Unternehmer die unsichere Marktlage an. Von den 35 Befragten setzten 15 diesen Faktor an erste Stelle. Viele der Unternehmen (ebenfalls 15), die diesen Faktor nicht an erster Stelle genannt haben, gaben ihn als 2. Faktor an. Bei 12 Unternehmen sind die unberechenbare Preise der 2. Unsicherheitsfaktor. 5 Stimmen gaben die Vernderungen im Subventionssystem als 3. Faktor an. Es ist interessant, dass die sich aus den Produktionsfaktoren ergebende Unsicherheit von den Unternehmen als nicht so bedeutend eingestuft wurde wie die aueren Wirtschaftswirkungen, z.B. die Auswirkungen des Marktes. d) Mglichkeiten der Verminderung der Unsicherheit Fr die Verminderung der Unsicherheit und des Risikos sind mehrere Mglichkeiten bekannt. Diese sind: Diversifikation (1.), Versicherungen (2.), Schaffug von Reserven (3.), Vernderungen in der Rechtsform (5.),
I. 2 1 15 12 5
Reichenfolge II. 2 0 15 14 3
III. 7 1 3 5 12
Die drei wichtigste Methode zeigten die kleinste Streuung, bereinstimmend mit der Reinfolge. Die Beurteulung der drei fr weniger wichtig gehaltenen Methoden ist nicht mehr so einheitlich wie die der ersten drei. Nachdenklich stimmt die Beurteulung der Planung. Sie liegt mit
Tabelle 2. Die Streuung bei der Beurteilung der Methoden zu Steigerung der Sicherheit
Methode Diverzifikation Versicherungen Reserven Planalternativen Rechtsform Vertrge
Streuung 1,506289 1,975480 2,392917 2,091198 2,108407 1,310590
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einem Durschnitt von nur 2,54 (42%) an vierter Stelle. Die mit der Planerstellung verbundene Beurteulung wird von weiteren Fragen ergnzt. e) Planungspraxis Die Umfrage ersteckte sich auch darauf, welche Plne von den Agrarunternehmen erstellt werden, mit wieviel Planalternativen und fr welchen Zeitraum.
(42,8%) bezeichnend ist. Die Unternehmen sind bemht, die Sicherheit der Planung durch die Analyse eines bereits abgeschlossenen Zeitraums zu erhhen.
SCHLUSSFOLGERUNGEN Die in der sdtransdanubischen Region ttigen Agrarunternehmen mssen erkennen, dass die dynamische Umwelt, die Vernderung der Anforderungen des Marktes,
Tabelle 3. Von den Unternehmen erstellte Plne und Anzahl der Alternativen Plne Finanzierung Produktion Investition Personal Absatz Integrierte Unternehmen 34 32 4 1 1 13 Alternativen 42 39 6 1 1 14 Durchschnitt der Alternativen 1,23 1,21 1 1 1 1,07
Von 35 Unternehmen erstellten 34 (97%) Finanzierungsplne mit nur 42 Alternativen. 32 Unter- nehmen (91%) erstellten einen Produktionsplan mit 39 Alternativen. Der Prozentsatz der anderen Teilplne ist sehr niedrig. Ein integrierter Unternehmensplan wird nur von 13 Unternehmen (37%) angefertigt. Die Unsicherheit der ueren Faktoren erschwert eine Planung, da die Zukunft schwer berschaubar ist. Das beweist die folgende Abbildung (3. Abb.), die das von den Unternehmen in Betracht gezogene Zeitintervall bzw. die Dauer der angefertigten Plne veranschaulicht. Auf der Abbildung ist gut sichtbar, dass die meisten Unternehmen (27, 77% der Unternehmen) nur Plne fr ein Jahr erstellen. Ein viel lngeres Zeitintervall umfasst die Vorstudie, ein Rckblick in die Verganganheit. Das hufigste Intervall liegt bei 3 Jahren, das fr 15 Unternehmen
der Innovationsdruck, die Komlexitt der Wirtschaftsprobleme die tgliche Bewertung der Produktions- und Finanzierungsprozesse unerlsslich machen. Eine gewisse Unberechenbarkeit der mit der landwirtschaftlichen Produktion verbundenen Be- dingungen verursachen bei den Unternehmen (80%) eindeutige Unsicherheit. Die Ursache der Verunsicherung wird von den Unternehmen mit zwei Faktoren bezeichnet: mit der Unsicherheit des Marktes und die damit verbundenen unberechenbaren Absatzpreise. Sicherheit fr die Produktion sehen sie in erster Linie im vorhandensein von Absatzvertrgen. Der Umfrage nach halten die Befragten noch die Diversifikation fr wichtig. Die bewusste Unternehmensfhrung, die bei der Problemlsung helfende Planung wird von den Unternehmensleitern als vierter Faktor anerkannt.Trotzdem
33 29 25 21 17 13 9 5 1 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 Jahre
Abbildung 3. Das von den Unternehmen in Betracht gezogene Zeitintervall
40
erstellen fast alle Unternehmen Produktions-und Finanzierungsplne. Es kann als typisch angesehen werden, dass die Plne der Unternehmen sind meist kurzfristig, Jahresplne sind (77%). Der Grund ihrer Vorsicht liegt wahrcheinlich in der lngere Zeit anhaltenden Unberechenbarkeit der wirtschaftlichen Umwelt sowie im Mangel langfristiger Prognosen von Seiten der Wirtschaftsforschungsinstituten.
PLANNINGPRACTICE OF AGRICULTURAL ENTERPRISES

ABSTRACT In the operation of agricultural enterprises, changes should cause an increase in the demand on planning. But, practically just a contrary tendence appears. 35 managers was asked in a standard interview, who found the circumstances quite uncertain for production. Decreasing the risc and uncertainty, the apply different methods - but the rank of planning is still only at the 4th place. 97% of enterprises prepare financial plans, 91% fix production plans. Other partial plans are made in quite a low rate. 77% of enterprises examined are fixing only short term, annual plans. Keywords: planning, uncertainty, financial plan, production plan
LITERATUR
1. Hanyecz L.: Tervezs s stratgia. JPTE Kiad, Pcs, 1995 2. Hanyecz L.: Tervezs s controlling a vezetsi, irnytsi folyamatokban. Vezetstudomny. XXX. vf. 1999 7-8. szm, p. 30-37. 3. Wild, J.: Grundlagen der Unternehmensplanung. Rowolt Verlag, Hamburg, 1974
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ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 631.15.153"405":636
ECONOMIC UNITY OF PRODUCTION AND TRADE OF SLAUGHTER ANIMALS AND MEAT (PATHS OF INITIATION OF LONG TERM SOLUTIONS IN CROATIAN ANIMAL BREEDING)
K. Ben~evi}(1), I. Katalini}(2) A. Petri~evi}(3), G. Kuec(4) Professional paper ABSTRACT
For starting a long term programmes in Croatian animal production, formation of economic unities is necessary. Presentation and explanation of production and trade unity for animal production and marketing with subjects and phases is given here. It is pointed out that production of slaughter animals and meat is key interest of market and economic policy as well as of development of agricultural country. It seems that production and trade of meat in Croatia is not organized enough in overall market competition and in meat processing. Creating the economic unity of production and trade of slaughter animals can help in relative fast and efficient solving of problems accumulated in agriculture, especialy in meat production (PIK Vrbovec, Danica, Bejle etc). For initiating and getting in function the phases of production and trade of slaughter animals and meat, proper legislation should be introduced. This legislation should comprehencively define the idea of agricultural economy as a subject of legislative and normisation acts for overall, process and market oriented functioning of multidisciplinary agricultural systems. Additionaly, law on trade of slaughter animals, meat and agricultural products should be introduced in order to form a market and determine the share and obligations of certain participants in structure of such market.
INTRODUCTION Agriculture of Croatia, as the country in transition, needs systematic and organized definition of unities. According to this definition, number of issues on current state and development of economic unity should be continuously studied and solved. Beside meat production, definition of unities also aplies on trade and marketing of animals and meat which is today not sinchronised in inland trade but also in export-import operations. Long time of nonsinchronised production and market gives impresion that there is no organised trade and market of this products in Croatia. Because of this the data on animal and meat production are insufficient and inaccurate; there is a lack of real analysis and efforts on organized solving this situation. The economic damage, which results from this, is huge and consequences almost ireparable. ABOUT ECONOMIC UNITY OF PRODUCTION AND TRADE OF SLAUGHTER ANIMALS AND MEAT Current form of animal production organisation in EU we named for our conditions economic unity of production and trade of slaughter animals and meat. It is ment to be presented as programm for development in meat production. It is initially founded on agricultural economy which is usually owned by one family. The term is defined as:"Economic unity of production and trade of slaughter animals and meat" (in further text-unity) is: Unity is long
term, structurally connected with work in agriculture and slaughterhouses, which operates initial processes in production of animal food and finishing processes when the product of unity-meat turn up to be asset and goes to trading place. In agricultural economies there can be several economic unities. Unity and agricultural economies without market and without protection from the state are sensitive on different blows in animal, meat and meat products market. This blows severely damaged unity in Croatia in past decade. Unities dont have functional binds and organisation within agricultural production, slaughterhouses and market. They lack necessary development programmes for conecting in order to reach optimal values, quality structure, competetiveness and profit.
SLAUGHTER AND MEAT PROCESSING ISSUES Slaughter and meat processing in Croatia act separately and disorganised within market and economy of the state. This branches dont have conceptual idea and long term programm on position of plants or on magnitude and content of slaughter and meatprocessing capacities. The role of slaughterhouse in meat production and on market
(1) Krsto Ben~evi}, Ph.D Scientific Councellor - Ul. grada Vukovara 224/VI, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia, (2) Ivan Katalini}, Ph.D - Croatian Advisery Service, Ul. grada Vukovara 78, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia, (3) Antun Petri~evi}, Professor Emeritus, (4) Goran Kuec, MSc - J. J. Strossmayer University of Osijek, Faculty of Agriculture, Trg sv.Trojstva 3, 31000 Osijek, Croatia
42
is not defined as well as their process and market relation to animal and meat production. Expert organisations which should deal with all the questions of managing and developing of this kind of prodution do not exist. Within slaughter plants and people involved there is no interest in colaboration with animal production unities becuase import of meat created addiction on import licences and group of powerfull people which rule the import of the meat from all EU and other surces. This hurts unities. Every subject in sluahgter business works in the way import of the meat and terms of payment enable. A lot of people open slaughterhouses quick, but state slaughterhouses and big meat industry are going down in business.
part in production and market as organised economy should be followed. Often changes of social and economic systems of production in Croatia borught some terms which are not clearly defined and by this their usage in organizational and market sence is not fully clear. A lot of terms and expressions appeared by inpropriate translations from more languages rich with complex words as well as from contradictory economic systems of socialism and capitalim. First of all we should start with terms of agricultural economy, agriculture, economic unity and other basic terms for organization of agriculture and bring them to the market or other purposes with all activ explanations. Elements for development of agriculture should be reached.
CONDITIONS FOR FUTURE OF THE UNITY The future of Croatia is in joining EU, WTO and CEFTA. This means that Croatia should accept all ways in doing business, development and competetiveness. In agriculture of EU countries, like in every part of economic unity, everything is precisely organized and dinamicaly monitored according to programme, laws and regulations. They are synchronised with organized subjects, well defined and dynamicaly interelated with development. What is happening in Croatia now is that disorganized parts of unity search the means for survival and exclusively from the Ministry of agriculture and forestry. This is because framework and definitions of subjects which should and could initiate systematic solotion to the problems are not given so every answer is looked for in Ministry which lacks the unit for oraganization of the unities. Our efforts in aplying the european regulations and norms produce difficulties to existing subjects. Because of disorganisation of subjects and unities the EU regulatios have been imposed by force, but this is not possible without basic organisation of subjects into unity and without ordered market and means so there is no move foreward. The relation of the unity to slaughtering, agricultural and other productions have to be comprehencively concieced and defined. Without this, like now, trade of slaughter animals, meat and meat products become barging and creates grey economy. This is certainly not the way of dealing with processes and relations within unity and remove the conditions which destroy agriculture of Croatia. ABOUT TERMS AND THEIR MEANINGS Before programming and organizing the development of economic unities it is necessary to clear out the terms and roles of unities and subjects.After that, roles of subjects should be binded in economic unities in EU manner. Processes of producing the goods for market should be divided and function and processes according to which subjects and contents of unity together with activities take
POSITION AND SIGNIFICANCE OF ANIMAL PRODUCTION ECONOMIC UNITIES FOR AGRICULTURE AND ECONOMY Animal production as branch of agriculture, with economic unities and process directions of market goods is the biggest buyer and consumer in agricultural activity. Animal production spends about 70% of overrall agricultural production. For this reason intensity and magnitude of agricultural production in EU conditions are influenced great deal by animal production.Without developed animal production agriculture becomes extensive and suffers significant economic consequences. This is very obvious in Croatia: animal production in past 10 years is cut in two and agriculture is colapsing. Animal production by its composition, magnitude and directions determine the the magnitude and structure of agriculture in general.This count in all elements of agriculture: soil utilisation intensity, selection of the plants, the ways of production, turns in plant production, total development, employment and main incomes of agricultural economies per acre and in total. Sustainning the fertility and biogenity of soils is hardly possible without animal production. AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY Agricultural economies in our conditions and for our way of development we tried to define in 1999 as: Mulidisciplinary production units which manage agricultural land as nacional good in the way which secure human nutrition, protection of land and environment, social stability and profit. Term family economy suits better to sociological thoughts than to process and market organisation.The term family economy is used with this meaning in EU agriculture. On the type of agricultural economies regarding the magnitude and structure, a lot of following economic activities depend: manufacture, industry, merchandise, turism, social and scientific activities and other. Multidisciplinary family economy lives and acts in interaction of natural resources ad soil with society and market. With regard to the land surface, modern develop-
43
ment of society with hyperproduction of food, agricultural economies by techic and biotechnology seek optimal ways for classic products such as meat, milk, weats and new structural additional products and changes for income, conditions and way of life.
ABOUT PRODUCTION OF SLAUGHTER ANIMALS AND MEAT Meat production is defined as: Biological process which starts by production of plant mass and renewable energy on the land of agricultural economy, by selection of animals for reproduction according to purpose, by rearing and fattening of bred animals , ending by slaughtering, processing and chilling the meat in slaughterhouses. In slaughterhouses as end point of economic unity from tissues of animals made by transformations of mass and energy of plants, slughter yields meat as good for market.Meat is transported from the slagterhouse as fresh, prepared for consuming and as raw material for further processing. Unity which in organized processes till market moves the chain of processes to the selling goods for sale is key unity for strategic and market oriented view on agricultural economies. In a whole, in phases of production, starting with renewable mass of energy from plant production, than by digestion and matabolism of matter in selected animals, animal tissues are produced, which after slaughter become meat and goods. Processes organised for purpose in a whole ensure optimal management of energy up to quantity and quality of meat for market and to organic-biologic manure for sustaining the biogenity of soil. Such organized unity is important base for managing, bilancing, sinchronization of quantity, quality, dynamics and costs of production. Theese unities should be systemeticaly organized by goverment. Goverment should create and implement the concept of unities as a line of goods with legislative needed and means of encouragement and development. Main points in unity, for acting of the system and instruments of the Goverment-Ministry of agriculture and forestry, when it implements the concept of purpose unities in agricultural economy are:
1. point of animal food-plant production- between plant and animal production including one between soil and plant production, 2. point of meat production between animal and meat production and slaughterhouses where amount and quality of meat is determined, 3. point of trade of meat between slaughterhouse and meat market. In these points of the system unities, relations between plant and meat production, slaughterhouses and meat market are determined by bilance and contracts.In overall organized unity, by application of instruments of economic policy, it is possible to ensure the path to quality and production price capable to compete the developed countries in EU. Basic work is in real bilancing and contracts, i.e. fulfillment of contracts in unity and with market. Market is cleared by specific Law on trading the slaughter animals, meat and meat products with regard to state of organization in meat production of Croatia. The form of organization and the way of implementation of market competition is regulated by the law.
MEAT PROCESSING AND UNITY Meat processing or production of meat products is activity which produced meat forms into market and consuming forms. In relation to unity it is a buyer of final product or good from the unity on the market, at position of the final phase in slaughterhouse. Meat processing processes and preparation for consuming are directed at preparation and processing in different meals in the best suitable way. Meat processing is in fact bigger or smaller scale manufacture or industry kitchens and food preparation plants on market. They are placed before consumer and behind meat producer. For this reason, meat processing is processing activity placed in food mannufacture or food industry, and it develops in domain of food trade, while slaughterhouses belong in unities i.e. agricultural (animal production) development unities.
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ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 637.5.04/.07
POSSIBILITIES FOR THE REDUCTION OF FAT AND CHOLESTEROL LEVEL IN MEAT ANIMALS
S. êpin(1), S. @gur(2) Scientific review ABSTRACT
The majority of consumers refuse meat with higher levels of fat, because of possible association between high levels of saturated fat, cholesterol and heart disease. The meat production tries to fit consumers preferences with lowering fat content of meat. Such meat should also contain less cholesterol. In the following contribution the possibilities for reducing fat and cholesterol content and altering fatty acid composition of meat are discussed. In meat animals the estimated heritability for fat content is relatively high (between 0.3 and 0.6). This means that selection represents a powerful tool for fat reduction. Even better possibility for reducing fat and altering fatty acid composition is adequate nutrition. The decrease of animal age and weight at slaughter can also reduce carcass fat content. Also the use of transgenic animals and different growth stimulators represents a wide range of possibilities to reduce fat content in farm animals. Keywords: meat, carcass quality, fat, cholesterol
INTRODUCTION The current consumer opposition to fatty meat is increasing especially in Europe, and is rising also in other countries of the world. The first reason for refusal is high energy value of fatty meat, the second, more important reason is the warning of health professionals who state that too high level of fat in human nutrition, specially saturated fat and cholesterol, increase the risk of coronary heart disease. Meat production therefore has to adapt to the current market requirements on one hand, and has to consider the present as well as the future consumer attitudes towards fat in meat on the other (Boss et al., 1990), for the change of carcass composition is a time consuming process. The main objective of this paper is to analyse genetic and environmental effects that influence fat and cholesterol level in meat. GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON FAT DEPOSITS IN CARCASS OF MEAT ANIMALS
In animals fat is deposited in different parts of the body and according to different priority, often different to our expectations. Hence, fat in animals is deposited first of all in the body cavities, mainly in the abdominal and pelvic cavity, followed by intermascular fats, subcutane, and lastly intramuscular fats, which causes marbling of meat. From the carcass and meat quality point of view, opposite priority would be much better, because intramuscular fat increases sensory meat traits and is therefore most desired. To a certain extent we also desire subcutane fat, for it prevents carcass from excessive chilling losses during
cooling process and storage of meat. The other fats listed above are not welcome. Genetic and environmental effects are different for separate kinds of fat. Bass et al. (1990) reports of different heritabilities for fat in cattle. The lowest is reported for marbled meat (h2 = 0.42), and the highest for kidney fat (h2 = 0.72), which indicates that marbled meat is the least influenced by selection, although this heritability rate is still rather high. Even higher heritability estimates are reported by Schwerer and Rebsamen (1990) regarding intramuscular fat in different pig breeds (0.48-0.56). Ollivier and Sellier (1982) also write about high and numerous heritabilities, between 0.4 to 0.6 and higher for back fat thickness, and for fat percentage in carcass. Schwerdtfeger et al.(1990) state genetic correlation between intramuscular fat and meat rate, back fat thickness, side fat thickness, and meat/fat rate 0.60, 0.15, 0.53, and 0.47, respectively. Similar heritabilities are reported for sheep by Bass et al. (1990) for different locations of deposited fat at the constant body mass and age. Nort and Bell (1990) report of rather high heritabilities for fat content in chicken carcass (h2 = 0.5). Even higher heritability is stated by Chambers (1990), according to Lewis (1990). Fat quantity in carcass of meat animals or in meat is apart from genetic influence, equally or even strongly influenced by the age of animals at slaughter, and by nutrition.
(1) Slavko êpin, Full Professor, (2) Silvester @gur, Assistant Professor University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Zootechnical Department, Groblje 3, 1230 Domàle, Slovenia
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THE EFFECT OF AGE AT SLAUGHTER Bermann (1994) according to Dikemann (1997) reports that in meat animals the increase of muscle tissue mass and protein content in carcass is almost linear with birth to slaughter maturity. Fat increase in this period is faster than the growth of muscle, and at the end of fattening period it exceeds the intensity of muscle growth for almost 200%. Thus the most effective solution for fat decrease in carcasses is slaughter of young animals at lighter slaughter weight. With this precaution the intramuscular fat can be greatly reduced, yet it is the intramuscular fat that is most desired. Similar results are reported also by numerous other authors. The Slovene research results are identical (Cepin, 1980, Kempster et al., 1982, Bass et al., 1990). There is a problem of objective estimation for fat level at slaughter (Bass et al., 1990), because the subjective estimation is not reliable, and the objective estimation gained by instruments and based on ultrasound presents too high expenses for practical use. THE EFFECT OF SEX Not castrated male animals are in comparison to females of the same breed, fed by similar diet, liable not to get fat, and have therefore much less fat content in carcass than the female animals. Castrated males have mean values for fatness as a rule. The so called dimorphism is specially pronounced in cattle. As reported by Cepin (1980) castrates had 29%, and heifers 73% more fat (tallow) than the bulls at almost the same diet and within the same breed. Research also proved greater differences between males and females in the case of meat and bone content. Steers had 3%, and heifers 7% less meat, and 2% and 4% less bones, respectively. Similar results are reported by Berg et al. (1978), and Bass et al. (1990) for cattle and sheep. Sexual dimorphism is also expressed in pigs (Johnston, 1993). But it is not possible to use less fatty young boars. They have to be castrated because of the unpleasant odour. In most countries it is not allowed to trade with pork of not castrated males (Seideman et al., 1982). Unfortunately young castrates have much more deposited fat, compared to young sows, which is opposite to ruminants, even though they were fed with a very similar diet. Ozkon et al. (1997) and Puchajda et al. (1997) report statistically significant differences in the rate of abdominal fat of males and females in broilers and turkeys. THE EFFECT OF BREED Differences between breeds in various meat animal species are quite high in regard to fat percentage rate in carcasses. Several authors report very different heriatbilities, from nearly 0.20 to 0.70 for fat quantity or fat percentage rate in meat carcass (Bass et al., 1990). Relatively high genotype effect on fat content means that selection can effectively decrease fat content in carcasses, yet it has to be planned well in advance. Specially in ani-
mals like cattle, where due to the long duration of reproductive cycle, the effects of selection are not seen so soon. The rate of trimmed fat in carcass significantly differs among cattle breeds at constant age or at constant final weight. Koch et al. (1979) reports the lowest quantity of trimmed fat in the Italian beef breed Kianina (12.3%), and the highest one at Angus breed, as well as in crossbreeds Hereford x Angus (21.5 and 20.9%). French beef breeds Limousin and Charollais have approximate 2%, and the dual purpose Simmental breed 3.6% higher level of fat than Kianine breed. Research of Slovene breeds and their crossbreeds for fat content in carcass show similar defferences. (êpin et al., 1987, 1993, 1994a, êpin and @gur, 1993). Significant differences are reported also by Kennedy et al. (1985) for separate pig breeds, i. e. Landrace 27.8%, Large White 23.7, and Duroc 21.9%. Most often meat and also fat content is measured with back fat thickness, either manually or with instruments. In sheep, carcass fat percentage is even higher than it is in pigs, and ranges from 20% in most meaty Texel breed to 38.5% in most fatty Southdown breed. Ozkon et al. (1997), and Edwin and Moran (1997) state statistically significant genotype effect on abdominal fat content in broilers.
NUTRITIONAL EFFECT Nutrition is the most important influence on fat level in carcasses or fat content in meat. By fattening for meat production, we wish to gain the highest possible quantity and the highest possible quality of meat with the suitable level of fat content. But we are not always successful in the achievement of this goal, mainly due to incorrect nutrition. Very often the rations are energy rich (feeding ad libitum), mostly at the end of fattening period, causing excessive fat deposits, which have negative influence on meat quality and commercial value of carcasses (êpin, 1980; êpin et al., 1994b; Mersman, 1987). Mersman (1987) cites numerous authors, who also report of the negative effect of limited nutrition. Such nutrition causes aggression in animals and only lowers intramuscular fat (marbling). As a consequence sensory meat traits are thus reduced as well. Increased nutrition intensity with a higher level of concentrates in a ration, and forage ad libitum, caused an increased fat percentage rate in carcass, from 10.8 to 14.6% in bulls, and from 12.7 to 19.2% in heifers (êpin, 1980; êpin et al., 1994b). These results indicate a strong dimorphism, which is not rare in intensive meat production. Similar results are reported by Fortin et al. (1980) for bulls and steers of Angus and Holstein breed, especially if fed ad libitum and at 70% reduced diet. If animals are fed ad libitum, fat content is significantly higher, the same as in Angus beef breed, which is known for high fat percentage rate. The same effect of feeding ad libitum and for restrictive diet is noticed in sheep, but
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here the sexual dimorphism is not so pronounced (James et al., 1983). Campbell et al. (1983) report increased back fat thickness from 13.1 to 16.9 mm in boars, and from 13.3 to 20.3 in young sows, if energy intake was increased from 14.5 to 34.2 MJ per day. Significant nutritional effect on fat content is also reported for chickens, while sexual dimorphism is less expressed compared to other animal species (Kubena et al., 1974, Jakson et al., 1982). Marbling is closely related to the total quantity of fat in carcass. Great improvement of sensory traits in beef can be noticed if intramuscular fat level is increased from 1.8 to 2.5% (Wood, 1995). Later on the constant increase of intramuscular fat does not change the sensory traits to such an extent any more. Similar is reported by Bejerholm and Barton-Gade (1986) for pork. It may thus be concluded that good sensory traits can be reached at a relatively low fat content. The same importance as for fat quantity applies for fat quality, expressed as fatty acid composition. There are great differences existing in fatty acid composition among different domestic animal species, and there are breed or genotype differences within the same species in fatty acid composition. These differences are reported by Schwertdgeger et al.(1990), Surman et al.(1990), Wood et al. (1996) for pigs, and Rule et al.(1997) for cattle. Quite an effect on fatty acid composition is shown in the carcass structure, seen by phenotypic correlation that was calculated for pigs. With increased meatiness, the saturated fatty acid content is reduced. This means that selection for better meat rate at the same time also changes fatty acid composition. The most important effect on fatty acid composition has animal nutrition, especially in the case of non-ruminants, for they absorb fatty acids and then return them unchanged to the fat deposits in the body. As a result the addition of rape seed to pig nutrition decreases stearic, and increases oleic, linoleic and linolenic fatty acids in back fat (Gill et al., 1995). Higher level of saturated fatty acids is characteristic for fatty tissue of ruminants, if compared to non-ruminants, and is a consequence of hydrogenisation in the rumen, where saturated become unsaturated fatty acids, with lower number of double bounds. With suitable nutrition there is a possibility to change fatty acid composition also in ruminants. Mandel et al. (1997) report of increased n-3 concentration, and decreased n-6 concentration of fatty acids in the meat of steers, who received fish meal in the diet. Enser et al. (1998) report of increased saturated and n-3 concentration, and a decrease in n-6 concentration in beef. Decreased rate of saturated fatty acids in meat of animals fattened with grass is not appropriate from the human nutrition point of view, because the proportion of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids should be at least 0.4 according to the Food Advisory Committee (Enser et al., 1998). On the other hand the increase of n-3 fatty ac-
ids is better and more important than the P:S proportion. Ruminant fat contains also an important part of conjugated linoleic acid, which has favourable effects on health condition. According to Enser et al. (1999) it protects against malignant growth, arteriosclerose, has positive influence on immune system and energy distribution in muscle and fatty tissue. The influence of nutrition on the increase of this fatty acid in beef was proven if flax seed or fish oil, and the combination of both were added to cattle nutrition. The addition of unsaturated fatty acids two to three times increased the concentration of linoleic acid. But it is also true that parallel to the increased concentration of unsaturated fatty acids there exists a danger of their oxidation, and thus formation of harmful substances. Therefore it is necessary to think about the improved concentration of antioxidants in meat, to reduce the harmful process. One of the reasons for the rejection of fatty meat is the cholesterol content. Opinions on the effect of cholesterol in food on cholesterol in plasma are still not the same, just as they are not regarding the cholesterol concentration in meat. We could say that it mainly depends on fat concentration , specially in pork (Honikel and Seuss, 1993). The results are much different for beef. According to VanKoevering et al. (1995) the rise of cholesterol concentration is linear to the rise of intramuscular fat, yet according to Berg et al. (1985) the highest cholesterol level was found in meat without marbling effect. Offsprings of bulls with high genetic potential had lower cholesterol concentration in carcass than offsprings of bulls with mean genetic growth potential. It may be the consequence of lower fattiness of the first group. Cholesterol concentration increased with the age of animals within each group in regard to the beginning of fattening period. However, the cholesterol concentration in ML Dorsi was all the time unchanged and was not influenced neither by genotype, nor by the age. Clarke (1997) presents various possibilities for the reduction of cholesterol level in meat. The possibilities that may change cholesterol concentration in meat are: the choice of suitable animal breed or genotype, suitable nutrition, mainly the right fatty acid and mineral content, usage of different pharmaceuticals, mostly those that influence growth rate and chemical composition of carcass, the choice of the right time for slaughter, and last but not least, the cooking or the preparation of meat. High cholesterol content is also caused by copper deficiency (Bakalli et al., 1995). However, the most important factor to be considered in the reduction of cholesterol level in all these methods, is low fat concentration. It is reduced fat concentration that is at the moment presenting the only real possibility to reduce cholesterol content in meat.
CONCLUSION To meet the consumer requirements for less fatty meat and lower cholesterol level, the following conclusions are drown from the analysed possibilities to reduce fat percentage rate in carcass and in meat:
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10. êpin, S., korjanc, D., @gur, S. (1994a): Klavna kakovost in lastnosti mesa mladih bikov treh naih pasem. Znanost in praksa v govedoreji, 18. zv., p. 105-112. 11. êpin, S., êpon, M., korjanc, D. (1994b): Influence of growth intensity on carcass and meat characteristics of Brown bulls. Znan. Prak. Poljopr.tehnol., Osijek, Vol. XXIV sv.1, p. 52-59. 12. êpin, M., @gur, S. (1993): Fizkalno kemi~ne in senzori~ne lastnosti mesa bikov rjave pasme. Znanost in praksa v govedoreji, BF, Zootehnika, 17.zv., p. 83-89. 13. Dikeman, M.E. (1997): Reducing the fat content by production practies. V Pearson, A.M., Dutsun, T.R. (edt.) Production and processing of healthy meat, poultry and fish products Blackie academic&professional. London, p. 150-190. 14. Edwin, T., Moran, J. (1997): Quality of poultry meat as affected by genetic and management factors. Poultry meat quality. Proceedings of the XIII. European Symposium on the quality of poultry meat. M1, p. 31-36. 15. Enser, M., Hallet, K.G., Bewett, B., Fursey, G.A.J., Wood, J.D., Harrington, G. (1998) Fatty acid content and composition of UK beef and lamb muscle in relation to production system and implications for human nutrition. Meat Sci., 49, p. 329-341. 16. Enser, M., Scollan, N.D., Choi, N.J., Kurt, E., Harrington, G., Wood, J.D. (1999) Effect of dietary lipid content on the content of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) in beef muscle. Anim. Sci. 96. p. 143-146. 17. Fortin, A., Reid, J.T., Maiga, A.M., Sim, D.W., Wellington, G.H. (1980): Effect of energy intake level and influence of breed and sex on the physical composition of the carcass of cattle. J. Anim. Sc., 51, p. 331-9. 18. Gill, B.P., McCone, S., Onibi, G.E., Peatfield, S., Gall, K. (1995) Effect of inclusion rate and withdrawal of full-fat rapeseed on the performance and carcass fatty acid profile of finishing pigs. Anim. Sci. 60 p. 520. 19 .Honikel, K.O., Seu, I. (1993): Fleisch und Fleischerzeugnisse. V Anemueller, H. (edt.) Lebensmittel- kunde und Lebensmittelqualitt.Hippokrates Verlag, Stuttgart, p.299-314. 20. Jackson, S., Summers, J.D., Leeson, S. (1982): Effect of dietary protein and energy on broiler carcass composition and efficiency of nutrient utilization. Poultry Science, 61, p. 2224-31. 21. Johnston, M.E., Nelssen, J.L., Goodband, R.D. (1993): The effects of porcine somatotropin and dietary lysine on growth performance and carcass characteristics of finishing swine fed to 105 or 127 kg. J. Animal. Sci., 71, 2986. 22. Jones, S.D.M., Burgess, T.D., Dupchak, K. (1983): Effects of dietary energy intake and sex on carcass tissue and offal growth in sheep. Can. J Anim. Scil, 63, p. 303-14. 23. Kennedy, B.W., Johansson, K., Hudson, G.F.S. (1985): Heritabilities and genetic correlations for backfat and age at 90 kg in performance tested pigs. J. Animal Sci., 61, p. 78-82. 24. Koch, R.M., Dikeman, M.E., Lipsey, R.J., Allen, D.M., Crouse, J.D. (1979): Characterization of biological types of cattle. J. Animal Sci., 49, p. 448-460. 25. Kubena, L.F., Chen, T.C., Deaton, J.W., Reece, F.N. (1974): Factors influencing quantity of abdominal fat in broilers. 3. Dietary energy levels. Poul. Sci., 53, p. 974-8.
Genotype (breed) has relatively strong effect on fat content in studied animals, for the heritability (h2) ranges from 0.30 to 0.60 and indicates that selection can effectively influence the level of fat in carcass and in meat. The lowest heritability is reported for intramuscular fat. Yet, heritability does not effect the quality of fat or in other words the fatty acid composition to such an extent. Relatively strong is the effect of sex. Female animals have a predisposition to get fat, but it is castrated males that get fatter in the case of pigs and sheep. Slaughter of younger and lighter animals can significantly influence fat content and indirectly cholesterol level in carcass and in muscle tissue. Nutrition has the most important influence on the quantity, as well as on the composition of fats, and according to the majority of authors also on cholesterol level in meat. Apart from the listed effects, we can reduce cholesterol concentration in meat also by means of the addition of copper if deficiency occurs, with the use of various growth promoters and with genetic manipulation, and with correct preparation of meat (trimming of fat, cooking methods etc.).
REFERENCES
1. Bakalli, R.J., Pesti, G.M., Ragland, W.L., Konjurfca, V. (1995): Dietary copper in excess of nutritional requirement reduced plasma and breast muscle cholesterol of chicken. Poultry Sci. 74, p. 360. 2. Bass, J.J., Butler, B.W., Kirton, A.H. (1990): Practical Methods of Controlling fatness in farm animals. Reducing fat in meat animals. Elsevier applied Science, London and New York. 3. Bejerholm, C., Barton-Gade, P.A. (1986): Effect of intramuscular fat level on eating quality of pig meat. Proceedings of the 32nd European meeting of meat research workers, p. 389-391. 4. Berg, R.T., Andersen, B.B., Liboriussen, T. (1978): Growth of bovine tissue. Animal Prod., 26, p. 245-258. 5. Campbell, R.G., Taverner, M.R., Curic, D.M. (1983): The influence of feeding levels from 20 to 45 kg liveweight on the performance and body composition of female and male pigs. Anim. Prod., 36, p.193-9. 6. Clark, A.D. (1997): Reduction of cholesterol levels in meat, poultry and fish products. V Pearson, A.M., Dutson, T.R. (edt.) Production and processing of healty meat, poultry and fish products. Blackie Academic & Professional, London, p.101-117. 7. êpin, S. 1980. Vpliv intenzivnosti prehrane na pitovne in klavne rezultate pri govedu. Doktorska disert., Rodica, BF, zootehnika. 8. êpin, S., Osterc, J., êpon, M., Fer~ej, J., êh, J. (1987): Klavna kakovost nekaterih govejih pasem in njihovih kriàncev. Znanost in praksa v govedoreji, BF, zootehnika, 11. zv., p. 113-119. 9. êpin, S., korjanc, D., @gur, S. (1993): Breed differences in carcass and meat properties. 39th Internation congress of meat science and technology. Calgary, S5, Po3, p. 2-4.
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26. Lewis, S. (1990): Genetics and evoluation of the domestic fowl. Cambridge university press. Cambridge. 27. Mersmann, H.J., Hu, C.Y. (1987): Factors affecting measurement of glucose metabolism and lipolytic rates in porcine adipose tissue in vitro. J. Animal Sci. 64, p. 148-164. 28. North, M.O., Bell, D.D. (1990): Commercial chicken Production mannual. Fourth edition. Published by Van Nostrand Reinhold, Ney York, 526. 29. Olliver, L.&Sellier, P. (1982).Pig genetics:A review. Ann. Genet. Sel. Anim., 14, 481-544. 30. zkan, S., Settar, P., Yalcin, S. (1997): Effects of seasonal ambient temperature on the Yields of maked neck broilers (Na/na) and their normally feathered (na/na) halfsibs. Poultry meat quality. Proccedings of the XIII. European Symposium on the quality of poultry meat. M1, p. 19-22. 31. Rule, D.C. MacNeil, M.D., Short, R.E. (1997): Influence of sire growth potential, time on feed, and growing-finishing strategy on cholesterol and fatty acids of the ground carcass and longissimus muscle of beef steers. J. Anim. Sci., 75, p. 1525-1533. 32. Seideman, S.C., Cross, H.R., Oltjen, R.R., Schanbacher, B.D. (1982): Utilization of the intact male for red meat production. J. Animal Sci., 55, p. 826-40. 33. Schwertdfeger, R., Kriter, J., Kalm, E. (1990): Fleischbeschaffenheit, intramuskulres Fett und Fettsuremu-
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ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 636.5:637.5.05
POULTRY MEAT IN THE PRODUCTION OF MEAT PRODUCTS

C. Varga(1), V. Strelec(2), M. Volk(3)

The authors had studied the possibility of the use of various types of poultry meat, factors which could have and adverse impact upon the microbiological quality of the raw material, technology of meat products production and the quality of products. Keywords: poultry meat, quality of raw materials, assortment, technology, and quality of products
INTRODUCTION During the last decades, we have witnessed the permanent rise in the feeding and the production of poultry meat. The rise in the production of this sort of meat is the consequence of new achievements in genetics, in the optimisation of feeding of poultry, in the development of transport logistics, in slaughtering and processing technology, in the more efficacious health protection and particularly in the composition of the poultry meat (Kulier, 1996; @ivkovi}, 1998). Owing to various reasons, e.g. nutritional value, fatty acid composition (Wissebach, 1969; Niewiarowicz and Grabowski, 1971; Swern, 1971; Baltes, 1975; Pardun, 1975) great possibilities of use, lower price in comparison to other types of meat, consumers demand poultry meat and poultry meat products ever more. According to Agenda 2000 (1999) of the European Commission, as to agriculture, the following growth of poultry meat production is planned during the following 5 years (Table 1). Of the total quantity of poultry meat, hens and turkey meat are consumed the most (95.7%), whereas adult chicken, goose and duck meat represent a smaller part in the entire consumption (3.3%).
parts of the body (legs, wings, breasts et sim.), besides new packaging, they also attempted by the sales of meat products. In 1973 in Slovenia we began to produce chicken meat sausages. After the first attempts and after mastering technological problems, the production of these products grew steadily and at present 17 200 t of various poultry meat products are produced annually. Some European producers began to produce these products on a regular basis in 1982 (Richardson, 1995). Presently, of the entire amount of produced poultry meat already 33.0% are marketed by way of these products. Thus, in Great Britain over 50% of the produced turkey meat is marketed by way of various products (Richardson, 1995).
THE ASSORTMENT OF POULTRY MEAT PRODUCTS The growth of production of these products came about under the impact of a better technology of bone separation, as well as under the impact of intentional feeding and slaughtering of poultry directed towards meat production for further processing. In the USA, in 1970 (Kang and Sams, 1999), the production of various planned products was begun. Fillet was
Table 1. Planned growth of poultry meat production during the following 5 years (in 000 t)
Year Production Consumption* Import Export 2000 8900 8250 300 950 2001 9050 8375 2002 9200 8500 300 1000 2003 9425 8700 300 1025 2004 9700 8900 300 1050
300
975
* Consumption of meat and meat products
The producers of poultry meat had been forced, already by 1970, to expand the offer - assortment of poultry meat. Thus, beside the ever greater sales of the basic
(1) Ciril Varga, Assistant Professor, (3) Marko Volk, Assistant Professor University of Maribor, Faculty of Agriculture, Vrbanska 30, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia , (2) Vlado Strelec, Ph.D - Perutnina Ptuj d.d., Potr}eva c 10, 2250 Ptuj, Slovenia
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used as the basic raw material, together with boneless leg meat and wing meat (turkey). For more than 80 years, smoked poultry products such as smoked legs, breasts and half-bodies have been known. These products have been mostly demanded by customers - consumers who do not, due to various reasons (e.g. dietary habits), consume pork. Producers of poultry meat products developed mostly products similar to pork, beef and mutton products, as were mostly produced by the then existing meat industry. These were in particular different kinds of sausages and tinned products. After few years, by when the consumers had, to a certain extent, accepted the mentioned products, the meat processing industry broadened the assortment and presently it produces numerous so called formed and crumb-fried products, as well as a variety of semi-products (e.g., barbecue chunks, kebab, marinated meat). As to the modes of production and the technology process, poultry meat products can be classified by a number of ways: a) according to type of raw material (e.g., chicken, turkey, goose) b) according to the technological process of production (sausages, semi-permanent, permanent tins, smoked products et simile) c) products made of body parts and small meat chunks. It needs to be mentioned that bacon and other kinds of meat (pork, beef) are used in the production of some products. In Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia and Slovenia the assortment of these products is regulated (Official Gazette of the SFRY, 1991) and they are classified into the following categories: products made of main body parts, meat chunks or minced meat, sausages, tins, smoked meat, poultry fat.
QUALITY OF MEAT USED FOR PRODUCTION It is known that many factors influence the quality of a crammed animal and thus the quality of meat. In cramming poultry, special care needs to be devoted to the cramming technology, optimal housing for the animals needs to be provided for. In the facilities, a high quality of work, food, light, circulation of air, veterinary supervision, hygiene, maintenance and competent management need to be provided for, as well (Blass, 1992). There are numerous investigations and cognitions on the impact of transport (Knowles and Broom, 1990; Kettlewell and Mitchel, 1994; Mitchel and Ketlewell, 1998) and hunting methods upon the bodies of the slaughtered poultry. The EU Council Directive regulates animal protection before slaughter: thus, better transport, slaughter and
Kind of separated meat Red meat Poultry meat Total No. of bacteria m 5x10
5
keeping of animals are demanded by regulations as well as modes of stunning. The quality of meat is highly influenced by the modes of stunning (Veerkamp and de Vries, 1983; Gregory and Wotton, 1990; Ruis-Heutinck et al., 1998). The consequences of improper loading, transport and various stress upon animals, as well as the improper modes of stunning are demonstrated by haemorrhages which significantly reduce the quality of meat (Gregory et al., 1989a, 1989b; Kranen et al., 1996; Lambooij et al.,1999). The meat that has been altered in such a way - main parts cannot be used in production of the highest quality products and need to be processed into lower market price products. Comparative research of stunning of crammed poultry by electricity and CO2 have demonstrated certain advantages and minor disadvantages of tunnel CO2 stunning (Kang in Sams, 1999). The possibility of contamination of poultry meat by different kinds of bacteria (Mulder, 1999): Salmonella, Campylobacter jejeni, Listeria monocytogenes, haemorrhage E. Colli O 15H7 - always represents a potential danger to the quality and health regularity of these kinds of meat. From the research results by @ivkovi} (1971) and associates, it is discernible that the number of positive findings of Salmonella in meat and guts amounts to guts = 23,1 % (n=212); confectioned meat 11,5 % (n=26); body 3,9 % (n=672); total meat 8,6 % (n=910). Contaminations of meat by different kinds of Listeria (Kerr, et al., 1988; Jonson et al., 1990) and bacteria Campylobacter (Tauxe, 1992; de Boer, 1997) which are found on feathers or in the digestive tract of poultry are common. During slaughter, eviscerations, the cooling of meat, confecting - slicing of body into its main parts an infection of meat and guts can occur. Beside this, the already known possibilities of poisoning which are caused by Salmonella contaminated meat, as well as Listeria infections (Russel, 1999) which may cause Meningitis, septicaemia, neonatal infections and common diarrhoeas, have known to come about often during the past years. Campylobacter bacteria cause most of the diarrhoea cases in the US (Russel, 1999), but fortunately the mortality is very low (one person per thousand infected). The meat for processing is prepared by hand or machine separation from the bones. Manual separation may be applied for larger body pieces (e.g., breasts, legs), whereas machine separation may be applied to separate the meat from the bodies, as well as from all the main parts. Due to the process modes, and a high risk of contamination, the machine-separated meat (also called separated meat) presents a high risk factor in production. The following parameters are recommended at for estimating the bacteriological quality in separated meat:
Enterococa m n
3
Entero bacteriaceal m
4
n 5x10
6
n
3
5x10
5x10
5x10
5x104 5x105
5x105
5x106
5x103
5x104
5x104
51
After production, the separated meat needs to be kept up to 4C and used in the production process within in 12 hours at the latest or it should be deep-frozen. In this way the bacteria dissemination is suppressed. The machine-separated meat is the basic raw material in the prouction for a series of products. The chemical composition depends on the raw material from which it is produced. Today, in production, whole bodies, legs, breasts are used - due to different reasons they could not be sold in the market (e.g., decreased demand, customer preferences). An opinion was prevalent for a long time, that this kind of meat is chemically less valuable than the other categories of meat, but I want to emphasize the fact that quality separated meat can be produced with quality raw material, which can then be used in the production of different products (e.g., chops et simile).
of proteins and maximum content of sodium nitrates and polyphosphates in certain products. Sensory characteristics - characteristics of certain products - are the characteristics (external appearance, colour, smell, taste, consistency) which are determined by the producer according for his products. Demands of different markets and consumers must be carefully taken into consideration.
TECHNOLOGY OF PRODUCTION The technology of poultry meat production is similar to the technology of pork and beef products production. The difference in technology depends on the raw material used and on the expected quality of the finalised product. It is very important to stress the importance of HACCP control in the production process and the control of the finalised products. The determination of critical control points in the technological process can greatly reduce production risks and secure a high quality product - which is also hygienically faultless. Beside stressing the control of technological process and of certain technological parameters, it is important that the processes be defined as exactly as possible. In the technological processes of production, we must reduce the number of bacteria through certain processes (pasteurisation, sterilisation, freezing, boiling) and produce a quality product which has an adequate composition and sensory characteristics that are expected by the final customer. It needs to be stressed that it does not suffice that these products be only hygienically faultless (not harmful as to health), but they also need to, with regard to quality, in a wider sense, meet the expectations of the final customer. Various additives are used in the production. Therefore, nitrate salt, ascorbic acid (and its salts) (French, 1998), various sugars, polyphosphates and other additives are used for sousing. PRODUCT QUALITY The consumer of our product expects that the products are not health harmful and do not contain any pathogenic microorganisms; the products have definite composition; the products have expected sensory characteristics.The maximum number of different microorganisms is regulated in Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Yugoslavia (Official Gazette of the SFRY, 1983; Official Gazette of the Republic of Croatia, 1992). For certain products, there is also a regulated chemical composition which, beside other criteria, regulates the maximum content of fat and water, the minimum content
CONCLUSION The poultry meat is a quality raw material in the production of numerous products.During the feeding of poultry, slaughter, processing and during the technological process of production, it is necessary to reduce possibility of microorganism contamination of meat by adequate technological prevention measures. Increased production and demand of meat products makes it possible to increase poultry meat production. The development of meat technology and the need for a scientific and professional knowledge has a strong impact upon the expansion of assortment.
REFERENCES
1. Baltes J. (1975): Gewinnung und Verarbeitung von Nahrungsfetten. Berlin-Hamburg: Paul Parey, p.108-110. 2. Blass, D. (1998): Food Safety and the Poultry Industry, Poultry Processing, September. 3. De Boer, E. (1997): Raw meat and poultry as vectors of pathogenic bacteria in the kitchen. World Congress on Food Hygiene. WAVFH. The Hague, August 24-29,1997. Proceedings.Wageningen Pers. Wageningen. 1997; p.323. 4. French, J.(1998): Preserving meat products, Meat Processing, Sept. okt. 1998, p.18 22. 5. Gregory, N. G., Wilkins, L. J. (1989a): Effect of stunning current on carcase quality in chickens. Vet. Rec. 124, p.530-532. 6. Gregory, N. G., Wotton, S. B. (1990): Effect of stunning on spontaneous physical activity and evoked activity in the brain. Br. Poult. Sci. 31, p.215-220. 7. Gregory, N.G., Wilkins, L. J. (1989b): Effect of slaughter method on bleeding efficiency in chickens. J. Sci. Food Agric. 47, p.13-20. 8. Johnson, J.L., Doyle, M.P., Cassens, R.G. (1990): Listeria monocytogenes and other Listeria spp. in meat products., J. food Prot. 53; p.81-91. 9. Kang, I. S., Sams, A.S. (1999): Bleedout Efficiency and Carcass Damage, Poultry Sci. 78, p.139-143. 10. Kerr, K.G., Dealer, S.F., Lacely, R.W. (1988): Listeria in cook-chill food. Lancet, (8601), p.37-38. 11. Kettlewell, P. J., Mitchel, M.A. (1994): Catching, handling and loading of poultry for road transportation. Worlds Poultry Sci. J. 50, p.55-57. 12. Knowles, T.G., Broom, D.M. (1990): The handling and transport of broilers and spent hens. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 28, p.75-91. 13. Kranen, R.W., Veerkamp, C.H., Lambooy, E., Kuppevelt, T.H., van Veerkamp, J. H. (1996): Hemorrhages in mus-
52
cles of broiler chickens: The relationships among blood variables at various rearing temperature regimens. Poultry Sci. 75, p.570-576. 14. Kulier, I. (1996): Nutritional tables, Zagreb, Hrvatski farmer. 15. Lacy, M. P., Czarick, M. (1998): Mechanical harvesting of broilers. Poultry Sci. 77, p.1794-1797. 16. Lambooij, E., Pieterse, C., Hillebrand, S.J., Dijksterhuis, W. (1999): The effects of captive bolt and electrical stunning and restraining methods on broiler meat quality. Poultry Sci. 78, p.600-607. 17. Mitchel, M.A., Ketlewell, P.J. (1998): Physiological stress and welfare of broiler chickens in transit: solutions not problems. Poultry Sci. 77, p.1803-1814. 18. Mulder, R.W. (1999): Safe poultry meat production and food Hygiene regulations for the European poultry industry 13 European Symposium, Verona, p.509-513. 19. Niewiarowicz, A., Grabowski, T. (1971): Evaluation of the quality of poultry fats. Przemysl Spozywczy 1969; 23, 96-7. quoted in: CA 1971; 75, p.139468a. 20. Pardun, H. (1975): Analyse der Nahrungsfette. Berlin-Hamburg: Paul Parey, p. 283-400 Richardson, R. I. (1995): Poultry Meat for Further Processing, XII European Symposium on the Quality of Poultry Meat, Zaragoza, p. 351-359. 21. Russel, S. (1999): Foodborne Pathogens: An emerging public specter, Broiler Industry, June, p.29-30. 22. Ruis-Heutinck, L.F.M., Savenije, B., Postema, F., Voorst, A. van, Lambooij, E., Korf, J. (1998): Impedence recordings to determine change in extracellular volume in the brain following cardiac arrest in broiler chickens. Poultry Sci. 77:1422-1427. 23. Swern, D. (1979): Baileys industrial oil and fat products I. 4. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 294, p.336, 343.
24. Tauxe, R.V. (1992): Epidemiology of Campylobacter jejuni infections in the United States and other industrialised nations. In: Nackamkin I, Blaser MJ and Tompkins LS (eds.). Campylobacter jejuni current status and future trends. American society for Microbiology, Washington, p.9-19. 25. Veerkamp, C.H., de Vries, A.W. (1983). Influence of electrical stunning on quality of broilers. in: G. Eikelenboom (ed.) Stunning of Animals for Slaughter. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, The Hague, The Netherlands. p.197-207. 26. Wissebach, H. (1969): Pflanzen und Tierfette. U: Schormller J., urd. Handbuch der Lebensmittelchemie. vol. IV. Fette und Lipoide. Berlin-Heidelberg-New York. Springer Verlag, p.120-200. 27. @ivkovi}, J., Jaki}, S., Miokovi}, B. (1971): Salmonella serovaus in chicken mean and chicken meat products in Zagreb, Croatia, Vet. Arhiv 67:167-175. 28. @ivkovi}, R. (1998): Eggs and poultry in the nutrition of healthy persons and in dietetics, Akademija medicinskih znanosti Hrvatske, p.916. 29. . Official Gazette of the SFRY (1983): Rules on the conditions, which must be met as to marketable foods, with regard to microbiological faultlessnes, 45, p.1309-1313. 30.. Official Gazette of the SFRY (1991): Rules on the quality of poultry meat products, , 47, no. 55, p. 840-848, 31. . Official Gazette of the Republic of Croatia (1992): Rules on microbiological standards for food, 60/92, p.152-158. 32. . Council Directive on the protection of animals at the time of slaughter or killing (1993): Official J. Eur. Comm. No 1.340/21. 33. . Agenda 2000 (1999): European Commission, Brussels, p.22-24.
53
ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 637.5.04765:636.084.416
FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF POULTRY MEAT FROM FREE RANGE REARING

B. @lender(1), Antonija Holcman(2), Vekoslava Stibilj(3), T. Polak(4) Original scientific paper ABSTRACT
Two provenances of broiler chickens (Ross and Prelux-bro) were (50 males and 50 females) were subjected to an extensive indoor rearing followed by a free-range rearing for a half of the population during the first 28 days. The age of chickens when slaughtered was 56 days. The fatty acid composition of breasts with skin (white meat) and legs with skin (dark meat) was analysed. Analyses of the fatty acid composition were performed with an in situ transesterification and a capilary column Gas -Liguid chromatography. Chickens reared outdoors have a more favourable fatty acid composition than those of the extensive indoor rearing: the share of essential fatty acids (the linoleic a., the a-linolenic a.) as well as polyunsaturated omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids is greater. The Prelux-bro provenance has a favourable ratio of fatty acids in both types of rearing. Breasts have a better fatty acid composition than legs. Keywords: broiler, free range, meat, fatty acid, in situ transesterification
INTRODUCTION As recommended by the WHO people should take in fat which should represent less than 30% of the daily energy needed, but there can be no more than10% of saturated fatty acids (SFA) and 3% - 7% of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). From these linoleic and a-linolenic acids are essential for people. (Salobir,1998). Animal feed enriched by nutritionally important various fatty acids can improve the nutritive value of animal fat. Adding linseed oil rich in the a-linolenic acid results in a significant influence of this fatty acid on its amount in chicken lipids. Adding herring oil to chicken feed increases the shares of eicosapentaenoic (EPA), docosapentaenoic (DPA) and docosahexaenoic (DHA) acids (Chanmugam et all., 1992; Scaife, 1994; Ahn et all., 1995; Lopez-Ferrer et all., 1997). Free-range chickens are more appreciated by consumers, mostly because of their opinion that their meat has a better smell , taste and texture. From the nutritional point of view the grass reached by free-range chickens has a favourable fatty acid composition, which probably should also be reflected in the more favourable lipid composition of such chickens. This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of the management system (total confinement versus free range) and two provenances on the fatty acid composition of broiler white (breasts) and dark (legs) meat. MATERIAL AND METHODS Two provenances of broilers (Ross 208 and Prelux-bro) were included in the experiment. 50 birds (25 males and 25 females) formed each provenance. All broilers were raised in a fixed chicken house of a deep litter
type up to 28 days of age and were fed ad libitum with a standard mixture containing the same amount and nutritive value (12.98 MJ/kg and 23.44%CP). At the age of four weeks chickens were divided into two groups. The first group of broilers (free-range) had a continual 12-hour access to an open-air ground during the day. The ground was mainly covered with vegetation. Broilers from the second group raised indoors in a deep litter house did not have an access to the grass. From 28 days of age all broilers were fed ad libitum with finisher containing 70% cereals (barley and maize). Protein concentration in the finisher lay by 14.0 % , metabolic energy: 16.26 MJ/kg. At the age of 56 days all broilers were slaughtered and processed in the same way. After the slaughter and the elementary processing meat patterns together with the skin (legs, breasts) were taken off the left sides of chickens, homogenized, packed into PE bags, frozen and kept until the analyses at -210C. The fatty acid composition of breasts and legs (both with skin) was analysed by the method in situ transesterification modified after Park and Goins (1994) and by the capilary Gas-Liquid Chromatography. The data were subjected to statistical analysis using the GLM procedure in the SAS statistical program (SAS /Stat, 1990). All fatty acids whose share was higher than 0,5% were included into the statistical processing. The fatty acids 14:1 (w-5), 16:0 (anteiso), 17:0 (anteiso), 18:3 (w-6), 20:5 (w-3),
(1) Boìdar @lender, Associated Professor (2) Antonija Holcman, Assistant Professor (4) Toma` Polak, B.Food Sci., - University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Animal Science, Groblje 3, 1230 Domàle, (3) Vekoslava Stibilj, Assistant Professor - Institute Jozef Stefan, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
54
the groups of fatty acids (SFA, MUFA - monounsaturated, PUFA, EPA+DHA, w-3 and w-6 fatty acids) and some quotients (P/S PUFA/SFA, IA aterogenic index , w-6/w-3, w-6/w-3 longchain) were included too. The statistical model was as follows: Yijk = + Li + Rj + Kk + (L*R)ij + eijk Yijk = measured value; = population mean; LI= the effect of the provenance (Ross, Prelux-bro); Rj= the effect of rearing (free range, indoors); Kk= the effect of the anatomical piece (breasts, legs); (L*R = the effect of the interaction between the provenance and the rearing; eijk= random error.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Sources of variability of fatty acids
Different factors influence the fatty acid composition: the provenance, the rearing, the anatomical piece and some interactions of these factors (Table 1). The provenances Ross and Prelux-bro differ significantly in the share of saturated fatty acids (SFA), polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and they also contain a different amount of w-6 fatty acids, both essential fatty acids (EFA) and in the some of their derivatives such as the arahidonic acid (20:4, w-6), the eicosapentaenoic acid-EPA(20:5, w-3) and the docosahexaenoic acid- DHA (22:6, w-3).
Table 1. Sources of variability and statistical significants of their influences on the fatty acids composition
Sources of variability ( P ) Fatty Acid DF 14:0 14:1,w -5 16:0 anteiso 16:0 16:1, w-7 17:0 anteiso 18:0 18:1, w-9 18:2, w-6 18:3, w-6 18:3, w-3 20:4, w-6 20:5, w-3 22:4, w-6 22:6, w-3 SFA MUFA PUFA w-3 FA w-6 FA P/S IA w-6/w-3 w-6/w-3 LC EPA+DHA Provenance 1 0.1583 0.0493 0.4811 0.0001 0.3107 0.0001 0.0446 0.9216 0.0001 0.0808 0.0017 0.0439 0.0113 0.0281 0.4104 0.0001 0.6111 0.0001 0.0616 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.1915 0.4815 0.7064 Rearing 1 0.0809 0.4766 0.7053 0.1663 0.0239 0.0001 0.4033 0.0184 0.0001 0.0003 0.0001 0.1674 0.0828 0.0035 0.6106 0.9134 0.0005 0.0009 0.0015 0.0010 0.0115 0.9161 0.1752 0.3202 0.4451 Anatom. Piece 1 0.0646 0.0220 0.0001 0.3945 0.0778 0.3198 0.8727 0.4263 0.6203 0.0314 0.5140 0.0001 0.0001 0.0003 0.0001 0.0001 0.2973 0.0445 0.0015 0.0646 0.0018 0.0001 0.0029 0.0097 0.0261 Prve*Rearing 1 0.0224 0.0031 0.6266 0.0001 0.0155 0.6722 0.6578 0.7431 0.0002 0.0333 0.0203 0.0229 0.8621 0.0230 0.1709 0.0044 0.2493 0.0014 0.0448 0.0011 0.0003 0.0040 0.5251 0.4682 0.3473
P< 0.001 highly statisticaly significant; P<0.01; P<0.05 statisticaly significant: DF degree of freedom
55 The influence of the provenance
The rearing and conseqeuntly different nutrition influence highly significant the amount of essential fatty acids, but they have a statistically unsignificant influence on the relation w-6/w-3 and w-6/w-3 of longchain (LC) fatty acids. The anatomical piece (breasts versus legs) influences highly significant the amount of LC fatty acids such as 20:4 w-6, 20:5 w-3, 22:4 w-6 and 22:6 w-3.
Provenance Ross differ significantly (P<0.001) from provenance Prelux-bro (Table 2.) in SFA, PUFA, w-6 fatty acids, P/S and IA. From the nutritional point of view the provenance Prelux-bro had a better composition in all the mentioned parameters. Prelux-bro also contains significanttly (P<0.001) lower share of the aterogenic
Table 2. The influence of the provenance on fatty acid composition (wt.% FA from all FA)
*** P 0.001 highly statisticaly significant; ** P 0.01 statisticaly significant; *P 0.05 statisticaly significant; FR Free range; IN - Indor; R Ross; PB Prelux-bro; B Breast; L - Leg
56
palmitic acid (16:0), but more linoleic (18:2, w-6), oleic (18:1, w-9), arahidonic (20:4, w-6) and EPA fatty acids.
lower (better) IA, what is favourable from nutritional wiewpoint. This results are in agreement with findings of Miller et all. (1969), Ajuyah et all.(1991) and Lopez-Ferrer et all. (1997).
The influence of the rearing Free range chickens contain significantly (P<0.001) higher share of linoleic and a-linolenic acids, also influences the decrease of monounsaturated fatty acids( oleic, palmitoleic) (Table 2). The share of PUFA (w-3 and w-6 ) is significantly higher in the free-range chickens. It can be concluded that the increased share above all of a-linolenic acid in the free-range chicken nutrition (pasture on a grassland) causes the decrease of monounsaturated fatty acids- predominantly the oleic acid and the increase of essential fatty acids, especially the -linolenic acid. The share of the -linolenic acid in the free-range chickens is 11% bigger than in chickens reared indoors.The share of saturated fatty acids shows no statistical difference between rearing systems.The amount of the w-6 and w-3 fatty acids in the free-range rearing increases linearly, first of all the linoleic and the a-linolenic acid, but there is no significant difference in their relation. From the nutritional viewpoint the free range chickens have a better fatty acid composition than those reared indoors. The palmitic and stearic acid form 95% of all saturated fatty acids which is in agreement with the findings of Igene and Pearson (1979) and Sahosrebedhe (1985). Ajuyah at al. (1991) and Chanmugam (1992) came to similar conclusions that the increased share of w-3 fatty acids in nutrition significantly increased share of these acids in chicken lipids. Feed rich with the a-linolenic acid increases the share of this acid in the chicken lipids and to a smaller extent influences the increase of the EPA and the DHA.-3 fatty acids hinder the metabolic way of w-6 and w-9 groups of fatty acids as well they decreases the share of the arahidonic acid and the 20:1, w-9 acid.
The influence of the anatomical piece
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This investigation is part of a research project funded by research grants from the Ministry of Science and Technology of Slovenia and Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food of Slovenia. REFERENCES
1. Ahn, D.U., Wolfe, F.H., Sim, J.S. (1995): Dietary -Linolenic Acid and Mixed Tocopherols, and Packaging Influences on Lipid Stability in Broiler Chicken Breast and Leg Muscle. Journal of Food science, 60(5): 1013 - 1018. 2. Ajuyah, A. O., Lee, K.H., Hardin, R.T., Sim, J.S. (1991): Changes in the Yield and in the Fatty Acid Composition of Whole Carcass and Selected Meat Portions of Broiler Chicken Fed Full-Fat Oil Seed. Poultry Sccience, 70: 2304-2314. 3. Chanmugam, P., Boudreau, M., Boutte, T., Park, R.S., Hebert, J., Berrio, L., Hwang, D.H. (1992): Incorporation of Different Types of n-3 Fatty Acids Ito Tissue Lipids of Poultry, Poultry Science, 71:516-521. 4. Lopez-Ferrer, S., Baucells, M.D., Barroeta, A.C., Blanch, A., Grashorn, M.A. (1997): -3 Enrichment of Chicken Meat: Use of Fish, Rapeseed and Linseed oils. V: Poultry Meat Quoality, Proceedings of the XIII European Simposium on the Quality of Poultry Meat, Polznan, 21-29.09. 1997, Poznan. Pikul, 45 - 51. 5. Miller, D., Leong, K.C., Smith, P. (1969): Effect of Feeding and Withdrawal of Medhaden Oil on the 3 and 6 Fatty Acids Content of Broiler Tissue. Journal of Food Science, 34: 136 - 141. 6. Park, P.W., Goins, R.E. (1994): In Situ Preparation of Fatty Acid Methyl Esters for Analysis of Fatty Acid Composition in Foods. Journal of Food Science, 59(6): 1262 - 1266. 7. Salobir, K. (1998): Vpliv sveè in konzervirane krme na kakovost ìvalskih proizvodov. V: Zbornik poreda- vanj 7. posvetovanja o prehrani doma~ih ìvali, Zadrav~evi - Erjav~evi dnevi, Radenci, 26. in 27. oktober 1998. Murska Sobota, @ivinorejsko - veterinarski zavod za Pomurje,s. 1 - 4. 8. Scaife, J.R., Moyo, J., Galbraith, H., Michine, W., Campbell, V. (1994): Effect of Diffrent Dietary Supplemental Fats and Oils on the Tissue Fatty Acid Composition and Growth of Female Broilers. British Poultry Science. 35: 107 - 118. 9. . SAS/STAS (1990): Users guide. 4th ed., Cary, SAS Institute Inc., s. 891 - 1230.
The results show (Table 2) that more arahidonic fatty acids, EPA and DHA are loaded in the breasts. Especially longchain fatty acids are important for balanced human nutrition, because they are precursors of important eicosanoids. The relation between w-6 and w-3 fatty acids is also important. It is a bit more favourable in the breast lipids. Breasts show significantly higher P/S and
57
ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 637.5.04/.0765
INFLUENCE OF ADDED FAT ON THE QUALITY OF POULTRY MEAT

V. Strelec(1), M. Volk(2), C. Varga(3)

In testing conditions six groups of broiler chickens were tested for the effect of feed addition Bergafat and standardised fats added in the feed in the quantity of 3.9% in starter, 8.5% in grower, 8.6% in finisher, and 9.3% in endfinisher. Among testing groups no differences in the achieved production results were stated. The organoleptic evaluation of meat however showed considerable differences in the intensity of aroma, smell and taste. Keywords: meat chickens, organoleptic evaluation of meat, poultry fat, added fat
INTRODUCTION To increase the energy value of poultry feed animal fats and vegeTable fats are used as the cheapest source of energy. Fats are important elements of animal organism, they take part in important physiological functions and are the best energy provider. In the process of metabolism in fats only one third of energy is lost whereas in other nutritives loses are much higher (in starch 43% is lost, in sugar 55% is lost) (Fuhrken et al, 1980). The efficiency of fat addition in the feed is well known especially in poultry and pig production and it improves also the metabolism of proteins and increases the growth of animals (Hartel, 1980). Added fat in poultry feed has been practically used for many decades and besides animal fats, vegeTable fats-oil and also industrial fats as well as pure fatty acids have been used in recent period. What kind of fat is going to be added in feed depends on the price and the technology of production. The standardised fats are used in poultry feed; they are composed mainly from vegeTable fatty acids and for balance also partly of animal fatty aides. The relation between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids depends on added quantities and varies in different producers. Characteristic are high values of essential fatty acids. Besides them are possible additions of phosphatides (lecithin, stearins and tokopherols). This substances are the main source of energy for live functions in the animal organism (Prabucki, 1968, 1971; Petersen, 1971; Kling, Whlbier, 1977, Hartifiel, 1978; Jung, 1978; Kirchgessner, 1978; Lang, 1979; Timmann, 1988; Kali- voda, 1990). On the testing farm for poultry in six groups of broiler chickens provenience Ross 308 different standardised fats and Bergafat were tested and the production efficiency was stated. MATERIAL AND METHODS The experiment was carried out on the poultry testing station of the Faculty of Agriculture in Maribor. Tested were 100 chickens (50 masculine and 50 feminine gen-
der) in a box in three intervals. The control group (A) was fed with standardised fat (100%) in the feed; group B was fed with the testing feed contents Bergafat 20 (100%); group C with contents Berga fat 30 (100%); group D with contents Bergafat 40 (100%); group E with contents Bergafat 20 (50%) and 50% standardised fat; group F with contents Bergafat 30 (50%) and 50% standardised fat. We used four types of feed: starter (0.25 kg per chick), grower (1.25 kg per chick), finisher (1.80 kg per chick), Endfinisher (0.5 kg per chick). The technology of fattening was carried out after the standards for chickens of provenience Ross 308. Compared were the live body weight, feed conversion (for each box) and mortality on the 39th day of feeding. Diets were fed ad libitum in mash form. The aim of our experiment was to find out the influence of added fat in the feed on quality and quantity of fat in slaughtered chickens. Fat was analysed by method Hadorn et al. (1967). We also tested the influence of added fat on the sensory quality of chicken of breast muscle (m. pectoralis) and leg muscle. The results were evaluated on the programme SAS/STAT (1990).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The Table 1 shows that Bergafat contains a higher percentage (15.1 15.6) of palmitic acid. Bergafat 40 contains a heigher percentage (9.2 %)of myristic acid, which probably gives an unpleasant smell and taste. It must be considered the higher content of FFA 45 at B (Bergafat) 20, which should for normal use be much lower, so that it would not affect the results of feeding.
(1) Vladimir Strelec, Assistant Professor, (3) Marko Volk, Assistant Professor - Univesity of Maribor, Faculty of Agriculture, Vrbanska 30, 2000 Maribor, Slovenia, (2) Ciril Varga, PhD - Perutnina Ptuj, Potr~eva 9, 2250 Ptuj, Slovenia
58 Table 1. Comparison of contents of fatty acids added in the feed used in the test
Groups* Added fat FFA dirties water Fatty acid. Myristic Palmitic Palmitoleic Stearic Oleic Linoleic Linolenic C 14 C 16:0 C 16:1 C 18:0 C 18:1 C 18:2 C 18:3 C 20:0 C 20:1 C 22:0 Erucic C 22:1 C 24:0 * See Material and methods for legend 0 11.1 0.2 4 24.5 52.9 7 0.2 0 0 0 0 2.2 15.1 1.2 19.2 28.9 25.8 2.5 0.8 0 0.3 0.9 0 2.4 14.7 2 8.2 31.9 33.6 3.3 0.6 0 0.4 0.1 0 9.2 15.6 3.3 4.8 19.8 38.5 0..7 0.3 0 0.5 0.1 0 9.2 15.6 3.3 4.8 19.8 38.5 0.7 0.3 0 0.5 0.1 0 A 2.15 B 45 C D E
F 47.5
7.3 9.2 4.2 9.3 22.1 42.1 5.2 0.2 0 0.3 0.1 0
Table 2. Production results of fattening after 39 days

Consumption Starter (kg) 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 215 25 Consumption Grower (kg) 154.90 144.10 150.80 143.20 151.90 150.90 153.60 157.10 154.60 150.00 137.30 155.70 140.30 145.20 164.10 138.20 139.70 143.50 Consumption Finisher (kg) 205.40 207.40 217.70 218.30 220.80 225.80 202.50 217.40 239.00 210.20 211.20 210.50 220.50 228.40 225.10 207.80 206.30 208.00 Average live weight (g) 2118 2228 2264 2203* 2223 2234 2207 2221* 2205 2143 2298 2215* 2264 2267 2234 2255* 2292 2214 2280 2262* 2152 2206 2216 2191* Feed conversion (kg) 1.87 1.72 1.79 1.79 1.89 1.82 1.89 1.87 1.86 1.88 1.80 1.85 1.75 1.75 1.80 1.77 1.72 1.87 1.87 1.82 1.78 1.77 1.72 1.76 Mortality (%) 2 2 3 2.3 5 1 1 2.3 5 2 2.3 3 2 3 2.7 2 4 1 2.3 1 2 1
Group A A A x B B B x C C C x D D D x E E E x F F F x
Box 1 7 13 2 8 14 3 9 15 4 10 16 5 11 17 6 12 18
* See Material and methods for legend. Groups which are signed with the same letter, do not significantly differ (p<0.05)
Agriculture 6 (2000) Table 3. The results of analyses of abdominal fat of broiler chickens fed with tested fat added feed
Group A C 6 (%) C 10 (%) C 12 (%) C 14 (%) C 16 : 0 (%) C 16 : 1 (%) C 18 : 0 (%) C 18 : 1 (%) C 18 : 2 (%) C 18 : 3 (%) C 20 : 0 (%) C 20 : 2 (%) C 20 : 3 (%) C 22 : 0 (%) C 22 : 1 (%) 0 0 0.1 2.1 19.7 4.2 6.1 37.5 27.7 2.8 0 0 0 0 0 Group B 0 0 1.8 2.6 19.7 4.6 7.7 37.7 24.0 2.1 0 0 0 0 0 Group C 0 0 1.2 2.8 18.5 5.8 5.0 38.0 27.2 1.7 0 0 0 0 0 Group D 0 0 3.9 7.6 16.7 5.4 4.3 29.1 29.6 0.9 0 0 0 0 0 Group E 0 0 0.9 2.4 18.8 4.0 6.6 37.2 28.0 2.1 0 0 0 0 0 Group F 0 0 0.6 2.2 17.8 5.6 5.5 36.9 29.4 2.0 0 0 0 0 0
59
* See Material and methods for legend
In the Table 2 the results for the feed conversion are shown. The lowest was in the group F (with 1.76 kg) and the highest in group B (with 1.80 kg); these results statistically did not show great differences between themselves. The lowest percentage of mortality was observed in group F with 1 %; in all other groups the morality was between 2.3% and 2.7%. The Table 3 shows the results of chemical analyses of abdominal fat, which was taken in the slaughterhouse. The results of the analyses show that abdominal chicken fat contains approximately similar content of fatty acids to the content of fatty acids in the feed. This test confirmed the results, which were already found in literature, that the fat added in the feed influences the sensory quality of poultry meat. This was confirmed also with the organoleptic test, which was carried out in the slaughterhouse, were samples of muscles from chicken breasts and legs were boiled and tested. Group D had an extremely unpleasant smell and taste.
tremely unpleasant smell and taste, so that on ground of these findings we do not advise the use of Bergafat 40 in our conditions. 4. The high content of fats of different origin in the feed of our testing groups did not influence the total mortality of the chickens, as well as it did not show any specifically harmful influence on the animals. All stated causes of chicken deaths were due to usual pathology.
REFERENCES
1. Fuhrken, E. et al. (1980): Einflu von Futterfetten im Geflgelmastfutter auf Wachstum und Geschmack von Masthhnchen, Hamburg. Kraftfutter 4, p. 158 162. 2. Hadorn, H., Zrcher, K. (1967): Beitrag zur gaschromatographischen Untersuchung von Fetten un Oelen; Die Fettsaeuren-Verteilung pflanzlicher Oele und Fette; Mitteilungen aus dem Gebiete der Lebens- mitteluntersuchung und Hygiene, 58, p. 351-384. 3. Hrtel, H. (1980): Methoden zur indirekten Abschtzung des Energiegehaltes von Mischfuttern fr Geflgel, Hohenheim. Kraftfutter 6, p. 296298. 4. Hartfiel, W. (1978): Beeinflussen Futterfette mit unterschiedlich hohen Peroxid - und Surezahlen die Futteraufnahme und Futterverwertung bei legenden Hennen? Kraftfutter 2, p. 5862. 5. Jung, T. (1978): Zur Problematik der Bemusterung und Lagerung von Futterfetten, Varel. Kraftfutter 4, p. 184188. 6. Kalivoda, M. (1990): Krmiva, kolska knjiga. Zagreb, p. 7880. 7. Kirchgessner, M. (1978): Tierernhrung. DLG Verlag GMBH, Frankfurt am Maine, p. 5669. 8. Kling M., Whlbier, W. (1977): Handels Futter Mittel. Verlag Evgen Ulmar, Stuttgart, p. 565580.
CONCLUSION 1. Chemical analyses of feed were carried out before the test and are corresponding the standards for the provenience Ross 308. 2. The final weight of chickens do not differ statistically. The highest live body weight was reached in group E (2,26 kg Bergafat 20 50 % + 50 % standardised fat). The lowest conversion was reached in group D.1,76. The lowest live body weight was reached by group F 2.19 kg; the highest conversion was reached in group B with 1.87 kg. 3. At the organoleptic test of chicken meat of different test groups of chickens, which was carried out with the method of boiling, we found out at the group D an ex-
60
9. Lang, K. (1979): Biochemie der Ernhrung. Dr.Dietrich Steinkopff Verlag, Darmstadt, p. 53123. 10. Petersen, V. (1971): Untersuchungen ber den Einflu einer unzureichenden Energieversorgung auf die Zusammensetzung und das Fettsurenmuster der Lipide im Eidotter von Legehennen, Disertation, Institut fr Tierernhrungskunde, der Universitt Kiel, Agrar- wissenschaftlichen Fakultt der Christien - Albrechts Universitt, Kiel, p. 178
11. Prabucki, A.L. (1968): Der Einfu der Ernhrung auf Bildung und Umsatz von Krperfett beim Landwirtschaftlichen Nutztieren. Zeitschrift fr Tierphysiologie, Tierernhrung und Futtermittelkunde, p.189194. 12. Prabucki, A.L. et al (1971): Zur Absorbierbarkeit der Fettsuren bei der Ratte. Zeitschrift fr Tierphysiologie, Tierernhrung und Futtermittelkunde, p.214. 13. Timmann H. et al (1988): Qualittssicherung bei Futterfetten, Hamburg, Kraftfutter 10, p. 370-371 14. SAS/STAT Users Guide. Cary, SAS Institute Inc., 1990.
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ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 636.085:636.4
ILEAL DIGESTIBILITY OF AMINO ACIDS IN PIG FEEDS AND ITS USE IN DIET FORMULATIONS
Cs. Szabo(1), A.J.M. Jansman(2), L. Babinszky(3), E. Kanis(4), M.W.A. Verstegen(5)

The effects of four protein sources (soybean meal, sunflower meal, pea and fish meal as the main protein source) were investigated on fattening performance, carcass and meat quality traits and body composition of pigs. Eight animals per treatment received the diets from 30 to 105 kg live weight at a level of 3.0 times maintenance requirement of energy. Diets were formulated on the basis of ileal digestible protein and amino acid content of feedstuffs. Protein sources resulted similar fattening performance from 30-105 kg body weight. From 30 to 60 kg soybean treatment had lowest performance. The protein source treatments did not alter the body composition, lean meat percentage, liver weight and meat quality (intramuscular fat content, pH 45 min and 24 hours after slaughter, drip loss, meat lightness and hue measured 24 hours and 4 days after slaughter). It can be concluded that protein sources can be replaced without affecting overall fattening performance, carcass and meat quality and body composition if diet formulation is based on the ileal digestible amino acid contents of feedstuffs. However the lower performance of the soybean treatment in the first phase may indicate that ileal digestible Lys content of heat treated protein sources may not characterise the feedstuffs well enough. It may be that young pigs are more sensitive to unavailable lysine by the way. Keywords: protein source, performance, meat quality, pigs
INTRODUCTION Protein sources are one of the most expensive components of animal diets. Soybean meal is used in highest extent as major protein source in pig feeds. Many countries have to import soybean meal, which further increase the price of pig diets. For that reason researchers and farmers are interested in alternative sources of protein. Substitution based on proportion in the diet or crude protein content fail with regard to fattening performance and final quality of carcasses. In the past the diet formulation was based on the crude protein and total amino acid contents of the ingredients. The digestibility of the nutrients was not accounted for. Numerous studies have shown that the faecal digestible amino acid content can not characterise well enough the feedstuffs - especially protein sources - for the optimal growth performance when components are substituted. This was introduced as the effect of protein sources. The studies where diets were based on ileal digestible amino acids showed, that the fattening performance does not change when different protein sources are used (Tanksley and Knabe,1984). However, there is no information in the literature with regard to meat quality and body composition. Therefore, the goal of this trial was to study the effect of ileal digestible amino acid based substitution of soybean meal with fishmeal, pea and sunflower meal on fattening performance, meat quality and body composition.
MATERIAL AND METHODS Animals, housing and allotment 32 Dutch Landrace pigs (equal number of barrows and gilts) were used in this experiment. The pigs were housed individually in a half slatted floor pen. At the initial live weight (29.21.62 kg) each pig was allotted to one of the four dietary treatments (eight animals per treatment).
Diets and feeding The experimental diets consisted of the combination of basic components (tapioca, barley, wheat, soybean oil, molasses) and one of four different protein sources as the main protein source (soybean meal, sunflower meal, peas meal and fish meal). Each diet contained 14.6 MJ DE, 10.4% ileal digestible protein, 0.63 % ileal digestible Lys, 0.75% Ca, 0.28% digestible P and 0.16% Na in the first phase and 14.6 MJ DE, 9.3% ileal digestible protein, 0.53 % ileal digestible Lys, 0.60% Ca, 0.20% digestible P and 0.16% Na. The amount of the following amino acids were set to the same ratio relative to ileal digestible Lysine by using crystalline amino acids: M+C = at least 59%, Threonine = at least 59% , Tryptophan = at least 21%,
(1) Cszaba Szabo, Ph.D. student, (3) Laszlo Babinszky, Full Professor - University of Kaposvr, Faculty of Animal Science, Guba S. u. 40., 7400 Kaposvr, Hungary, (2) A.J.M. Jansman, Ph.D. Professor, Leystad, Netherlands, (4) E. Kanis, Ph.D., Professor, (5) M.W.A. Verstegen, Ph.D., Professor - Wageningen Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Animal Sciences, Wageningen, Netherlands
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Agriculture 6 (2000) Statistical analyses
Valine = at least 80%, Histidine = at least 40%. The fattening period was divided into two phases: 30-60 kg (phase 1) and 60-105 kg (phase 2). The pigs were fed twice daily at 8.00 a.m. and 3.30 p.m. Feed was supplied at a level of 3.0 times the daily maintenance requirement of energy (0.42 MJ ME/ kg0.75). The pigs were weighed weekly and based on these weights the amounts of feed for each animal was calculated for the next week.
Sampling procedure
Statistical analyses were performed using the GLM procedure of SAS (1989) for randomized complete block designs according to the following general model: Yij = + Pi + eij Where: Yij = measurements, = overall mean; P = protein source (i=1,2,3,4); eij = residual error.
The pigs were slaughtered at 1052 kg. At slaughter the pigs were classified according to the SEUROP classification system. The pH and temperature in the musculus longissimus dorsi at the grading site (between the 3rd and 4th rib, 6 cm off of the midline) were measured 45 minutes and 24 hours after slaughter. 24 hours after slaughter muscle samples were taken from the musculus longissimus dorsi (25 cm cranial from the last rib, a 10 cm long piece) to determine water-loss, intramuscular fat content and meat colour (24 hours and 4 days after slaughter).
Chemical body analyses
After electrical stunning the pigs was exsanguinated and the blood was collected. In the next step the bodies were scalded, but collection of hair was not possible. The internal organs and the GI-tract were removed and the body was split symmetrically along the backbones. The tail remained on the left carcass half. The weights of carcasses, blood, internal organs, full and empty GI-tract (stomach, intestines, gall-bladder) were recorded. For chemical analyses two fractions were made: the left carcass half and the organs (blood, internal organs, empty GI-tract). The two fractions were stored deep frozen in plastic bags. The preparation of samples for chemical body analyses was carried out according to the method of Kotarbinska (1971). The following determinations were made from the samples: dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), crude fat (CF) and crude ash (CA). Based on the analysed values and the weight of the fractions the total nutrient mass and proportions were calculated in empty body (EB), carcasses (C) and organs (O).
Table 1. ADG and FCR by treatment group
Average daily gain, g Treatment Soyabean meal Sunflower meal Peas meal Fishmeal RMSE 30-60 kg 546a 606b 609 596
b b
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION No effect of protein source was observed on the overall and second phase fattening performance. This shows that the origin of the amino acids has no influence on performance when diets are formulated on the basis of ileal digestible amino acid contents. This result is in close agreement with the observations of Tanksley and Knabe (1984). However, soybean treatment in the first phase had significantly lower performance than the other treatments. It has been demonstrated that inappropriate heat treatment applied to protein concentrates may render lysine in a form that is apparently absorbed but nutritionally unavailable to the animal (van Barneveld et al.,1994 ). Consequently, ileal digestibility values for lysine in heat-processed meals in such a case are unsuitable for diet formulations. However, in this experiment it was not possible to identify whether this was the real reason. The lean meat % of carcasses of the four treatments (Table 2) are similar. All group means fall into the U class of the SEUROP classification system. Intramuscular fat content influences tenderness and juiciness. Devol et al. (1988) reported that intramuscular fat content has the highest correlation with tenderness, however the correlation was low (r = 0.32). The authors postulated that there was a minimum level of intramuscular fat - approximately 2.5% - needed for sufficient pork tenderness. According to that result none of the experimental treatments meet this value. The protein source had no significant effect on intramuscular fat level. The drip loss is a major measure of PSE type meat. The measured values have a normal variance and statistical differences could not be detected. The pH is an important measure of meat quality post mortem. All group means are falling into the normal range (pH 5.8 - 6.2 and 5.4-6.0 for pH45 and pH24 respectively).
Feed conversion ratio, kg/kg 30-105 kg 638 680 667 689 48.4 30-60 kg 2.70 2.40 2.48
a
60-105 kg 725 741 722 774 77.4
60-105 kg 3.16 3.13 3.20 3.06 0.27
30-105 kg 2.98 2.84 2.88 2.82 0.18
2.41b
b b
29.8
0.12
Means in a column with same superscript are not significantly different RMSE=Root mean square error
Agriculture 6 (2000) Table 2. Lean meat% and meat quality parameters by treatment group
Lean meat, % Soyabean meal Sunflower meal Pea Fishmeal RMSE 54.1 53.4 53.8 52.5 1.89 IMF, % 1.09 1.23 1.21 1.29 0.46 Drip loss, g 112 140 137 125 28
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pH45
6.00 6.08 5.99 6.05 0.26
pH24
5.54 5.57 5.63 5.60 0.09
L24
55.9 59.1 60.1 58.9 3.47
Hue24
47.6 50.8 50.9 50.0 3.62
L4
57.1 61.3 61.2 60.9 3.78
Hue4
53.0 57.5 57.2 56.0 5.36
Means in a column were not significantly different. RMSE: Root mean square error IMF = intramuscular fat, pH45 and pH24 = pH in musculus longissimus dorsi (mld) at last rib 45 min and 24 hours after slaughter, L24 and L4 = lightness of mld 24 hours and 4 day after slaughter, Hue 24 and Hue 4 = hue value of mld 24 hours and 4 day after slaughte.
Table 3. Empty body composition by treatment group g/kg

Treatment Soyabean meal Sunflower meal Peas meal Fishmeal RMSE Dry matter 403 413 421 409 18.8 Protein 143 148 147 142 6.8 Fat 229 231 245 235 20.9 Ash 27.4 29.5 27.1 28.1 3.1
Means in a column were not significantly different. RMSE : Root mean square error
The appropriate lightness and colour of lean meat is an important demand of the customer. Neither the lightness nor the hue value were affected 24 hours or 4 days after slaughter by treatment and all group means fell into the normal range.The experimental diets formulated on the basis of ileal digestible amino acid content resulted in similar chemical composition of empty body (Table 3). The chemical body composition data were all within the wide range of published data (De Greef et al., 1994; Friesen et al., 1996; Tuitoek et al., 1997).
CONCLUSIONS Pig diets should be formulated on the basis of ileal digestible amino acid content to achieve similar fattening performance when dietary components are substituted. Substitution of protein sources in such a way has no significant effect on body composition, lean meat percentage and meat quality parameters. Acknowledgement. The research program were financed by the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, the Netherlands and by the NWO (the Netherlands). We gratefully acknowledge the substantial contribution of the following persons in the experiment: Johan de Jong (TNO-ILOB), Tamme Zandstra (WIAS), Ildiko Tamsi (UoK). REFERENCES
1. De Greef, K.H., Verstegen, M.W.A., Kemp, B., van der Togt, P.L. (1994): The effect of body weight and energy intake on the composition of deposited tissue in pigs. Anim. Prod. 58:263-270.
2. Devol, D.L., McKeith, F.K., Betchel, P.J., Novakofski, J., Shanks, R.D., Carr, T.R. (1988): Variation in composition and palatability traits and relationships between muscle characteristics and palatability in random sample of pork carcasses. J. Anim. Sci. 66:385-395. 3. Friesen, K.G., Nelssen, J.L., Goodband, R.D., Tokach, M.D., Schinckel, A.P., Einstein, M. (1996): The use of compositional growth curves for assessing the response to dietary lysine by high-lean growth gilts. Anim. Sci. 62:159-169. 4. Grala,W. (1998): Nitrogen utilization in pigs as affected by dietary induced losses of ileal endogenous nitrogen, PhD thesis, Animal Nutrition Group, Wageningen Institute of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands 5. Kotarbinska, M. (1971): The chemical composition of the body in growing pigs. Roczniki Nauk Rolniczych ser. B 9:129-135. 6. Tanksley, T.D. Jr., Knabe D.A. (1984): Ileal digestibilities of amino acids in pig feeds and their use in formulating diets. In: W. Haresign and D.J.A. Cole (Editors), Recent Advances in Animal Nutrition. Butterworths, London, 75-94. 7. Tuitoek, K., Young, L.G., de Lange, C.F.M., Kerr, B.J. (1997): The effect of reducing excess dietary amino acids on growing-finishing pig performance: An evaluation of the ideal protein concept. J. Anim. Sci. 75:1575-1583. 8. Van Barneveld, R. J., Batterham, E. S., Norton, B.W. (1994): The effect of heat on amino acids for growing pigs. 2. Utilization of ileal-digestible lysine from heat-treated field peas (Pisum sativum cultivar Dundale). Br. J. Nutr. 72:243-256 9. . SAS Institute Inc. (1989): SAS/STAT Users Guide. Version 6, Fourth Edition, Volume 2, 846pp.
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ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 636.4:636.081.52081.21
FATTY ACID COMPOSITION AND CHOLESTEROL CONTENT OF THE FAT OF PIGS OF VARIOUS GENOTYPES
J. Csap(1), F. Hsvth(2), Zsuzsana Csap-Kiss(3), va Varga-Visi(4), P. Horn(5) Original scientific paper ABSTRACT
The authors determined the fatty acid composition and the fat cholesterol content of the fat of Mangalica, Hungarian Large White x Hungarian Landrace and Mangalica x Duroc pigs. It was established that no significant difference among the three genotypes could be detected with respect to saturated, unsaturated, or the essential fatty acids, nor in regard to cholesterol content. The findings of these investigations indicate that in the three pig genotypes studied fat cholesterol content varies between 71 and 109 mg/100 g. Attention is also drawn to the high oleic acid content (relative %age 43.57-44.81) and linoleic acid content (relative %age 10.63-11.47) of pig fat. Keywords: fatty acids, cholesterol content, fat, pig, various genotypes
INTRODUCTION The future of the Mangalica breed, indigenous to Hungary, is largely dependent on how its products can be utilised and how long-term market opportunities for these can be ensured. The Mangalica pig is now enjoying a renaissance in Hungary: this is due on the one hand to endeavours to return to the traditional breeds, and on the other hand to the new market opportunities presented by the production of Serrano type ham processed by means of specialised Spanish technology. The ham of the Mangalica pig is extremely suitable for the processing of products of this kind, as due to its meat:fat ratio and the distribution of the fat between its muscle fibres the ham does not dry out even during the long-term maturing process. The meat of this breed is of outstanding quality; it has a high dry matter content and its red colour corresponds to current requirements. Its palatable flavour is derived from the fat surrounding the muscle tissue. It is a generally known fact that not only the quantity of fat consumed is of significance from the aspect of nutrition, but also the ratio with respect to each other of the various fatty acids within the quantity of fat consumed. The lipid theory attributes the now widespread incidence of arteriosclerosis, together with high blood pressure or cardiac infarction developing in consequence of this, on the one hand to the cholesterol content and on the other hand to the lower unsaturated fatty acid content of fats of animal origin. According to this theory lower cholesterol intake and the consumption of higher quantities of unsaturated fatty acids can lead to a reduction of approximately 10% in the cholesterol level of the blood plasma. A positive relation has been ascertained between the cholesterol level of the blood and arteriosclerosis in the majority of individuals
examined. The cholesterol level of the blood plasma is now regarded as an indicator of arteriosclerosis. Researchers report that a total of 20% of the daily cholesterol requirement is derived from food, the remaining 80% being produced by the organism. The reason for the proportion of cholesterol ingested with the food being so low is that only about half of the cholesterol consumed with food is absorbed, the remainder being excreted undigested from the body of the organism. A number of factors have been found possibly to influence changes in the cholesterol level of the blood plasma, apart from the cholesterol content of the foodstuffs consumed. High blood plasma cholesterol level may also develop by the effect of the intake of large quantities of saccharose. Other aspects which may be significant in changes in cholesterol level are various hereditary factors, lifestyle, level of food consumption and the state of health of the individual. A number of authors maintain that the fatty acid composition of dietary fats is ideal where saturated (SAFA), monounsaturated (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) occur in equal proportions. Other authors consider such proportions of PUFA too high due to the risk of lipid peroxidation. They suggest that the proportion of PUFA in dietary fats should not exceed 10-15% where MUFA content is between 30 and 35% and SAFA content between 50 and 60%. A composition of similar ratio has also been established for hypothetically ideal fatty acid composition (HIF). A quantity of information has been published recently in connection with the fatty acid composition and choles(1) Jnos Csap, Full Professor, (3) Zsuzsanna Csap-Kiss, DSc, (4) va Varga-Visi, BCh, (5) Pter Horn, Full Professor - University of Kaposvr, Faculty of Animal Science,Guba S. u. 40., 7400 Kaposvr, Hungary (2) Ferenc Hsvth, Full Professor - University of Veszprm, Georgikon Faculty of Agricultural Science, Keszthely, Hungary
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terol content of the back fat and other fat of the Mangalica pig. It has been claimed that the fat of the Mangalica pig is softer and more easily digestible than that of modern pigs. Its softer, granular consistency is attributable to its different, and also healthier, fatty acid composition. Another view expressed is that the cholesterol content of the fat of the Mangalica pig is substantially lower than that of the fat of the new, intensive genotypes. At present the validity of this view can be neither corroborated nor refuted, since, as far as the authors are aware, there are no precise relevant experimental data available. The investigations outlined in this paper were performed for the purpose of providing scientific substantiation or disproval of the above assertions; this study involved the determination of the fatty acid composition and cholesterol content of the fat of Mangalica, Mangalica x Duroc F1 and Hungarian Large White x Hungarian Landrace F1 (MNF x ML) pigs. The MNF x ML genotype is one of the most extensively used crosses in Hungary, and was therefore quite suitable to act as the control.
MATERIAL AND METHODS These investigations were performed with the collaboration of the Hungapig Co. Ltd. and the Animal Breeding and Nutrition Research Institute in Herceghalom, at the new performance testing station established in 1997. The experimental livestock were all housed in the same indoor area, with 6 pigs to a cage and 2.5 m2 ground area per animal. Throughout the study both the Mangalica pigs and those of the other genotype constructions were fed ad libitum diets of identical composition, provided from self-feeders. At live weight between 120 and 130 kg the pigs were slaughtered and their meat classified at the slaughterhouse of the Animal Breeding and Nutrition Research Institute in Herceghalom. After narcosis and slaughter, hanging to drain off the blood, boiling at 60-64 oC and manual singeing away of the hair the carcasses were divided into parts. During the routine splitting and cutting into pieces of the carcasses 100g back fat samples were taken from the region of the withers. These samples were stored in a freezer prior to laboratory analysis.
petrol ether of boiling point 40-60 oC was added to the remainder of the sample; this was shaken for 1 minute, and after separation the petrol ether phase was poured into the ether phase, followed by homogenisation. A quantity of the resultant extract known to contain 150-200 mg fat was then transferred to a round-bottomed flask with a ground glass neck. Subsequent to evaporation the extract was boiled for 3 minutes with 4 cm3 of a solution of boron trifluoride in methanol, and after cooling mixed with saturated aqueous saline solution. The organic phase was dried on sodium sulphate and then injected into the gas chromatograph. The following simplified procedure was used for the fat: 0.1-0.2 g fat was dissolved in 2 cm3 n-heptane, a small quantity of sodium sulphate was added, and 500 ml was measured from the dehydrated organic phase into a vial; 500 ml sodium methylate reagent was added to this, after which the liquid was heated at 60 oC for 1 hour, mixing by shaking every 10 minutes. Following cooling 1 cm3 n-heptane and 1 cm3 water were added, and after shaking for 1-2 minutes fluid was injected from the upper organic phase into the gas chromatograph. Conditions applied for gas chromatography: Equipment: Chrompack CP 9000 gas chromatograph Column: 50 m x 0.25 mm quartz capillary, humidifying phase CP Sil-88 (FAME) Detector: FID Injector: splitter Gases: carrier gas helium, 150 kPa, rate of flow 30 cm3/min.; at the detector: air 250 cm3/min., hydrogen 30 cm3/min. Temperatures: injector 220 0C, detector 220 0C, column initially 100 0C, then increasing by 6 0C/min. to 210 0C, and subsequently isothermal until the process was completed Volume injected: 0.5-2 ml.
EXAMINATION OF FATTY ACID COMPOSITION AND CHOLESTEROL CONTENT DETERMINATION OF FATTY ACID COMPOSITION
A 1 g quantity of adequately homogenised back fat was measured into a 100 cm3 Erlenmeyer flask, to which 8 cm3 concentrated hydrochloric acid was added; the flask was then covered and heated on a steam bath for 60-90 minutes. After cooling 7 cm3 ethanol and 25 cm3 ether were added and the flask was shaken for 1 minute. The ether phase was then poured off into a flask, and 25 cm3
CHOLESTEROL DETERMINATION The pure fat contained by 5 g back fat was extracted in Soxhlet extraction equipment with n-hexane; the fatty extract was evaporated, and 10 cm? 60% potassium hydroxide and 40 cm3 methanol were added to the residue. The flask was heated for 30 minutes on a water bath with a reflux condenser. After saponification had been completed the flask was cooled, its contents were washed into a separating funnel with 3 x 40 cm3 water, and the cholesterol was extracted with 3 x 40 cm3 ether. The unified ether phase was evaporated, after which the residue was dissolved in 4 cm3 hexane and 0.5 cm3 methanol and then injected into the gas chromatograph.
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The conditions applied for the gas chromatography procedure were the following: Equipment: Chrompack CP 9000 gas chromatograph Column: 10 m x 0.25 mm quartz capillary, humidifying phase CP Sil-5 CB Carrier gas: helium, pressure 30 kPa Flow ratio: 50:1 Temp.: injector 275 0C, detector 300 0C, column 270 0C Detector: flame ionisation detector; hydrogen 30 cm3/min., air 300 cm3/ min., nitrogen 20 cm3/ min. Volume injected: 0.5-2 ml
CONCLUSION
On the basis of these investigations it may be established that no substantial difference was ascertained with respect to either the monounsaturated, or the polyunsaturated, or the saturated fatty acids (stearic acid being the exception among the fatty acids present in concentrations above 10%) on examination of the fatty acid composition of the fat of these three pig genotypes. In the case of palmitic acid, oleic acid and linoleic acid, which together amount to more than 80% of fatty acid content, the mean values obtained practically concur. Thus, from these investigations it is possible to draw the conclusion that the fatty acid composition of the fat of the Mangalica pig is, practically speaking, totally identical in value to that of the fat of the Hungarian Large White x Hungarian Landrace and the Mangalica x Duroc genotype constructions. There are therefore no grounds for any assumption that the fat of the Mangalica breed has a more favourable fatty acid composition which would render it more easily digestible and healthier for humans than that of the intensive breeds. A similar conclusion can be drawn with regard to the cholesterol content of the fat of these genotypes. On the basis of the average for nine animals the cholesterol content of the fat of the Mangalica was measured at 88.44 mg/100 g, that of the Hungarian Large White x Hungarian Landrace at 83.60 mg/100 g, and that of the Mangalica x Duroc F1 genotype at 92.00 mg/100 g. No significant difference at P<0.05 level was detected between the three genotypes with respect to fat cholesterol content; variance within the genotypes proved greater than that between genotypes. Thus, there is no truth in the reports indicating that the fat of the Mangalica pig contains less cholesterol than that of the more generally produced types of fattening pig. However, on the basis of the findings of these investigations the authors wish to draw attention to the observation that the fat of all three genotypes examined proved to contain 43-45% oleic acid and 10-12% linoleic acid, and is thus extremely rich in unsaturated fatty acids and the essential linoleic acid when pigs are kept on a fattening diet based on one of the feed mixes currently in widespread use. The linolenic acid content (0.57-0.63%) and arachidonic acid content (0.15-0.20%) of the fat of the pigs examined proved low, while in comparison with the other fats studied stearic acid content was observed to be extremely low (11.56-13.63%). The measurements made in this study indicate that the cholesterol content of pig fat varies between 71 and 109 mg/100g. This cholesterol content is substantially lower than that of kidney, liver, egg yolk, bone marrow or cod liver oil.
STATISTICAL EVALUATION OF RESULTS The Student t-test was applied for the statistical evaluation of the experimental data. The analysis of the basic statistics and the correlation analyses were performed by means of the SPSS for Windows (1996) software package, version 7.5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION No significant difference (at P = 0.05 level) between the individual genotypes was detected either for unsaturated essential fatty acids or for unsaturated non-essential fatty acids, with the exception of eicosanoic acid. With respect to saturated fatty acids, with the exception of capric, lauric and palmitic acid, difference between the genotypes proved significant at P = 0.05 level. Of these saturated fatty acids, in the case of stearic, margaric, pentadecanoic and nonadecanoic acid the MNF x ML genotype contained the higher proportion, only myristic acid being determined in higher quantities in the Mangalica pig. This signifies that the ratio of saturated fatty acids in comparison with the unsaturated fatty acids was the highest in the MNF x ML pigs (41.12:58.88), although the difference was not significant (this ratio proving to be 39.87:60.13 for the Mangalica). The value for the Mangalica x Duroc genotype was found to be closer to that obtained for the MNF x ML group. It can be ascertained that for every fatty acid under examination the control group differed non-significantly from the Mangalica pigs. All of the three genotypes included in this study were found to deviate greatly from the hypothetically ideal ratio with respect to fatty acid composition (HIF), ratios for saturated fatty acids being calculated at only approximately 40% instead of 53-62%, while those for unsaturated fatty acids proved to be around 60% rather than 38-47%. The values for oleic acid (43-44%) were substantially higher than those reported in the literature, while those for linoleic acid (10-11%) and those for linolenic acid (0.5-0.7%) were found to correspond to the literature data.
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6. Nurnberg, K., Kuhn, G., Ender, K., Nurnberg, G. (1994): Effect of porcine somatotropin (pst) on carcass quality and adipose tissue composition in genetically different pigs. Arch. Tierzucht, 37: 265-278. 7. Overland, M., Taugbol, O., Haug, A., Sundstole, E. (1996): Effect of fish-oil on growth performance, carcass characteristics, sensory parameters, and fatty acid composition in pigs. Acta Agr. Scand., A-An. 46: 11-17. 8. Reidy, T.R., Atkinson, J.L., Leeson, S. (1994): Strain comparison on turkey egg components. Poultry. Sci., 73: 388-395. 9. Sather, A.P., Jones, S.D.M., Robertson, W.M., Zawadski, S. (1996): Sex effects of fat hardness meter readings of market weight pigs. Can. J. Anim. Sci., 75: 509-515. 10. Simopoulus, A.P. (1991): Omega-3 fatty acids in health and disease and in growth and development. Am. J. Cli. Nutr., 54: 438-463. 11. Weber, P.C., Sellmayer, A., Hrboticky, N. (1993): Fatty acids and their diverse functions: A challenge to future food production. Proceeding, Minisymp., 44th Ann. Meeting EAAP, Copenhagen, 19-27. 12. Willett, W.C. (1994): Diet and health - What should we eat? Science, 265: 532-537.
REFERENCES
1. Bee, G., Wenk, C. (1994): Effect of soybean oil and beef tallow supplementation to pig diets on the fatty acid profile of body lipids. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr., 71: 277-288. 2. Burr, M.L., Fehily, A.M., Gilbert, J.F., Rogers, S., Hollidax, R.M., Sweetnam, P.M., Elwood, P.C., Deadman, N.M. (1989): Effects of changes in fat, fish, and fibre intakes on death and myocardial reinfarction: Diet and reinfarction trial (DART). Lancet, 2: 757-761. 3. Hrboticky, N., Weber, P. (1993): Dietary habits and cardiovascular risk. The role of fatty acids, cholesterol and antioxidant vitamins in the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases. In Atherosclerosis, Inflammation and Thrombosis. Neri Serneri Gensini, G.G., Abbate, G.F., Prisco D. (Ed.), Scientific Press, Florence, 131-152. 4. Klingenberg, I.L., Knabe D.A., Smith, S.B. (1995): Lipid metabolism in pigs fed beef tallow or high-oleic acid sunflower oil. Comp. Biochem. Phys. B., 110: 277-292. 5. May, S.G., Savell, J.W., Lunt, D.K., Wilson, J.J., Laurenz, J.C., Smith, S.B. (1994): Evidence for preadipocyte proliferation during culture of subcutaneous and intramuscular adipose tissues from Angus and Wagyu crossbred steers. J. Anim. Sci., 72: 178-183.
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ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 637.5.513.12:636.597
UNTERSUCHUNGEN BER EINIGE SCHLACHTVERLUSTE BEI DEN ENTENRASSEN PEKING ENTE, FLUGENTE UND DEREN HYBRID MULARDE
S. Szsz (1), F. Bogenfrst (2), Lvia Ks(3)
Original scientific paper ZUSAMMENFASSUNG

Das Ziel dieses Versuches war einige Daten ber die Schlachtverluste bei den drei Enten-Genotypen zu vergleichen. Untersuchungsmaterial waren die Endprodukte von 200 Peking Enten, 200 Flugenten und 200 Mularden, die unter kommerziellen Mastbedingungen aufgezogen wurden..Wegen der unterschiede im Krpergewicht der drei Genotypen wurden die gemessenen Schlachtverluste ins Verhltnis zum gegebenen Krpergewicht gesetzt und so in den Ergebnissen dargestellt. Schlsselwrter: Ente(n), Schlachverluste
EINLEITUNG Es ist interessant einige Daten ber die Schlachtverluste bei den obigen drei Genotypen zu vergleichen, um die Unterschiede besser darlegen zu knnen. Zu erwhnen wre noch, da verschiedene Krperteile die bei uns zum Schlachtabfall gehren, in verschiedenen O-Asiatischen Lndern eine Delikatesse sind. Zum Beispiel dienen die Paddeln einmal als Lebensmitteln bzw. werden teilweise auch zu Uhrarmbnden verarbeitet, vom Kopf wird dagegen nur die Zunge exportiert. Die Federn werden auch in Ungarn zu industriellen zwecken verarbeitet. MATERIAL UND METHODE Untersuchungsmaterial waren die Endprodukte von 200 Peking Enten, 200 Flugenten und 200 Mularden. Die Enten wurden nach Geschlechtern getrennt aufgezogen, und es wurde auf eine gleiche Bestandszahl pro Versuchsgruppe geachtet. Jede Ente erhielt ein Flgelzeichen, um die individuellen Parameter verfolgen zu knnen. Ort des Versuches war die Versuchsanlage der Universitt Kaposvr, wo die Enten in 6 Kfigen untergebracht waren, getrennt nach Genotyp und Geschlecht. Die Boxen hatten eine Grundflche von 14m2. Die anfngliche Besatzdichte von 14 Stck/m2 wurde kontinuierlich auf 2,8 Stck/m2 verringert. Die Beleuchtungsdauer betrug in der ersten Woche 23 Stunden, in der zweiten Woche 18 Stunden und ab der dritten Woche 12 Stunden. Die Lichtintensitt wurde von anfangs 18-20 Lux auf 6-7 Lux verminert. Das war besonders wegen des heftigen Temperaments der Flugenten wichtig. Untersucht wurde am lebenden Tier: wchentliche Vernderung des Lebendgewichtes , Futterverbrauch und
-verwertung Durch Probeschlachtungen wurde untersucht: Lebendgewicht, Blutgewicht, Federgewicht, Kopfgewicht, Paddelngewicht, Gedrmgewicht Wegen der unterschiede im Krpergewicht der drei Genotypen werden die gemessenen Schlachtverluste ins Verhltnis zum gegebenen Krpergewicht gesetzt und so in den Ergebnissen dargestellt. Deshlab ist es notwendig zuerst einige berlegungen und Daten ber die Zunahmen der verschiedenen Ententypen anzustellen.
ERGEBNISSE UND DISKUSSION

Entwicklung des Krpergewichts bei den Erpeln
Bei den CV war die Entwicklung bis zur 7. Woche kontinuierlich, dann war ein kurzer Rckfall zu beobachten, dem aber erneut eine starke Wachstums- phase folgte, die bis zum Versuchsende anhielt. Von den Flugenten-Erpeln wurden eigentlich das hchste Lebendgewicht erwartet, was allerdings bei uns nicht eintraf, da sie sehr stark auf den Derzsy-Impfstoff reagierten, was ihre Zunahmen sehr beeintrchtigte. In der 12. Woche betrug ihr maximales Lebendgewicht 3566 g. Die Entwicklung der Mulard-Erpel war kontinuierlich. Sie holten gewichtsmig in der 12. Woche die CV-Erpel mit 4181 g Lebendgewicht ein.
Entwicklung des Krpergewichts bei den Enten
Bei den CV hatten die Enten - ebenso wie die Erpel ebenfalls in der 7. Woche einen Entwicklungsstop. Bei diesem Genotyp betrgt das Schlachtgewicht ca. 3000 g, was auch allgemein in der 7. Woche erreicht wird. Untersucht man jedoch - wie hier - eine grere Bestandszahl,
(1) Sandor Szsz, Assistent, (2) Ferenc Bogenfrst, Full Professor, (3) Lvia Ks, Student - Kaposvrer Universitt , Fakultt fr Tierproduktion, Guba S. u. 40, 7400 Kaposvr, Ungarn
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kann man auch nicht von einem Geschlechtsdimorphismus sprechen. Die Flugenten hatten die geringsten Zunahmen, was mit dem hochgradigen Geschlechtsdimorphismus zu erklren ist. Bei den Mularden verlief die Entwicklung ungebrochen. Mit einem Geschlechtsdimorphismus mussman
nicht rechnen, da sie als Hybride genau in der Mitte der beiden elterlichen Genotypen stehen. Gedrmanteil: Bei der Auswertung der Daten wird sichtbar, dass die Flugentenerpel whrend der ganzen Versuchsperiode immer von den anderen Typen abweichen, fters auch signifikant, und dass sie immer einen hheren Wert
Tabelle 1. Zusammenfassende Ergebnisse

Le be ns -w oc he
Genotyp
Gedrmanteil
Kopfanteil
Paddelnanteil
Federanteil
Blutanteil
pg:bg pg:mg bg:mg pt:bt pt:mt bt:mt pg:bg pg:mg bg:mg pt:bt pt:mt bt:mt pg:bg pg:mg bg:mg pt:bt pt:mt bt:mt pg:bg pg:mg bg:mg pt:bt pt:mt bt:mt pg:bg pg:mg bg:mg pt:bt pt:mt bt:mt pg:bg pg:mg bg:mg pt:bt pt:mt bt:mt
6,38 6,38 6,94 5,23 5,23 5,8 4,59 4,59 6,61 4,91 4,91 6,4 5,03 5,03 7,46 5,17 5,17 5,61 5,84 5,84 6,57 5,91 5,91 6,31 5,5 5,5 6,64 6,12 6,12 6,49 5,94 5,94 6,46 6,59 6,59 6,85
6,94 6,35 6,35 5,8 5,01 5,01 6,61 4,73 4,59 6,4 5,01 5,01 7,46 4,96 4,96 5,61 4,53 4,53 6,57 5,57 5,57 6,31 5,46 5,46 6,64 4,64 4,64 6,49 4,63 4,63 6,64 4,07 4,07 6,85 5,06 5,06
NS NS NS NS NS * * NS * * NS * * NS * NS NS * NS NS * NS NS * * * * NS * * NS * * NS * *
4,93 4,93 5,56 4,6 4,6 5,5 4,4 4,4 4,55 4,54 4,54 5,01 5 5 5,34 4,57 4,57 4,09 4,18 4,18 3,87 4,54 4,54 4,27 4,27 4,27 3,12 4,45 4,45 4,25 4,63 4,63 3,35 4,58 4,58 3,38
5,56 5 5 5,5 4,84 4,84 4,55 4,75 4,75 5,01 4,73 4,73 5,34 5,81 5,81 4,09 4,45 4,45 3,87 4,12 4,12 2,27 4,51 4,51 3,12 3,96 3,96 4,25 3,96 3,96 3,35 4,09 4,09 3,88 4,35 4,35
NS NS NS * NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS * NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS * NS * NS * * * * * NS * *
2,81 2,81 4,89 2,64 2,64 4,43 2,52 2,52 4 2,48 2,48 3,65 2,74 2,74 3,17 2,36 2,36 2,85 2,59 2,59 3,33 2,52 2,52 3,22 2,5 2,5 3 2,41 2,41 3,13 2,44 2,44 2,95 2,35 2,35 2,66
4,89 3,59 3,59 4,43 3,67 3,67 4 3,66 3,66 3,65 3,23 3,23 3,17 3,18 3,18 2,85 3,02 3,02 3,33 3,19 3,19 3,22 3,34 3,34 3 2,95 2,95 3,13 2,95 2,95 2,95 2,68 2,68 2,66 2,74 2,74
* * * * * * * * NS * * * NS * NS * * NS * * NS * * NS * * NS * * NS * NS NS * * NS
5,48 5,48 2,29 2,89 2,89 3,74 4,99 4,99 5,38 5,21 5,21 6,29 3,3 3,3 4,92 2,97 2,97 4,47 2,25 2,25 2,78 2,5 2,5 4,26 3,93 3,93 4,4 2,63 2,63 3,24 3,02 3,02 5,08 4,22 4,22 4,25
2,29 4,29 4,29 3,74 2,54 2,54 5,38 4,86 4,86 6,29 4,9 4,9 4,92 4,67 4,67 4,47 2,93 2,93 2,78 3,04 3,04 4,26 2,87 2,87 4,4 3,27 3,27 3,24 1,98 1,98 5,08 3,45 3,45 4,25 2,58 2,58
* NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS * NS * * * NS * NS * NS NS NS * NS * NS NS NS NS NS * * NS * NS * *
4,25 4,25 6,62 4,22 4,22 4,67 5,48 5,48 6,42 5,38 5,38 6,69 4,02 4,02 4,25 3,67 3,67 4,4 4,74 4,74 7,26 4,97 4,97 5,2 4,95 4,95 6,75 4,86 4,86 5,84 4,37 4,37 5,79 5,44 5,44 5,19
6,62 4,66 4,66 4,67 4,11 4,11 6,42 6,52 6,52 6,69 5,06 5,06 4,25 4,31 4,31 4,4 4,21 4,21 7,26 5,92 5,92 5,2 5,86 5,86 6,75 6,17 6,17 5,84 6,25 6,25 5,79 5,78 5,78 5,19 5,8 5,8
* NS * NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS * NS NS NS NS NS NS * NS * NS NS NS * * NS * * NS NS NS NS NS NS NS
10
11
12
*P<0,05; mg=Mulard mnnlich; pg=Peking Ente mnnlich; mt=Mulard weiblich; pt= Peking Ente weiblich; bg=Flugente mnnlich: bt=Flugente weiblich
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Agriculture 6 (2000) Blutanteil:
haben. Die Peking- und die Mularderpel haben sowohl hnliche Werte als auch einen bereinstimmenden Verlauf der Daten mit Ausnahme der letzten zwei Proben, wo die Peking Enten signifikant die hchsten und die Mularden signifikant die niedrigsten Werte zeigen. Bei den Enten wurden andere Tendenzen und Unterschiede gefunden als bei den Erpeln. Hier produzierten zwar ebenfalls die Flugenten die hchste Werte, aber sie haben zu den Peking Enten haben im Verlauf der Daten eher statistisch gesicherte hnlichkeiten, als zu den Mularden. Kopfanteil: Das Kopfgewicht hat bei der Erpeln aller Genotypen einen parallelen Verlauf. Nach einem anfnglichen Rckgang unter 5% steigen die Werte in der 9. Lebenswoche wieder an. Danach ein Absinken bis fast 3% bei den Flugenten, wo sie bis zum Ende der Versuchsperiode blieben. Es ist also festzustellen, dass im jeweilig besten Schlachtintervall dieser Krperteil den niedrigsten Wert bei allen Genotypen aufweist. Die Enten zeigen hinsichtlich des Kopfanteils whrend der Versuchsperiode einen harmonischeren Verlauf. Die Werte liegen anfangs nahe bei denen der Erpel nur Peking- und Flugenten weichen signifikant voneinander ab -, wobei bei allen Genotypen eine leicht abfallende Tendenz auftrat. Hier konnte man nur in der 11.-12. Lebenswoche signifikante Unterschiede zwischen Peking Enten und Mularden sowie Flugenten und Mularden feststellen. Paddelnanteil: Dieses Merkmal verluft bei den Erpeln paralell und hat eine leicht abfallende Tendenz, wobei die Unterschiede zwischen den Genotypen nahezu in jedem Alters signifikant sind. Bei den Enten ist hnliches zu beobachten, obwohl sich dort die Penking Ente immer signifikant von den anderen Genotypen unterscheidet. Federanteil: Am Anfang wurde hier ein signifikanter Unterschied zwischen Flugerpeln und Peking Erpeln gefunden, was sich nochmals in der 9. und 11. Woche wiederholte. In der 9. Woche wurden auch zwischen Peking Erpeln und Mulard Erpeln gesicherte Unterschiede gefunden sowie in der 12. Woche zwischen Flugerpeln und Mulard Erpeln. Der Verlauf des Federanteils whrend der Schlachtungen kann bei den Erpeln sehr deutlich ihrer generellen Entwicklung bzw. ihren Mauserzeiten zugeordnet werden. Die Enten zeigen vorerst eine steigende Tendenz im Federanteil, aber danach sinkt dieser Anteil bei der Flugenten und Mularden bis zur 11. Lebenswoche ab, in der sich auch keine signifikanten Unterschied zeigen. Bei der Peking Ente ist in dieser Zeit schon eine Erhhung des Federanteils zu beobachten, d.h. dieser Genotyp hat die Mauser schon hinter sich.
Bei diesem Merkmal ist der Verlauf der Werte bei Erpel und Enten sehr hnlich. Bei jedem Genotyp und Geschlecht erreichten die Tiere in der 7. und 9. Lebenswoche Minimalwerte. Danach begann bei jedem Genotyp eine ansteigende Phase, die nach kurzer Zeit wieder eine fallende Tendenz annahm, ausgenommen davon sind die Peking Erpel. ber die Hintergrnde dieses Phnomens wissen wir nichts Genaues. Wir nehmen einen Zusammenhang zwischen dem schwankenden Blutanteil und der Krperentwicklung bzw. dem Federwachstum und den Mauserzeiten an.
LITERATUR
1. Abdelsamie, R.E., Farell, D.J. (1985): Carcass composition and carcass characteristics of ducks, Duck production science and world practice, New England, 83-112. 2. Bogenfrst, F., Szsz, S., Szchenyi, Rita (1993): Evaluation of growth rate and carcass characteristics of mule duck according to the sex and feeding. Proceedings of 11th European Symp. on Qual. of Poultry Meat, Tours.
STUDY ON SLAUGHTERING WASTE IN PEKIN, MUSCOVY AND MULE DUCKS

ABSTRACT
In this study, which was part of a complex duck experiment, domestic (Pekin type), muscovy and mule ducks were used to determine the slaughtering waste from 7 to 12 weeks of age. The animals were kept under intensive conditions until 6 weeks of age and under semi-intensive conditions thereafter. Their were fed ad libitum, with a commercial pelleted feed for Pekin duck during the whole experimental period. Eight birds of each genotype and sex were slaughtered weekly during the period. During the slaughter procedure the different slaughtering waste were calculated.
Keywords: duck, slaughtering waste
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ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 636.5:636.084.5
THE INFLUENCE OF REARING SYSTEM ON SKIN COLOUR IN BROILERS

D. Ter~i~(1), Jana Puhar(2), Antonija Holcman(3), R. Vadnjal(4), B. @lender(5)

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of different rearing systems on the skin colour of commercial broilers. Research was carried out on 100 broilers of two different provenances (ross 208 and prelux-bro) up to 56 days of age. In the first half of the experiment the broilers were fed according to standard technology with bro starter which contained 23.44 % crude protein and 12.98 MJ/kg metabolizable energy. On the 28th day broilers were divided into two groups and fed with bro finisher which contained 70 % cereals, 14.0 % crude protein and 16.26 MJ/kg metabolizable energy. Half of the broilers were kept indoors without access to the grassland, while the other half had free access during the day (12 hours). Free range broilers showed a higher degree of pigmentation in skin colour than the broilers in confinement. The differences were statistically significant for the L* (lightness) and b* (yellowness) values.
Keywords: broilers, skin colour, free range, deep litter
INTRODUCTION Colour is one of the first impressions we have of a meat product. In modern markets, consumers still tend to favour skin colours which are traditionally available and which are based on local feeding practices as well as genetic stock (Fletcher, 1999). Because of its market impact, much is known about the factors affecting skin pigmentation. Pigmentation, or the deposition of pigments in the skin of the bird, depends on the genetic capability of the bird, dietary pigments, health of the bird and processing (Fletcher, 1999). Many consumers belive that broilers which have access to fresh grass every day, and also receive antibiotic-free, non-commercial grain rations have better meat quality with better sensory properties than broilers raised in closed poultry houses. This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of the management system (total confinement versus free range) on broiler breast skin colour. MATERIAL AND METHODS The research was carried out with two provenances of broilers. 50 broilers (25 females and 25 males) were from commercial provenance ross 208 and 50 broilers (25 females and 25 males) were from commercial provenance prelux-bro. All broilers were raised in the fixed poultry house of deep litter type up to 4 weeks of age and were fed ad libitum with standard mixture of the same content and nutritional value. The levels of metabolizable energy and crude protein up to 4 weeks of age were 12.98 MJ/kg and 23.44% CP, respectively. At the age of 4 weeks the chickens were divided into two groups. The first group was composed of 15 ross fe-
males, 10 ross males, 12 prelux-bro females and 12 prelux-bro males. The second one was formed from 12 ross females, 13 ross males, 13 prelux-bro females and 13 prelux-bro males. Broilers from the first group had continuous daytime (12 hours) access to open-air run. The ground to which the broilers had access was mainly covered with vegetation. The stocking density on the grassland was one bird per two square meters. Broilers from the second group were raised in deep litter house where the floor area was covered with wood shavings. They did not have access to the outdoors. From 4 weeks of age ahead all b roilers were fed ad libitum with finisher contained 70 % cereals (barley and maize). Protein concentration in finisher was 14.0 %, metabolizable energy 16.26 MJ per kg. At the age of 8 weeks all broilers were slaughtered and processed at the same way. The slaughtering scheme was as follows: stunning with electrical current, bleeding by cutting jugular vein, scalding and plucking by machine and eviscerating by hand. The skin colour measurments were taken on the breast surfaces 24 h post mortem using a porTable Minolta Chroma Meter CR 300. Colour values (L*-lightness, a*-redness and b*-yellowness) were recorded on three randomly chosen points of chilled breast surfaces in triplicate. The data were subjected to statistical analysis using the GLM procedure in the SAS statistical program (SAS/STAT, 1990). The model was as follows:
(1) Duan Ter~i~, Assistant Professor, (3) Antonija Holcman, Ph.D., (4) Robert Vadnjal, BAg - University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Zootechnical Department, Groblje 3, 1230 Domàle, Slovenia, (2) Jana Puhar, BAg Celovka 108, 1107 Ljubljana, Slovenia, (5) Boìdar @lender, Associated Professor - University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Food Technology Department, Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Yijkl = m + Pi + Rj + Sk + eijkl Yijkl = measured value; m = population mean Pi = effect of provenance i Rj = effect of keeping system j Sk = effect of sex k eijkl = random error
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Colour perception by humans can be defined by a minimum of three dimensions, consisting of a lightness attribute (luminosity, distinguishing light from dark colour) and two chromatic attributes called hue (or dominant wavelength, colour perception of the object as red, yellow, green), and chroma (saturationor depth or purity of the colour, the difference between grey and pure colour). Standardisation of colour quantification has been performed by the CIE (Commission international de lEclairage, 1976). The CIE L*a*b* system, the scale of which correlates with the colour perception by humans defines a three-dimensional colour space with opponent colours scale, a* (red positive-green negative), b* (yellow-blue) and L* (lightness, black to white reflectance, 0-100). The major advantages of reflectance colorimetry are its objectivity, accuracy and reproducibility. Major disadvantage is the abstract nature of colour description systems. On the basis of many experiments (e.g. Twining et al., 1986) which provided evidence that the Minolta Chroma Meter may be used as a reliable instrument for measuring pigmentation in broilers we used it in our study for reading breast skin colour. In Table 1 are shown the average values for broiler breast skin colours and variability within the groups. The results given above show the lighter skin colour in ross males from confinement and the darker skin colour in prelux-bro females from free range. The higher mean redness value was observed in ross males from free range whereas the lower mean redness value was detected in ross females from free range. The mean yellowness value was the highest in prelux-bro females from free range and the lowest in prelux-bro males which were raised indoors. The data in Table 2 represent the effects of the provenance, sex and keeping system on the breast skin colour values.
Analysis of variance showed that the provenance of the trial animals had no significant effect on lightness, redness and yellowness of the skin (Table 2). The keeping system had effect on breast skin yellowness and lightness while it did not have any effect on skin redness (Table 2). On the contrary to keeping system the sex influenced the redness of the breast skin colour but it did not exhibit any influence on skin lightness and yellowness (Table 2). Skin colour differences and their statistical significance are summarized in Table 3. The b* values (yellowness) were significantly higher in broilers from free range when compared with those from confinement (Table 3). Broilers reared on the pasture also showed lower lightness (L*) and lower redness (a*), but only values for lightness were significantly different from those measured in broilers reared indoors. These data are in conflict with the findings of Garcia et al. (1995) in which lower lightness and redness values of chicken thigh surfaces were found in indoor raised label chickens. Studies performed by Ricard et al. (1986) and Bastiaens et al. (1991) cited by Remignon and Culioli (1995) also reported that the chemical or sensory characteristics of the meat are not affected by the growing conditions. The differences in redness values between two sexes were confirmed statistically. Males had significantly higher redness values than females. The opposite situation was observed for the L* and b* values although in this case the differences were not statistically different. Regarding breast skin colour we determined a higher L*, a* and b* values in ross broilers in comparison with the prelux-bro broilers but the differences between two provenances were not statistically reliable.
CONCLUSIONS A comparison of breast skin colour of broilers from two keeping systems (indoors vs free range) turned out that the pastured birds had significantly higher pigmentation degree in yellowness. This may be connected with the raising under grass pasture conditions. There was a tendency that broilers kept indoors shown greater breast skin brightness than broilers raised on the pasture. Results of our study do not agree with the ones published by Garcia et al. (1995), Ricard (1986) and Bastiaens et al. (1991) cited by Remignon and Culioli (1995).
Table 1. Initial mean lightness (L*), redness (a*) and yellowness (b*) values of broiler breast skins
Free range broilers Breast skin colour 73.19 1.8 1.13 1.1 15.62 3.3 Ross 208 females L* a* b* males 71.39 2.1 2.75 1.5 14.84 4.1 Prelux-bro females 71.26 2.2 1.46 1.1 16.39 2.5 males 72.04 2.3 1.50 1.5 14.08 4.4 73.47 2.2 1.59 1.0 12.67 3.1 Ross 208 females males 74.32 1.1 1.69 1.7 11.59 3.1 72.95 1.8 1.31 1.0 10.82 2.7 Broilers raised indoors Prelux-bro females males 73.14 3.2 2.28 1.3 10.50 1.8
Agriculture 6 (2000) Table 2. The effects of provenance, sex and keeping system on the breast skin colour values
73
P- values Effect Provenance Keeping system Sex cant

Table 3. Differences in skin colour between sexes, provenances and keeping systems
L value (lightness)
*
a value (redness)
*
B* value (yellowness) 0.3848 0.0001 0.0730
0.0741 0.0072 0.9403
0.6891 0.7082 0.0086
P 0.05= non significant ; P 0.05 = statistically significant; P 0.01 = statistically significant; P 0.001 = highly statistically signifi-
LSM Sex L* (lightness) Provenance Keeping system Sex a* (redness) Provenance Keeping system Sex b* (yellowness) Provenance
Keeping system
Estimated difference SEE 0.04 0.49 0.88 0.49 1.34 0.49 0.79 0.29 0.12 0.29 0.11 0.29 1.24 0.68 0.59 0.68 3.73 0.68
P-values 0.9403 0.0741 0.0072 0.0086 0.6891 0.7082 0.0730 0.3848 0.0001
Females Males Ross Prelux-bro Free range Indoors Females Males Ross Prelux-bro Free range Indoors Females Males Ross Prelux-bro Free range Indoors
72.82 72.79 73.25 72.36 72.13 73.48 1.30 2.09 1.76 1.64 1.64 1.75 13.94 12.71 13.62 13.03 15.19 11.46
P 0.05= non significant; P 0.05 = statistically significant ; P 0.01 = statistically significant; P statistically significant; LSM = least square mean; SEE = standard error of the estimation
0.001 = highly
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This investigation is part of a research project funded by research grants from the Ministry of Science and Technology of Slovenia and Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food of Slovenia. REFERENCES
1. Fletcher, D. L. (1999): Poultry meat colour. In: Richardson, R. I./ Mead, G. C. Poultry meat science, Poultry science symposium series, CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK, vol. 25: 159-175 2. Garcia, M. E., Cepero, R., Campo, M. M., Lafuente, R., Saudo, C., Canti, M. (1995): Effects of production sys-
tem on the meat quality of label chickens and capons. In: Briz, R. C. Poultry meat quality, Proceedings of the XII european symposium on the quality of poultry meat, Zaragoza, Spain, 1995, 9(25/29): 207-217 3. Remignon, H., Culioli, J. (1995): Meat quality traits of french label chickens. In: Briz, R. C. Poultry meat quality, Proceedings of the XII european symposium on the quality of poultry meat, Zaragoza, Spain, 1995, 9(25/29): 145-150 4. Twining, P. V., Quarles, C. L., Schwartz, J. H. (1986): The evaluation of the Minolta Chroma Meter for reading shank pigmentation of live broilers. Poultry Science 65(1): 196 5. . SAS/STAT (1990) Users Guide, Version 6, Volume 2, GLM-VARCOMP. Carry, SAS Institute, 1135-1194.
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ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 576.3
OXIDATIVE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT DIETARY FATS ON MOUSE DNA DETECTED BY COMET ASSAY
Romana Marinek Logar(1), K. Salobir(2) Original scientific paper ABSTRACT
Here we report on the introduction of the Comet assay for the in vivo testing of oxidative effects of different polyunsaturated dietary fats on mouse nuclear DNA. Five groups of mice were fed with the diet of the same composition but with different fat supplementation: 1st group - oleic acid rich sunflower oil, 2nd group - sunflower oil, 3rd gruop - rape oil, 4th group - lard, 5th group - control group. Fats with different degrees of unsaturation have caused different degrees of mice DNA damage. The highest degree of DNA damage (2.72) was found in the group fed with oleic acid rich sunflower oil. The lowest degree of DNA damage was found in the control group. The results obtained indicate that Comet assay is sensitive enough to differentiate the quality of nutritional fats from the view of free radicals formation.
Keywords: nutrition, fats, antioxidants, oxidative stress, DNA, comet assay
INTRODUCTION Beside positive effects on human health unsaturated fatty acids increase the proxidative load of the organism and thus take part in oxidative stress of the cells resulting in different types of cell damages (RDA, 1989). Relative peroxidation potential of unsaturated fatty acids increases with the number of double bonds. The products of lipid peroxidation promote the distruction of cell membranes and cause the damage of nuclear DNA leading finally to the evolution of chronical diseases (like cancer) or cell death. The increased food intake of unsaturated fatty acids increases the demand of the organism for antioxidative protection (Esterbauer, 1996). Antioxidants protect cells against free radicals and take part in repair mechanisms which help the cells to neutralise partially the effects of free radicals (WHO/FAO, 1994; uput and Kamari~, 1998). In spite of the presence of antioxidants some free radicals allways escape the neutralisation and thus cause cell damages in human or animal body. DNA is for example continuously exposed to oxidative damages. There are some direct methods available to follow these damages: chromosomal abberations test, sister chromatids exchange test and micronucleus test (Fu~i}, 1997). DNA damages could be evaluated also indirectly by analysing the oxidative products (like 8-hydroxy guanin and 8-hydroxydeoxy guanozin) using HPLC methods (Halliwell and Aruoma, 1997). Comet assay (Single Cell Gel Electrophoresis-SCGE, Singh et al., 1988) is a new sensitive method for a reliable quantification of nuclear DNA damages. Cells are incorporated into agarose gels on microscopic slides and exposed to alkali lysis and electro-
phoresis at ph >13. During the electrophoresis the broken DNA migrates toward the catode and forms an image of a comet tail after staining with ethidium bromide and visualisation under the fluorescent microscope. The aim of the present study was to test the suitability of the comet assay for determination of the degree of oxidative stress caused by differently unsaturated fats in a nutrition investigation model. Similar studies with the comet assay analysis are usually performed in vitro on cell cultures (Duthie and Dobson, 1999) and rarely in vivo on animal models (Turley et al., 1998). Animal models are prefered because of including the complete interactions spectrum of the animal with the test substance.
MATERIAL AND METHODS White laboratory mice (male sex, 8 weeks old, line Hsd Hn: NMRI) were selected as model experimental animals and their leucocytes were selected as test cells. The animals were devided into five experimental groups (five animals in each group). The basic diet of all groups was the same but each experimental group received different dietary fat supplementation: 1st group 10% of oleic acid rich sunflower oil, 2nd group 10% of sunflower oil, 3rd group - 10% of rape oil, 4th group - 10% of lard, 5th group (control group) 2% of oleic acid rich sunflower oil. The mice were sacrificed on the 17th, 23rd, 29th, 31st and 42nd day of the experiment. The blood was extracted by the aid of K3EDTA as anticoagulant. The leucocytes were isolated from whole blood under sterile conditions
(1) Romana Marinek Logar, Assistant Professor, (1) Karl Salobir, Full Professor - University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Zootechnical Department, Groblje 3, 1230 Domàle, Slovenia
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following the method of Johnston and Thorpe (1990). The exposure of the samples to daylight was limited as much as possible. The proportion of damaged leucocytes was checked by Trypan blue (0,6%) staining (Wilson, 1986). Isolated leucocytes were incorporated into agarose gel (0.6% low metling point agarose, LMP) and overlayed on microscopic slides covered with a thin layer of 1% normal melting point agarose (NMP) and another layer of 0.6% LMP agarose. The cell layer was covered with additional two layers of agarose. There were positive and negative controls included in each series of comet assays: minigels were incubated 5 minutes in 500 M H2O2 for positive controls and the cells of the control group were taken as negative controls. Minigels were then exposed to alkaline cell lysis (1% Triton X-100, 0.03M NaOH, 1.2 M NaCl, 10% dimethylsulfoxide and 0.5% Nlaurylsarcosine) and further on to electrophoresis in 30mM NaOH and 2mM EDTA (20 min., 25V, 300mA). Minigels were neutralised in 400mM Tris-HCl buffer (pH=7.5) and stained with ethidium bromide (2g/ml). The protocols of Tice et al. (1998) and Pool-Zobel et al.(1997) were followed for the comet assay. The results were visualised with epifluorescent microscope under 200 X magnification (excitation wavelength: 515-560 nm, emission filter 590 nm). The evaluation of damage degrees was done visualy, classifying the nuclei into five damage categories with numeric values from 1 to 5, 1 meaning an undamaged nuclus and 5 the highest degree of damage (Miyame et al., 1998). 100 randomly chosen nuclei were evaluated for each sample and the mean values of damage degrees calculated (Figures 1 and 2).
Figure 2. Intact mouse leucocyte nucleus after electrophoresis
Figure 1. A comet driven from a mouse leucocyte nucleus as a result of H2O2 (100 g/l) treatment and electrophoresis
The data were statistically evaluated using GLM (General linear models) procedure in a program package SAS/STAT (1990).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION After five repeats of the comet assay for each experimental group of mice the highest mean degree of DNA damage (2.72) was found in the 1st group fed with oleic acid rich sunflower oil and decreased as follows: 3rd group (rape seed oil), 4th group (lard), 2nd group (sunflower oil). The lowest degree of DNA damage was found in the control group (see Table 1). The mean degree of DNA damage for the 1st experimental group differed signifficantly from the 2nd group, 4th group and the control group. The 3rd group did not differ signifficantly from any of the experimental groups. The comet assay in the present nutritional investigation model with diets supplemented with fats of different saturation resulted in different degrees of DNA damage which are not in correspondence with the expected results. We can conclude that the DNA damages were not only the consequence of different free radicals generation potential of dietary fats present in the feed and so the results need to be carefully interpreted. According to the peroxide number of individual dietary fats it was expected that in the 1st group of mice (oleic acid rich sunflower oil) lower DNA damage would be detected and the higher one in 2nd group (sunflower oil). The results show a vice-versa position. It should be pointed out that the dietary fats with defined (analysed) fatty acid composition and no antioxidants added were used in the experiment, but there were no data about their own antioxidants contents. The highest mean degree of DNA damage (2.72) was found in the 1st group fed with oleic acid rich sunflower oil and we can comment that this is not a high degree of DNA damage according to the highest value possible, which was 5. The result could be the consequence of some other unknown or unmeasured influences in the experiment like physical activity of experimental animals, antioxidant contents of dietary fats, stess situations and hormonal and healt status. It was noticed that the physical activity of experimental animals was the highest in the 1st group and as a consequence there was probably a higher oxidative load
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present, too. It would be better to keep the experimental animals in individual cages in future experiments.
Table 1. Mean degrees of DNA damages and statistically significant differences between test groups
Mean degree of DNA damage 1st group (oleic acid rich sunflower oil) 2nd group (sunflower oil) 3 group (rape seed oil)
rd
REFERENCES
1. Duthie, S.J., Dobson, V.L. (1999): Dietary flavonoids protect human colonocyte DNA from oxidative attack in vitro. Eur. J. Nutr., 38: 28-34. 2. Esterbauer, H. (1996): Estimation of peroxidative damage. Path. Biol., 44:25-28. 3. Fu}i~, A. (1997): Metoda komete: novi pristup genotoksikolokim iztraìvanjima. Arh. hig. rada toksikol. 48: 413-419. 4. Gedik, C.M., Ewen, S.W.B. Collins AR. (1992): Single cell gel ectrophoresis applied to the analysis of UV-C damage and its repair in human cells. Int. J. Radiat. Biol., 62: 313-320. 5. Halliwell, B., Aruoma, O.I. (1977): Free radicals and antioxidants: The need for in vivo markers of oxidative stress. In: Antioxidant methodology In vivo and in vitro concepts (Eds.: Aruoma, O.I., Cuppett, S.L.) Champain, Illinois, USA, AOCS Press, 1-23. 6. Johnstone, A., Thorpe, R. (1990): Immunochemistry in Practice. 2nd ed. Oxford. Blackwell Scientific Publications, 306 p. 7. Miyame, Y., Yamamoto, M., Sasaki, Y.F., Kobayashi, H., Igarashi-Soga, M., Shimoi, K., Hayashi, M. (1998): Evaluation of tissue homogenization technique that isolates nuclei for the in vivo single cell gel electrophoresis (comet) assay: a collaborative study by five laboratories. Mutat. Res., 418: 131-140. 8. Pool-Zobel, B.L., Bub, A., Rechkemmer, G. (1997): Application of the comet assay to study oxidative DNA damage in human cells. In: Antioxidant methodology - In vivo and in vitro concepts (Eds: Auroma, O.I., Cuppett, S.L.). Champain, Illinois, USA, AOCS Press, 39-51. 9. Singh, N. P., McCoy, M.T., Tice, R.R., Schneider, E.L. (1988): A simple technique for quantification of low levels of DNA damage in individual cells. Exp. Cell Res., 175: 184-191. 10. uput D., Kamari~ L. (1998): Prosti radikali. In: Izbrana poglavja iz patoloke fiziologije. Ljubljana. Medicinska fakulteta, Intitut za patoloko fiziologijo, 23-43. 11. Tice, R., Vazquez, M. (1998): Protocol for the application of the pH>13 alkaline single cell gel (SCG) assay to the detection of DNA damage in mammalian cells. Http://www.kineticimaging.com/kidocs/kompetpro.doc. 12. Turley, E., Armstrong, N. C., Wallace, J.M.W., Gilmore, W.S., McKelvey-Martin, V.J., Allen, J.M., Strain, J.J. (1999): Effect of cholesterol feeding on DNA damage in male and female Syrian hamsters. Ann. Nutr. Metab., 43: 47-51. 13. Wilson, A.P. (1986): Citoxicity and Viability Assay. V: Animal cell culture (Ed.: Freshney, R. I.), Washington, IRL Press ,183-215. 14. RDA. Recomended Dietary Allowances. 10th ed. (1989). Washington, National Academy Press, 44-49 and 99-104. 15. .. SAS/STAT Users Guide. Version 6. 4th Edit. (1990). Cary, SAS, Institute INC., 1600 p. 16. . WHO/FAO. (1994): Fats and oils in human nutrition. Non-glyceride constituents of fats. Rome, 99-102.
2,27a 0,08 1,78b 0,43 1,92ab 0,23 1,80b 0,36 1,56b 0,17
4th group (lard) 5th group (control)
Values, labeled with different superscripts (a,b), differ significantly (P 0,05)
CONCLUSION The results showed that supplementing fats of diffent degrees of unsaturation caused different degrees of mouse DNA damage. We can conclude that the comet assay enables the differentiation of nutritional fats quality on the basis of free radicals formation. The introduction of the comet assay in a nutrition investigation model means a new analytical quality in our nutritional research. Comet assay has a biomarkers character it reflects the real biological effects of a selected dietary compound on a cell level. The results of the comet assay in nutritional experiments allways show the difference between the effects of dietary load with proxidative compounds and the effects of antioxidative substances present in food and repair mechanisms (Gedik te al., 1992). This enables us to follow the effects of prooxidative substances in food when the prooxidative/antioxidative ratio is moved toward prooxidative substances. On the other side we can follow the effects of antioxidants in food on reduction of oxidative stress and genotoxicity. The optimisation of the experimental procedure is still needed and the reliability of the results will surely be better with the use of the automatic image analysis system for the quatification of the comet results. For better reliability of the nutrition experimental model we have to exclude the factors taht contributed to the additional, uncontroled oxidative load of experimental animals.
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ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 636.92:636.06
EXAMINATION OF MUSCLE AND ERYTHROCYTE MEMBRANE LIPID COMPOSITION BY MEANS OF GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY ON MEAT TYPE RABBITS
A. Szab(1), H. Fbel(2), R. Romvri (3), P. Bogner (4)

The goal of our investigations was to achieve basic data on muscle and erythrocyte membrane lipid composition. Pannon White meat type rabbits were investigated at the age of 8 weeks when samples were taken from m. longissimus dorsi, m. quadriceps femoris and blood. Muscle fat content was extracted, blood cell membrane was isolated first and the fatty acids were methyl-estherified. Gas chromatography measurements centred on fatty acids from the carbon chain length of C14:0 to C20:4. Gas chromatography was carried out using fatty acid standards and the results were given in percentage of the total fat content. The results (average values) obtained were C14:0=2.47; C14:1=1.13; C15:0=0,37; C16:0=24.51; C17:0=0.43; C18:0=6.03; C18:1=27.51; C18:2=18,1; C18:3=3.69; C20:0=0.25; C20:4=3.0 for m.L.D., and C14:0=1.98; C15:0=0,36; C16:0=26.2; C17:0=0.44; C18:0=6.79; C18:1=21.13; C18:2=22.81; C18:3=2.36 and C20:4=5.35 for m.Q.F., respectively. The ratio of unsaturated to saturated fatty acids was 1.85 in case of m.L.D., 1.71 by m.Q.F and 0.983 by blood samples. The data obtained can be used in further examinations, where we plan to follow the changes caused by long term physical load. Keywords: rabbit, fat content, fatty acid composition, USFA, SFA
INTRODUCTION The lipid content of rabbit muscles was investigated even prior to our work. In former investigations Bernardini et al. (1996) measured changes caused by vitamin E supplementation. Also Cavani et al. (1996) reported about muscle total fat composition and its changes to whole soybean addition. The unsaturated and saturated fatty acid complementation was although widely studied, e.g. by Kessler and Pallauf (1994), who reported alterations in composition of the intramuscular fat. Fekete et al. (1990) also studied the effects of different fat supplementations on blood parameters. Furthermore Pekiner and Pennock (1995) studied the blood cell membrane composition of diffreent species, including rabbit. In the above mentioned articles in all cases not only the fat content, but the fatty acid composition was analysed, mostly by gas chromatography. Our goal by analysing the fatty acids of rabbit muscles and blood is based on a theory, that the physical load causes specific changes in rabbits. This changes seem to be more characteristic in muscle tissue than is blood samples, anyway, the alterations can be detected even in blood, if the storage is proper and short. The opportunity of controlled physical load of rabbits has been assured, as a specific treadmill has been designed which promises facilities for a long term training. In addition, it is widely
known that the Porcine Stress Syndrome can be in part explained by an alteration in the fatty acid profile of skeletal muscles in swine. Furthermore, a most important triggering effect to form PSE (pale, soft and exudative) type pork is also physical exercise. One of our goals for the future is to obtain comparable data on the lipid profile from rabbit also after exercise and porcine samples from the above mentioned tissues.
MATERIAL AND METHODS Twelve Pannon White rabbits in both sexes were investigated at the age of 8 weeks. Trial animals were kept in a closed building in cages (800x500mm for four animals), and fed ad libitum with a commercial pelletted diet (DE 10.3 MJ/kg, crude protein 17.5%, crude fat 3.6%, crude fibre 12.4%). Slaughtering process was in accordance with the Hungarian Animals Protection Act. Muscle samples were taken from the m. longissimus dorsi and m. quadriceps femoris, and kept frozen. Samples were homogenized with chloroform:methanol (2:1), and the fat content was extracted.
(1) Andrs Szab, (3) Rbert Romvry, Ass. Professor - University of Kaposvr, Faculty of Animal Science, Guba S. u. 40., 7400 Kaposvr, Hungary (2) Hedvig Fbel, (4 ) Pter Bogner - Research Centre for Animal Breeding and Nutrition, Herceghalom
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In the case of blood samples cells were first haemolysed using phosphate buffer at a pH of 7.4, and cell membranes (ghost) were washed three times in a hypotonic solution. Fat content was extracted (chloroform:methanol (2:1)). Prior to gas chromatography analysis in both cases fatty acids were methyl-estherified, by means of methanol, benzene and sulphuric acid (75:25:4). Fatty acid methyle esters were solved in n-hexane and gas chromatography was carried out using fatty acid standards (Sigma-Aldrich).
CONCLUSION The results above agree with those from previous studies and the fatty acids measured ensure us basic data for further experiments. The ralatively high unsaturated rate of the total fat can be clearly seen. The fatty acid profiles obtained make it possible to compare the data either with those from the physically loaded rabbits, or even with those from other species, e.g. pigs. REFERENCES
1. Cavani C., Zucchi, P., Minelli, G., Tolomelli, B., Cabrini, L., Bergami, L. (1996): Effects of whole soybeans on growth performance and body fat composition in rabbits. 6th World Rabbit Congress, Toulouse 1, 127-133. 2. Bernardini, M., Dal Bosco, A., Castellini, C., Miggiano, G. (1996): Dietary vitamin E supplementation in rabbit: antioxidant capacity and meat quality. 6th World Rabbit Congress, Toulouse 3, 137-140. 3. Kessler, von B., Pallauf, J. (1994): Fettsurezusamnesetzung und Cholestringehalt des Musculus longissimus dorsi von Mastkaninchen bei alimentrer Zulage von Kokosfett, Rapsl oder Sojal. Zchtungskunde, 66(3):242-251. 4. Fekete, S., Hullr, I. Fbel, H., Bokori, J. (1990): The effect of animal fat and vegetable oil supplementation of feeds of different energy concentration upon the digestibility of nutrients and some blood parameters in rabbits. Acta Veterinaria Hungarica, 38:163-175. 5. Pekiner B., Pennock, J.F.(1995): Fatty acids in plasma and red blood cell membranes in humans, rats, rabbits and dogs. Biochem-Mol-Biol-Int., 37(2): 221-229. 6. Fletcher J.E., Rosenberg, H., Michaux, K. (1988): Lipid analysis of skeletal muscle from pigs susceptible to malignant hyperthermia. Biochem. Cell Biol., 66:917-921.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results of the gas chromatography measurements were given always in percentage of the total fat content. The fatty acids analysed show a specific profile in the case of rabbits. The fatty acid pattern of the rabbit red blood cell can be characterized with relatively high C18:2, C18:3 and low C20:4 proportion when compared to swine and other species (Fletcher, 1987), (Fig. 1.).
percent of total [%]
30 20 10 0 14 14:1 15 16 16:1 17 17:1 18 18:1 18:2 18:3 20 20:4 carbon chain length
Figure 1. Fatty acid pattern of rabbit erythrocyte membrane
Although there is a possible similarity in muscle fatty acid composition between the species mentioned, rabbit muscles include more mono-unsaturated fatty acids than swine. Figure 2 shows the results obtained from rabbit m. longissimus dorsi and m. quadriceps femoris. Specific to the rabbit muscle is the high proportion of C16:1, C18:1 and also C18:3 fatty acids.
m.L.D.
percent of total [%]
m.Q.F.
30 20 10 0
14
15
16
17
18
14:1
16:1
18:1
18:2
18:3
20
carbon chain length
Figure 2. Fatty acid composition of m.L.D. and m.Q.F. of rabbit
20:4
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ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 636.92:636.084.5
THE COMPARISON OF TREATMENT WITH FARMATAN AND FLAVOMICIN ON FATTENING AND SENSORY TRAITS IN RABBITS
M. truklec(1), B. @lender(2), Ajda Kermauner(3), Milena Kova~(4), pela Malovrh(5)

The effects of feed additive Farmatan (chestnut tannin) and antibiotic Flavomicin on fattening traits of 78 young rabbits were studied. Trial lasted from the age of 35 days to 54 days of age (3 intervals: 1st: 5 days, 2nd and 3rd 7 days) and weight gain, average daily weight gain (DWG) and average feed conversion efficiency (FCE) were recorded during each interval and entire trial period. For sensory quality rabbits were slaughtered on 81st day of age. In trial were two control groups, one with no additive (C) and the other with antibiotic Flavomicin (Fl, 40 mg/kg). Two trial groups were Farmatan (Fa, 3.5 g/kg) group and combined treatment with Farmatan and Flavomicin (FF, 40 mg Fl/kg + 3.5 g Fa/kg). Among treatments in trial were no statistical significant difference in DWG and FCE. Farmatan did not improve growth rate and FCE of any of examined intervals. Sensory quality was performed on 32 randomly selected (11 from Fa and 7 from every other group) rabbits by 4 trained panelists, so 128 observations were collected for every sensory trait. Longissimus chops were sensory evaluated for smell, tenderness, juiciness, flavour intensity, bitter off-flavour and other off-flavours. Statistically significant influence of treatment was in bitter off-flavour. The chops from Fa treatment had 0.41 and 0.42 (p 0.05) point less bitter off-flavour comparing to C and Fl chops, respectively. Otherwise, the use of Farmatan had not important influence on sensory characteristics of rabbit meat. Results obtained with Farmatan were comparable with Flavomicin; these findings together with beneficial effect of Fa on bitter off-flavor support the use of Farmatan as feed additive in rabbits. Key words: animal nutrition, rabbits, tannins, antibiotics, Farmatan, Flavomicin, fattening traits, sensory traits
INTRODUCTION The influence of biotechnology in animal production is of increasing interest. The consumers and public information services judge these new technologies through the quality of animal products, their impact on environment etc. Hence, animal producers are forced to find new methods, which have to be safer for the society (Lyons, 1998). Such biotechnologically produced feed additives can successfully replace growth promotors and nutritive antibiotics, used all over the world. The role of such probiotic additives is to sustain digestion processes and to improve health of animal, what result in better production parameters. In Slovenia and some other European countries Farmatan is used as feed additive to improve production parameters in animals and for prevention of diarrhoea (Farmatan, 1998). It is natural product, produced by water extraction from sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.) wood. It is on the base of tannins, 85% are from group of hydrolysible tannins and 15% from condensed tannins. Farmatan contains about 55% of tannins, the rest are natural sugars (40%) and water (5-7%).
The principle of Farmatan activity is that tannins bind proteins (Mangan, 1988; McLeod, 1974), so in contact with intestinal mucous membrane thin layer of nonsolvent proteins is formed. This layer protects brush border from microbial colonisation, appeases peristaltics in the case of inflammation and prevents organism from dehydration (Farmatan, 1998). Tannins in Farmatan form more or less stable complexes with proteins in digesta as well. Their stability depend from environments acidity when pH-value is about 7, these complexes are decomposed again to protein and tannin. Some experiences show that Farmatan influences microbial activity in caecum of rabbits (truklec et al.., 1993) and improves production results in rabbits, such as growth rate and feed conversion (truklec and Kermauner, 1994).
(1) Miroslav truklec, Associate Professor, (3) Ajda Kermauner, MSc, (4) Milena Kova~, Associate Professor, (5) pela Malovrh, BSc - University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Zootechnical Department, Groblje 3, 1230 Domàle, Slovenia, (2) Boìdar @lender, Associate Professor - University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Food Science and Technology, Jamnikarjeva 101, 1111 Ljubljana, Slovenia
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The objective was to examine the possibility to protect rabbits from digestive disturbances with Farmatan instead off today still allowed nutritive antibiotics. At the same time the influence of Farmatan on fattening parameters and sensory traits of rabbit meat was investigated.
MATERIAL AND METHODS

Feed and feeding
In trial, there were four treatments: two control groups, one with no additive (C), and the other (Fl) with antibiotic Flavomicin. Two other groups were Farmatan (Fa), and combined treatment (FF) with Farmatan and Flavomicin. Control feed was standard feed for growing rabbits (Kun/stand) with 184 g of CP and 150 g of CF per kg. In Fl group 40 mg of Flavomicin/kg was added to the standard feed. Farmatan was added in 3.5 g/kg (group Fa), and in combined group FF it was 40 mg of Flavomicin together with 3.5 g of Farmatan/kg of feed. Given feed (ad libitum) was recorded individually every day. Rests of feed were weighted five times during trial.
Animals and measurements Rabbits were weaned at 311 day of age and were uniformly distribute in 4 groups (20 rabbits in each) according to genotype, sex, mother of the litter and body weight. Purpose was to minimise differences among groups at the beginning and to make groups homogenous as possible. Rabbits originated from 15 litters and were of
two genotypes (Californian, New Zealand). Trial lasted from the age of 35 days to 54 days. During trial, rabbits were weighted for four times: at the beginning of the trial (35 days), at 40th, 47th day and at the end of the trial (54 days). During three intervals (1st for 5 days, 2nd and 3rd for 7 days) and entire trial period feed intake (FI) was recorded, daily weight gain (DWG) and feed conversion efficiency (FCE) was calculated. For sensory quality rabbits were slaughtered on 81st day of age: eleven rabbits from treatment Fa and seven from every other treatment were chosen randomly for sensory analysis. The longissimus muscle (m. longissimus dorsi) together with bones was cut out. Chops were packed and frozen till descriptive sensory analysis. Frozen chops were thawed for 24 hours at +2 C in a refrigerator prior to cooking. Thawed chops were broiled at 180 C to the target end point temperature of 75 C in the centre. After cooking, the hot chops were sensory analysed. A group of four panelists scored samples by sensory test. Samples were cubes of size 1x1x2 cm, which were coded with three digit random numbers and presented in random order. Panelists evaluated sample of each longissimus muscle only once. Altogether, 128 observations were collected for every trait. In this descriptive analysis methodology, higher score means more expressed trait. The scoring is based on scale divided into 0.5 point increments with 1 indicating absent effect and 7 indicating very intense effect. Six sensory characteristics were evaluated:
Table 1. Least square means with standard error of estimete for influence of treatment on live weight, DWG and FCE
Treatment Pvalue*
C Live weight (g) At the beginning (35 days) At 40 day

th th
Fl 739 7.27 1023 9.11 1348 14.08 1671 24.23 57.14 1.88 46.61 1.87 46.01 2.32 49.16 1.32 1.446 0.050 2.530 0.111 2.947 0.116 2.271 0.048
Fa 733 5.50 1015 8.91 1363 13.78 1676 23.70 55.82 1.79 49.77 1.79 44.77 2.21 49.52 1.26 1.456 0.048 2.246 0.106 3.007 0.110 2.213 0.046
FF 734 6.24 1013 9.11 1336 14.08 1653 24.22 55.27 1.84 46.32 1.83 45.10 2.27 48.22 1.29 1.464 0.049 2.421 0.109 2.865 0.113 2.259 0.047
736 5.34 1016 8.91 1343 13.77 1652 23.69 56.28 1.80 46.52 1.80 44.21 2.22
0.75 0.88 0.56 0.84 0.88 0.45 0.93 0.84 0.98 0.34 0.83 0.87
At 47 day At the end (54th days) Daily weight gain (g/day) From 35 to 40 days From 40 to 47 days From 47 to 54 days During the trial (35 -54 day)
th th
48.23 1.26 1.442 0.048 2.397 0.106 2.924 0.111 2.237 0.046
FCE (kg of feed/kg of gain) From 35 to 40 days From 40 to 47 days From 47 to 54 days During the trial (35th-54th day)
*P>0.1 = non significant; P0.05 = statistically significant; P0.1 = statistically important
Agriculture 6 (2000) Table 2. The average scores for four treatments and statistical significance of influence of treatment on sensory traits (Kruskal-Wallis test)
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Sensory trait Smell Tenderness Juiciness Flavour intensity Bitter off-flavour Other off-flavours
a
Treatment C 6.48 6.34 5.84 5.93 1.55 a 1.04 Fl 6.46 6.29 5.95 5.88 1.57 a 1.00 Fa 6.42 6.51 5.94 5.95 1.15 b 1.10 FF 6.38 6.45 5.91 5.79 1.32 ab 1.14
P-value* 0.27 0.11 0.87 0.10 0.0003

0.13
Values with no equal superscript in the same row differ significantly (P 0.05); P>0.1= non significant; 7 P 0.05 = statistically significant; P 0.1 = statistically important
smell (score 1 = without smell, absent, score 7 = very intense, excellent smell) tenderness (score 1 = tough, tenacious, score 4 = margin of acceptability, score 7 = excellent tenderness) juiciness (score 1 = dry meat, score 4 = margin of acceptability, score 7 = especial juiciness) flavour intensity (score 1 = unexpressed, absent, score 4 = acceptable, score 7 = excellent, fine taste) bitter off-flavour (score 1 = absent (no) off-flavour, score 7 = expressed, unacceptable) other off-flavours (score 1 = no off-flavour, score 7 = expressed, unacceptable)
Statistics
Fattening traits: Statistical analysis was conducted on the data using statistical package SAS-STAT (SAS, 1996). Analysis of variance for all traits was done using the least square method in the general linear model procedure (GLM). In model, treatment, genotype and mother of litter within genotype were treated as fixed effects, and body weight at the beginning as covariate. Treatments were compared by Scheffes multiple comparison test. Sensory quality: Due to the nature of data and non-normal distributions Kruskal-Wallis test in nonparametric procedure NPAR1WAY was used to test influence of treatment and panelist. Data for four sensory traits: tenderness, juiciness, flavour intensity and bitter off-flavour were analysed then using the least square method in the general linear model procedure (GLM) with treatment and panelist as fixed effects.
square means of treatments together with significance for influence of the treatment are shown in Table 1. Influence of treatment was not significant in any of studied fattening parameters. There is only a tendency of better FCE in Fa group. Analysis of variance (GLM procedure) showed that panelist had statistically significant influence on scores of tenderness, juiciness and flavour intensity. The treatment significantly influenced bitter off-flavour (Table 2), and in tenderness, trend of influence of treatment appeared when GLM procedure was performed (p = 0.075). The score in bitter off-flavour of meat samples of rabbits fed with addition of Farmatan was for 0.41 and 0.42 point lower than the score of control group and group with Flavomicin, respectively (P 0.05). Differences between combined group (FF) and both control groups or Fa group were not statistically significant. In tendency tenderness of rabbit meat in Fa group is better than in other groups, but differences were not significant.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The purpose of most effect included in the model for live weight, DWG and FCE was to eliminate variability caused by differences in genotype, mother and body weight at the beginning of the trial, so differences between treatments would become more visible. In spite of that, effect of treatment in any of intervals did not show as statistically significant in live weight, DWG and FCE. Least
CONCLUSION For any of eight examined fattening traits in analysis, differences between treatments with Farmatan and control groups did not show as statistical significant. Daily gain did not increase, as well as feed conversion efficiency did not improve in rabbits treated with tannin preparation Farmatan in this trial. Among six flavour attributes, the influence of treatment exhibited statistically significance only in bitter off-flavor. Trend for influence of treatment was shown in tenderness. The samples of meat of rabbits treated with Farmatan (Fa group) had for 0.40 and 0.42 scores less bitter off-flavour comparing to the control group without additive (C) and control group with Flavomicin (Fl), respectively. Some trends are shown, that meat of Farmatan group is more tender comparing to meat of both control groups.
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4. truklec, M., Kermauner, A. (1994): Krmni dodatki v prehrani kuncev. (Feed additives in rabbit nutrition.) In: Posvetovanje o prehrani doma~ih @ivali Zadrav~evi-Erjav~evi dnevi, Radenci, 1994, 10 (27/28):159-167. 5. truklec, M., Kermauner, A., Kavar, T. (1993): Einflu der Kastanientannine auf pH-Wert, Bildung von Flchtigen Fettsueren, NH3-Gehalt und auf die Gesamtaciditt im Blinddarm der Kaninchen. In: 8. Arbetstagung ber Haltung und Krankheiten der Kaninchen, Pelztiere und Heimtiere. Celle, 1993, 10(20/21), Giessen, DVG, 148-154. 6. . Farmatan. (1998): Dodatek h krmi za prepre~evanje drisk pri ìvalih. Informative material. Sevnica, Tanin, kemi~na industrija, 4 p. 7. .. SAS/STAT Users Guide. (1990): Caryn, North Carolina, SAS Institute inc.
Otherwise, the use of Farmatan did not changed sensory characteristics of rabbit meat and the findings support the use of Farmatan as feed additive to the food for rabbits.
REFERENCES
1. Lyons, T.P. (1998): The feed industry under the microscope: Strategies for improving our image with super-markets and the consumers. Alltech Inc. Nicholasville, Kentucky, USA. Alltechs European, Middle Eastern and African Lecture Tour, 1998, 1-15. 2. Mangan, J.L. (1988): Nutritional effects of tannins in animal feeds. Nutr. Res. Rev., 1: 209-231 3. McLeod, M.N. (1974): Plant tannins their role in forage quality. Nutr. Abstr. Rev., 44(11):803-815.
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ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 636.4:637.5.04/.072(439.1)
NOTWENDIGKEIT UND MGLICHKEITEN DER VERBESSERUNG DER SCHLACHTKRPERQUALITT BEIM SCHWEIN IN UNGARN
L. Csat(1), A. Obornik(2), I. Nagy(3), Gyuln Berzsn(4)
Original scientific paper ZUSAMMENFASSUNG

Die Verfasser analysierten die Klassifizierungsergebnisse der Schlachtschweine in Ungarn. Es wurde der Zusammenhang zwischen dem Aufkaufpreis der Schlachtschweine und dem Anteil der Schlachttiere in den einzelnen Klassifikationsklassen untersucht. Die Berechnungen werden seit Juni 1997, dem Beginn der Einfhrung des EUROP-Handelsklasseneinordnungsystems bei Schlachtschweinen durchgefhrt. Es wurde festgestellt, dass der Aufkaufpreis in den verschiedenen Qualifikationsklassen zu Beginn der Einfhrung des EUROP-Systems durchschnittlich um 6-7% voneinander abwichen (P-Klasse = 100%, E-Klasse = 133%). Als Auswirkung der Einfhrung der Klassifikation stieg der Anteil der Schlachtschweine in der E-Klasse in einem Jahr von 18% auf 27%, in der U-Klasse von 37% auf 44%. Der prozentuale Anteil der Schlachttiere in den R, O und P-Klassen sank demgem um 16%. Diese prozentualen Anteile sind seit fast zwei Jahren unverndert, das heit, dass die weitere Qualittsverbesserung stagniert. Die Grnde dieser ungnstigen Tendenz suchend wurde nachgewiesen, dass der Unterschied im Aufkaufpreis der einzelnen Handelsklassen im Vergleich mit den Anfangspreisen von 6-7% auf 4-5% abnahm. Diese Tendenz ist gefhrlich, denn die Wertverhltnisse der Aufkaufpreise fr Schlachtschweine haben sich noch verschlechtert. So wird 1 kg Magerfleisch schlechterer Handelsklassen von den Verarbeitungsunternehmen zu einem relativ hheren Preis aufgekauft, als das einer besseren Schlachtschweineklasse. Es wurde ferner festgestellt, dass die Verbesserung der Schlachtqualitt der Endprodukte eine wichtige Anforderung in Ungarn ist. In den EU-Lndern ist nhmlich fast der gesamte Anteil der Schlachtschweine in die E und U-Klassen eingestuft. Dieser Anteil ist in Ungarn erst ca. 65-70%. Deshalb ist es unbedingt ntig die Aufkaufintervalle unter den Handelsklassen zu erweitern und zu verbessern, damit die Konkurrenzfhigkeit der ungarischen Schlachtschweine nicht sinkt.
Schlsselwrter: Schweinezucht, Schlachtqualitt, EUROP-Handelsklassen
EINLEITUNG Der Gedanke der sog. objektiven Klassifizierung der Schlachtschweine tauchte schon am Ende der 60-er Jahre auf. 1976 begann man - nach Anordnung des Landwirtschaftsministeriums (MM rt., 1975) - mit der Qualifizierung der aus den Grossbetrieben stammenden Schlachttiere. Die Schlachtschweine wurden aufgrund ihrer Fettanteile in Handelsklassen eingestuft. Zu diesen Qualittsklassen - die sich auf die Schlachttiere mit Schlachthlften zwischen 75-110 kg bezogen - gehrten vorher angekndigte, fixe Aufkaufpreise. Ab Mitte der 80-er Jahre verlor dieses Klassifizierungssystem an Bedeutung, denn der Aufkaufpreis machte sich fortwhrend von den Qualittsklassen unabhngig (Magy. Mez. Mell., 1994). Parallel mit den politisch-wirtschaftlichen Vernderungen in Ungarn wurde dieses Klas-
sifikationssystem 1988 abgeschafft. Inzwischen ist in der Europischen Union (EU) ein neues Handelsklassenverordnungssystem entwickelt worden. Dieses sog. EUROP-System wurde 1984 in den EU-Lndern einheitlich eingefhrt. Die Einfhrung des EUROP-Systems in Ungarn wurde wegen der Exportorientierung der Schweineproduktion unvermeidlich (Rafai et al., 1995). Es ist eindeutig geworden, dass der Mangel an qualittsproportionellen Aufkaufpreisen ein sehr bedeutendes Hindernis bei der internationalen Wettbewerbsfhigkeit des ungarischen Schweinesektors sein kann. Wenn die Aufkaufpreise nmlich die Mehraufwnde fr eine bessere Qualitt der Schlachttiere nicht anspornen, so kann keine
(1) Lszl Csat, Dr., Dozent, Lehrstuhlleiter, (2) Andrs Obornik, (Assistent), (3) Istvn Nagy, Dr., Wiss. Mitarbeiter, (4) Gyuln Berzsn (Techniker) - Kaposvarer Universitt, Fakultt fr Tierwissenschaften, Guba S. u. 40, 7400 Kaposvar, Ungarn
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anspruchvolle Produktion zustande kommen (Straub, 1998). Im Interesse der Beschleunigung des qualitativen Fortschritts in der ungarischen Schweinezucht erschien 1994 die Anordnung des Landwirtschaftsmininisteriums, die alle Schlachthfe, unabhngig von ihrer Kapazitt, zur Einstufung der Schlachtschweine nach der neuen EUROP-Handelsklassen verpflichtete. Diese Klassifizie- rung wurde jedoch erst 1997 allgemein angewandt, nachdem das an einen Richtpreis gebundene Subventionssystem in Kraft getreten war (Csat et al., 1999).
MATERIAL UND METHODE Die ungarischen Klassifizierungsergebnisse bei Schlachtschweinen haben wir seit Juni 1997, Beginn der Einfhrung des EUROP-Handelsklassensystems analysiert. Die Daten stammen vom Bro der Agrar- verordnung und dem Produktionsrat fr Schlachttiere und Fleisch. Die Schlachtergebnisse werden wchentlich angegeben und in einer Fachzeitschrift offiziell ver- ffentlicht. Aus den Grunddaten haben wir Monat- sdurchschnitte berechnet und herkmmliche matema- tisch-statistischen Auswertungen durchgefhrt. ERGEBNISSE UND DISKUSSION Aus der Datei ist hervorgegangen, dass in den registrierten Schlachthfen wchentlich durchschnittlich 75-85.000 Schweine geschlachtet werden. Der Anteil an klassifizierten Schweinen in den Schlachthfen wuchs von anfangs 55% auf gegenwrtig ca. 80-85% an. Diese Tendenz ist in Abbildung 1 zu sehen.
1. Abbildung
2. Abbildung
In Abbildung 2 stellten wir die Vernderung des Bestandszahlanteils von Schlachtschweinen in den einzelnen EUROP-Klassen dar. Daraus ist zu ersehen, dass die Bestandszahl in den hheren Qualittsklassen - im Vergleich zur Anfangszeit, insgesamt - angestiegen ist. Damit parallel ist ein Absinken in den niedrigeren Klassen (R, O, P) zu beobachten. Insgesamt knnen wir feststellen, dass sich der Anteil der Schlachtschweine in der E-Klasse in den letzten zwei Jahren - obwohl mit bedeutenden Schwankungen - auf 25-26% stabilisiert hat. Parallel mit dem Anstieg der in die E-Klasse angehrenden Schweine ist auch in der U-Klasse eine Erhhung zu verzeichnen (von 37% auf 44%). Danach hat sich auch hier der Anteil - nach einem Aufschwung von August 1998 bis zum Mrz 1999 - bei 40-42% stabilisiert. Der Anteil der Schlachtschweine in der R-Klasse sank in der Anfangszeit von 32% auf 25%. Dann ging diese Tendenz zurck und der Anteil der R-Klasse verblieb - mit 2-3 prozentigen Schwankungen - bei 25%. Zur gleichen Zeit konnten wir registrieren, dass in den untersuchten ersten anderthalb Jahren die Zahl der Schweine mit schwacher Schlachtqualitt in den O- und P-Klassen stndig - von 14% auf 5% - zurckging. Dieser Anteil ist seit Januar 1999 wieder angestiegen und heuzutage betrgt er ca. 7-8% der klassifizierten Schweine. Zusammenfassend ist festzustellen, dass die prozentualen Anteile der Schlachtschweine in den einzelnen Qualittsklassen seit fast anderthalb-zwei Jahren - praktisch unverndert sind, das heisst, dass die weitere Qualittsverbesserung stagniert. Die Grnde dieser ungnstigen Tendenz suchend wurde nachgewiesen, dass der Unterschied der Aufkaufpreise zwischen den einzelnen Handelsklassen im Vergleich zu den Anfangspreisen abnahm. Diese Vernderung stellten wir an den Anteilen der zu den einzelnen Qualittsklasse gehrenden durchschnittlichen Aufkaufpreisen in Abbildung 3 dar. Wir stellten fest, dass es anfangs zwischen den einzelnen Qualittsstufen verhltnismssig grosse Abweichungen gab (P = 100%, E = 133%). Es bedeutete, dass der Aufkaufpreis in den verschiedenen Qualifikationsklassen zu Beginn der Einfhrung des EUROP-Systems durchschnittlich um 6-7% voneinander abwichen. Diese Abweichungen verringerten sich bis Ende 1997 um mehr als 10% (P =100%, E = 120%). Diese Tendenz - mit Ausnahme der Klasse E - verringerte sich weiter bis Mai 1998, dann begannen sich die Aufkaufpreisanteile wieder zu verzweigen. Auf dem Hhepunkt dieses Zeitraumes war der Aufkaufpreisanteil - im Mai 1999 - fr die Schweinemster sehr gnstig (P = 100%, E = 162%), aber gleichzeitig war der nominale Aufkaufpreis so niedrig, dass diese Preise die Selbstkosten der Produzenten nicht einmal in der E-Klasse deckten. Deshalb wurde in Ungarn ein amtlicher minimaler Aufkaufpreis (P-Klasse 193 Ft/kg Lebendgewicht) eingefhrt. In dieser Lage verengten sich die frher voneinander gnstig abweichenden Preisanteile drastisch
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(P = 100%, E = 118%). Diese prozentualen Anteile sind seitdem fast unverndert (P = 100%, E = 120%) und der Unterschied im Aufkaufpreis der einzelnen Handelsklassen sank von den frheren 6-7% auf 4-5%.
ben. Ansonsten werden die ungarischen Schlachtschweine auf dem Weltmarkt nicht wettbewerbsfhig sein. LITERATUR 1. Csat, L., Obornik, A., Farkas, J., Serbn, B. (1999):
2. Gegenwart und Zukunft der ungarischen Schweinezucht. Acta Agr. Kaposvariensis, 2: 109-120. Mezgazdasgi s lelmezsgyi rtest (1975): Tjkoztat a hastott slyban tvtelre kerl sertsek minstsnek szablyairl 39: 892-893. Rafai, P. et al. (1995): Az (S)EUROP hsminsts s kapcsolt rendszerei. ll. s Tak. 5:453-464. Straub, I. (1998): A sertshs-elllts ellentmondsai I. Magyar Mezgazdasg. 21. 15. . Magyar Mezgazdasg Mellklete (1994): A sertsek vgs utni minstse 03. 1-8.
3. 4. 5.
3. Abbildung
Die Grnde der oben erwhnten ungnstigen Tendenz weiter suchend haben wir Berechnungen im Interesse der Bestimmung des durchschnittlichen Aufkaufpreises von 1 kg Magerfleisch in den einzelnen Handelsklassen angestellt. Wir haben festgestellt, dass der Aufkaufpreis von einer Einheit des Magerfleisches in den schlechteren Qualittsklassen hher war, als in den besseren Schlachtschweineklassen. Es ist eindeutig, dass die Aufkaufpreise whrend der Untersuchungszeit die Herstellung der Schlachtschweine mit relativ niedrigerem Fleischgehalt prferiert haben, denn die Produzenten haben fr 1 kg Magerfleisch bei diesen Schlachttieren einen hheren Preis erhalten.
THE IMPORTANCE AND POSSIBILITY OF CARCASS QUALITY IMPROVEMENT IN HUNGARIAN PORK PRODUCTION
ABSTRACT The slaughter data of the National pig database was analysed by the authors. The authors investigated the results of the (S)EUROP grade scheme, which showed the connection between the pig proportions fell into the various grade classes and their prices. The analyses started when the introduction of the (S)EUROP grade scheme took place in 1997 and was based on the official database published each week. For the sake of better overview the results were summed up to monthly intervals. The authors found that in the first period (shortly after the introduction of the grade scheme) the prices of the slaughtered pigs fell into the various grade classes differed from each other by 6-7 %. As a result of the (S)EUROP grade schemes introduction the proportion of the slaughtered pigs fell in the grade classes E and U increased from 18% to 27% and from 37% to 44% respectively. The proportions in the R, O, and P classes consequently decreased. Following the first period no changing pattern was found concerning these proportions which means that the improvement of the graded slaughter pigs stopped. Investigating the possible explanations the authors realised that the price differences between the grade classes decreased from 6-7% to 4-5%. Thus the meat processing industry in fact was paying more for one unit lean content of slaughtered pigs when fell into the worst categories than for those which can be found in the best categories. This however does not provide any motivation for the producers for improving carcass quality, which can only be obtained through higher costs. It can be concluded that carcass quality improvement is an important requirement for Hungary. Concerning the EU members the graded slaughter pigs can be found in the E and U categories almost exclusively. The same ratio is only 65% in Hungary. Therefore the modification of slaughtered pig prices of the E and U grade classes is vital in order to motivate the production of slaughtered pigs falling into these categories. Unless this aim is fulfilled the Hungarian slaughter pig sector loses its competitiveness. Keywords: pig breeding, carcass quality, (S)EUROP-classification
SCHLUSSFOLGERUNGEN Aus der Analyse der Schlachtdaten von Schweinen in den registrierten Schlachthfen ist festzustellen, dass seit Einfhrung der (S)EUROP-Handelsklassen (Juni 1997) sowohl die Anzahl als auch der Anteil der klassifizierten Schlachtschweine - obwohl mit Schwankungen - anstieg, die als Schweine ausgezeichneter Schlachtqualitt (Klassen E und U) auf Kosten der niedrigeren Klassen anfangs einen Anstieg zeigten, dann wich die Verbesserung der Schlachtqualitt zurck, die Verarbeitungsindustrie die Schlachtqualitt der Schweine im Aufkaufpreis nicht konzequent honorierte und der Unterschied im Aufkaufpreisanteil der einzelnen Handelsklassen im Vergleich zu den Anfangspreisen von 6-7% auf 4-5% abnahm. So verschlechterten sich die Wertverhltnisse der Aufkaufpreise fr Schlachtschweine noch weiter, der Aufkaufpreis von 1 kg Magerfleisch in den besten Handelsklassen am niedrigsten war und eine Magerfleischeinheit schlechterer Handelsklassen von der Fleischindustrie zu einem relativ hheren Preis aufgekauft wurde. Diese Preispolitik der Fleischindustrie spornt die Produzenten nicht an, Schlachtschweine bester Qualitt mit Mehrkosten - herzustellen, es unbedingt ntig ist, die Aufkaufpreisanteile der Schlachttiere zu verndern, um die Produktion der Schlachtschweine mit E- und U-Qualitt voranzu- trei-
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ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 636.4:637.5.04/.07
RELATION BETWEEN QUALITY TRAITS AND VALUE OF HALVES IN THE FATTENED PIGS PRODUCED FROM DOMESTIC AND IMPORTED PIGLETS
Marija iki}(1), I. Juri}(2), M. Gaparovi}(3) , M. @ugaj(4)
Original scientific paper

ABSTRACT
The research has been carried out on the fattened pigs carcasses of the groups A (n=86) and B (n=127). The fattened pigs of the A group were produced from the domestic piglets, acquired by crossing various breeds and hybrid parental lines, bred in the Republic of Croatia. The fattened pigs of the B group were produced from the piglets imported from Hungary. All individuals were fattened on one family farm, on the Prefect District County of Brod and Posavina territory. The carcasses quality traits were established by the DT method (NN 119/99). Various values of the DEM/kg carcass mass in the A group, in the amount of 3.26 DM/kg, and in the amount of 3.44 DEM/kg in the B group, were acquired as the result of the statistically significant differences of the muscle tissue share in the carcasses, differing from 53.54% in the A to the 56.23% in the B group. Within the fattened pigs groups for the correlation coefficient and the regression coefficient established between the carcasses mass, the thickness of the back fat and the m.l.d. as well as the share of the muscle tissue and the DEM/kg values of the carcass mass, was established with the following values in accordance with the groups: A -0.43** and -0.015**; -0.88** and -0.035**; 0.20 and 0.011; 0.93** and 0.058**, while the B group showed -0.09 and 0.003; -0.92** and -0.047**; 0.22* and 0.011*; and 0.95** and 0.057**. Keywords: fattened pigs, carcasses, back fat thickness, m. longissimus dorsi, muscle tissue, carcass value, correlation, regression
INTRODUCTION In Croatia, the evaluation of the muscle tissue share in the carcasses of pigs and the establishing of the classes for trade in accordance with the S-EUROP system, began in the year 1996, by the application of the Rule NN 79/95 and has been continued in accordance with the valid Rule NN 119/99. In our country, however, the carcass evaluation in accordance with the classes, or the muscle tissue share has not been introduced until 1999, and is still not applied by all slaughtering houses. In most of the developed countries the evaluation in accordance with the classes has been applied for a longer period of time and has been fully adapted to the stimulation, regarding the meat quality produce, in accordance with the market demands Topel (1986) and Cp (1997). The movement of the pork prices, carcass prices and live pigs prices on the European market is followed in our country by MISA (Marketing Information System in Agriculture). In accordance with MISA, for the year 1998 (January till December), the average prices moved, in the slaughtering houses of some European countries, from 7.08 till 10.01 Kn/kg for the carcasses with the standard E class declaration. The lowest prices were established for the Netherlands in the amount of 7.08
Kn/kg and in Denmark in the amount of 7.77 Kn/kg, producing the carcasses with the muscle tissue share of 55.1% and 59.8% Daumas (1996) and Baldwin (1996). In Croatia was, at that time, the price for the live fattened pigs in the amount of 9.84 Kn/kg. The research on the muscle tissue share in the carcasses of the fattened pigs of our populations show a certain lagging in relation to the developed countries (Petri~evi} et al. 1994, Juri} et al. 1993, iki}et al. 1994, 1999). This paper aims to establish the connection between the quality traits and values of the fattened pigs carcasses produced from the piglets of the domestic breed and piglets imported from Hungary and fattened on one family farm. The research is a contribution to the introduction of the evaluation for the carcasses on the slaughtering line, in accordance with the muscle share tissue, aiming to motivate the development of the pig breeding and pig production, now at a standstill in our country.
(1) Marija iki}, Associated Professor, (2) Ivan Juri}, Full Professor - University of Zagreb, Faculty of Agriculture, Svetoimunska c. 25, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia, (3) Mijo Gaparovi}, MSc - Agricultural Counselling Service with the Prefect District County of Brod and Posavina, A Star~evi}a 1, 35430 Oku~ani, Croatia, (4) Mijo @ugaj, MSc - Agricultural Counselling Service with the Prefect District County of Sisak and Moslavina, Municipality of Glina, 44400 Glina, Croatia
87
MATERIAL AND METHODS On the slaughtering line were researched the quality traits of the carcasses, for two groups of fattened pigs were produced; the A group of piglets from the domestic breeding (n = 86) and the B group of piglets imported from Hungary (n = 127). The domestic piglets were produced by pairing the boars and the sows of different breeds and hybrid parental lines, used as such in the produce of piglets in the Republic of Croatia, Juri}et al. (1997). All individuals were fattened on one feedlot on a family farm (the territory of the Brod and Posavina Prefect District County) with watering ad libitum and feeding by the mixtures ST1 16% c.p. (the I. fattening phase) and ST2 14% c.p. (the II. fattening phase). The slaughtering of the fattened pigs was executed in one slaughter house, (Klas Ltd., N. Gradika). By the Two Points Method (DT, NN 119/99 Rule) the quality traits were established. The value of one carcass mass kilogramme has been established at the base of percentage of muscle tissue in the carcass in accordance with the Meat Industry Vajda Ltd. âkovec (13). The one meat unit (1% muscle tissue) = 0.19 Kn and the kuna values were calculated in DEM (1 DEM = 3.9027 Kn of course CNB 4.10.1999.). The total value of the carcasses was calculated in DEM on the ground of the mass and the DEM/kg carcass mass value. The analysis of the researched traits has been executed by the statistically-mathematics methods, (t-test) correlation and regression, Cameron (1997). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 1 showed the carcasses quality traits and the value per DEM/kg of the carcass mass as well as the total value for the carcasses in DEM. Tables 2 and 3 shows the connections between the carcass' traits, and carcass' value.
Between the A and B fattened pigs (Table 1) no statistically significant differences for the warm carcass masses on the slaughtering line were established. A significantly smaller share of the muscle tissue in the A group with 53.54% (U) (P<0.01) when compared to the B group with 56.23% (E), is the consequence of the differences in the thickness of the back fat and the m.l.d. between the groups (P<0.01). By the evaluation of the carcasses on the slaughtering line in accordance with the muscle share tissue, the carcasses produced from the imported piglets were more expensive, for an amount of 0.22 DEM/kg or, in total, for 15.88 DEM per fattened pig, when compared to the domestic ones. The analysis of the results in Table 2 shows that with the fattened pigs of the A group the increase of the mass results in the increase of the back fat thickness and, to the lesser extent, in the thickness of the m.l.d., than in the B group. Within the fattened pigs of the groups the established correlation and regression coefficients (Table 2) for the ratio of the carcass mass and back fat thickness, when compared to the m.l.d. as well as the muscle tissue in the carcasses, point to the fact (iki}at al., 1999) that the fattened pigs produced from the imported individuals were of a better genetic basis for the muscle tissue : fat tissue ratio in the carcasses. The correlation and regression coefficients (Table 3) for the DEM/kg mass values, in relation to the carcass mass, show a significant middling strong negative connection to the coefficients values, of -0.43 and -0.015 in the A group, while these connections in the B group are very negative, weak and insignificant. In the both groups, however a highly negative connection between the thickness of the back fat and the value, expressed in DEM/kg, has been established. In the A group no significant connection of the m.l.d. regarding the increase of the value as expressed in DEM/kg for the carcass mass, has been established, while in the B group the connection is significant on the 5% level.
Table 1. Carcass quality on the slaughtering line

Trait Carcass w. weight Thickness fat m.l.d. Muscle tissue Value - per kg mass - carcass Class A.B = P<0.01 DM/kg DM 3.26B 238.51
B
Group A (n=86) x kg 73.43 s 8.77 min-max 59.0-107.0 x 74.03
Group B (n=127) s 6.11 min-max 57-93
mm mm %
16.73B 59.0B 53.54B
7.62 5.23 4.89
5-35 46-71 44.37-64.03
13.14A 62.19A 56.23A
4.26 4.42 3.62
5-30 50-72 45.83-66.30
0.30 27.08 U
2.68-3.92 170.8-300.7
3.44A 254.39
A
0.22 25.54 E
2.81-4.06 192.1-330.4
88 Table 2. Correlation and regression coefficients between the carcass quality traits
**P < 0.01; * P<0.05
Table 3. Correlation and regression coefficiuality traitsents between the q and carcass value
**P < 0.01; * P<0.05
Within the A and B group, highly positive connections for the value ratio of the carcasses, expressed in DEM and the carcass mass, m.l.d. thickness and the muscle tissue share, were established, while the connections, when compared to the back fat thickness, were negative, middling strong and significant only in the B group. Within the A group the established correlation and regression coefficients of the Table 2 between the mass carcass and the back fat thickness as well as the m.l.d. point to the fact that a problem in the produce of the high quality carcasses from the domestic fattened pigs, if the carcasses are classified for the market in accordance with the Art. 6, Item 3 of the NN 119/99 Regulation, may arise. In accordance with this Article, namely, the carcasses of 80-104 kg belong to the group with the optimal marking I, those being the ones in demand on the fresh meat market and the meat industry, specially for the processing of semi-durable and dried meat products.
the domestic ones, point towards our incompetitiveness in the produce of pork meat, owing to the unfavourable ratio of the muscle and fat tissue in the carcasses. In Croatia, an evaluation of the carcasses on the slaughtering line, in accordance with the carcass muscle tissue share, would be of influence regarding the breeding and selection of pigs and, when we talk about the family farms, on the production of pig technology as well.
REFERENCES
1. Baldwin, C.P.(1996): Prospect for the UK pig industry surviving and thriving beyond the millenium. Pig News and Information, Vol. 17 No 1; 17-20. 2. Cameron, N.D. (1997): Selection Indices and Prediction of Genetic Merit in Animal Breeding. CAB International. 3. Cp, W.A.G. (1997): Pig meat production in the Netherlands. An Example for Central Europe. V. Me|unarodni simpozij Sto~arski znanstveni dani. Poseban otisak Referati po pozivu. Opatija 23-26. rujan, str. 1-8. 4. Daumas, G. (1996): How Europeans rate on lean percentage. Pig International, No 8, vol. 26, 15-16.
CONCLUSION By doing research of the evaluation for the carcasses on the slaughtering line in accordance with the muscle tissue share, a higher value of the fattened pigs carcasses from the imported piglets, when compared to
5. iki}, M., Juri}, I., Petri~evi}, A., Grbea, D. (1994): Odnosi tkiva u polovicama svinja kao problem proizvodnje svinjskog mesa u Hrvatskoj. Znanstvena praksa polj. i tehn. 24 (1) 66 59-66, Osijek. 6. iki} M., Juri}, I., Gaparovi}, M. (1999): Kakvo}a i vrijednost polovica tovljenika proizvedenih od doma}e i uvezene prasadi. Agronomski glasnik, vol. 61, br. 1-2. 7. Juri}, I., iki}, M., Mio~, B., Ben~evi}, K. (1993): Udio i odnosi mii}nog i masnog tkiva u polovicama razli~ito selekcioniranih svinja i njihovih kriànaca. Poljoprivredna znanstvena smotra, 58, br. 1, str. 67-74. 8. Juri}, I., Kralik, G., Jane, M., Uremovi}, M.,.Juri~, I., Hrabak, V., Dominikovi}, Z. (1997): Plan i program uzgoja svinja u Republici Hrvatskoj, HSSC, Zagreb.
89
9. Petri~evi}, A., Kralik, G., Jovanovac, S., Maltar, Z. (1994): Povezanost udjela mii}nog i masnog tkiva u svinjskim polovicama i pojedinim dijelovima. Poljoprivredne aktualnosti, Vol. 30, br. 5, str. 609-614. 10. Topel, G.D. (1986): Future meat animal composition, Industry adaptation of new tehnologies. Journal of Animal Science, 63, 633-641. 11. Webb, A.J. (1996): Future challenges in pig genetics. Pig News and Information, vol. 17, No 11, 11-16. 12. TISUP 1999 (sije~anj). Pregled cijena zaklanih svinja (svinjske polovice standardne klase E) u Europi, 1998. god. 13. Pravilnik o utvr|ivanju trgova~kih kategorija i klasa svinjskih trupova i polovica NN 79/95, i NN 119/99. 14. Predloàk za pla}anje svinja za klanje farmi Agrome|imurje, âkovec. Mesna industrija Vajda d.o.o. âkovec, 5.10.1999.
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ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 636.082:636.4(497.12)
GENETIC CHANGES FOR PERFORMANCE TRAITS IN SLOVENIAN PIG NUCLEUS HERDS

pela Malovrh(1), Milena Kova~(2)

In Slovenian pig nucleus herds, the genetic trends for performance traits in boars were investigated using mixed model methodology. Altogether, data sets from four farms with test stations consisted of 60709 records for five breeds: Swedish Landrace (SL), Large White (LW), Duroc (D), Pietrain (P), and German Landrace (GL) boars from years 1975 to 1999. Separate analyses were performed for each farm using the PEST package. Breed, season, and weight on test within breed were fixed effects, while common litter environment and additive genetic effect were treated as random. Genetic trends for days on test from 30 to 100 kg (DoT30100), feed conversion efficiency from 30 to 100 kg (FCE30100), and ultrasonically measured backfat thickness (BF100) were expressed as linear regression of the averages of predicted breeding values on the year of birth. Estimates for genetic changes varied between farms and breeds from +0.0046 to 0.374 day, +0.0019 to 0.013, and +0.262 to 0.221 mm per year for DoT30100, FCE30100, and BF100, respectively. Keywords: pigs, performance test, productive traits, genetic trend
INTRODUCTION The performance of animal is influenced by environmental and genetic effects. Evaluating phenotypic, environmental, and genetic trends is very important for monitoring the selection efficacy as well as consequences of management decisions in livestock populations. The traditional approach to this problem were control populations which use had been largely restricted due to their large cost. Another approach has been Smiths regression method (1962) on the basis of field and progeny testing station data which has been the basis of most early analyses in swine (Standal, 1979; Zarnecki, 1979; alehar et al., 1986). However, assumptions of this method are often violated: genetic trends are rarely linear, genetic, age, and time groups are not connected enough because of a short period of boar usage, sires and offspring are selected on the performance records. These problems can be avoided by application of mixed model methodology (MMM). Additionally, MMM holds the promise of providing estimates of genetic and environmental trends in populations under selection as a by-product of the prediction of breeding values (Henderson, 1973). Genetic ties among animals across years permit to partition phenotypic trends into genetic end environmental components. Different authors express genetic trends by a regression of breeding values on time (Hudson and Kennedy, 1985; Kaplon et al., 1991; Groeneveld et al., 1996) or by deviation between averages of breeding values for successive birth-year groups (Kova~, 1989; Kova~ and Groeneveld, 1990; Kaplon et al., 1991; Kennedy et al.,
1996). The last one is particularly useful for non-linear genetic trends. Different authors (Blair and Pollak, 1984; Sorensen and Kennedy, 1984; Kova~, 1989) proved that the choice of the statistical model and parameters sets were crucial. In Slovenia, selection was mainly based on data from station tests of boars. The four nucleus herds were of closed type and between them, there was little exchange of animals or semen. Thus, genetic evaluation was performed only within herd. The aim of this study was to analyse genetic and environmental trends in Slovenian pure-bred nucleus breeding herds.
MATERIAL AND METHODS Genetic changes were investigated in Swedish Landrace (SL) and Large White (LW) which present maternal lines, as well as in Duroc (D), Pietrain (P), and German Landrace (GL) as terminal sire lines. Traits of interest were days on test (DoT) and feed conversion efficiency (FCE) on two intervals as well as ultrasonic backfat thickness at the end of test (BF). Data analysed was obtained from the central database of the Slovenian national breeding program for pigs. Performance test records of boars were available from four test stations during years 1975-1999. The test was carried out in three stages. Boars were first subjectively scored before entering the test at approximately 30 kg. Then, they
(1) pela Malovrh, BAg, (2) Milena Kova~, Associate Professor - University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Animal Science, Groblje 3, 1230 Domàle, Slovenia
Agriculture 6 (2000) Table 1. Descriptive statistics for station test data

Trait Age at 30 kg (days) Days on test 30-60 kg (days) Days on test 60-100 kg (days) Feed conversion efficiency 30-60 kg Feed conversion efficiency 60-100 kg Backfat thickness at 100 kg (mm) Weight on test (kg) Farm A N 28850 28856 14767 28838 14768 14767 14768 N Age at 30 kg (days) Days on test 30-60 kg (days) Days on test 60-100 kg (days) Feed conversion efficiency 30-60 kg Feed conversion efficiency 60-100 kg Backfat thickness at 100 kg (mm) Weight on test (kg) N - number of records; x - mean; - standard deviation 13753 13756 7600 13756 7600 7600 7600 x 81.4 35.0 43.4 2.41 3.04 18.2 99.4 Farm C x 83.9 39.1 44.8 2.49 2.92 17.0 99.8 7.25 4.88 5.52 0.264 0.283 3.15 2.91 N 4376 4377 2567 4377 2566 2567 2567 7.09 4.37 5.90 0.373 0.407 4.50 2.69 N 13715 13718 7757 13718 7754 7753 7757 Farm B x 84.0 43.6 52.2 2.80 3.12 13.6 99.5 Farm D x 82.1 38.3 49.8 2.76 3.33 11.5 98.8 7.75 5.92 8.02 0.340 0.411 2.86 2.96 9.56 8.46 8.62 0.480 0.427 3.67 2.74
91
were measured and evaluated at 60 kg when between 40 and 60% of boars were culled. Animals were finally selected according to an index including DoT, total feed consumption, and BF at the end of test at 100 kg. Between three to 15% of tested boars were selected per year as sires for the nucleus herd. Test stations differed in capacity for tested boars annually as well as in year in which performance test began. There were no recent genetic ties between nucleus herds, therefore, data were analysed separately within test station. Data contained 60709 records of individually tested boars (4377 - 28856 per test station). Altogether, 93473 animals were included in pedigree file, among them, there were 2975 sires and 23478 dams with 36445 litters. Between 3.60 and 11.29 % of animals had both parents unknown. The basic statistics for traits measured in boars on four test stations are given in Table 1. The test stations differed in breed structure of tested boars. Between 38.74 (farm B) and 72.66% (farm C) were the SL boars and the LW boars had from 10.53 to 31.18% of the test capacity. More than 60% of tested boars belonged to maternal lines. Terminal sire breeds (D, P, GL) had between 16.81 (farm C) and 35.35% (farm B). Prediction of breeding value. Breeding values in the performance tested boars were predicted applying multi-trait mixed model. Growth was expressed as age at 30 kg (Age30), days on test between 30 and 60 kg (DoT3060), and between 60 and 100 kg (DoT60100). Feed conversion was measured on two intervals between 30 and 60 kg (FCE3060), and between 60 and 100 kg
(FCE60100). Intervals are consequence of stage selection. Model for Age30, DoT3060, DoT60100, FCE3060 and FCE60100 included season described as month-year interaction and breed as fixed effects. The random part of the model consisted of common litter environment and additive genetic effect. In the model for backfat thickness (BF100), additionally weight on test was introduced as covariate. Prior to the introduction of MMM in the genetic evaluation, required covariance components of traits to be included were estimated for each nucleus farm with the same statistical models (Malovrh and Kova~, 1999; unpublished results). Prediction of breeding values was computed using the PEST package (Groeneveld et al., 1990) as a direct solution of mixed model equations. Estimation of environmental and genetic trends. For this paper, genetic trends were estimated as the linear regression of averages of BLUPs on the year of birth for each trait within breeds. Environmental trends were taken directly from BLUE solutions for the season effect and given as a deviation from the first season. The changes in phenotypic values of traits are presented as month averages where first month (season) of test is set to zero.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Phenotypic changes per year in DoT30100 were negative for all breeds and farms (Table 2). On farm D, DoT30100 shortened on average from day to day and half per year, while on farm A, annual phenotypic progress was between -0.203 and -0.549 day. The largest
92 Table 2. Phenotypic and genetic changes per year on nucleus farms in Slovenia
Phenotypic trends Farm Breed SL A LW D GL SL B LW P GL SL C LW GL SL D LW D DoT30100 (day/year) -0.549 -0.465 -0.454 -0.203 -0.767 -1.473 -1.225 -1.284 -0.665 -0.932 -0.988 -1.157 -1.636 -1.523 FCE30100 (per year) -0.0348 -0.0245 -0.0291 -0.0204 -0.0444 -0.0468 -0.0310 -0.0370 -0.0290 -0.0253 -0.0273 -0.000091 -0.00498 -0.00217 BF100 (mm/year) -0.493 -0.477 -0.0995 -0.532 -0.541 -0.0400 -0.0605 -0.0542 -0.559 -0.233 -0.137 -0.640 -0.339 -0.604 DoT30100 (day/year) -0.132 -0.031 -0.036 +0.0046 -0.115 -0.296 -0.333 -0.103 -0.00371 -0.0333 -0.352
Genetic trends FCE30100 (per year) -0.00679 +0.0019 +0.00036 -0.0022 -0.00820 -0.00885 -0.00165 -0.000773 -0.00560 -0.000454 -0.00739 -0.00613 -0.0133 -0.00824 BF100 (mm/year) -0.0716 -0.0608 +0.262 -0.0276 -0.175 +0.129 +0.0746 +0.0849 -0.221 -0.00120 +0.0837 +0.0112 +0.0459 -0.0448
-0.0959
-0.374 -0.341
DoT30100 - Days on test 30-100 kg; FCE30100 - Feed conversion efficiency 30-100 kg; BF100 - Backfat thickness at 100 kg
phenotypic changes per year in FCE30100 were on farm B (-0.0444 in Swedish Landrace and -0.0468 in Large White). Backfat thickness at 100 kg alterated between -0.0400 mm/year in Large White on farm B and -0.640 mm/year in Duroc on farm D. Genetic trends for DoT30100, FCE30100, and BF100 were not linear over years and differed among populations. While number of years of testing differed among herds and breeds, cumulative genetic changes may not be comparable. Therefore, genetic improvements were calculated as the linear regression of averages of BLUPs on the year of birth (Table 2). Most of genetic trends are of the same sign as the phenotypic ones, but they differ in the magnitude. That shows that environmental component has important contribution to phenotypic progress. Genetic changes for DoT30100 varied from undesired +0.0046 (GL, farm A) to -0.374 days per year (LW on farm D). Approximately equal was genetic improvement in P (-0.333, farm B), GL (-0.352, farm C) and D (-0.341 days/year, farm D). Small and non significant genetic trends for duration of fattening was reported from literature (see Kaplon et al., 1991). Hudson and Kennedy (1985) in Canadian and Groeneveld et al. (1996) in Hungarian pig populations found genetic changes between -0.55 and -1.11 days/year. In FCE30100, there is between zero and -0.0133 kg of food less needed per kilogram gain every year, except in LW on farm A (+0.0019). There was practically no ge-
netic improvement for BF100 in terminal sire lines, while in SL changes were between +0.0112 on farm D and -0.221 mm per year on farm C which is comparable to results for backfat thickness reported by Hudson and Kennedy (1985) Kennedy et al. (1996) for Canadian performance tested pigs.
CONCLUSION The genetic trends for fattening traits were mostly in desired direction but mainly low. Farms had different success with genetic progress. Multi-trait genetic evaluation using mixed model methodology, all the data available and recently estimated covariance structure should result in improved selection response. Ultrasonic BF is not sufficient measurement for meatiness any more, since average phenotypic values for BF100 in boars for the last years is approximately 10-12 mm and there is practically no variation in BF100 left. In future, substitution for measurement of BF100 should be found. Selection practices need to be regularly monitored through genetic trends so that the progress is in the proper direction and in expected magnitude. The further analysis of realised selection intensity and generation interval may give some clues why selection is not too efficient. Estimates of genetic trends may be also underestimated because there were no genetic groups of unknown parents in the model. For this purpose, we plan to develop tools for regular analysis of changes over time.
93
7. Kennedy, B.W., Quinton, V.M., Smith, C. (1996): Genetic changes in Canadian performance-tested pigs for fat depth and growth rate. Canad. J. Anim. Sci., 76, 41-48. 8. Kova~ M. (1989): Ocenjevanje genetskih trendov z BLUP metodo. Magistrsko delo (Estimation of genetic trends using BLUP procedure. Masterthesis), Ljubljana, 56 pp. 9. Kova~, M., Groeneveld E. (1992): Genetic and environmental trends in German swine herdbook populations. J. Anim. Sci., 68, 3523-3535. 12. Smith, C. (1962): Estimation of genetic change in farm livestock using field records. Anim. Prod., 40, 239-251. 13. Standal, N. (1979): Genetic change in the Norweigan Landrace pig population. Acta Agric. Scand., 29, 139-144. 14. Sorensen, D.A., Kennedy, B.W. (1984): Estimation of response to selection using least squares and mixed model methodology. J. Anim. Sci., 58, 1097-1106. 15. alehar, A., Kova~, M., Zagoèn, F. (1986): Pig improvement schemes for large state farms in Slovenia. In: 3rd World congress on genetics applied to livestock production, Lincoln, 1986-6-16/22, Lincoln, University of Nebraska, X, 120-129. 16. Zarnecki, A. (1979): Estimation of realized genetic change in the Swedish pig population. Acta Agric. Scand., 29, 98-102.
REFERENCES
1. Blair, H.T., Pollak, E.J. (1984): Estimation of genetic trend in a selected population with and without the use of a control population. J. Anim. Sci., 58, 878-886. 2. Groeneveld, E., Csato, L., Farkas, J., Radoczi, L. (1996): Joint genetic evaluation of field and station test in the Hungarian Large White and Landrace populations. Arch. Tierz., 39, 513-531. 3. Groeneveld, E., Kova~, M., Wang, T. (1990): PEST. A general purpose BLUP package for multivariate prediction and estimation. In: Proceedings of the 4th World Congress on Genetics Applied to Livestock Production, Edinburgh, 1990-07-23/27, Edinburgh, University of Edinburg, XIII, 488-491. 4. Henderson, C.R. (1973): Sire evaluation and genetic trends. In: Proceedings of the Animal Breeding and genetics Symposium in Honor to Dr. Jay. L. Lush. ASAS and ADSA, Champaign, Illinois, 10-41. 5. Hudson, G.F.S., Kennedy, B.W. (1985): Genetic trends of growth rate and backfat thickness of swine in Ontario, J. Anim. Sci., 61, 92-97. 6. Kaplon M.J., Rothschild M.F., Berger, P.J., Healey, M. (1991): Genetic and phenotypic trends in Polish Large White nucleus swine herds. J. Anim. Sci., 69, 551-558.
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ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 636.4:621.391
ON-FARM MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION

Aleksandra Jug(1), Milena Kova~(2), pela Malovrh(3)
Preliminary communication
ABSTRACT
The on-farm management systems under development in order to insure data collection, regular data processing needed on a farm as well as automatic data exchange between farm and computing centre. The core of information system presents relational database (RDBMS) accompanied with tools developed in APIIS. A system analysis method has been done on two pig industrial units, on national selection program for swine in Slovenia, and compared with examples from other countries and species. Public domain software like PostgreSQL, Perl and Linux have been chosen for use on farms and can be replaced with commercial software like Oracle for more demanding central systems. The system contains at this stage applications for entering, managing, and viewing the data as well as transferring the information between local and central databases. Keywords: pigs, information systems, data handling
INTRODUCTION Efforts to built an efficient information system for pigs in Slovenia extend in early 1958 when prescribed forms for herd management were introduced for the first time (Kova~, 1979). Between 1975 to 1980, field reproduction data and data from test stations were stored in personal computer Hewlett - Packard 9820 located in the centre, therefore controlled data analysis were done for pig farms involved with the national breeding program. The data base changed over time due to exchange of hardware and software as well as development of new applications. Finally, a modern central relational database to support modules for reproduction, genetic improvement and slaughter traits was developed to use advantages of relational data base environment in Oracle in 1991 (Drobni~, 1992; Drobni~ and Kova~, 1993). The system was introduced over national selection program and on two pig industrial units. At approximately the same time, five other Slovenian pig farms began to use commercial software written in C++. Information flow within central selection service, nucleus, industrial units and family farms send their records for the most part by e-mail, floppy disc or via Internet while some breeders are still continuing in the classical paper form (Tav~ar et al., 1994). The idea to have system which use centrally controlled data analysis and the same calculation procedures on pig farms is not new. Employing more demanding software such as PEST (Groeneveld et al., 1990) for prediction of breeding value, together with rapid development of Internet technology, lead to the upgrading an existing systems. The need to renovate database software for more efficiently animal recording, has arrived in Slovenia and many other countries (Groeneveld, 1999; Mogaeka et al.,
1999; Greally et al., 2000). Therefore, an international workshop took place in May 1999 at the Institute of Animal Science an Behaviour, Mariensee with participants from four European countries and Republic South Africa (Groeneveld, 1999). The team started to develop Internet oriented modules in animal production using public domain software and Internet connection via CVS (Current Versions System). The idea was, a system to be used in small units as well as large computer centres, and is suitable for EU as well as non EU countries. Database structure will be appropriate for different species, as well as data and error handling. The on-farm system for production control is a part of this joint development for which we are responsible. As a pilot project, we chose the module reproduction trying to adopt it for various systems.
MATERIAL AND METHODS The developed software was tested on data from a small unit. Historic data contains 2464 animal records, 11557 insemination records, 8001 cycle records, and 1867 sale records for animals transferred from the herd. Simultaneously, programs are being tested on records originating from Slovenian pig farms (eight industrial units and 56 family farms). Data from pig farms are being stored in single database and in common tables with normalised data structure, which prevented data from being redundant. To get a relational database, two methods were used. To define appropriate data structure, a mathematical
(1) Aleksandra Jug, BSc, (2) Milena Kova~, Associate Professor, (3) pela Malovrh, BAg University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Animal Science, Groblje, 1230 Domàle, Slovenia
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method system analysis has been done over two Slovenian pig farms and on national selection program for swine using Yourdon methodology (1989). Inputs and outputs were determined, context and physical diagrams, data streams, and processes were described as well. Additionally, data structures were compared with intuitive method between two pig farms and analysed over Slovenian pig breeding program. Table definitions from five countries and from Slovenian cattle breeding program were also compared in order to generalise the data structure as much as possible. Two type of hardware and software are being on trial. For smaller farms, PC with public domain software like operating system Linux and database management system, PostgreSQL will be suitable due to low cost as well as sufficient performance. The operating system Unix running on SUN computers and a commercial database management system (like Oracle) may be chosen for a central system. The main programming language used is Perl, which is Internet oriented and enables objective programming and accessibility to any relational database. In further development, Java can also be used. All the data are retrieved from database using standard structure query language (SQL92). ToolKit (Tk/Tcl) was chosen for graphical user interface to create input forms and browsers. As a tool for formatting reports, LaTeX is used (Jesenek et al., 1998) because it allows easy transformation between outputs on paper and on the screen. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Database structure and model file
As a result of system analysis, database structure was defined and relational database (RDBMS) was created. The kernel of the system represents modelfile with description of relational database for modules production, genetic improvement, and health. While there is some available software for Least cost feed formulation modelling programs on the market, software support for economic evaluation and environment management are missing and suggested to be developed by another group. Model file includes, beside information about type of database, database server being in use and about its users and privileges, description of items in all tables and corresponding business rules for error checking. Every single attribute is hardcode within defined tables and check validation of data is determined on the level of database. To define relational database corresponding to various pig organisations, system analysis has been done in the central database for swine and on two Slovenian pig farms. Some processes depend on organisation within farm and thus, may differ among them. Nevertheless data structure could be the same because decisions are based on the same production parameters. Comparing Slovenian and four foreign data definitions for pigs revealed similarities as well as differences. Model file was
created containing table definitions to insure a unique animal identification within the database and allow changes of external number as it is usually practised in EU countries when animals are selected or moved to another herd. Tables for transferring animals between farms (Groeneveld, 1999) were adapted to empower transfer of the animal among units and still maintain unique identification of the animal in the database. The database structure for pigs includes identification and location data, individual performance of animals to be selected, fattening and slaughter performance for fattening group, and reproduction data for sows and boars. The structure was designed so that additional modules for health control, feeding regimes, economic issues, environmental control can be added without major changes. In the kernel tables like ANIMAL, TEST, FIELD, SERVICE, LITTER, etc., the attributes may be described as obligatory, frequent, or optional. Necessary and frequent data are almost identical for the five selection programs analysed, though there is disparity between optional data. The obligatory data contains all the keys and thus, allowing common applications. Animal attributes are stored in tables ENTRY, TRANSFER and ANIMAL. Table ENTRY is a list of active animals translating external into unique database identification while table TRANSFER accommodates any renumbering of animals, movement form one to another herd, and culling decisions. In ANIMAL, time independent attributes describing animals are stored. There are also some additional tables containing codes and their descriptions for partners (ADDRESS, SUPPLIER), for culling causes, breeds, etc. The next group of tables contain data on performance testing of animals and their relatives (TEST, FIELD) as well as the estimated breeding values (BLUP). Although breeding values are evaluated and thus, treated as derived values, they are kept in the database to be easily reached for frequent use. Many farms want to keep records on fattening and slaughter performance (tables FATTENING and SLAUGHTER) of groups of fatteners. The animals within these groups are usually unknown. Data from reproduction are stored in tables SERVICE, LITTER, WEANING2, and PREGCHECK. An extra table SEMEN is added where data about semen collection and semen quality are stored. When analysing five different model files for reproduction traits, it became obvious that basic data among them are alike. For instance, insemination date, sow and boar identification are always in table service. Identification for sow, farrowing date, parity, number of born piglets (liveborn, stillborn, born) is found in table LITTER. An additional data is collected in some countries, for example number of piglets distinguished by sex, number of piglets weaned, litter weight at birth and weaning, date of weaning, etc. On the other hand, tables WEANING2 for sow which are foster mothers and table PREGCHECK,
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where outcomes of pregnancy checks are stored, are included only in Slovenian modelfile. Populating database Next step was populating database with historic and new data. The historic data were extracted from the existing central database as ASCII files. Files were loaded into a temporary flat database without checking the consistency of the data. Set of Perl programs were written to distribute data into a new tables, checking for an undesirable redundancy, inforcing business rules for error detection and handling error data. For inserting new data into database, the Adaptable Platform Independent Information System(APIIS) contains a form generator and forms are created again via description file with user specific information (language, order, position...). Handling and checking the data are done by generic routines using user specifications in either model or form description file. There is a possibility to create a fast default form to be conformed to the structure of each separate table. This can be used for inserting data into some simple tables like ADDRESSES and tables for different codes (BREEDS). However, the forms have to be suited for data streams on a farm and not for the data structure in the database. In such cases, the default forms may be used as a template to create complex forms matched with data streams allowing updates or inserts to be performed simultaneously in many tables, placing default values, keeping values from the previous record, browsers for coded attributes and so on. The forms also allow a simple applications based on the browsers. Thus, the database may be inspected and even corrected. Additionally, the user may get some useful outputs used for herd management. This way, the list of sow needed to be checked for oestrus or pregnancy may be produced. The breeder may get desirable information on the screen about individual animal as well. The list of sows with late or missing oestrus, with low fertility or (semi)lethal genetic disorders may be easily identified. The another way to get data into the database is a batch data stream. This is the most usual way to get the data into the central database, while on farm, forms are more frequent. However, there are data coming from genetic labs, slaughter houses, the central data base via e-mail or other electronic carrier and are supposed to be part of the peripheral data system as well. The data may be sent from a central data base at start or in case of corrupted local database. For this purposes, a generalised synchronisation procedure will be developed. The import data will be checked for consistency the same way as in the first two cases using business rules from the same modelfile.
CONCLUSION With standardisation of computer software, connectedness and accessibility of any kind of independent institution to central database shall be accomplished. Also stability of the system, simplicity with maintenance of computer support, functionality and cost acceptability for all animal breeders will be feasible. Public domain software and accessible prices of hardware enable family farms to have identical software support as central systems which relieve data flow among them. Most needed modules to start reprogramming with were reproduction, slaughter traits and genetic improvement. Article describes mainly reproduction module which is most needed on small family farms. At a beginning of year 2001 it is desired to distribute among breeders the stable version of the system. In the future the main effort will be focused on software support that will completely incorporate all necessary business rules to enable correct data checking. Through system we intend to determine modules for nutrition and feeding, health care and environment management. Resulting documents are going to be published mainly with Internet technology, perhaps in PHP, but can be issued in classical paper form and can be converted from LaTeX to PostScript, PDF, HTML. REFERENCES
1. Drobni~, M. (1992): An information system in pig production. Masters Thesis, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. 2. Drobni~, M., Kova~, M. (1993): The genetic improvement module in an Information System for Animal Production. Zb. Biotehnike fak., Kmetijstvo (Zootehnika), 62: 107-113. 3. Greally, G., Wickham, B., Shelly, J., McLoughlin, B., Enright, B., Carroll, J. (2000): Strategy used in the Procurement of Database Software to support a National Centralised Database for cattle breeding purposes. 32nd ICAR Session and Interbull Meeting, Bled-Slovenia, 2000-05-14/19: 4. 4. Groeneveld, E. (1999): Design of a Portable Platform Independent Pig Information System: An Internet Based Development Project. EFITA 99, Second European Conference of the European Federation for Information Technology in Agriculture, Food and Environment, Bonn, 1999-09-27/30. Role and Potential of IT, Intranet and Internet for Advisory Services, 113-128. 5. Groeneveld, E., Kova~, M., Wang, T. (1990): PEST, a general purpose BLUP package for multivariate prediction and estimation. Proceedings of 4th World Congress on Genetic applied to Livestock Production, Edinburgh, 1990-07-23/27. Edinburgh, The International Committee for World Congress on Genetic Applied to Livestock Production, 13: 488-495. 6. Jesenek, A., Drobni~, M., Kova~, M. (1998): Generating well phrased reports automatically, 49th Annual Meeting of the
European Association for Animal Production, Warshaw, Book of abstracts of the 49th Annual Meeting of the European Association for Animal Production Warsaw, Poland, 1998-08-24/27, Wageningen : Wageningen Pers, 4: 115. 7. Kova~, M. (1979): Predlog vodenja rejskih opravil pri razmnoèvanju prai~ev z uporabo ra~unalnike tehnike. Diploma, Domàle, BF, VTOZD za ìvino- rejo, 48. 8. Mogaeka, S., Helbig, R., Schiefer, G. (1999): Development of Executive Information System (EIS) for Agricultural Development Projects: Principles and Case. EFITA 99, Second
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European Conference of the European Federation for Information Technology in Agriculture, Food and Environment, Bonn, 1999- -09-27/30. Role and Potential of IT, Intranet and Internet for Advisory Services, 113-128. 9. Tav~ar, J., Kova~, M., alehar, A., Drobni~, M., Kraovic, M., Marui~, M., Ule, I., Pavlin, S. (1994): Rejska dokumentacija v prai~ereji. Domàle, BF, Odd. za ìvinorejo, 21. 10. Yourdon, E. (1989): Modern Structured Analysis, Prentice-Hall International, Inc., 132-307.
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ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 636.4:636.082(439.1)
CONNECTION BETWEEN PERFORMANCE TESTING METHODS IN HUNGARIAN PIG BREEDING BASED ON GENETIC CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS
I. Nagy(1), L. Csat(2), J. Farkas(3), L. Radnczi(4)
Preliminary communication ABSTRACT

Genetic analysis was conducted on Hungarian pig seed stocks. The breeds, which were used in the investigation, were Hungarian Large White, Hungarian Landrace, Duroc, and Pietrain respectively. Regarding the field test (own performance test) 40391; 54523; 4318; 3501; different animals were recorded in the above mentioned breeds. Meanwhile in the station test 3911; 2457; 695; 568 records were used concerning the same breeds. Genetic parameters were estimated using the software VCE 4 developed by Groeneveld (1998). Variance components were obtained by running a joint model (field and station test). During the analysis special attention was given to the received genetic correlation coefficients in order to compare the results of the field and station tests respectively. Genetic correlation coefficients of 0.52; 0.36; 0,43; 0.80 were found between the age at the time of the test (field test) and days of fattening (station test) having the same order of the breeds as previously. The moderately high genetic correlation coefficients between these previously mentioned traits (representing the growing intensity) justify that these methods are based upon each other and make the efficient selection possible. Among the traits representing meat quality genetic correlation coefficients of 0.13; -0.41; -0.63; +0.13 were found between the average backfat depth (field test) and valuable cuts (station test) respectively. The high variability of the coefficients suggests the need for further investigation of this area and also the importance of precise measurement of the average backfat depth since a possible imprecise measurement of this trait might be the reason for the received variability. Keywords: genetic correlation coefficients, joint model, filed and station test
INTRODUCTION During the last decade the BLUP evaluation methods became widespread in the breeding value estimation procedure, the pig-breeding sector being no exception. However, it has the peculiarity of the information for breeding value estimation being provided through station and field tests respectively. Groeneveld (1993) has pointed out that the only reasonable approach during the breeding value estimation procedure of this sector is conducting a joint test thus results from all test environments can be merged into on aggregate genotype used for selection. The objectives of the present paper were to investigate what was the genetic correlation among those traits which are measured separately in the field and station tests targeting the same trait (such as for instance the growing intensity). Hence it can be seen how efficiently the filed test data, which is collected at high cost, helps the breeding organisations in the proper ranking of the animals according to the breeding goal. MATERIAL AND METHODS Data recording The genetic analysis was conducted on the data collected by the Hungarian Pig Breeders Association be-
tween 1993-1999. Four different pig breeds took part in the analysis, namely Hungarian Large White, Hungarian Landrace, Duroc and Pieatrain. The source of the data for these breeds was 20, 37, 7, and 19 seed stocks. A joint analysis was performed using data both from field and station tests respectively. Regarding the field test (own performance test) 40391; 54523; 4318; 3501; different animals were recorded in the above mentioned breeds. The examined traits were age at the time of the test (AGE) (between 80-110 kg) and average backfat depth (BF). Meanwhile in the station test 3911; 2457; 695; 568 records were used concerning the same breeds. The traits which were taken into the analysis were days of fattening (DOT) (from 90 days of age to 103 kg weight) and valuable cuts (VC) (animals were partially dissected into the cuts neck, shoulder, Longissimus dorsi, and ham).
(1) Istvan Nagy, Researcher, (2) Lajos Csato, Associate Professor, (3) Janos Farkas, Assistant Professor - University of Kaposvar, Faculty of Animal Science, Guba S. u. 40, 7400 Kaposvar, Hungary, (4) Laszlo Radnoczi, BAgr - Institute of Agricultural Quality Control, Kelety K. u. 24, 1024 Budapest, Hungary
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Statistical analysis The heritability and genetic correlation coefficient estimates for the above mentioned traits were obtained by using the VCE 4 software developed by Groeneveld (1998), based on the REML method. In case of AGE, BF, DOT, and VC the applied linear model was: y = Xb + Za + Wc + e where y = vector of observations, b = vector of fixed effects, a = vector of random animal effects, c = vector of random litter effects, X, Z, and W incidence matrices relating records to fixed and random animal and random litter (common environmental) effects, respectively. Regarding the fixed effects the herd, sex, and year-month significantly influenced all the examined traits. The effect of the weight of the animals at the field test and at the end of the station test was also taken into account by treating this factor as a covariate. Regarding the model, the distribution of y was assumed to be normal the traits were determined by many additive genes of infinitesimal effects at infinitely many unlinked loci.
coefficients between DOT and AGE were ranging between moderately high and high and correspond with the results (0.49-0.62) of Groeneveld et al. (1996). Regarding the genetic correlation between VC and BF however, the interpretation of the results was not straightforward. The estimated genetic correlation coefficients were highly variable. As pointed out by Sellier (1998) heritability of BF estimated through a field test was substantially lower compared to that of a station test (0.36 vs. 0.49). Groeneveld and Peskovicova (1999) estimated only a moderately high genetic correlation (0.54) between BF measured at filed and station tests respectively. These results suggest that field tests are generally much less reliable than station test which phenomena (i.e. a relatively imprecise measurement of BF at the filed test) could also explain the highly variable genetic correlation coefficients between BF and VC.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results of the REML analyses are presented in Table 1. The heritability estimates of the examined traits were not the main object of our interest. However, regarding the BF heritabilities they were reasonably lower than the average value (0.49) of 13 references reviewed by Clutter and Brascamp (1998) with pigs having ad libitum or semi-ad libitum access to feed. The estimated genetic correlation
CONCLUSION From the results obtained at the present investigation it can be concluded that the traits measuring the growing intensity in the field test (AGE) and station test (DOT) were relatively closely connected thus make efficient selection possible. Nevertheless, the high variability of the genetic correlation coefficients between BF (field test) and VC (station test) raises the demand for further examination of this area. For the moment it can only be concluded that the connection between VC and BF was highly dependent on the breeds.
Table 1. Estimated heritabilities (diagonals) and genetic correlations (off-diagononals) of the examined traits. Standard errors of estimates are given in brackets
Traits Large White
DOTa
VCb
AGEc
BFd
0.44 (0.01)
0.00 (0.02) 0.60 (0.01)
0.52 (0.02) -.06 (0.02) 0.23 (0.00)
0.15 (0.01) -.13 (0.03) -.19 (0.01) 0.25 (0.01) -.02 (0.02) -.41 (0.02) -.23 (0.02) 0.21 (0.01) -.42 (0.01) -.63 (0.02) -.01 (0.01) 0.14 (0.01) 0.50 (0.09) 0.13 (0.10) 0.18 (0.10) 0.26 (0.04)
Landrace
0.35 (0.00)
-.03 (0.01) 0.56 (0.00)
0.36 (0.02) 0.12 (0.02) 0.16 (0.00)
Duroc
0.30 (0.01)
-.13 (0.02) 0.55 (0.00)
0.43 (0.02) -.49 (0.01) 0.17 (0.00)
Pietrain
0.46 (0.04)
0.68 (0.08) 0.81 (0.06)
0.80 (0.07) 0.36 (0.10) 0.22 (0.03)
DOT, days of test (station test); bVC, valuable cuts (station test); cAGE, age at thetime of the test (field test); dBF, average backfat depth
(field test)
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4. Groeneveld, E., Peskovicova, D. (1999): Simultaneous estimation of the covariance structure of field and station test traits in the Slovakian pig populations. Chech J. Anim. Sci. 44: 145-150. 5. Clutter, A. C., Brascamp, E. W. (1998): Genetics of Performance Traits. In: Rothschild, M. F., Ruvinsky, A. (eds.) The Genetics of the Pig. CAB International, Cambridge, UK. 6. Sellier, P. (1998): Genetics of Meat and Carcass Traits. In: Rothschild, M. F., Ruvinsky, A. (eds.) The Genetics of the Pig. CAB International, Cambridge, UK.
REFERENCES
1. Groeneveld, E. (1993): Symposium on: Application of mixed linear models in the prediction of genetic merit in pigs. May 27. Institute of Animal Husbandry and Animal Behaviour Federal Research Centre, Neustadt. 2. Groeneveld, E. (1998): VCE4 Users Guide. Institute of Animal Husbandry and Animal Behaviour Federal Research Centre, Neustadt. 3. Groeneveld, E., Csat, L., Farkas, J., Radnczi, L. (1996): Joint Genetic Evaluation of Field and Station Test in the Hungarian Large White and Landrarce Populations. Arch. Tierz. 39: 513-531.
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ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 636.2:636.081.21+637.04/.07
INFLUENCE OF BREED ON CARCASS CUTS COMPOSITION

S. @gur(1), M. êpon(2)

Carcass from 260 Simmental and 159 Brown bulls were dissected first to different cuts (chuck, shoulder, front shank, rib roast, back, loin, tenderloin, brisket, rib, flank, leg and hind shank) and then to lean, fat, tendon and bone. The comparison between two breeds was made at 12.5 % carcass fat. Simmental breed had statistically significantly higher share of leg and brisket with rib and lower share of chuck, front and hind shank, rib roast, tenderloin and flank, with higher lean and lower bone percentage, but the differences were relatively small compared to Brown breed. Keywords: cattle, carcass cuts, tissue composition
INTRODUCTION The amount and distribution of carcass tissue is important, because it affects the commercial value of a carcass. Differences between breeds are supposed to be caused by different adult body weight and thus different physiological age at slaughter (Berg and Butterfield, 1976, Taylor, 1985). Selection and introduction of American Brown Swiss genes into Slovenian Brown population has changed carcass traits of Brown bulls (êpon, 1994). We wanted to compare carcass traits of the two most important dual-purposed cattle breeds in Slovenia at the same physiological age, defined as carcass fat percentage. MATERIAL AND METHODS Simmental (260) and Brown (159) bulls were bred at progeny testing stations. Simmental bulls were fed with maize silage and concentrates, Brown bulls with grass and maize silage and concentrates. They were slaughtered at subjectively defined optimal fatness. The average weight of the right carcass side of Simmental bulls was 166 kg and of Brown bulls 158 kg. The average carcass fat percentage was 12.5% for Simmental and 13.1% for Brown bulls. After slaughter the right carcass side was dissected to the following cuts: chuck, shoulder, front shank, rib roast, back, loin, tenderloin, brisket, rib, flank, leg and hind shank. Then the cuts were further dissected to lean, fat, tendon and bone. For statistical evaluation GLM procedure was used (SAS, 1989), where breed as fixed effect and carcass fat percentage within breed as covariable, were included in the model. The comparison between two breeds was made at 12.5% carcass fat. The differences between breeds were tested with F-test and the differences between regression coefficients for two breeds with t-test for significance.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Simmental breed had at 12.5% carcass fat statistically significant higher share of leg and brisket with rib and lower share of chuck, front and hind shank, rib roast, tenderloin and flank (Table 1). Brown and Simmental breeds are dual-purpose breeds in Slovenia, though Brown breed is a more pronounced dairy type. As a consequence, selection for milk ability also increases animal frame, so differences in share of carcass cuts could be explained by those changes (Nieuwhof et al. 1992) Dairy type cattle has thinner but longer chuck in comparison with beef type. This characteristic results in higher share of chuck in Brown bulls. Percentage rate of other cuts did not differ statistically significantly. All the differences were relatively small, with leg cut percentage of around 0.5% being the highest. The percentage of leg, hind and front shank, shoulder, rib roast in both breeds and tender loin in Simmental breed decreased with increased carcass fat, while the percentage of brisket, rib and flank increased. The regression coefficients for the percentage of back and loin did not differ statistically significantly from zero, so the percentage of those cuts was not influenced by the carcass fat. The regression coefficients for chuck differed between the two breeds, being negative in Brown breed and not statistically different from zero in Simmental breed. In Table 2 LS means for lean percentage in carcass cuts are represented. Simmental bulls had higher lean percentage in leg, back, tender loin, loin, brisket, rib and flank and lower percentage of lean in rib roast and chuck. In Simmental bulls the regression coefficients of front shank and shoulder, and in Brown bulls of front and hind shank were not statistically significantly different from zero.
(1) Silvester @gur, Assistant Professor, (2) Marko êpon, MSc University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Zootechnical Department, Groblje 3, 1230 Domàle, Slovenia
102 Table 1. LS means for carcass cuts percentage and regression coefficients
Carcass cut Leg Hind shank Shoulder Front shank Rib roast Chuck Back Tender loin Loin Brisket Rib Flank LS MEANS SEE Simmental 28.68 a 0.06 3.53 a 0.02 15.33 0.06 2.58 a 0.01 7.02 a 0.06 8.84 a 0.07 5.04 0.03 2.37 a 0.02 3.81 0.02 9.74 a 0.05 6.04 a 0.04 5.61 a 0.04 Brown 28.13 b 0.08 3.72 b 0.02 15.36 0.07 2.64 b 0.02 7.23 b 0.08 9.16 b 0.09 5.11 0.04 2.46 b 0.02 3.79 0.03 9.55 b 0.06 5.73 b 0.06 5.82 b 0.05 Simmental -0.12* 0.02 -0.03* 0.01 -0.09* 0.02 -0.02* 0.01 -0.11* 0.02 0.03 a 0.03 0.02 0.01 -0.01* 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.14* 0.02 0.10* 0.02 0.10* 0.01 b SEE
Brown -0.14* 0.03 -0.03* 0.01 -0.03 0.03 -0.03* 0.01 -0.07* 0.03 -0.09* b 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.10* 0.02 0.11* 0.02 0.14* 0.02
* values differ statistically significantly (p<0.05) from zero; values marked with different letters differ statistically significantly (p<0.05) between breeds
Table 2. LS means for lean percentage in carcass cuts and regression coefficients
Carcass cut Leg Hind shank Shoulder Front shank Rib roast Chuck Back Tender loin Loin Brisket Rib Flank
LS MEANS SEE
b SEE Brown Simmental -0.64* 0.03 -0.24* 0.08 0.01 0.01 -0.02 0.07 -0.83* 0.09 -0.60* 0.07 -0.98* 0.08 -0.77* 0.11
a
Simmental 75.78a 0.09 39.66 0.20 72.05 0.10 41.83 0.17 73.87a 0.22 78.25a 0.18 67.59 0.21
a a
Brown -0.64* 0.04 -0.13 0.10 0.03* 0.01 -0.04 0.08 -0.84* 0.11 -0.60* 0.09 -0.75* 0.10 -1.25*b 0.15 -0.43* 0.12 -1.14* 0.08 -1.11* 0.10 -1.91* 0.11
74.32b 0.11 39.11 0.25 71.84 0.14 41.36 0.22 75.78b 0.28 79.26b 0.22 65.84 0.27
b b
82.37 0.30 67.85a 0.25 59.55a 0.17 64.76 0.21

a a
76.89 0.38 65.59b 0.32 58.58b 0.22 64.07 0.27

b b
-0.55* 0.10 -1.16* 0.06 -1.16* 0.08 -1.93* 0.09
68.33 0.24
65.71 0.30
Regression coefficients for all other cuts were negative and the most outstanding in brisket, rib and flank. This means that lean percentage in those carcass cuts decreased most rapidly with increased carcass fatness. Regression coefficients between two breeds differed significantly only in tender loin. Simmental bulls had higher fat percentage in hind and front shank, shoulder, rib roast, chuck, loin and rib and lower fat percentage in leg, back, tender loin, loin and flank (Table 3). Except regression coefficient for
front shank in Brown bulls, they were all statistically significant and the highest in brisket, rib and flank. This means that with increased carcass fat percentage, the highest amount of fat has been deposited on brisket, rib and flank. Share of this carcass cuts also increased with increased carcass fat (Table 1) and this rise was primarily a consequence of preferential fat deposition on those cuts (Table 3). Also for fat percentage, only regression coefficients of tender loin differed significantly between two breeds.
Agriculture 6 (2000) Table 3. LS means for fat percentage in carcass cuts and regression coefficients
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Carcass cut Leg Hind shank Shoulder Front shank Rib roast Chuck Back Tender loin Loin Brisket Rib Flank
LS MEANS SEE Simmental 9.86a 0.06 6.99a 0.18 12.98 0.11

a
b SEE Simmental 0.72* 0.02 0.46* 0.07 0.78* 0.04 0.14* 0.05 0.78* 0.04 0.66* 0.06 1.28* 0.07 0.77* 0.12
a
Brown 10.30b 0.08 5.73b 0.23 12.34 0.14

b
Brown 0.73*0.03 0.26* 0.09 0.85* 0.05 0.07 0.06 0.74* 0.05 0.56* 0.07 1.12* 0.08 1.25*b 0.15 0.89* 0.07 1.52* 0.08 1.75* 0.10 1.92* 0.12
3.93 0.13
a a
3.43 0.16
b b
7.34 0.11 7.33 0.14 11.56a 0.17 17.64 0.30

a
6.87 0.14 6.86 0.18 12.64b 0.22 23.11 0.38

b
7.23a 0.14 23.02 0.17 19.27a 0.20 27.56a 0.26
6.70b 0.19 22.55 0.22 17.95b 0.26 29.11b 0.33
0.88* 0.06 1.58* 0.06 1.62* 0.08 1.95* 0.10
Table 4. LS means for bone percentage in carcass cuts and regression coefficients
Carcass cut Leg Hind shank Shoulder Front shank Rib roast Chuck Back Loin Brisket Rib
LS MEANS SEE Simmental 13.06a 0.07 47.70a 0.22 13.86 0.07

a
b SEE Simmental -0.04 0.03 -0.39* 0.08 -0.07* 0.03 -0.23* 0.08 0.05 0.07 -0.06 0.05 -0.25* 0.07 -0.32* 0.09 -0.42* 0.05 -0.46*a 0.05 Brown -0.08 0.03 -0.19 0.10 -0.14* 0.03 -0.11 0.10 0.11 0.09 0.00 0.06 -0.35* 0.09 -0.41* 0.11 -0.38*0.06 -0.64*b 0.06
Brown 14.01b 0.09 48.66b 0.28 14.59 0.09

b
48.94 0.20 16.98a 0.18 12.60a 0.13 19.74 0.18

a a a
49.42 0.26 15.47b 0.24 12.10b 0.17 20.44 0.24

b b b
22.97 0.24 17.43 0.12 15.96a 0.13
25.88 .030 18.86 0.15 17.98b 0.17
Except in rib roast and chuck, Simmental bulls had lower percentage of bone in all other cuts. Regression coefficients for bone percentage that statistically significantly differed from zero were negative and the most outstanding in back, loin, brisket and rib. In comparison with regression coefficients for lean and fat, regression coefficients for bone were much smaller. So the share of bone in different carcass cuts was less dependent on carcass fatness than lean percentage. Regression coefficient differed significantly between breeds only for rib cut.
CONCLUSION Differences between Simmental and Brown bulls in the share of carcass cuts were relatively small. Simmental bulls had higher share of leg and brisket with rib and lower share of chuck, front and hind shank, rib roast, tenderloin and flank. Higher share of leg and brisket with rib in Simmental bulls was linked also with higher lean percentage in this cuts. The highest differences in tissue composition was found in tender loin and flank, where Brown bulls had much higher fat content than Simmental bulls. Most of the
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Sloveniji. Master Thesis, Univerza v Ljubljani, Ljubljana, 128 p. 3. Nieuwhof, G.J., Van Arendonk, J.A.M., Vos, H., Korver, S. (1992): Genetic relationship between feed intake, efficiency and production traits in growing bulls, growing heifers and lactating heifers. Livest. Prod. Sci., 32: 189-202. 4. Taylor, C.S. (1985): Use of genetic size-scaling in evaluation of animal growth. J. Anim. Sci. 61: 118-1143. 5. . SAS (1989): SAS/ STAT Users, Version 6. Cary, NC, USA, SAS Institute Inc.
regression coefficients did not differ between breeds, so alteration of carcass cuts composition due to carcass fatness was very similar in both breeds.
REFERENCES
1. Berg, R.T., Butterfield, R.M. (1976): New concepts of cattle growth. Sydney University Press, Sydney, 150 p. 2. êpon, M. (1994): Rastnost in klavna kakovost ter ocena genetskih parametrov bikov oplemenjene rjave pasme v
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ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 637.146:613/614
FERMENTED MILK AS A FUNCTIONAL FOOD

Irena Rogelj
Preliminary communication ABSTRACT

Certain foods have been associated with health benefits for many years; fermented milks and yoghurt are typical examples. The health properties of these dairy products were a part of folklore until the concept of probiotics emerged, and the study of fermented milks and yoghurt containing probiotic bacteria has become more systematic. Functional foods have thus developed as a food, or food ingredient, with positive effects on host health and/or well-being beyond their nutritional value, and fermented milk with probiotic bacteria has again become the prominent representative of this new category of food. Milk alone is much more than the sum of its nutrients. It contains an array of bioactivities: modulating digestive and gastrointestinal functions, haemodynamics, controlling probiotic microbial growth, and immunoregulation. When fermented milk is enriched with probiotic bacteria and prebiotics it meets all the requirements of functional food. The possible positive effects of enriched fermented milk on host health will be reviewed. Keywords: fermented milk, probiotics, prebiotics, bioactive peptides, functional food
INTRODUCTION Inappropriate nutrition is recognised as a primary factor in unachieved genetic potential, reduced mental and physical performance, and increased susceptibility to disease. In searching for effective dietary intervention strategies, a new class of food, functional food, has evolved rapidly and many new terms such as probiotic, prebiotic, nutraceutical and FOSHU (Food for Specified Health Use) have emerged in response. The term functional food originated in Japan in the 1980s, when it was used by the industry to describe foods fortified with specific ingredients imparting certain health benefits (Hilliam, 1998). There are many possible definitions for the term functional food; however, functional food is usually described as food that promotes health beyond the provision of basic nutrition. Head et al. (1996) stated that functional foods could be naturally occurring foods and not just enriched and modified foods. Similarly, Roberfroid (1996) said that a food is functional if it contains a food component that affects one or a limited number of functions in the body in a positive way. However, Pariza (1999) recently proposed a new definition for functional food: a manufactured food for which scientifically valid health claims can be made. He also explained that manufactured refers to a product of human intervention, such as alteration via genetic engineering, as well as conventional food processing practices. He listed three possible forms of functional food:
A known food to which a functional ingredient from another food is added A known food to which a functional ingredient new to the food supply is added An entirely new food that contains one or more functional ingredients. The first generation of functional foods involved the supplementation of food with components like calcium, vitamins, carotenoids or antioxidants. In more recent years the concept has moved towards the development of dietary supplementation that may affect gut microbial composition and activity (Ziemer and Gibson, 1998). In addition, new components with putative anti-carcinogenic activity or other specific physiological effects are studied as possible adjuncts to functional foods.
FUNCTIONAL INGREDIENTS OF FERMENTED MILK People have consumed fermented milks for several thousand years, and the belief that they are beneficial to health is probably as old. They contain all the nutrients of milk on its own; however, the components are modified during fermentation by lactic acid bacteria (LAB), mainly in a positive way as far as nutrition is concerned. LACTOSE Lactose is fermented to lactic acid; this reduces pH, influences the physical properties of casein and thus promotes digestibility, improves the utilisation of calcium and
Irena Rogelj, Full Professor - University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical faculty, Zootechnical Dept, Institute of Dairying, SI-Groblje 3, Rodica, Slovenia
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other minerals, and inhibits the growth of potentially harmful bacteria. Because of its lower lactose content, fermented milk can be tolerated by people with a reduced ability to digest lactose (Buttriss, 1997, McBean, 1999).
Fermented milk can be made even more functional by adding probiotic bacteria and prebiotics, the supplements that affect gut microbial composition and activity.
PROTEINS The proteolytic activity of LAB gives rise to protein degradation; the result is some free amino acids and bioactive peptides. Bioactive peptides are a frequent supplement to functional foods, and milk proteins are currently the main source of a range of biologically active peptides such as casomorphins, casokinins, immunopeptides, lactoferrin, lactoferricin and phosphopeptides. A lot of milk protein-derived bioactive peptides are inactive within the sequence of the parent protein and can be released by enzymatic proteolysis during gastrointestinal digestion or food processing, e.g. fermentation. The main biological activities of these peptides are immunomodulation, anti-microbial activity, anti-thrombotic activity, blood pressure regulation, and mineral or vitamin binding (Meisel, 1998, Schanbacher, 1998, Tom and Ledoux, 1998). Fermented milks are also a rich source of whey proteins such as a-lactalbumin, b-lactoglobulin, lactoferrin, lactoperoxidase, immunoglobulins and variety of growth factors. These proteins have demonstrated a number of biological effects ranging from anti-carcinogenic activity to different effects on the digestive function (McIntosh et al., 1998). FAT
The digestibility of fat is also improved during fermentation. Milk fat is known for its high proportion of saturated fatty acids; advice is frequently given to avoid it because it contributes to an atherogenic blood profile and increased risk of coronary heart disease. However, one look at the composition of milk fat reveals that of the many different saturated fatty acids in milk only three (lauric, myristic and palmitic) have the property of raising blood cholesterol, and that at least one-third of the fatty acids are unsaturated, with a cholesterol-lowering tendency (Gurr, 1992). Furthermore, fermented milks contain components with at least protective if not hypoholesterolemic effects; these include calcium, linoleic acid, conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), antioxidants, and lactic acid bacteria or probiotic bacteria (Rogelj, 2000). Milk fat contains a number of components, such as CLA, sphingomyelin, butyric acid, ether lipids, b-carotene, and vitamins A and D, with anti-carcinogenic potential (Jahreis et al., 1999, Parodi, 1999a). Numerous in vitro and animal studies have confirmed the anti-carcinogenic activity of CLA, as well as its role in preventing atherosclerosis and in modulating certain aspects of the immune system (Cook and Pariza, 1998, MacDonald, 2000).
PROBIOTICS AND PREBIOTICS The most common definitions used for probiotics and prebiotics are as follows:
Probiotics are live micro-organisms that have a beneficial effect on the host by improving its intestinal microbial balance. Prebiotics are non-digestible food ingredients that have a beneficial effect on the host by selectively stimulating the growth and/or activity of one or a limited number of bacteria in the colon; this can improve host health. The human gastrointestinal tract possesses an extremely complex microbial ecosystem that can markedly influence various physiological functions of the intestine and, as a consequence, human health. A number of beneficial roles played by probiotic strains have been reported, including: protection against gastrointestinal infections; re-establishment of balanced intestinal microflora; reduction of lactose intolerance; cholesterol reduction; stimulation of the immune system; suppression of allergic reactions in food hypersensitivity; and protection against cancer (Buttriss, 1997, Saxelin, 1997, Parodi, 1999b, Heyman, 2000). A further possibility in the microflora management procedure is the use of synbiotics, where probiotics and prebiotics can be used in combination. Prebiotics are non-digestible food components, such as carbohydrates, some proteins and peptides found in milk, and certain resistant lipids. The major end-products of fermentation of non-digestible carbohydrates by colonic bacteria are short-chain fatty acids. These acids, along with lactic acid produced by lactic acid bacteria, reduce cancer-promoting factors such as colonic pH and concentrations of ammonia (Gibson and Roberfroid, 1995).
CONCLUSION Fermented milk provides a wide range of important nutrients and contains different components that affect one or a limited number of functions of the body in a positive way. Increasing scientific evidence confirms that the risk for many of chronic diseases such as cancer, osteoporosis, coronary heart disease and hypertension can be diminished by the regular consumption of fermented milk and fermented milk supplemented with pro- and/or prebiotics. Fermented milks therefore comply with the requirements of functional food.
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G. W. (1998): Whey Proteins as Functional Food Ingredients. Int. Dairy Journal, 8(5/6): 425-434. 12. Meisel, H. (1998): Overview on Milk Protein-derived Peptides. Int. Dairy Journal, 8(5/6): 363-373. 13. Pariza, M. W. (1999): Functional Foods: Technology, Functionality, and Health Benefits. Nutrition Today, 43(4): 150-151. 14. Parodi, P. W. (1999a): Symposium: A Bold New Look at Milk Fat. Conjugated Linoleic Acid and Other Anticarcinogenic Agents of Bovine Milk Fat. J. Dairy Sci. 82(6): 1339-1349. 15. Parodi, P. W. (1999b): The role of intestinal bacteria in the causation and prevention of cancer: modulation by diet and probiotics. The Australian Journal of Dairy Technology, 54: 103-121. 16. Roberfroid, M. B. (1996): Functional affects of food components and the gastrointestinal system: chicory fructooligosaccharides. Nutrition Reviews, 54: 538 - 551. 17. Rogelj, I. (2000): Milk, Dairy Products, Nutrition and Health. Food technol. Biotechnol. 38(2): 143-147. 18. Saxelin, M. (1997): Lactobacillus GG - A human probiotic strain with thorough clinical documentation. Food Rev. Int., 13(2): 293-313. 19. Schanbacher, F. L., Talhouk, R. S., Murray, F. A., Gherman, L. I., Willett, L. B. (1998): Milk-Borne Bioactive Peptides. Int. Dairy Journal, 8(5/6): 393-403. 20. Tom, D., Ledoux, N. (1998): Nutritional and physiological role of milk protein components. Bulletin of the IDF No. 336/1998: 11-16. 21. Ziemer, C. J., Gibson, G. R. (1998): An Overview of Probiotics, Prebiotics and Synbiotics in the Functional Food Concept: Perspectives and Future Strategies. Int. Dairy Journal, 8: 473-479.
REFERENCES
1. Buttriss, J. (1997): Nutritional properties of fermented milk products. Int. J. Dairy Technol., 50 (1): 21-27 2. Cook, M. E., Pariza, M. (1998): The Role of Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA) in Health. Int. Dairy Journal, 8(5/6): 459-462. 3. Gibson, G. R., Roberfroid, M. B. (1995): Dietary modulation of the human colonic microbiota: introducing the concept of prebiotics. J. Nutr. 125: 1401-1412. 4. Gurr, M. I. (1992): Milk products: contribution to nutrition and health. J. Soc. Dairy Technol. 45: 61-67. 5. Head, R. J., Record, I. R., King, R. A. (1996): Functional foods: approaches to definition and substantiation. Nutrition Reviews, 54(11): 17-20. 6. Heyman, M. (2000): Effect of Lactic Acid Bacteria on Diarrhoeal Diseases. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 19(2): 137-146. 7. Hilliam, M. (1998): The Market for Functional Foods. Int. Dairy Journal, 8: 349-353. 8. Jahreis, G., Fritsche, J., Mckel, P., Schne, F., Mller, U., Steinhart, H. (1999): The potential anti-carcinogenic conjugated linoleic acid, cis-9, trans-11 C18:2, in milk of different species: cattle, goats, sheep, pigs, horses, human beings. Nutrition Research, 19(10): 1541-1549. 9. MacDonald, H. B. (2000): Conjugated Linoleic Acid and Disease Prevention: A Review of Current Knowledge. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 19(2): 111-118. 10. McBean, L. D. (1999): Emerging Dietary Benefits of Dairy Foods. Nutr. Today, 34(4): 47-53. 11. McIntosh, G. H., Royle, P. J., LeLeu, R. K., Regester, G. O., Johnson, M. A., Grinsted, R. L., Kenward, R. S., Smithers,
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ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 637.112
EVALUATION OF MILK QUALITY ON THE BASIS OF TRUE PROTEIN VALUE WITH FT-IR SPECTROMETRY
Slavica Golc Teger(1), Marta Berlec(2)

For the evaluation of milk quality on the basis of true protein it is essential to use fast, but accurate and precise methods. On the basis of the results of classical analysis by reference methods, the reliability of FT-IR technique for proteins, casein and urea is described. The ratio between casein, whey proteins, non-protein nitrogen components and urea content has been set. Keywords: milk, analyses, FT-IR spectrometry, proteins, casein, urea, Slovenia
INTRODUCTION The share of proteins in milk is the criteria of milk quality according to which milk producers are paid for milk. What is also important is the share of total proteins, casein and non-protein nitrogen (mostly present as urea) in the milk processing industry, as the ratios between individual shares influence both the quality of products and their quantity. Concerning this respects the use of fast, but accurate determination methods are necessary. The fastest method of establishing proteins in milk is IR spectrometry, which is an indirect method (International Standard ISO/FDIS 9622, 1999; ISO/FDIS 8196-1, 2000). The instrument must be calibrated according to reference values - to define proteins, the reference method is the Kjeldahls method. This method also simultaneously evaluates non-protein nitrogen components (represented primarily by the amount of urea), which however do not have a biological value, nor they are valuable in industrial processing, therefore the so-called true proteins, composed of casein and whey proteins, should be evaluated, as otherwise milk producers are paid for technologically useless nitrogen compounds. Non-protein nitrogen compounds are also a disturbing factor when analysing, as the instruments of IR spectrometry do not measure them, while the reference method does. This can cause differences between the two methods. Therefore, establishing individual nitrogen compounds is also important in terms of analyses. The possibility of establishing individual nitrogen compounds in milk is enabled through the use of the instrument MilkoScan FT 120, functioning on the basis of Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR) spectrometry. The targets of the research were to: establish the accuracy and precision of the FT-IR spectrometry method of evaluating total proteins and casein compared to the reference Kjeldahls method, as well
as urea compared to the enzymatic method using samples of raw milk, establish the varying in the share of nitrogen (total proteins, casein and urea) in raw milk samples taken in different areas, and find the ratios between different nitrogen components.

Sampling:
Samples of raw milk of individual cows and the bulk milk were taken in the autumn period. The sampling was conducted in line with the relevant international standard (SIST EN ISO 707:1999). The samples were not conserved and had been kept at the temperature of 4 C 2 C for a maximum of 24h prior to analysis. Before analysing, we heated the samples to 40 C and cooled them to the temperature prescribed for individual methods of analysing.
Methods of analysing: The total proteins and non-protein nitrogen were evaluated according to Kjeldahl (total nitrogen multiplying by 6.38) in line with the international standard IDF 20B:1993; caseins were evaluated by the Kjeldahls method directly through non-casein nitrogen (total nitrogen - non-casein nitrogen multiplying by 6.38); in the procedure, we respected the regulations described in Methodenbuch (VDLUFA, 1985). Urea was established with the use of photometry following the enzymatic method with the test combination according to Boehringer-Mannhaim. In line with the standard requirements on quality assurance in enzymatic analyses, we tested the accuracy and repeatability of the method (VDLUFA, 1985).
(1) Slavica Golc Teger, Assist.Prof. (2) Marta Berlec, MSc- Food Technologist, University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Zootechnical Dept., Institute of Dairying, Groblje 3, 1230 Domàle, Slovenia
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The total proteins, casein and urea were established with the use of the instrument MilkoScan FT 120 (Foss Electric, Denmark), functioning according to the principle of Fourier Transformation Infrared spectrometry (Agnet, 1998).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results are presented in Tables 1,2,3 and 4. On the basis of the results shown in Tables 1 and 2, we are establishing good repeatability and comparability
Table 1. Repeatability for FT-IR method
of the instrumental method with regard to the guidance on the operation of IR instruments published in Standard ISO/FDIS 9622: 1999 as well as compared to what has been published by other authors (Foss Elec. Appl. Note No. 95, 1996; 99, 1996; 102, 1997; KjFr, 1997; Lefier, 1998; Hohmann, 1999). The values established for repeatability are proteins sd = 0.0084 (CV = 0.224%); casein sd = 0.0070 (CV = 0.257%) and urea sd = 0.0015 (CV = 6.894%). The accuracy of the method expressed through the standard deviation of the differences for pro-
Proteins x avg. (%) sd CV (%) 3.46 0.0084 0.224
Casein 2.72 0.0070 0.257
Urea 0.0218 0.0015 6.894
Number of evaluations = 10; x avg = average value in %; sd = standard deviation of repeatability; CV = coefficient of variation in %
Table 2. Comparison of reference method and FT-IR calibration results Proteins x avg. (%) min (%) max (%) sd CV (%) d avg. 3.410 2.887 3.802 0.0208 0.610 -0.019 Casein 2.654 2.223 2.963 0.0342 1.290 +0.006 Urea 0.0169 0.0078 0.0341 0.0027 15.990 +0.0029
Number of evaluations = 19; x avg = average value; sd = standard deviation of the differences; CV = coefficient of variation; min, max = minimum and maximum values (calibration range); d avg = average mean difference
Table 3. Correlation coefficients (R) for proteins, casein and urea Equation of Regression Proteins Casein Urea Y = 1.0313x - 0.1259 Y = 0.9927x + 0.0251 Y = 0.8159x + 0.0006 R 0.998 0.989 0.915
Table 4. Results of non-protein nitrogen determined by the classical method and the ratio between nitrogen components Non-protein nitrogen (%) avg min max 0.026 0.021 0.034 *Casein number 0.779 0.754 0.800 % Non-protein nitrogen/ Total nitrogen 4.9 3.8 5.7 % Urea nitrogen/ Non-protein nitrogen 30.3 16.7 49.2
Number of evaluations = 50; avg = average value; min, max = minimum and maximum values; *casein/protein ratio
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teins is sd = 0.0208 (CV = 0,61%), for casein sd = 0.0342 (CV = 1,29 %) and for urea sd = 0.0027 (CV = 15,99%). The results of regression analysis are given in Table 3. How close the connection is between the reference methods and the instrumental method using MilkoScan 120 was assessed with correlation coefficients, which are for proteins R = 0.998, for casein R = 0.989 and for urea R = 0.915. In Table 4 the ratio between nitrogen component for 50 test samples taken in different areas of Slovenia are shown. Composition of samples with average value for proteins is 3,36%, for casein 2,64% and for urea 0,0169%. The average casein number is 0,785 which corresponds 73,1% to 80,4% of the casein to the total protein content. The casein is often estimated by multiplying the total protein results by factor as the casein number which can introduce large errors in the casein estimate. By using direct casein determination the accuracy of the casein results may be improved by 22-42% (KjFr, 1997). With regard to the total proteins, casein and non-protein nitrogen (International Standard, IDF 20B: 1993), we also established whey proteins, whose level was 17.2% on average.
REFERENCES
1. Agnet, Y. (1998): Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry a New Concept for Milk and Milk Product Analysis. Bulletin IDF 332, Brussels. 58-68. 2. Hohmann, H. (1999): FT-IR using attenuated total reflectance. International Laboratory, 29(1A). 125. 3. Kjr, L. (1997): Say cheese - and think of direct casein determination. Scandinavian Dairy Information, reprint, 2/97. 4. 4. Lefier, D. (1998): Application of Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy in Milk and Milk Product Analysis. Bulletin IDF 332, Brussels. 54-57. 5. . Foss Electric, Aplication Note No. 95: 1996. P/N 492280. Calibration for Urea Determination in Raw Cows Milk. 8. 6. . Foss Electric, Aplication Note No. 99: 1996. Basis Calibration for Milk. 8. 7. . Foss Electric, Aplication Note No. 102: 1997. P/N 578377. Calibration for Casein in Cows Milk. 8. 8. . VDLUFA: Methodenbuch VI: Chemische, physikalische und mikrobiologische Unter- suchungsverfaren fr Milch, Milchprodukte und Molkereihilfsstoffe. Darmstadt, VDLUFA-Verlag, 1985, 1988. 9. . International Standard, IDF 20B: 1993. Milk - Determination of nitrogen content - Kjeldahl method (Part 1), Determination of non-protein-nitrogen content (Part 4). 12. 10. . International Standard, ISO/FDIS 9622: 1999. Whole milk - Determination of milk fat, protein and lactose content - Guidance on the operation of mid-infrared instruments. 27. 11. . Slovenski standard, SIST EN ISO 707: 1999. Mleko in mle~ni proizvodi - Navodila za vzor~enje. 36. 12. . International Standard, ISO/FDIS 8196-1: 2000. Milk - Definition and evaluation of the overall accuracy of indirect methods of milk analysis - Part 1: Analytical attributes of indirect methods. 9.
CONCLUSION On the basis of testing the comparability of FT-IR spectrometry and the classical reference methods, we found that the accuracy (proteins sd = 0,02, casein sd = 0,034, urea sd = 0,0027) and repeatability (proteins sd = 0,0084, casein sd = 0,007, urea sd = 0,0015) of the instrumental method are good. The instrument ensures good quality of work, which enables accurate results. We found that the method is appropriate for evaluating individual nitrogen components: total proteins, casein and urea in milk. Among individual nitrogen components, we found 77.9% of casein, 17.2% of whey proteins and 4.9% of non-protein nitrogen compounds. In non-protein nitrogen, urea nitrogen accounts for 30.3%.
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ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 636.273:637.1
THE MILK PRODUCTION OF HUNGARIAN GREY CATTLE IN THE RESPECT OF THE COMPOSITION OF COLOSTRUM
A. Z. Kovcs Original scientific paper ABSTRACT
The ancient Hungarian Grey Cattle was famous in Europe for a thousand years until the 20th century. The fame is due to its meat of excellent flavour and mottling texture. However, this cattle type did not meet the milk production requirements of the 20th century because of its low milk yield, and therefore lost dominance from the beginning of the 1900s, playing only the role of gene bank since the sixties. Considering that its gene base is ideal if crossed with beef cattle and the lack of detailed information on its colostrum and milk composition because of contemporary laboratory techniques, the author tries to fill the gap in this respect in his researched work. The number of colostrum samples was n = 19. The dry matter (31.00%) the protein (20.90%) and the lactose content (4.49%) of the first milked colostrum is overdue surpasses those of all of the cattle types, which were cited in the professional literature by some authors. The only component of the first milked colostrum which the Hungarian Grey Cattle stay beyond of the other beef types is the fat content (4.46%).
Keywords: Hungarian Grey Cattle, colostrum, milk composition
INTRODUCTION One of the most important tasks of the breeding programmes in Hungary is to maintain the ancient breeds with regard to several characteristics related to tolerance and genetic diversity. For the successful realisation of this and for incorporating these favourable traits into other breeds through breeding, gaining in-depth information on the advantageous characteristics of these breeds is a prerequisite. Obtaining profound knowledge on the products of the old breeds carries importance for two reasons: via analysing the data a detailed body of information can be gained about the actual breed in terms of its genes (which are lost or silent in breeds used today) and the interaction of genes linked to production can be explored. The Hungarian Grey Cattle, which fulfils the criteria, depicted above, excellently serves this purpose. Furthermore, this can contribute to discovering valuable traits in the breed, which are to be incorporated into other breeds and to making the breed known, and recognised even abroad. The gathered data can help in answering the question at a satisfactory level whether the indigenous Grey Cattle represents any particular value in terms of milk production. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW The Hungarian Cattle (the archaic name for the Hungarian Grey Cattle) used to be a famous slaughter cattle in Europe. During the XVI.-XVII.th century the main routes of export delivering hundreds of thousands of the stock ani-
mals were spanning between Buda and Vienna, Czech-Monrovia, and through Zagreb to Venice. It was at that time that the Hungarian plains became the nest for breeding the Grey Cattle. The drop in the export rate coincided with the introduction of more modern breeds, which entailed the loss of significance of the Grey Cattle known to be an extensious breed. As a result, the stock plummeted to a critical level in the 1960s. Since the 1970s the number of cows slowly increased (see figures on the 1st table depicting the figures between the 1970s and the 1998s). Now, 2700 cows are registered as pedigree animals and 80 bulls are catalogued in the country.
OBJECTIVES Bases on the above, the objective of the presented investigation are summarised below: Analysing the compounds of the colostrum of the Grey Cattle following calving, Studying the qualitative parameters of the colostrum as plotted against time passed from calving. MATERIAL AND METHODS The investigation was carried out in the Kiskunsg National Park at the Bugacpuszta ranch. The stock under study consisted of 193 cows and their offspring. For
Attila Zoltn Kovcs, Ph.D. - University of Kaposvr, Faculty of Animal Science, Guba S. u. 40., 7400 Kaposvr, Hungary
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Table 1. Number of the Hungarian Grey Cattle under the past thirty years (piece) Year 1970 1975 1980 1982 Cows 500 550 600 800 Bulls 19 20 25 30 Year 1984 1986 1988 1990 Cows 900 1000 1200 1200 Bulls 35 40 50 55 Year 1992 1994 1996 1998 Cows 1500 1600 2000 2500 Bulls 60 70 80 100
Source: Supplement of the Hungarian Grey Cattle Breeding Association (1994)
sampling, hand milking was used. In order to determine the composition of the first milked colostrum, the samples were taken from 19 cows 3 hours after calving. Out of these 19 animals, 4 were milked for three consecutive days at 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours following calving. The colostrum samples were analysed at the laboratory of the Performance Evaluating Ltd., Gdllt, Hungary. The statistical analysis was implemented using the SPSS 5.0 version software package, run under Windows.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The investigations were partly focused on the compositions of the colostrum hence attempting to fill the hiatus existing in this field, and partly on providing data of the breed so that a comparison could be made between my results and the observations to be found in the relevant literature (Figure 1.).
tions. The standard deviation was smaller than that reported elsewhere in similar studies, thus the conclusion can be drawn that the results obtained can truly be considered to be reliable. The fat content of the first milked colostrum, however, was found to be lower than that of beef cattle breeds studied according to the literature. If the changes of the components of the colostrum or of the temporary milk are analysed as a function of time elapsed from calving, the dry matter content show a pronounced difference (which increases plotted against time passed from calving) compared to the data gained at the corresponding time windows and published elsewhere. Since the protein content has less importance as the time counted from calving passes (Table 2.), the higher dry matter content is not attributed to elevated protein content.
Figure 1. The main content of the first milked colostrum of the Hungarian Grey Cattle and comparision with similar components of the other cattle breeds 35 Hung. Grey Cattle 30
main components (%)
Red Angus* Black Angus* Hung. Simmental* Limousin* Blonde d' Aq.* vaters Holstein-f.** vaters Jersey**
25 20 15 10 5 0 dry matter milk protein milk fat lactose
Data of literature by Kovcs (1999)* and Csap et al. (1984); Szentpteri et al. (1986)**
The dry matter content of the colostrum and its protein and sugar content exceeds that of the breeds referred to in the relevant publications. With respect to the dry matter content and protein content, the results I obtained differed significantly when compared to the milking genotypes, however, only occasionally could significant differences be found between the Grey Cattle and other beef cattle breed mentioned in the literature. In terms of the sugar content the first milked colostrum of the Hungarian Grey Cattle surpasses that of all the other beef cattle mentioned in the relevant publica-
As it is shown in the previous table the tendency of protein change is in agreement with the curves drawn by other authors, namely it is hyperbolically dwindling. The change of the fat content of the colostrum of the Hungarian Grey Cattle does not fit to any curve. In this context, however, it is intriguing to note that, like in the beef cattle breeds studied hitherto, there is an abrupt decrease in the fat content of the colostrum by 24th after calving. Thus, it is confirmed that in the Grey Cattle too, the fat content of the colostrum gets to its lowest level by the 1st day following calving (Table 2.).
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Table 2. The main colostrum content of Hungarian Grey Cattle in different time after calving (%)
Days after calving
Dry matter min. 26.3 15.2 13.7 13.4 13.3 max. 36.8 23.2 18.7 17.6 16.8 32.4 18.7 16.2 15.0 15.3 min. 19.8 5.48 3.92 3.68 3.38
Milk protein max. 26.72 13.4 9.98 8.18 5.92 22.4 9.48 6.15 5.12 4.34 min. 1.56 2.46 3.32 3.44 3.48
Milk fat max. 8.04 4.64 5.26 4.84 6.80 4.50 3.45 4.28 4.04 5.19 min. 3.76 4.10 4.46 4.38 4.34
Lactose max. 5.06 5.26 5.10 5.24 5.26 4.37 4.81 4.86 4.90 4.87
0. 1. 2. 3. 4.
The measured sugar content - independently of the time after calving - was higher than the mean value of that of the beef cattle breeds analysed thus far (P 0.001). Therefore, the observations made about the parameters of the first milked colostrum apply here as well. The change in the sugar content of the colostrum milked from the Hungarian Grey Cattle shows a very slight, but gradual increase (Table 2.). This to some extent, also holds true for the analysed beef cattle breeds, but the line fitted to the values is steeper.
REFERENCES
1. Csap, J., Csap, J-n.(1984): Influence of the criss-cross breeding of Hungarian Friesian mated by Jersey and Holstein Friesian to the composition of the colostrum and the milk. Szaktancsok, 1: 32-37. 2. Kovcs, A. Z.(1999): The milking ability of beef cows with comparison of their calves growth. Ph.D. Dissertation., Mosonmagyarvr. pp. 121. 3. Szentpteri, J., Karle, G., Gundel, J-n., Csap, J., Csap, J-n.(1986): Influence of the criss-cross breeding of Hungarian Friesian mated by Jersey and Holstein Friesian to the composition of the colostrum and the milk. llattenyszts s Takarmnyozs, 6: 549-558. 4. . SPSS for Windows version 5.0, copyright SPSS inc. (1992) 5. . Supplement of the Hungarian Grey Cattle Breeding Association (1994)
SUMMARY In summary we may be led to the conclusion that in the first milked colostrum of the Hungarian Grey Cattle all the measured parameters (dry matter content, protein content, sugar content) but the fat content surpass that of all the other breeds mentioned in the relevant literature. Based on the observations I made it can be concluded that the main parameters of the colostrum of the Grey Cattle in their tendency are in conjunction with those presented elsewhere in the relevant literature. The only exception the dry matter content, which seems to differ more from the published data as time passes from calving. This may be explained by the higher than average fat-and sugar content. The main objective of my presentation was to attempt to raise interest in this peripheral field and to supply data to those whose intention is to deal with and leverage the stock of this charming and sturdy, ancient breed. I hope they all can one way or another benefit from this work.
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ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 636.1:636.03
SOME SLAUGHTER-HOUSE RATES OF HORSES

Vlasta Mandi}(1), Tatjana Tuek(2), D. Alagi}(3), J. Ljubei}(4)

Nowdays horses are raised and used almost only for sport and recreation and, of course, for meat production. With the possibility of buying fresh horse meat and products based on horse meat, new eating habits have been acquired. The number of horses in the Republic of Croatia has been decreasing continually, which can result in import rather than in export of horse meat, unless a proper and a good breeding plan for horse meat production is made soon. In existing small private slaughter-houses, together with other animals, horses are slaughtered but in a very small number (just to meet the needs of the market). As those horses are of different genetic bases, (mostly cold blooded and cross-bred) as well as of different age, sex and physical shape, the slaughter-house yield greatly varies. Due to some injuries, blindenss or lameness horses are killed coercively as to gain minimal profit. In distinction from other animals where the percentage of carcass yield is very high, sloughter-house yield of horse carcass is not high due to a small number of killed animals. Keywords: slaughter-house yield, horse meat
INTRODUCTION Although the number of horses has been decreasing continually because they are no more needed in agriculture and in transport and as there has been no stimulation for their breeding so far, the interest for consuming horse meat and horse meat products has constantly been growing. This interest has been caused by reopening of slaughter-houses (where horses are killed), that dissapeared after the World war II, as well as by a better supplying of market and by acquring habits of consuming horse meat and horse meat products. In comparison with other kinds of meat (pork, beef, mutton, poultry etc.), horse meat is not less nutritious because its contents are 73% water, 22% proteins, 3% fat, 1% minerals (Franceti}, 1970) ; besides, it has a specific sweetish flavour and a favourable dark red colour. This work is meant to, in present conditions and with the remains of present population of horses (not taking into account sport heads) estimate the level of slaughter house yields to find out the cause of their varying and to point out other existing problems. MATERIAL AND METHODS The source of information and figures which are met in this work are two small producers of horse meat products. Horses of different age, uneven physical shape, mainly cold blooded and cross-bred are slaughtered. They also vary in weight, from 400600 rarely 700 kg. This results in varying slaughterhouse yields. Horses are taken to the slaughterhouse in trucks from different regions of
Croatia (Me|imurje, Zagorje, Podravina, Posavina), and the number of killed animals varies from three to five heads. The world statistical data have shown a tendency of a decrease in the number of horses, approximately 3% every 20 years. This tendency is much more drastic in Croatia and amounts to 66% for the period between 19671997 (Ljubei} and Sukali}, unpublished).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In the Table 1 slaughterhouse yields of foals and full grown horses is presented. The accompanying industries, such as leather trade, brush making, have not shown a great interest, which, together with the fact that a small number of heads has been killed, has resulted in incomplete exploatation of horse carcass. According to the above figures, the minimal live weight of full grown heads was 480 kg; maximal weight of cross bred cold blooded heads purchased on sale without fattening was 650 kg. The rates of full-grown heads of cross-bred Lipica horse vary from 355485 kg after a period of two months of fattening and 104 days of restrained ration (Telebai}, 1983). Considering the small number of heads at the time of observations the results of our research should not be taken for granted and further investigation is needed.
(1) Vlasta Mandi}, MSc, (2) Tatjana Tuek, Ph.D, (3) Damir Alagi}, DVM, (4) Josip Ljubei}, Associate Professor College of Agriculture at Krièvci, M. Demerca 1, 48260 Krièvci, Croatia
Agriculture 6 (2000) Table 1. Slaughterhouse yield figures of foals and full grown heads
115
Category Foals to one year of age Yearling
Live weight, kg
320 410 480 510 530
Weight of one half, kg

96 125 124.8 140.0 145.7 162.5 160.0 180.0 165.0 190.0 158.5
Yield, %
60 61 52 54 55 57 55 59 53 58 55.38
Full grown heads
570 580 610 620 650
Full grown heads average
568.75
Horses were killed in small private slaughterhouses meant for killing cows and pigs. In this way we were given a poor chance to observe the slaughterhouse rates of carcass exploiting. In comparison with Croatia, the number of slaughtered horses varies in Europe depending on the country, eating habits of its people and on ethical approach to horse slaughtering and horse meat consuming. Perry (1999), England, points out the moral barriere where horses, like dogs, are considered to be the symbols of home pets. The same author works out an idolotrous approach of the English to horses from the historical roots of the two words: horse chesnut and Horseradish, pointing out the importance of those plants through the power symbolized by the horse. In the countries of west Europe (Italy, France, Switzerland) there is a traditional habit of consuming horse meat and products based on horse meat. In these countries there is a great demand for foal and yearling meat, so they import these categories of meat from central Asia and east Africa, where habits of horse meat consuming also exist. The Ministry of Agriculture in USA says that in 1997 year 88,806 heads of horses were exported from America to Europe (Belgium). After this fact had been published the American public, by means of various associations for animal protection, protested against non-ethical and criminal slaughtering of horses, pointing out that only from California 10,000 horses were exported for the Europen market (Hartman, 1999). King (1998) pointed out the need of a humaine approach to horse slaughtering and condemned coercing slaughtering due to intentionally caused injuries to animals. Croatia doesnt meet such problems, but it has faced a continuous decrease in number of horses since World War II due to introduction of mechanization in agriculture and losses of breeding lines in homeland war, as well as to unspecified breeding. The new interest of home market for horse meat and horse meat products has caused the need
for introducing specified breeding and protection of offspring of decreased horse population.
CONCLUSIONS Rates are uneven due to unspecified breeding, non-pure breds, unbalanced feeding, age, sex and finally due to disorganized buying off. Rates of foal meat of observed carcasses equal to those of cow and calf halves, which makes good results if unspecified breeding is taken in consideration. Horse fattening doesnt pay in present economical conditions. Due to a small number of horses the accompanying industries dont show much interest.
REFERENCES
1. Franceti}, M. (1970): Skripta. Veterinarski fakultet Sveu~ilita u Zagrebu, Zagreb. 2. Hartman, B. (1999): Horse Meat Opponents Fight. ABCNEWS. Com., 06, 1999. 3. King, P.H. (1998): Horse meat measure spurs woting booth ruminantions. The Bee, 11, 1999. 4. Perry, C. (1999): We shun horse meat, but other cultures dont. La Times, 09., 1999. 5. Telebai}, R., Vukoji~i}, S., Pajanovi}, R.(1983): Prilog poznavanju nekih tovnih i klaoni~kih osobina konja. Sto~arstvo, 37 (5-6):163-179.
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ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 636.11
BREEDING AND UTILIZATION OF ARABIAN HORSE TODAY

Vlasta Mandi}(1), J. Ljubei}(2), T. Rastija(3), @. Bonjak(4), M. Sukali}(5)

Arab horse raising has a hundred year old tradition. A real stud farm raising started by purchasing original reproductive material from Asia in 1895, 1897 and 1899. Apart from state stud in Gora`de, Arab horse was also raised in several private stud farms, especially in Slavonia and Srijem region. By the end of the II World war Arab horse raising was restricted to only 2-3 stud farms, regardless the above mentioned oldest Arab stud farm Gora`de. According to reports refering to end of 1940 in former Yugoslavia there were slightly more than 150 grown up thoroughbred Arab heads, stallions and mares in both private and public property. A number of well known stud farms was reduced, thus, Arab horse raising was limited only to stud farms Gora`de, Inocens Dvor and Kara|or|evo. Sires were mostly used in Bosnian-mountain horse breeding whereas in plain areas they were used for ceossing with heavy draft mares or raising of, in that time numerous represented, nonius breed. The year 1970 was characterized by Arab horses reduction, thereby raising stagnation. Horse raising was closed, so, 77 Sabich stallion, bought in Germany, started again Arab horse raising, firstly in Gora`de. It was also attributed by raising establishment of agricultural economy Vinjica near Slatina. At the same time Arab horse raising increased slowly at individual raisers in Kutina, Vrbovsko, Istria, â|avica and Zagreb vicinity. According to available data from 1999 there were approx. 132 stallions and mares due to horse raisers scattered throught Croatia. All male and female reproductive heads were mostly used as raising heads for thoroughbred raising or for crossing with other breeds which is justified by the data from the period 1930-1935. On the other hand one part of reproductive heads, especially males, were used as sports heads for gallop races and distance riding as Arab horses were used by their arrival to present areas and by Arab horse raising tradition. Keywords: Arab blood horse, raising, sport
INTRODUCTION Arab horse raissing, with us, has a hundred year old tradition. It started by purchasing of reproductive mares and stallions from Asia in 1895, 1897 and 1899.A stud farm Gora`de has provided 89 offsprings since its first import. The second purchase occured in 1900 and 1905, both from native raising area. In 1895 and 1896 purcases were performed from Hungarian stud farm Babolna whereas new 17 mares were bought from the stud farm Radutz. It was initial material for stud farm stock foundation with its all accompanying big problems. According to literature data the biggest problem was poor fertility, a small number of annual foalings and less ablacted foals. The problems of foresaid fertility and foals raising have been present for a long time. As Arab horse raising often results in the closest blood, younger categories die. However, should this first stage overcome successfully animals of long life and very strong constitution are obtained. Arab raising often relies on a type, i.e. empiric notion that has no foundation in terms of variation statistical methods. Thus phenomenon of new types in Arab raising
caused tempestuous discussions, due to tradition. A state farm Gora`de gave a breeding tree from three sources: First purchase of native mares and stallions was from Asia Second purchase originated from Babolne Third source from a stud farm of Sangwiska prince in Slavuti First purchase in 1895, 1897 and 1899 yielded 89 offsprings (35 male and 54 female heads) in 13 year period. Second purchase in 1900 and 1905 comprised 9 mares that gave 17 male and 26 female offsprings (43 heads). A purchase of reproductive material originated from Babolne in 1895 and 1896 comprised 9 reproductive mares which gave 40 offsprings (20 male and 20 female foals)
(1) Vlasta Mandi}, MSc, (2) Josip Ljubei}, Associated Professor - College of Agriculture at Krièvci, M. Demerca 1, 48260 Krièvci, Croatia, (3) Tomo Rastija, Full Professor - J.J.Strossmayer University of Osijek, Faculty of Agriculture, Trg Svetog Trojstva 3, 31000 Osijek, Croatia, (4) @ivko Bonjak, MSc, Adviser, Ruìna 57, 31000 Osijek, Croatia
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Further purchase from Babolne in 1909 and 1910 comprised mares 37 agija and 38 agija as well as mare 36 Hamdani being elominated from the stud farm. A purchase from the stud farm in Radautz comprising 17 Arab mares via the stud farm Kalinovica were productive only in the period 1923-1927. Thus, they were transferred to Kara|or|evo due to their large weight and shortage of spirit which was not typical for Arab breed. Arab stallions were purchased in -1897 -1898-1905 -Kohejlan Abu Argub Massud -Managhie Sbaali Simkan Managnie Sbaali Simhan
Arab horse raising was significantly reduced in some stud farms or private farms immediately after II World war. Only few quality raisings left: Borik- Han Pijesak, Kara|or|evo, \akovo and maybe some individual raisers but nowhere recorded. A short history reviw the past is required for better explanation of todays raising. Purchase of reproductive stallions: -1897 -1898-1905 -Kohejlan Abu Argub -Managnie Sbaali Simhan O Bajan e eraki - ehun Mehur Gazal El Hafi - Ilderim - agija X-13 (the offspring was large and by that period understanding and requirements it did not suit to a popular horse raising and was expelled from raising) - Lenkoran (gave a very good offspring, bony and very strong, of large body measures.
-1906-1914
Five basic types should be differed in Arab horses raising including mare Kuhajl beng a base whereas a complete offspring belongs to Kuhail type. Today as well as few hundred years ago Arab sires are classified in five basic types: Native types I Kuhajlan II Saklawi III Ubaiyan IV Hamdani V Hadban Offspring 55 lines 9 lines 12 lines 2 lines 4 lines
-1915 -1918
-1928
It should be pointed out that regardless other horse breeds, lines and types -i.e. male and female offspring have been registered by father and mother. However, with Arab raising offsprings are registered by their mothers side. There are numerous reasons for that.
It is a raising basis through sires whereas female animals purchased in 1895, 1897 and 1899 till 1900 and 1905 were used for raising (about 35 different mares, more or less known) of which some types dissapeared.
MATERIAL AND METHODS There is very little data on Arab horse with us. Due to high reduction of Arab horse raising farms, monitoring of raising selection work was rather incomplete. By the available data Arab horse raising occured in:
Inocenc dvor 1910-11 m a r e s 1921-24 mares 1935-28 mares 194229 mares 1832-26 mares 1884-11 mares 1895-12 mares 1922-41 mares 1846- 36 mares
Retfala Tenja Vinjevci Vrbik Zaravan
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Todays position of Arab horse raising in the Republic of Croatia has been partially comprised by annual checking. An official checking of Arab horse raising (of stud farms) was conducted in 1999 in the stud farm argo â|avica and Vinjica in Slatina. Individual raisings of the last ten years have been considerably widened and even top quality stallions were imported from overseas countries.
118 Table 1. Numerical data of Arab horse in the Republic of Croatia
Stallions
Mares
Offspring
Foals
M 1 5 2 -
F 2 9 1 2 -
M 2 2 2 -
F 1 1 -
Vinjica â|avica Lipik (1990) Jastrebarsko Kutina Virovitica Vrbovsko Umag Zlatar êpin Bo`jakovina
3 12 4 3 1 1 2 -
10 12 4 5 8 5 1 6 1 2 1
In addition, Arab horse raising occured in Kara|or|evo with approximately 14 heads and Borikama 19 ones.
Table 2. Body measures of Arab raising in male and female heads
Male animals n Gora`de (1930) Borike (1970) Kara|or|evo (1970) Vinjica (1989) argo (1999) 2 3 5 16 4 WH* 153,71 156,33 154,80 153,68 155,00 CG** 169,29 170,66 171,60 166,25 171,50 CBC*** 18,12 18,50 17,90 17,65 18,62 n 19 19 10 26 10
Female animals WH 150,56 148,47 157,10 149,69 151,50 CG 169,11 164,52 179,70 161,42 165,40 CBC 17,55 17,07 18,35 16,69 17,19
*WH =Withers height, **CG=Chest girth, ***CBC=Canon bone circumference
It is shown that there are no body measures high increase. Differences are insignificant but should be subjected to variational statistical process to get accurate results. This is our forthcoming scientific goal. Lets go back to, still divergent, todays raising. It is reflected in a raising incompletness or should be separated due to certain prejudices in terms of Arab Horse raising. If only Beduins are adequate Arab horse raisers then old Europe and New World with their quality raisings should knuckle down and look for new solutions. Arab horse is a raising base whereas new raising areas, new climates and new forage base give new usable types that have appeared in Arab horse raising since 1918. Thats why native Arab breed horses being affected more or less by significant stallion agija X-13, are under the question in Europe today. According to birth cerificate agija X is a blood stallion from the fifth generation of Koheil Siglavy and its son agi born in 1830. As for the mother side it emerged in the fifth generation in 1830.
In other words Stallion agija X-13 significantly affected Arab horse raising not only with us but in Europe too. The question is risen: Why is agija not convenient for Arab horse raising. With us, Arab horses utilization was reduced to a small Bosnian-mountain horse breeding which mainly gave good results. In other countries agija X-13 and its offsprings were used for raising. Nobody rises a question: How and why did agija originate? Bosnian-mountain horse has been changed in the last 30 years, Lipizzaner was grown due to its utilization, heavy draft horses reduced their weight and became more lively. Due to increased amount of available roughage agija became taller, larger and heavier horse. However, its breeding-the main purpose-resulted in certain achievements due to great differences. Other countries took advantage of this fact and use agijas offsprings as valid quality Arab horses.
119
Thus I make appeals to VAMO organization to consider possibility of the offsprings use, especially female ones, since they are able to provide a quality Arab offspring in combination with other lines. CONCLUSION Todays Arab horse raiing has some positive results. It is a very good sign for Arab horse raising. Arab horse is slowly widespreading but with excellent qualities. Private raisings are increasing. It is indicated by newly created raisings in Kutina, Zagreb, Vrbovsko, Istria etc. We are satisfied with current situation comprising more than 150 blood Arab heads. Number of heads are increasing and new quality heads import (Australia, Canada etc.) ensures raising progress. Unfortunately, apart from Vinjica- Podravska Slatina there are no raisings in the state sector. Private raising should work a lot to preserve and purchase new
genetics, which is traditionally in Arab raising. Private raisers cooperate with raisers in the neighbouring countries and very soon they will be members of WAHO organization that representing new quality.
REFERENCES 1. Bartolovi}, T. (1965): O razvitku `drebadi u prvoj godini ìvota. 2. Grkovi}, M. (1931): Na arapski konj. Vet. Arhiv. 3. Ogrizek, A., Hrasnica, F. (1952): Specijalno sto~arstvo, Uzgoj konja, Zagreb. 4. Romi}, S. (1948): Ergela Vrbik. Vet. Arhiv, Zagreb. 5. Ilan~i}, D.: Nekadanje ergele Slavonije i Srijema. Sto~arstvo. 6. urda, J.: Plamenna Kniha ~istokrvnych arapskych koni. Dokumentacija ekonomike melioracija gornje Posavine - podru~je Lonjsko polje, Zagreb.
120
ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 636.1:636.082.13
CROSSING OF HOLSTEIN HORSE BREED WITH SOME OTHER BREEDS

J. Ljubei}(1), M. Sukali}(2), J. Sele(3), Vlasta Mandi}(4), Marija Metrovi}(5) Original scientific paper ABSTRACT
An experiment of crossing a heavier-weight semi-breed horse (Holstein) with mares of Croatian Posavian type draft horse resulted in possibility of such further crossing. Attained product meets todays market requirements: firstly as an export-meat category that meets Italian market requirements, since other markets are not well known, secondly, it can be used as a sport-tourist-recreation horse. It must be pointed out that all produced hybrids did not meet the needs of these two basic criteria. In spite of being potential slaughtery head with good utilization, each produced head can be, according to its exterial properties, used as a sport-tourist animal that showed certain usable values and results proven by the experiment. The hybrids showed some hereditory draft horse properties shown on enclosed photos. In addition, exterier measures show that former knowledge on hybrids can respond the question of a horse raising on non-utilized pastures which they got used to very well. Thus these horses are able to be estimated by their body development just as our native draft Posavian type horse including possibility of using them as a sport-tourist-recreation horse. Keywords: Holstein breed, crossing, horse utilization
INTRODUCTION We tried to get certain values and results in a crossing carried out between semi draft and draft horse of Posavian type. Fifteen mares of Posavian type draft horse were used with Holstein foals. It is well known that todays Holstein originated from heavy agricultural horse via thoroughbred horse use to reach position of general purpose sport horse. We conducted the crossing experiment between Holstein breed and inland Posavian type draft horse to get new knowledge on hybrids usage, i.e. to respond the questions: what are their meat -use properties or sporttourism-recreation ones. Namely, we aimed to find out their real value in a horse breeding of the Republic of Croatia as well as their contribution to a horse breeding development. Basic female population of Croatian Posavian type draft horse with boundless number of female reproductive horses and Holstein foals is able to provide valuable and well usable hybrids.
MATERIAL AND METHODS A new breed of horse was tried to be introduced in a horse stud breed of Croatian draft horse at an integrated plant Novska during the admission season 1987. On the basis of literature data and foals use possibilities we decided to introduce a Holstein breed that, apart from other properties, was used as a breeder. Foal Farmer 1 was chosen for, by its birth certificate, it is able to meet our demands in terms of anticipated offspring.
A stud farm Kony sto~arstvo Novska possessed approx. 60 reproductive mares of Posavian type Croatian draft horse. They were very heterogenous in terms of their properties concerning their fathers. All of them originated from native breeding of Lonjsko polje (Novska, Lipovljani, Jasenovac, Lonja, Drenov Bok etc.). Fifteen mares of very diverse exterier and body weights were selected for the foresaid crossing (Croatian draft horse x Holstein) by a random design. It should be pointed out that there were reproductive mares ranged from native old Posavian horse, hybrids with heavier draft foals to heavier samples with emphasized draft horse effect. Average body weight of reproductive mares ranged 480-600 kg. Five year old foal Farmer 1 used in this crossing weighed 580 kg. In 1987 the admission was performed by hand in a controlled way.Fifteen reproductive mares that spent a spring-fall period on Mokro polje pastures (an integrated part of Lonjsko Polje) were admissioned. Fourteen mares (9 male and 5 female foals) foaled in spring 1988. Mares and two month old foals were on pastures again during the growing season i.e. till first frost emerged (mid October). In a winter period of 1988/89 the foals were housed in a joint sTable together with mares in Raji} place and as ablacted foals went back to Mokro polje pastures.
(1) Josip Ljubei}, Associated Professor, (3) Josip Sele, BAg, (4) Vlasta Mandi}, MSc, (5) Marija Metrovi}, Eng, - College of Agriculture at Krièvci, M. Demerca 1, 48260 Krièvci, Croatia, (2) Miroslav Sukali}, Ph. D, Adviser, A. Mihanovi}a 15, 48260 Krièvci, Croatia
121
In 1989 animals were separated by sex, females (5 heads) stayed with mares whereas 7 male heads were transported to the Agricultural Institute Krièvci in 1990. Since the animals were on pastures without sTables and special human care it was not possible to observe their growth and development except regular visits and noticing some important changes (diseases, injuries etc.). In 1991 3 year old male heads were castrated and treated in the same conditions. Namely, female heads were on large bent pastures of Mokro polje and male ones on fenced pastures in Krièvci. Here, we have to point out that spring-summer-autumn feeding was only pasture without added vigorous forage. Winter ration was composed of average meadow hay (3-5 kg), corn silage by 15 kg daily and vigorous part of ration (oat+corn ear) 2-3 kg on both places. All heads were ready to work in a winter/spring period of 1990/91. Thus, heads were trained to basic work at age of 3 years. Also, all the heads were trained to be saddled and teamed.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In 1991 all the heads at age of approx. 3 years (2 years, 10 months and 20 days) were measured prior to being trained to work. Fifteen basic measures including body weight were taken. As there was total of 12 heads (7 males and 5 females) which provides not sufficient data for individual analysis per sex it was done for both sexes together. Data processed by a common statistical methods yielded the results as follows (Table 1).
Unfortunately, obtained data can not be compared to similar crossings since there are not any other or there are not sufficient animals number at controlled crossings. There are few data related to hybrids between Holstein and Lipizzaner in devastated stud farm Lipik. However, there is a small number of hybrids between Lipizzaner and native Posavian type draft horse in the area of Nova Gradika and a part of Slavonski Brod. Those data have neither been collected nor processed. Besides, as for Posavian draft horse, Lipizzaner occured in fourth and further generations since it was used 30 and more years ago. This crossing between heavier semi breed and light draft horse is better to compare with body measures of these hybrids mothers. According to literature data Posavian draft horse from 1940-42 was 155 cm in height measured by the tape, light, with pronounced warm blooded effect-Lipizzaner and some nonius. Thus, it is agile and lively. It is characterized by a good appearance; deep, wide and compact. Crupper is wide and cleft slightly higher than wither, often diagonal but not long. Resistant and enduring, less food requirements and well adjusted to Posavian damp and underwater pastures. According to Romi} from the period 1950-52 and his own data (Ljubei}, 1985) Posavian draft horse possessed body properties as follows in Table 2.: The body measures from 1989 refer only to mothers of the observed 12 heads (7 males and 5 females). Hybrids of Holstein x Posavian draft horse, although very young, only 3 years old, are slightly higher compared to draft horse population and significantly larger com-
Table 1. Body measures of hybrids between Croatian draft horse and Holstein (n=12)
Indicators WH by stick Back height Crupper height Tail root height Body length Chest depth Shoulders width Hips width Crupper length Chest girth Cannon bone circumference Body weight Wither height by a tape
Cv
sx
M Min.
M Max.
146.33 140.16 148.58 136.25 151.83 60.83 41.91 48.58 49.91 181.83 19.41 425.91 158.41
4.53 4.25 3.60 2.76 3.61 3.15 1.16 2.06 2.64 8.96 0.86 40.11 4.18
3.09 3.03 2.42 2.02 2.37 5.17 2.76 4.24 5.28 4.92 4.43 9.41 2.63
1.30 1.22 1.04 0.79 1.04 0.91 0.33 0.59 0.76 2.58 0.24 11.59 1.20
139 133 142 130 147 57 40 46 47 173 19 410 152
143 137 144 135 145 57 40 45 46 167 18.5 318 152
152 147 151 140 157 65 43 51 56 189 20 495 166
152 145 153 139 155 63 43 52 51 190 19 445 161
122 Table 2. Body measures of Posavian draft horse
Indicators Withers height by a stick Body length Chest depth Hip width Crupper length Chest girth Cannon bone circumference Withers height by tape Body weight Average age
Romi} n = 32 (1950/52) 137.14 139.70 64.50 167.10 17.50 342.60 -
Ljubei} n = 25 (1985) 143.68 148.68 67.36 53.08 48.84 193.56 21.64 159.68 519.48 6.96
Ljubei} n = 12 (1989) 144.12 194.25 21.21 158.35 6.12
pared to hybrids of Posavian type draft horse and Lipizzaner. Upper line is in most cases typical as well as at draft horses. It also refers to crupper slantness-correlation between crupper height and tail root height-root setting. Body length is more or less identical. Hips width and crupper length correlation at hybrids also represents square, typical for draft horse. Chest girth can not be compared since it depends on a season-taking time related to fitness or spring-summer-autumn pasture amount. Cannon bone circumference is with hybrids less than with parents. Thus it is possible to anticipate better utilization for these animals since it is very interesting for the market. Obtained animals as well as their purpose and usage can be seen from some photographs. As all draft horses, they represent meat producers since by introducing heavier semi breed horses they have not lost anything relative to size and weight. The hybrids adjusted to pastures very well with neither winter ration large investments nor facilities. Other possibility of hybrids utilization, proven in 1990 and partially 1992, referes to their use as sport recreation horses. They are characterized by good and calm behaviour, more lively and agile compared to draft ones and far cheaper in production than any other semi blood horse. These horses are produced on pastures without vigorous forages except a little amount in short winter period. A draft horse female population as well as reasonably selected male sire is a basis for such heads production.
Other direction is achieving usable sport horse jumping sport. They are not top quality heads for obtaining presticious results, but as usable sport horses they provide satisfactory results. Such hybrids are thought to be useful for police and army requirements as usable overhauls.
REFERENCES
1. Bari} Stana (1965): Statisti~ke metode primijenjene u sto~arstvu. Agronomski glasnik, Zagreb. 2. Hrasnica, F., Ogrizek, A. (1961): Sto~arstvo, op}i dio, Zagreb. 3. Ljubei}, J. i suradnici (1982): Dananja populacija hladnokrvnog konja na podru~ju sjeverozapadne Hrvatske. Veterinarski glasnik, Beograd. Ljubei}, J., Sele, J. (1985): Koritenje holstein genoma u lipicanskom uzgoju. Krièvci Lipik. 4. Majhen, B. (1985): Proizvodna svojstva dananje populacije hladnokrvnjaka bjelovarske op}ine. Sto~arstvo, Zagreb. 5. Rako, A. i suradnici (1958): Sto~arstvo gornje Posavine. Dokumentacija ekonomike melioracija gornje Posavine podru~je Lonjsko polje Zagreb. 6. Romi}, S. (1975): Kapacitet rasta i proizvodna svojstva hrvatskog hladnokrvnjaka. Praxis veterinaria 2, Zagreb. 7. Sele, J. (1981): Prilog poznavanju hrvatskog hladnokrvnog konja. Agronomski glasnik, Zagreb. 8. Sukali}, M. i suradnici (1990): Mogu}nosti proizvodnje konjskog mesa na prirodnim travnja~kim povrinama u SR Hrvatskoj. Sto~arstvo, Zagreb. Sukali} M. i suradnici (1985): Proizvodnja konja za meso u zemlji i za izvoz. Veterinarski glasnik, Beograd.
CONCLUSION We think that crossings provide new results. Thus, a crossing trial carried out with Holstein breed and other breeds provided certain results. A step speed and length was achieved,being very significant from riding sport aspect.
123
ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 639.215.2:546
CONCENTRATIONS OF Hg, Pb, Cd AND As IN MEAT OF FISH-POND CARP (CYPRINUS CARPIO)

I. Bogut(1), Elizabeta Has-Schn(2), R. Janson(3), Z. Antunovi}(4), D. Bodako(5)

Heavy metals and metalloids are very frequent pollutants of surface waters. Due to high toxicity heavy metals are dangerous for living organisms. Contamination chain is always in the following cycle: industry, atmosphere, soil, water, phytoplankton, fish and human beings. The aim of the research is to determine concentration of Pb, Hg, Cd and As in meat of two-year-old fish-pond carp. For lead and mercury determination electrothermal technique to AAS Perkin-Elmer 4100 ZL was applied whereas to determine concentration of Hg and As we applied hydride technique to AAS Perkin-Elmer 2380 with MHS-10 system. In 17 analysed meat samples concentration of Pb ranged from 0,120 to 0,750 mg kg -1, Hg from 0,024 to 0,308 mg kg-1, Cd from 0,07 to 0,019mg kg-1 and As from 0,025 to 0,052 mg .kg-1 The research has proved positive correlation at high level of significance between concentration of Pb and body weight (r=0,914; p 0,001) whereas correlation between body weight and concentration of Hg (r=0,512, P 0,05) was significant. Determined concentrations of heavy metals in fish-pond carp meat are lower than those permitted by the Law on Foodstuffs of the Republic of Croatia.
Keywords: Pb, Hg, Cd, As, Cyprinus carpio
INTRODUCTION Due to high level of toxicity, persistence and tendency to accumulate in surface waters, heavy metals and metalloids are very dangerous for living organisms if their concentration is higher than allowed. Decomposition of heavy metals in water is a very slow process and they cannot be detoxicated by metabolic processes. Toxicity of heavy metals for fish depends to a large degree on pH value of water, concentration of oxygen dissolved, concentration of magnesium and potassium ions (Svobodova et al., 1991) as well as on feeding and fish age (Wiener and Griesy, 1979; Svobodova 1993). The source of water pollution can be of geological origin as it is the case with As, but human activity causes much higher level of pollution . Contamination chain is always in the following cycle: industry, atmosphere, soil, water, phytoplankton, zooplankton, fish and human beings or : soil, plant, animal and human beings. (Kadar et al., 2000) Problem of heavy metals concentration in fish meat was analysed in more detail in the late 50s and early 60s. In a small village near Minimata Bay in Japan, 46 people died, 700 were left paralysed and 22 babies were poisoned prenatally after they had eaten fish, shellfish, and cephalopoda which were intoxicated by methyl-mercury. Similar accident happened in Niagata in 1970 where people had eaten sea fish with high concentration of methyl-mercury (Prpi}-Maji}, 1994). Almost at the same time, increased concentration of heavy metals
and metalloids was noticed in fresh water fish in the open waters of Sweden and Canada. ( Ackefors, 1970) Toxic metals can enter human organism through inhalation, ingestion and in skin contact. Poisoning can be acute of chronic. The most frequent effects are neurotoxic, hemotoxic, nephrotoxic, effects on respiratory system and reproduction (Dreibach and Robertson, 1987). Taking into account the above mentioned facts, the aim of the research was to determine concentration of Pb, Hg, Cd and As in meat of two-year-old pond carp.
MATERIAL AND METHODS To provide a continuos supply of the market with fresh fish, in some fish-ponds in Croatia carp are being taken out ot the fish-pond by fishing-nets every summer. In July 1997, 17 carp weighing between 800 and 1500 g were taken as samples for analysis. All 17 were taken out of the same fish-pond. From each carp scales and part of the muscle below upper fin were taken off. Before being prepared for determination of Pb, Hg, Cd and As meat samples had been stored in refrigerator at -18C. Fish age was determined by scales monitoring applying the
(1) Ivan Bogut, Ph.D, (5) Dragutin Bodako, Ph.D - Faculty of Food Technology, F. Kuha~a 18, 31000 Osijek, Croatia (2) Elizabeta Has-Schn, Assistant Professor, (3) Rahela Janson - Teacher Training College, L. Jagera 9, 31000 Osijek, Croatia, (4) Zvonko Antunovi}, Assistant Professor - J.J. Strossmayer University of Osijek, Faculty of Agriculture, Trg Sv. Trojstva 3, 31000 Osijek, Croatia
124
method of Hol~ik and Hensel (1972). Weight of the fish was determined by precise balance. For Hg and As determination a hydride technique to AAS Perkin-Elmer 2380 with MHS - 10 system (Mercury-Hydride Type 10) was applied whereas to determine Cd and Pb we applied electrothermal technique to AAS PE 4100 ZL. Statistical data processing was accomplished by a computer programme Statistica for Windows 4.0 and it included computation of arithmetic mean, standard deviation and correlation analyses.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 1 shows that concentration of Pb in muscles ranged from 0.170 to 0.750 mg kg-1. Similar Pb concentration was found in research done by Svobodova et al. (1993) whereas higher value was found in meat of two-year-old carp grown in the fish-ponds near Slavonski Brod (Martinovi} et al., 1994). Permitted Pb concentration in the Republic of Croatia in fresh fish meat is 1 mg kg-1. Significantly lower concentration of Pb is allowed in Denmark (0.3 mg kg-1) and Germany (0.5 mg kg-1). Highly significant positive correlation (r= 0.914, P 0.001) was found when comparing individual body wieght of carp and concentration of Pb in meat. One possible cause of high Pb concentration in carp meat is shooting allowed in fish-pond areas. For a number of years during hunting season, fish-pond areas have been hired to foreign hunters for duck shooting. It has been estimated that one hunter during one shooting, leaves behind about 2 to 3 kg of lead in form of shot. As hunting season lasts for several months, and every weekend 6 or 7 hunters hunt in the area, it is easy to calculate the amount of Pb in the water. Besides, considerable quantity of shot accumulates in ponds through kill and when shooing away cormorants, which, since the year 1998 havent been protected species any more. Acute intoxication of fish with Pb can be recognised by damaged gills epithelium, erythrocytes, leucocytes and nervous system. Pb is a cumulative toxin. In human beings, it binds with SH group of proteins, apart from that, Pb damages blood circulation, central nervous system, liver and kidneys. (Dreibach and Robertson 1987)
Determined concentration of Hg in meat of two-year-old carp ranged from 0.024 to 0.308 mg kg-1. Lower concentration of Hg was discovered in research done by Svobodova (1993) in muscles of carp from open waters in the Czech Republic, and even lower by Doganec (1995) open waters in Slovenia. Very low concentration of Hg was discovered in meat, liver and kidneys of Californian trout. Fish samples had been taken from 5 different fish farms in the Czech Republic. Low values of Hg concentration in tissues of analysed trout are the result of water and food quality (Svobodova et al., 1996). Hygienic limit of Hg content fresh fish meat in the Republic of Croatia is 0.5 mg kg-1, except for tuna, swordfish, cephalopoda, shellfish and crabs; the limit for those species is 1 mg kg-1. In most European countries, hygienic limit of Hg content in fish meat ranges from 0.05 mg kg-1 to 0.07 mg kg-1, except from the Czech Republic where the limit is 0.1 mg kg-1 in the placid fish meat and 0.6 mg kg-1 in meat of predatory fish. (Svobodova et al., 1993, 1996). Concentration of Hg discovered by our research is high, but the source of water pollution is unknown and because of that it is necessary to undertake a thorough investigation of fish-pond water supply. It is known that Hg enters surface waters with industrial waste and through atmosphere (Bogut et al., 1998) A part of Hg builds itself into a feeding chain, and then into fish. Except with food, Hg enters fish body directly through skin and gills. (Svobodova et al., 19991). Table 1 shows that concentrations of Cd ranged from 0.007 to 0.019 mg kg-1. According to Law on Foodstuffs permitted quantity of Cd in fresh fish is 0.1 mg kg-1. Significantly lower concentrations are allowed in the Czech Republic and Great Britain (0.05 mg kg-1) and higher in Russia (0.2 mg kg-1) Possible sources of contamination with Cd are shot and fertilisers used for fish-pond fertilisation or fertilizers from plugh-fields. According to experts from the World Health Organization (WHO/FAO) a tolerant quantity of Cd which is enters human body with food shouldnt be more than 400 to 500 micrograms. Concentrations of As determined in 17 samples of two-year-old fish-pond carp ranged from 0.025 mg kg-1 to
Table 1. Average values and variability of Pb, Hg, Cd, As in meat of fish-pond carp (mg kg-1)
Statistical Marker
Pb 17 0.352 0.190 53.97 0.170 0.750
Hg 17 0.145 0.097 67.24 0.024 0.308
Cd 17 0.013 0.005 40.76 0.007 0.019
As 17 0.035 0.009 26.28 0.025 0.052
N X S kY Min Max
125
0.052mg kg-1. Doganec (1995) discovered significantly lower concentrations of As in carp meat whereas analyses by Petrovi} (1981) showed significantly higher concentrations of As in carp meat. In our country, a tolerated quantity of As is 2 mg kg-1 for fresh water fish whereas most of the countries have set the limit of 1mg kg-1. The main source of water pollution with As is industrial waste from tanneries and paint producing factories. As accumulates in zooplankton organisms which are fish food. People suffer poisoning through contaminated food or water. Symptoms are: problems with digestion, cerebral signs, skin, cardiovascular and hepatic changes and mutagen or carcinogen effect.
REFERENCES
1. Ackefors, H. (1970): A Survey of the Mercury Pollution Problem in Sweden With Special References to Fis. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. 8, 203-2224. 2. Bogut, I., Bogut, S., Ivankovi}, S. (1998): Die Wasserverschmutzung durch Scwermetalle und Deren Schdliche Wirkung auf die Gesundheit der Fische und Menschen, Znanstveni glasnik, 5-6, 233-246. 3. Bogut, I., Has-Schn, E., Janson, R., Milakovi}, Z., Brki}, S. (2000): Lead and Mercury Content in Tissues of Pond Carp (Cyprinus carpio) Acta Veterinaria Brno (in press). 4. Dreibach, R., Robertson, W. (1987): Handbook of Poisoning, Prevention, Diagnosis. Appleton Lange, Norwalk, Los Altos California. 5. Kadar, I., Koncz, J., Fekete, S. (2000): Experimental Study of Cd, Hg, Mo, Pb and Se Movement in Soil-Plant-Animal System. International conference Proceedings 72-76. 6. Hol~ik, J., Hensel, K. (1972): Ichtiologycka priru~ka, Obzor Bratislava. 7. Martinovi}, ., Kotrum, M., âui}, N. (1994): Koncentracije tekih metala u tkivima ribnja~kog arana. Zbornik radova Metali u hrani i okoliu 247-252. 8. Prpi}-Maji}, D. (1994): Metali i metaloidi stalni pratioci ~ovjeka. Zbornik radova Metali u hrani i okoliu 8-17. 9. Svobodova, Z., Vikusova, B., Machova, J. (1991): Diagnostic, Prevention and Therapy of Fish Diseases and Intoxications. VURH Vodnany 167-231. 10. Svobodova, Z., Vikusova, B., Machova, J., Bastl, J., Hrbkova, M., Svobodnik, J. (1993): Monitoring of Foreign Substances in Fishes from the Elbe River in the êlakovice Locality, Buletin VURH, Vodnany 29, 47-61. 11. Svobodova, Z., Vykusova, B., Pia~ka, V., Hejtmanek, M., Bastl, J. (1996): Checking the of Metals and of Organic Pollutants in Tissues of Marcetable Rainbow Trout, Bulletin VURH Vodnany 32, 55-69. 12. Wiener, J., Giesy, J. (1979): Concentrations of Cd, Cu, Mn, Pb and Zn in fishes in Highly Organic Softwater Pond. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 36, 270-279.
CONCLUSION On the basis of the research on the content of heavy metals and metalloids in meat of two-year-old fish-pond carp the following conclusions can be drawn: Concentrations of heavy metals: Pb, Hg, Cd and of metalloid As in carp meat were not higher than those permitted by the Law on Foodstuffs. Statistical analyses shows a highly significant correlation (r=0.914, P 0.001) between Pb concentration in meat and body weight, and significant correlation (r=0.512, P 0.05) between body weight and Hg content. Determined concentrations of Pb and Hg in some fish samples are higher than those allowed in some European countries.
126
ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 639.31:639.216.4
INVESTIGATIONS ON TECHNOLOGICAL PARAMETERS IN INTENSIVE REARING OF PIKE-PERCH (STIZOSTEDION LUCIOPERCA)

T. Molnr(1), Cs. Hancz(2), M. Molnr(3), Gabriella Stettner(4)

Market demands and competition force the production of high quality freshwater fish in European aquaculture. In Hungary pike-perch is the most noble and perhaps the most sensitive fish species. One of the constraints of the increasing its production in natural waters, reservoirs and ponds is the shortage in adequate sized alevins. The possible solution of this problem can be the elaboration of intensive rearing technics of pond pre-reared fry. The aims of the present work were to test the growing capacity, feed conversion and survival of pike-perch in intensive circumstances. Fish were kept in 130 l aquaria working in recirculation system at an average water temperature of 22 0.5 C. Two stocking densities were applied (18 and 36 fish/aquarium). Minced fish (test) and live prey (control) were offered twice a day till satiation in two replications. The experiment lasted 4 weeks. According to our results minced fish is suitable feed in the intensive rearing of pike-perch alevins. Daily food intake was only influenced significantly by different feeds (2.01g vs.4.53 g, test and control, respectively). Feeding and stocking density had significant effect (P=0.001 and 0.017) on the average weight gain (0.52 g and 1.40 g for minced fish and live feed, respectively, 1.02 g in lower and 0.90 g in higher density). Owning to the high variances treatment effect on feed conversion proved to be not significant. Average survival of the minced fish fed group was 62.2 % vs. 78.8 % of the live fish fed alevins. This difference was significant (P<0.01) in the first two weeks when almost all of the losses happened due to cannibalism and other unknown reasons. Based on our results a period of 1014 days is needed for pre-reared pike-perch to change gradually their feeding from zooplankton to minced fish diet.
Keywords: pike-perch, feeding, stocking density, intensive rearing
INTRODUCTION The pike-perch is one of the most noble and perhaps the most sensitive fish in Hungary. Market demands and competition force the production of high quality freshwater fish in European aquaculture. One of the constraints of the increasing pike-perch production in natural waters, reservoirs and ponds is the shortage in adequate sized alevins. The possible solution of this problem can be the elaboration of intensive rearing technics of pond pre-reared fry. It seems to be justified since the intensive rearing of its North American relative (Stizostedion vitreum) is more or less resolved. There are recommendations for the adequate stocking density (Kuipers and Summerfelt, 1994; Chesire and Steele, 1972) and encouraging preliminary results are published for the transformation to dry and semi-moist foods (Colesante et al., 1986; Kuipers and Summerfelt, 1994). Intensive rearing of the pike perch larvae on artificial diet is not viable because the previous experiments showed poor growth and high mortality (Klein Bretteler, 1989; Schlumberger and Proteau, 1991) and the pre-rearing in ponds is easy to resolve. The great growing capacity of the pre-reared pike perch can be
well exploited with high value artificial foods and from 2 grams to more than 300 grams growth can be achieved on 22-26 oC temperature in a year (Hilge, 1990). Our final aim was to study growing capacity, food conversation and survival of the pike-perch under intensive conditions.
MATERIAL AND METHODS The study was carried out in the Fish Laboratory of the University of Kaposvr , from 14th of June to 16th of July 1999. After a two weeks period of conditioning the experiment continued for 4 weeks. Against Ichtyophtirius infection malachit green was applied in the first two weeks. In this period the fingerlings were kept in 150 l troughs and live bream fry was fed ad libitum. After this period fish were introduced into 10 aerated, 150 l aquaria under 18 and 36 individual/ aquarium. Starting weight was 1,86 1,01 gram and the average initial length was
(1) Tams Molnr, Ph.D student, (2) Csaba Hancz, DSc, (3) Marcell Molnr, Ph.D student, (4) Gabriella Stettner, Researcher - University of Kaposvr, Faculty of Animal Science, Guba S. u. 40, 7400 Kaposvr, Hungary
127
54,48 9,54 millimetre. Control group in 5 aquaria was fed by live prey ad libitum and in the other 5 aquaria the treatment group received only minced fish from the beginning. The different stocking densities were divided in the same ratio between the treatment and control groups. Feed was offered two times a day, weight and length measurements were made weekly on all individuals. The average temperature was 22 0,5 C in the aquaria working in recalculation system. Statistical analysis was carried out with SPSS for Windows 8.0, the effects of the different rearing conditions were estimated with ANOVA and chi-square test. The means were compared by S-N-K test.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Growth data of the different treatment combinations where: weight1 = initial weight, and weight 2 = final are shown in Tables 1 and 2.
two experimental weeks. (First week: 6.524.12 and 4.191.38 g/g , second week 3.260.46 and 6.695.95 g/g for the 36 and 18 stocking density; 4.060.98 vs. 6.684.14 g/g and 3.180.53 vs. 6.776.69 g/g for living prey and minced fish, respectively). Average survival of the minced fish fed group was 62.2% vs. 78.8% of the live fish fed alevins. This difference was significant (P<0.01) in the first two weeks when almost all of the losses happened due to cannibalism appearing as a consequence of the starvation after the food change and other unknown reasons. The treatment effect on cannibalism was not significant. Based on our results a 10 14 day period is needed for pre-reared pike-perch to change gradually their feeding from zooplankton to minced fish diet. It is supported by Nickums results (1978), who found that in pond pre-rearing of walleye (Stizostedion vitreum) losses due to starvation appear in the first two weeks.
Table 1. Growth data of pre-reared pike-perch in the combinations of the living prey- minced fish feeding and 18-36 stocking density
Minced fish 18 Minced fish -36 Living prey-18 Living prey-36
Initial weight Initial length Final weight Final length SGR (%/day)
a a
1.49 0.59 51.88 7.96 3.84 1.85 66.81 9.94 3.38
1.72 0.90 53.90 9.98 5.12 3.08 70.65 14.48 3.90
2.34 1.39 57.36 11.76 10.38 3.32 95.46 12.24 5.32
2.02 1.14 55.62 9.87 7.62 2.48 86.75 9.85 4.74
The Specific growth rate was counted by the next way
Table 2. Parameters of the growth equations belonging to the different treatment combinations
Treatment combination Minced fish Living prey

1
Coefficient of determination 0.522 0.406 0.615 0.636
Significance level (p<) 0.008 0.047 0.007 0.001
Coefficient of regression 1(k) 0.035 0.043 0.058 0.050
Constant (lnA) 0.234 0.305 0.733 0.603
18-density 36-density 18-density 36-density
lnW = lnA + kt
SGR
ln weight2 ln weight1 100 days
where: weight1 = initial weight, and weight 2 = final weight Daily food intake (2.01g vs.4.53 g, test and control, respectively) was only influenced significantly by different feeds (Figure1), stocking density had no significant effect. Feeding (Figure 2) and stocking density (Figure 3) had significant effect (P = 0.001 and 0.017) on the average weight gain and in the second case the differences appeared on the first and third experimental week. Owning to the high variance treatment effects on feed conversion proved to be not significant mainly in the first
CONCLUSION Based on our results the intensive rearing of pond pre-reared of pikeperch on not living food (minced fish) is viable. In the experimental period the stocking density had significant effect only on the average weight gain and not statistically significant but well perceptible effect on the food conversion in the first two experimental weeks. Since the stocking density had no effect on the survival and cannibalism further experiences are needed to determine the optimal density. Average survival of the minced fish fed group was 62.2% vs. 78.8% of the live fish fed alevins. This differ-
128
Changes in the daily food intake according to feeding

6,00 5,58 4,67 3,92 3,96 2,70
Daily food intake (g/individual/week)
5,00 4,00 3,00 2,00 1,00 0,00
2,32 1,74 1,28
live prey minced fish
ence was significant (P<0.01) in the first two weeks. Based on these data a 1014 day period is needed for pre-reared pike-perch to change gradually their feeding from zooplankton to minced fish diet. As a consequence of the change of feeding daily food intake and the average weight gain of minced fish fed groups were lower than the levels measured in the groups fed on live prey. In food conversion there is no significant treatment effect. Further investigations are needed with feeding of high value artificial foods.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Experimental weeks
REFERENCES
Figure 1. Changes in the daily food intake according to feeding
Changes in the average weight gain according to feeding

1,77 1,80 1,48 1,31 1,05
Average weight gain (g/individual/week)
1,60 1,40 1,20 1,00 0,80 0,60 0,40 0,20 0,00 1 0,24
live prey
0,74 0,38 0,71
minced fish
Experimental weeks
Figure 2. Changes in the average weight gain according to feeding
1. Chesire, W.F., Steele, K.L. (1972): Hatcheriy rearing of walleye using artificial food. Progressive Fish-Culturist 34:96-99 2. Colesante, R.T., Youmans, N.B., Ziolkoski, B. (1986): Intensive culture of walleye fry with live food and formulated diets. Progressive Fish-Culturist 48:33-37 3. Hilge,V. (1990): Beobachtungen zur aufzuht von Zandern (Stizostedion lucioperca L.) im Labor. Arch. Fish Wiss. 40 (1/2):167-173 4. Klein Breteler, J.P.G. (1989): Intensive culture of pike-perch fry with live food. pp.203-207. In: Aquaculture- a biotechnology in progress. Vol. 1. N. De Pauw et al. (Eds) European Aquaculture Society, Bredene, 1220p. 5. Kuipers, K.L., Summerfelt, R.C. (1994): Converting pond-reared Walleye fingerlings to formulated feeds: Effects of diet, temperature and stocking density. Journal of Apllied Aquaculture, Vol 4(2):31-57 6. Nickum, J.G. (1978): Intensive culture of walleyes : state of the art. pp. 187-194. in R.L. Kendall,editor. Selected Coolwater Fishes of North America. American Fisheries Society1. Special Publication No.11, Washington, D.C. 7. Schlumberger, O., Proteau, J.P. (1991): Production de juveniles de sandre (Stizostedion lucioperca.). Aqua Revue 36: 25-28.
Changes in the average weight gain accord ing to the stocking den sity
1,40 1,24 1,24
1,22 1,01 0,79 0,86 0,83
Average weight gain (g/individual/week)
1,20 1,00 0,80 0,50 0,60 0,40 0,20 0,00 1.ht 2.ht
36 18
3.ht
4.ht
Experimental w eeks
Figure 3. Changes in the average weight gain according to the stocking density
129
ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 638.162
NUTRITIOUS HEALING STRUCTURE OF SOME KINDS OF HONEY IN EASTERN CROATIA

Z. Tucak(1), A. Tucak(2), Z. Pukadija(3), Marijana Tucak (4)

Honey as food and honey as medicine are for a long time in peoples use. The nutritious and healing substances are different, also of the honey-herbs which the bees visit. The analised kind of honey (Acacia, Flower honey, linden-honey) showw a real richnes in healing and nutritious structure. The organoleptic and chemical features of the analised honey- types fit into the standards of Republic Croatia and the Europian Unit. The said exhibitors justificate the hitherto way of bee-keeping and the technology of honey-production. Keywords: honey, organoleptic analysis, quality
INTRODUCTION Honey is getting a more and more looked-for article because of its energetic and healing characteristics. What is the quality of honey in Republic Croatia? The organoleptic and chemical examination of honey of different honey-giving plants in Eastern Slavonia shows as that the produced honey is of a exceptional quality and comprises itself into the most severe standards of Republic Croatia and the European Union. Those facts make us liable to protect the honey-giving plants and continue the technology of honey-production.
MATERIAL AND METHODS The estimation of the honey-quality has been estimated by the standard methods (NN 20/2000.). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Some sorts of honey differ by their organleptic characteristics are: the color, aroma, perfume, the density and ripe. The got honey-samples have had organoleptic features characteristic for the investigated kinds of honeys.
Table 1. Organoleptic characteristics of the investigated samples of honey
No. 01. 02. 03. 04. 05. 06. 07. 08. 09.
Sort of honey Acacia Flower Deciduous Acacia Flower Lime Acacia Flower Deciduous
Organoleptic features yellow, running, of a good smelt and taste darker yellow, very good smelt and taste somewhat ch ristalized dark, acrid, of intense smelt, very thick pale-yellow, fluent, good smelt and taste darker yellow, fluent, good taste and smelt yellow, smelt like the lime tree blossom, good taste, somewhat christalized yellow, fluent, very good smelt and taste yellow-red, fluent, of good smelt and taste red-dark, fluent, acrid thick, smelt not very intensive
(1) Zvonimir Tucak, Associated Professor, (3) Zlatko Pukadija, BAg J.J.Strossmayer University of Osijek, Faculty of Agriculture, Trg sv.Trojstva 3, 31000 Osijek, Croatia (2) Antun Tucak, Full Professor - Klinical Hospital of Osijek, Huttlerova 4, 31 000 Osijek, Croatia, (4) Marijana Tucak, BAg - Agricultural Institute of Osijek, Ju`no predgra|e 17, 31000 Osijek, Croatia
130 Table 2. Chemical characteristics of the investigated honey samples

Sourness pH 6,44 6,457 6,799 6,417 6,788 6,849 6,811 6,670 6,738
Samp. No. 01. 02. 03. 04. 05. 06 07. 08 09.
Sort of honey Acacia Flower Decid.mead Acacia Lime Flower Acacia Flower Decid.mead
Location
Water,%
Sumar of proteins, % 3,049387 2,220048 2,249669 1,728135 1,467099 1,281823 0,625459 0,558632 0,344320
Reduced sugar 70,6 72,5 69,1 72,2 70,5 73,2 70,5 69,8 72,4
mm/kg 13,01 13,39 29,47 12,24 28,71 33,08 30,25 21,89 25,61
akovo akovo Osijek Poèga Podravina Podravina Baranja Baranja Baranja
21,51 26,91 21,61 22,73 22,91 21,82 19,26 20,81 24,03
Norms according to the Regulations: The Republic of Croatia to 21 to 40 65 and more 65 and more
European Union
to 21
to 40
Table 3. Inclusion of mineral substances in honey

Mineral Silicium Aluminium Iron Calcium Magnesium Natrium Kalium Mangan Cuprum Chrom Nickel Zinc Cobalt Antimon Lead Phosphor Dark honey (mg/kg) 23.00 111.00 37.00 227.00 132.00 23.00 1.24 10.00 0.60 0.60 0.06 2.00 6.00 2.00 0.20 123.00 Bright honey (mg/kg) 136.00 9.00 9.00 107.00 40.00 251.00 441.00 0.80 0.80 0.30 0.03 3.00 0.20 1.00 0.10 129.00
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The received honey-samples we have investigated by chemical methods, which are here for the quality determination of honey which is to be selling. The results show that the investigated honeys satisfy the Criteria of Rep. Croatia, but also the criteria of the European Union (Tab. 2). Honey includes a whole row of microelements (Tab. 3 ) which in small amounts play a big biological role in the organism, togeather with the vitamins and enzims. Cole-hydrats are the main ingredient of honey and make 9599% of dry material. By using different chromatografic methods it was established that the sugars in the honey are put togeather from : monosacharides - fructose and glucose disacharides - malthose, turanose, isomalthose, sacharose, maltulose, isomaltulose, nigerose, trehalose, glutilose, laminaribose, gentiobiose. oligosacharides erlosis, panose, maltotriose, kestose, isomaltobiose, melecitose, isopanose, 6-alfa-glukozilsaharose, 3-alfa-3 izomaltoseil, glucose, rafinose, isomaltoterose, isomaltopentose. Many of mentioned sugars are flower sugars. Compared with the nectare and honey dew, the bee-honey has much more sugar in it. The greatest amount of sugar sintesizes itself under the influence of invertasis and by the influence of the throat glands of the bee. Water is after the cole-hydrats the seccond essential ingredient of bee-honey and makes the amount of 1523%. The amount of water has a big influence on some of phisical properties (christalisation, viscosity, spec. weight) of honey. The honey-albumens consist of albumine, globuline and peptons, which make half of the coloide matters of the honey. The amount of the total albumens in honey is 0 1, 67%.
Enzims ( Ferments ) of the honey are of albumens kind. They have to qicken the chemical processes in the live organism and stay unchanged themselves. Today we consider that honey has in it: Inverthase, Diastase, Amilase, Kathalase, sour fosfathase glukooksidhase, Polifenoloksidase, Peroksidase Estrase and proteolitic ensime.
CONCLUSION 1. The results of organoleptic and chemical analises of honey show its richness of nutritious and healing components of honey. 2. The nutritious and healing substances of the honey depends of the honey-plants which the bees visit. 3. The organoleptic and chemical characteristics of the analysed honeys are corresponding with the Standards of the Republic Croatia and European Union. REFERENCES
1. Abadì}, N. (1967): Tajne p~elinjeg meda, Sarajevo. 2. Bogdanov, S., Martin, P., Lullmann, C. (1997): Harmonised methods of the European Honey Commission, Apidologie Extra issue, p. 1-59. 3. Dadant, C.C. (1975): The Hive and the Honey Bee, Hamilton. 4. Lowry, O. H., Rosenbrough N.J., Lewis Faerr A. and Randall R.J. (1971.): Protein measurment winth the folinphenue reagent, J. Biol. Chem. 193, 265. 5. Perui}, A.(1962): P~elinji med, Zagreb. 6. Tucak, Z., Pukadija, Z., Ba~i},T., Horvat, S. (1999): P~elarstvo, Sveu~ilite J.J. Strossmayera Osijek. 7. @ivanovi}, N. (1988): Med kao animalna namirnica. Diplomski rad, Zagreb. 8. . Grupa autora (1990): P~elarstvo, Nakladni zavod Znanje, Zagreb. 9. . Narodne novine 20/2000: Pravilnik o kvaliteti meda i drugih p~elinjih proizvoda te o metodama kontrole kvalitete meda i drugih p~elinjih proizvoda, 1985.
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ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 637:661.73
THE D-AMINO ACID CONTENT OF FOODSTUFFS SUBJECTED TO VARIOUS TECHNOLOGICAL PROCEDURES

J. Csap(1), Zsuzsana Csap-Kiss(2), va Varga-Visi(3), L. Kametler(4), G. Pohn(5), P. Horn(6)
Scientific review ABSTRACT

D-amino acids occurring in dietary proteins originate as a consequence of technological intervention while basic materials are being prepared for consumption. Foodstuffs are the most significant sources of D-amino acids, as in the process of cooking or during the various processing procedures used in the food industry dietary proteins undergo racemisation to a greater or lesser degree. Food stores are now selling increasing quantities of foods (such as breakfast cereals, baked potatoes, liquid and powdered infant foods, meat substitutes and other supplements) which in some cases contain substantial quantities of D-amino acids, which in turn possess characteristics harmful with respect to digestion and health. Alkali treatment catalyses the racemisation of optically active amino acids. The degree of racemisation undergone varies from protein to protein, but the relative order of the degree of racemisation of the individual amino acids within proteins shows a high level of similarity. The principal factors influencing racemisation are the pH of the medium, heat treatment, the duration of the application of alkaline treatment and the structure of the respective amino acids. D-amino acids formed in the course of treatment with alkalis or heat give rise to a deterioration in quality and reduce the extent to which food thus treated can be used safely. The presence of D-amino acids in proteins leads to a decrease in digestibility and the availability of the other amino acids. This results in a reduction in the quantities of the L-enantiomers of the essential amino acids, as the peptide bonds cannot split in the normal way. Some D-amino acids can exert an isomer-toxic effect and have the capacity to give rise to changes in the biological effect of lysinoalanine. Keywords: D-amino acids, racemisation, heat treatment, bacterial activity
INTRODUCTION Foods contain large quantities of non-natural substances of external origin, which influence their digestibility to a considerable degree. An example is the D-stereoisomer amino acids, which are formed from common L-stereoisomer amino acids, either in the course of the production process or as a consequence of changes in the microbiological quality of the foodstuff. The presence of these D-stereoisomer amino acids results in a substantial reduction in the digestibility of dietary protein and the availability of the transformed amino acid. However, despite the fact that D-amino acids in foods are considered undesirable, some hold the opinion that in certain cases D-amino acids can nevertheless be beneficial to the human organism. As methods developed for the separation and determination of amino acid enantiomers have been perfected it has been found that, contrary to previous belief, D-amino acids occur in a great variety of organisms. For example, bacterial cell wall peptidoglycans contain D-aspartic acid, D-glutamic acid and D-alanine; in some marine worms and invertebrates the cellular fluid contains D-amino acids as a main component; in certain marine shellfish quanti-
ties of D-amino acids can exceed 1%; and higher plants also contain D-amino acids. Metabolically stable proteins in mammals of longer life span contain major quantities of D-aspartic acid derived from racemisation: the D-aspartic acid concentration of the white matter of the human brain amounts to 3%, the clarified basic protein of the spinal cord to 10%. It was verified that aspartic acid racemises in vivo in human tissues, but due to rapid metabolism does not accumulate in measurable quantities. The chiral amino acids can be transformed into racemic mixtures, the reaction mechanism of this transformation process necessitating the splitting off of the hydrogen of the a - position carbon atom and the formation of the structure of the planar carbanion. The degree of racemisation occurring depends on whether the amino acid occurs free or in bound form in the peptide chain, and is naturally chiefly dependent on temperature and pH, and also on the nature of the R group occurring in the amino acid. On examination of the racemisation of free amino ac(1) Jnos Csap, Full Professor, (2) Zsuzsanna Csap-Kiss, DSc, (3) va Varga-Visi, BCh, (4) Lszl Kametler, Full Professor, (5) Pter Horn, Full Professor - University of Kaposvr, Faculty of Animal Science, Guba S. u. 40, 7400 Kaposvr, Hungary
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ids it was established that at 100oC and at pH between 7 and 8 the half-life of racemisation (i.e., the time taken for the D/L ratio to reach 0.33) for serine is 3 days, for aspartic acid 30 days, for alanine 120 days, and for isoleucine 300 days. It was reported that at pH 9 and at 83oC for casein the half-life of racemisation for the above four amino acids, respectively, is as follows: 16 hours, 19 hours, 11 days and 57 days; it were gave these respective values for soya protein at 75oC in 0.1 M normal sodium hydroxide as 9 minutes, 20 minutes, 5 hours and 25 hours. As can be seen from these collected data, in different conditions the respective amino acids show racemisation times of different duration, but the order of the degree of racemisation among the amino acids remains to a certain extent unchanged. The racemisation of serine, cystine and threonine results not only in the corresponding D-enantiomer, but also in an amino acid not constituting one of the components of proteins. For example, in the inter-carbanion state serine can readily lose its OH group in the formation of dehydroalanine. Reaction of dehydroalanine with the amino group of lysine results in lysinoalanine, an amino acid of which the alanine part is racemic while the lysine part is optically active. In dietary proteins this reaction can result in cross-linking, leading to a reduction in protein digestibility; the lysinoalanine content of the resultant foodstuff also bears toxic effect. From the aspect of nutrition the racemisation of essential amino acids is of the greatest significance. The digestibility and metabolism of the D-enantiomers of the essential amino acids have been studied for some considerable time. It is evident that in mammals the D-enantiomers of essential amino acids are utilised to very low degrees, in some cases, act as growth inhibitors, and are for the most part excreted in the urine. The half-life of racemisation for the essential amino acids has only recently been subjected to investigation. At pH between 7 and 8 it was measured the half-life of racemisation at 100oC for isoleucine, leucine and valine at 300 days, and for phenylalanine and tyrosine at 50 days. Working under the same conditions it was determined the half-life of racemisation for lysine at 40 days, while others measured the half-life of racemisation at pH 9 and 83oC at 40 days for tryptophan, 20 days for threonine and 2 days for cysteine. It was obtained a value of 30 days for the half-life of racemisation for methionine at 100oC at pH between 7 and 8. It appears from the empirical data that cysteine is particularly susceptible to racemisation, while the amino acids with aliphatic side-chains are the most stable in this respect. For most of the essential amino acids the half-life of racemisation is longer than that for aspartic acid. Food proteins exposed to alkali treatment processes or to lengthy heat treatment contain considerable concentrations of amino acids derived from racemisation. It is now evident that the reduction in digestibility
is related to the formation of lysinoalanine and the racemisation arising.
D-AMINO ACIDS OF DIETARY ORIGIN The majority of food treatment procedures, performed for the purposes of improving flavour, consistency or non-perishability, and including cooking and baking, involve heat treatment, and in some cases alkaline conditions are also applied. Racemisation induced by such intervention gives rise to D-amino acids in proteins. It was demonstrated that considerable quantities of D-amino acids are to be found in some commercially available foodstuffs which have been subjected to the effect of technological processes. Lysinoalanine is present almost universally in food substances. In addition, synthetically manufactured products such as aspartame dipeptide are particularly susceptible to racemisation. Investigations performed by the authors indicate that 10 to 40% of the amino acid content of feather meal produced by means of alkaline hydrolysis undergoes racemisation, the degree of this being dependent on the production parameters. NATURAL BASIC MATERIALS Milk, meat and the various types of grain, which do not contain substantial quantities of D-amino acids, are often exposed, in the course of preparation for consumption, to conditions which may give rise to racemisation. Milk and dairy products serve as examples of how the composition of natural substances can change. Although untreated (i.e., raw) milk is available in some food stores, most dairy products are first pasteurised (involving heating for 30 minutes at 68-72oC) or ultrapasteurised (involving heating for 15 seconds at 135-145oC). They are subsequently subjected to homogenisation and condensation, until a particular product such as milk for commercial consumption, yoghurt or cheese derived from the various milk protein fractions is finally obtained. The latter two dairy products are fermented by means of bacteria, this process also constituting a source of D-amino acids. (The concentration of D-amino acids is hereafter given in accordance with the following: % D-amino acid = (D/D+L)100). The free D-aspartic acid content of milk powder at 4-5% and its D-alanine content at 8-12% was determined. With respect to yoghurt, free D-alanine content was measured at 64-68%, free D-aspartic acid content at 20-32%, and free D-glutamic acid content at 53-56%. For mature cheese content values for the same D-amino acids of 20-45%, 8-35% and 5-22% respectively were obtained. The free D-phenylalanine content of mature cheese was found to be between 2 and 13%, D-leucine also being detected in minimal quantities in mature cheese. The D-aspartic acid content of roast coffee proved to be 23-38%, its D-glutamic acid content 32-41%, and its D-phenylalanine content 9-12%. On the basis of the measurements recorded the attention is draw to the fact that it is not foodstuffs subjected to lengthy heat treatment
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which contain substantial quantities of D-amino acids, but rather those which have undergone a process of bacterial fermentation. On examination of free D-amino acids in milk, fermented milk, fresh cheese and curd cheese it was established that considerable quantities of D-amino acids occur both in raw milk and in fermented dairy products manufactured from it. It may be ascertained that yoghurt and cheese contain substantial quantities of D-alanine (1.35-2.48 mg/100g), D-aspartic acid (0.31-0.37 mg/100g) and D-glutamic acid (1.09-2.13 mg/100g), while the quantities of D-lysine (1.49 mg/100g) and D-proline (2.18 mg/100g) present may also be considerable. In addition, trace quantities of D-valine, D-leucine, D-allo-isoleucine and D-serine were also detected in fermented dairy products by the above authors. On analysis of the origin of D-amino acids they established that the occurrence of these can, for the most part, be traced back to microbiological intervention, or to microbial contamination in the case of raw or pasteurised samples, or possibly to the unintentional addition to the composite milk of milk derived from cows with subclinical mastitis.
cake (11.9%), Mexican pancake (11.6%) and corn cake (15.4%). The data for the fried hamburger indicate that racemisation occurs to only an insignificant degree in that particular food in the course of the frying process. The high ratios of D-amino acids detected in the toasted white bread, the cooked bacon and the chicken meat demonstrate that in some foods substantial degrees of racemisation can arise in the process of cooking, baking or frying. On examining the effect on food proteins of microwave treatment fairly recently ascertained that by the effect of microwave treatment of 10 minutes duration the cis-3 and cis-4 hydroxyproline content of all three infant foods examined increased, and only microwave-treated formulae contained D-proline in detectable quantities. The concentration of the cis isomer was found to be 1-2 mg per litre. The above authors point out that if the cis isomer is incorporated into a protein instead of the trans isomer, structural, functional and immunological changes can result.
FOODSTUFFS SUBJECTED TO VARIOUS TECHNOLOGICAL PROCEDURES Modern food industry technology applies a diverse range of procedures for the purpose of modifying the characteristics of proteins in order to improve flavour, consistency and non-perishability. Treatment with heat or alkalis is used preferentially for the manufacture of products possessing particular characteristics, form and function. For example, soya protein is treated with alkalis and heat for the purposes of obtaining, through extrusion, a product of fibrous structure suitable for consumption as a meat substitute. Alkali treatment is also applied in order to obtain flaked maize and tortillas from maize protein. Heat treatment or combined heat and alkali treatment in every case gave rise to D-amino acids in measurable quantities. The highest D-aspartic acid content (31%) was determined in the casein heated to 230 oC for 20 minutes. Comparison of the racemised amino acids reveals that the highest degree of racemisation occurred in aspartic acid. Certain amino acids, such as serine and cysteine, probably racemise more rapidly than aspartic acid. It may be stated in general that the essential amino acids do not racemise rapidly unless exposed to high temperature. However, it may also be the case with the essential amino acids that a combination of high temperature and alkali treatment is accompanied by a substantial degree of racemisation. Authors have also reported on the high D-amino acid content of treated foods. On examination of the D-Asp content of a number of commercially available foods very high ratios of this D-amino acid was established in textured soya protein (9%), bacon (13%) and non-milk fat (17%). Substantial quantities of D-Asp was determined in savoury crackers made from wheat flour (9.5%), wheat
MANUFACTURED FOODS AND ARTIFICIALLY PRODUCED PEPTIDES This category includes every type of food subjected to substantial levels of technological treatment, or synthetically produced (e.g. aspartame). In some liquid foods the protein is combined with carbohydrate, in the process of which the protein may undergo considerable change. Antibiotic peptides may contain substantial quantities of D-amino acids, as may some drugs used in chemotherapy; the residues of these may subsequently result in significant D-amino acid content of foodstuffs produced. On evaluation of data in the literature it may be ascertained that synthetic products contain considerably higher levels of amino acids than natural basic materials, the former being the main sources of the D-amino acid content of foods. Liquid food formulae based on soya protein, actually purchased from health food stores, has been found to contain 13% D-aspartic acid, this being a substantially higher level than that determined in soya-based infant formulae. It was reported that food products formulated to induce weight loss which had been subjected to alkali treatment proved to contain 50% D-serine, 37% D-aspartic acid and 26% D-phenylalanine; these high quantities of D-amino acids might pose a risk if consumed as the sole source of dietary protein. Such extreme cases are relatively rare, but it should nevertheless be noted that in foodstuffs subjected to lengthy alkali or heat treatment processes a high proportion of the amino acids present may undergo racemisation. On studying racemisation in aspartame sweetener it was reported that both aspartic acid and glutamic acid racemised rapidly at neutral pH at 100oC. Racemisation occurs when the sweetener is transformed into a cyclical dipeptide, these being highly susceptible to racemisation. The importance of awareness of this lies in the fact that if
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9. Csap, J., Csap-Kiss, Zs., Csords, E., Folestad, S., Tivesten, A., Martin, T.G., Nmethy, S. (1995a): Rapid method for the determination of diaminopimelic acid using ion exchange column chromatography. Analytical Letters, 28: 2049-2061. 10. Csap, J., Martin, T.G., Csap-Kiss, Zs., Stefler, J., Nmethy, S. (1995b): Influence of udder inflammation on the D-amino acid content of milk. J. Dairy Sci., 78: 2375-2381. 11. Csap, J., Csap-Kiss, Zs., Stefler, J., Csords, E., Martin, T.G., Nmethy, S., Wgner, L., Tlos, T. (1996-97): A ttgygyullads hatsa a tej D-aminosav tartalmra. (Influence of udder inflammation on D-amino acid content of milk). Szaktancsok, 1-4: 38-52. 12. Csap, J., Csap-Kiss, Zs., Wgner, L., Tlos, T., Martin, T.G., Nmethy, S., Folestad, S., Tivesten, A. (1997a): Hydrolysis of proteins performed at high temperatures and for short times with reduced racemization, in order to determine the enantiomers of D- and L-amino acids. Anal. Chim. Acta, 339: 99-107. 13. Csap, J., Csap-Kiss, Zs., Stefler, J. (1997a): Influence of mastitis on D-amino acid content of milk. Agriculturae Conspectus Scientificus, 62: 162-167. 14. Csap, J., Csap-Kiss, Zs., Csords, E., Fox, P.F., Wgner, L., Tlos, T. (1997b): Klnbzt technolgival kszlt sajtok sszes szabad- s szabad D-aminosav tartalma. (Free D-amino acid content of cheeses produced by different technologies). Tejipar, 57: 25-30. 15. Csap, J., Csap-Kiss, Zs., Vargn Visi, ., Andrsyn Baka, G., Terlakyn Balla, . (1997d): lelmiszerek D-aminosav tartalma. Irodalmi ttekints. (D-amino acid content of feed. A review.) Acta Agraria Kaposvriensis, 1: 3-20. 16. Hayashi, R., Kameda, I. (1980a): Racemization of amino acid residues during alkali treatment of proteins and its adverse effect on pepsin digestibility. Agric. Biol. Chem., 44: 891-895. 17. Liardon, R., Hurrel, R.F. (1983): Amino acid racemization in heated and alkali-treated proteins. J. Agric. Food. Chem., 31: 432-437. 18. Liardon, R., Lederman, S. (1986): Racemization kinetics of free and protein-bound amino acids under moderate alkaline treatment. J. Agric. Food. Chem., 34: 557-565. 19. Masters, P.E., Friedman, M. (1980): Amino acid racemization in alkali treated food proteins - chemistry, toxicology, and nutritional consequences. In Whitaker, J.R., Fujimaki, M. (eds). Chemical Deterioration of Proteins, ACS Symp. Ser., Washington, 123: 165-194. Am. Chem. Soc., 268.
sweetener is added to food before, for example, cooking, a high degree of racemisation may result.
REFERENCES
1. Bada, J.L., Miller, S.L. (1987): Racemization and the origin of optical active organic compounds in living organisms. In: H.Man, J.L. Bada (1987): Dietary D-amino acids. Ann. Rev. Nutr., 7: 209-225. 2. Bruckner, H., Hausch, M. (1990): D-amino acids in dairy products: Detection, origin and nutritional aspects. I. Milk, fermented milk, fresh cheese and acid curd cheese. Milchwissenschaft, 45: 357-360. 3. Chung, S.Y., Swaisgood, H.E., Catignani, G.L. (1986): Effect of alkali treatment in the presence of fructose on digestibility of food proteins as determined by an immobilized digestive enzyme assay (IDEA). J. Agric. Fd. Chem., 34: 579-584. 4. Csap, J., Henics, Z. (1991): Quantitative determination of bacterial protein from the diaminopimelic acid and D-alanine content of rumen liquor and intestines. Acta Agronomica Hungarica, 1-2: 159-173. 5. Csap, J., Tth-Psfai, I., Csap-Kiss, Zs. (1991a): Separation of D- and L-amino acids by ion exchange column chromatography in the form of alanyl dipeptides. Amino Acids, 1: 331-337. 6. Csap, J., Gombos, S., Csap, Zs., Tossenberger, J. (1991): A bakterilis eredet fehrje mennyisgi meghatrozsa a bendtfolyadk s a bltartalom diaminopimelinsav s D-alanin tartalma alapjn. (Quantitative determination of bacterial protein from the diaminopimelic acid and D-alanine content of rumen liquor and intestine). llattenyszts s Takarmnyozs, 5: 431-441. 7. Csap, J., Einarsson, S. (1993): lelmiszerek s takarmnyok D-aminosav tartalma. 1. Az aminosav enantiomerek sztvlasztsa s meghatrozsa az 1-/9-fluorenil/etil-kloroformttal trtnt szrmazkkpzs utn forditott fzisu folyadkkromato- grfival. (D-amino acid content of foodstuffs and feeds. Separation and determination of the amino acid enantiomers by reversed phase liquid chromatography after precolumn derivatization by 1-/9-fluorenyl-ethyl-chlorophormate.) lelmiszervizsg. Kzl., 39: 290-302. 8. Csap, J., Folestad, S., Tivesten, A. (1994): lelmiszerek s takarmnyok D-aminosav tartalma. III. Jelentsgk, meghatrozsuk s fiziolgiai hatsuk a szakirodalom alapjn. (D-amino acid content of foodstuffs and feeds. III. Their significance, determination and physiological effect according to the special literature). lelmiszervizsg. Kzl., 4: 299-316.
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ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 636.92:636.084.11
NEW POSSIBILITIES OF RAISING RABBIT YOUNG BY ALTERNATIVE NURSING METHODS

Tnde Gyarmati(1), Zs. Szendr( 2), L. Maertens(3), Edit Bir-Nmeth(4), I. Radnai(5), G. Milisits(6), Zs. Matics(7)

In the first experiment 360 Pannon White kits from 45 litters were divided into 3 groups. The kits in group SS were suckled once a day during the first 35 days of life (traditional method of nursing). Group DD was raised by 2 does and the kits were suckled both in the morning and in the evening until 35 days of age. The kits of the 3rd group (D0) were suckled twice a day for 23 days, after which they were weaned. Rabbits which were suckled twice a day consumed 89 % more milk until 23 days of age than those of the SS kits. In the second experiment authors used different management systems, to investigate the possibilities of double-suckling. Both nulliparous as multiparous does were treated to induce pseudopregnancy (by means of GnRH). They were used as second doe and suckled the kits in the afternoon. Pseudopregnant does produced milk (nulliparous does less than does which had previously produced litters), but in conditions of controlled suckling they were not willing to suckle the young. In a third experiment, does (n=44) were inseminated 11 days after kindling. Weaning was performed at the age of 21 days and does could systematically serve as second mother for the litters born at the same day. The additional does that nursed the young in the afternoon produced 65 % of the milk quantity produced by the natural mother between days 0 and 21.
Keywords: rabbit, suckling, milk intake
INTRODUCTION It is a particular feature of rabbit does that they nurse once a day (Zarrow et al., 1965). Under natural circumstances the young also suckle once a day, and spend the rest of the day sleeping (Hudson and Distel, 1982). However, according some results in commercial rabbit cages 30-50% of the does nurse their young 2 times/day (Seitz et al., 1997). Suckling only takes about 3 to 4 minutes, but the young are able to take in enough milk for their daily needs (one sixth of their body weight) in such a short time (Lebas, 1975). Suckling rabbits do not start significant solid feed intake before 20 days of age. This is why their survival and weight gain depend on the does milk production, i.e. how much milk each individual kit consumes. Experiments in which attempts have been made to induce does to nurse twice a day have been unsuccessful (Herczeg, 1981). Ethological observations have emphasised that suckling is dependent only on the willingness of the doe and not on the inclination of the young. In human-related research, nursing twice a day was used as a model for overfeeding babies (Harmand et al., 1970, Spencer and Hull, 1984). Twice-daily suckling was used in experiments by McNitt et al. (1988). In this study the young were also raised by 2 does, the effect of suckling on the growth of the young being investigated. Padilha et al. (1994, 1996) used two does for suckling the young after
the lactation peak, with the objective of evaluating the effect of a postponed shift to solid feed on caecum microflora and the fermentation pattern. The objective of this research project was to establish whether suckling young are ready and able to suckle milk from two does within one day. The other purpose of our experiments was to study if kindled or pseudopregnant or early weaned does could serve as second mother. The implications on the milk production of both does and the milk intake of the young were measured.
MATERIAL AND METHODS Pannon White does were housed in single-floor wire cages in a building heated in winter (minimum 15C) but not cooled in summer (maximum 26-28C). The length of daily illumination was 16 hours. The does were fed a commercially available rabbit feed ad libitum. The diet fed in the first 18 days contained no medication (CP: 16.8%, CFat: 2.9%, CF: 14.1% and 10.3 DE MJ/kg,), but subsequently a medicated diet was given (10.3 DE MJ/kg, 18.2% CP, 3.3 % Cfat, 12.2 % CF, 0.02 % Clinacox prx,
(1) Tnde Gyarmati, MSc, Ph.D student,(2) Zsolt Szendr, DSc, (4) Edit Bir-Nmeth, MSc, (5) Istvn Radnai, MSc, (6) Gbor Milisits, Ph.D, (7) Zsolt Matics, MSc - University of Kaposvr, Faculty of Animal Science, Guba S. u. 40., 7400 Kaposvr, Hungary (3) Luc Maertens, Irg. - Department of Animal Nutrition and Husbandry, Section of Small Stock Husbandry, Merelbeke, Belgium
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0.1% Oxytetracycline). The does had free access to drinking water from self-drinkers. Experiment 1: The does were treated with 5 IU oxytocin on the 31st day of pregnancy. The experimental groups were formed based on the number of times the young suckled per day (i.e., once or twice). The additional daily suckling was carried out by an additional doe which had produced a litter at the same time but whose progeny had been removed. Irrespective of the number of sucklings (groups SS and D). One doe was put into the nest box at 8 a.m. every day. For the second nursing the other doe was put in at 8 p.m. Suckling twice a day was maintained until weaning (DD) or until the 23rd day and after the young were weaned (D0). The following experimental treatments were established: Group SS: suckled once a day until weaning at 35 days of age (n = 15 litters, 120 kits) Group DD: suckled twice a day until weaning at 35 days of age (n=16 litters, 128 kits) Group D0: suckled twice a day until 23 days of age and then weaned (n=14 litters, 112 kits). Milk production was measured using the weigh (doe) -suckle-weigh(doe) procedure. Experiment 2: Nulliparous does (n=15) were injected with 1.5 mg GnRH at the age of 16.5 weeks, while multiparous does (n=20) were submitted to the same treatment 11 days subsequent to parturition in order to induce pseudopregnancy. Determination of their milk production started 18 days after the treatment. In this procedure, each litter was daily nursed by its own mother at 8 a.m. and by the pseudopregnant doe at 5 p.m. Both does had only access to the nest box during the controlled suckling time. The same weigh-suckle-weigh procedure was followed to measure the milk production. The mean individual milk intake of the young rabbits was calculted based on the quantity of milk produced and the number of young in the litter. Experiment 3: Females were inseminated following a 42d reproduction rhytm and a 2 batch management system with an interval of 21 days. Thus when a does kindled, another doe was available on the 21st day of lactation. This was the pair system on which the experiment was based. The original does were allowed to nurse daily her young (n=44) at 8 a.m. while the second doe, whose litter had been weaned at the age of 21 days, nursed the same litter at 4 p.m. The young rabbits were weaned at the age of 21 days, after which their mother was transferred to another litter to act as a secondary suckling doe. An additional control group (S, n=45) were allowed to suckle their young in the traditional manner, once a day, and their
progeny were weaned at the age of 35 days.In exp. 1 daily milk production was measured while in experiments 2 and 3. milk production of all does was measured every 2 to 3 days (three times a week). Single-variable analysis of variance was performed in order to compare the milk intake of the young.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Experiment 1: Young who suckled twice a day (DD) consumed 89 % more milk between day 1 and 23 than the SS rabbits (taken as 100 %). The young of the DD group suckled 74 % more milk between day 24 and 35 than those of the SS groups (Figure 1).These findings are in agreement with those published by McNitt et al. (1988); who determined a 84% higher intake of milk by young which suckled twice a day before the age of 19 days. The difference observed between the milk intake of the SS and the D young reveals that rabbits do not have access to sufficient milk in the traditional nursing system. They begin to starve and consequently cannot gain as much weight as would be expected on the basis of their growth potential. Milk intake for 1 g weight gain between birth and 21 days of age was 2.02, 1.98, and 2.01 g in groups SS, DD, and D0 respectively. This implies that almost doubled levels of milk consumption did not affect milk efficiency. However, the significance of these system using two does littered at the same time should rather be considered as theoretical, because each litter was nursed by two does and one of the litters had to be sold or fostered by another doe. On the other hand, rabbit young can already be weaned from 14 days off if an adapted milkreplacer is fed (Prudhon and Bel, 1968; Mc Nitt and Moody, 1992; Ferguson et al., 1997) or from 18 days off based on an exclusively pellet feeding (Schlolaut and Lange, 1971; Piattoni and Maertens, 1999). In a system of twice-daily suckling, mothers from early weaned litters have still a potential as milk producer. However, data concerning their milk production or the required attributes for substitute does are not available. Milk production of pseudopregnant, nulliparous does (N) reached only 21% compared with does of group M during the 5 weeks lactation. If they produced previously litters (K), then milk production reached 35 % of the controls. This experiment provides evidence that, in similarity with other animal species (e.g., the dog: Dumon et al., 1993; Zldg et al., 1993), does in which pseudopregnancy has been induced are also capable of producing milk. In the 3 weeks following parturition, which is the most important period from the aspect of suckling, the corresponding values were 15 and 39%. In theory, if a pseudopregnant doe is introduced to suckle a litter as a secondary doe to their own mother, the young have access to the additional quantities of milk given above.
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70 60
Milk intake, g
450 400
Milk produced, g
50 40 30 20 10 0 1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 Age, days SS DD D0
350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 3 8 12 17 22 26 31
N K M S+N S+K
35
Days after parturition

Fig. 1. Milk intake of young suckled once a day (SS), twice a day (DD) or twice a day to 23rd day (D0) Figure 3. Milk production of original and control does and combined milk production of the two does in the 3rd experiment
Experiment 2: The milk production of the different categories of does is presented in Figure 2. However, pseudopregnant does were not willing to suckle the young. The data recorded were attained by means of shutting these does together with the young in the nestboxes.
350 300
Milk produced, g
250 200 150 100 50 0 1 4 9 14 18 23 28 Days after parturition 32
DP S M P
The difference in milk production between controls (S) and M+P became minimal at day 21. In group DP the quantity of milk suckled from the M doe was slightly behind that observed in the young of group S. The more milk was derived from the substitute doe, the less the M doe gave. The quantities of milk suckled in the afternoon in the first 3 weeks from does of groups P amounted 60% of the quantities recorded for their own mother (M). In the first, second and third week, double suckling leads to 69, 28 and 4 % more milk in group DP.
Figure 2. Daily milk production in does rearing their own litter (M), pseudopregnant nulliparous does (N) and pseudopregnant does which had previously produced itters (K): shown separately and as totals for the natural mother and the substitute doe (M+N and M+K)
Experiment 3: In this experiment, does whose litter had been weaned on the 21st day of lactation, served for the double suckling (P). In the morning the original mother (M), in the afternoon the weaned doe (already inseminated 11 after parturition). Figure 3 demonstrates that in the first three weeks the lactation curve for the does of group M was comparable with the control (S). The does that nursed the young in the afternoon produced less milk than the natural mothers. After the 14th day, pregnant does (P) dried up. The combined milk production of the two does (M+P) amounted to 70 to 100 g more day than controls (S) during first week.
CONCLUSIONS This research reveals that most does are also willing to nurse in the evening. The young are willing and able to suckle twice within 24 hours. Twice daily suckling resulted in a 89% increased milk intake. Exploitation of the advantages of suckling twice daily enabled the young to be weaned at 23 days of age. These rabbits were raised successfully on a commercial medicated diet. Does in which pseudopregnancy has been induced by means of treatment with GnRH also produce milk. The milk production of the nulliparous does proved low, while that of those which had already produced litters was more substantial. However, the experience of the authors was that in conditions of controlled suckling pseudopregnant does were not willing to suckle free the young. The does whose litters had been weaned on the 21st day subsequent to parturition proved suitable as secondary suckling does. In experiment 3 of the present study the intake of young increased with 69% due to the double suckling system. Thus, rearing with two does proved possible in a management system with re-insemination on the 11th day after parturition and weaning at the age of 21 days. Use of this method is also questionable in view of anticipated EU regulations relating to weaning at 21 days.
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11. Piattoni F., Maertens, L. (1999): Effect of weaning age and solid feed distribution before weaning on the caecal fermentation pattern of young rabbits. 11. Arbeitstagung ber Pelztier-, Kaninchen- und Heimtierproduction und Krankenheiten, Celle, Ed. Deutsche Vet. Med. Gesellschaft e.V., Giessen, 97-105. 12. Proudhon, M., Bel, L. (1968): Le sevrage prcoce des lapereaux et la reproduction des lapines. Ann. Zootech., 17(1):23-30. 13. Schlolaut W., Lange, L. (1971): Untersuchungen ber das frhzeitige Absetzen beim Kaninchen. Zchtungskunde 43:136-143. 14. Seitz, K., Gutkoksi, S., Lange, K., Hoy, ST. (1997): Untersuchungen zum Saugeverhalten bei Kaninchen. 11. Arbeitstagung ber Haltung und Krankenheiten der Kaninchen, Pelztiere und Heimtiere. Celle, Ed. Deutsche Vet. Med. Gesellschaft e.V., Giessen, 24-32. 15. Spencer, A., Hull, D. (1984): The effect of over-feeding newborn rabbits on somatic and visceral growth, body composition and long-term growth potential. British Journal of Nutrition, 51:389-402. 16. Zarrow, M. X., Denenberg, V.M., Anderson, C.O. (1965): Rabbit: Frequency of suckling in the pup. Science 150:1835-1836. 17. Zldg, L., Benedek, D., Kecskemthy, S. (1993): Prevention of puerperal lactation and lactation caused by pseudopregnancy in the dog. (in Hung.) Magyar llatorvosok Lapja. 48(6): 360-364.
REFERENCES
1. Dumon, C., Dumoulin, P.Y., Collet, J. P. (1993): The suppression of lactation during canine pseudopregnancy using cabergoline. Pratique Medicale and Chirurgicale de lAnimal de Compaquie. 28(5): 573-577. 2. Ferguson, F.A., Lukefahr, S.D., Mc Nitt, J.L. (1997): A technical note on artificial milk feeding on rabbit kids weaned at 14 days. World Rabbit Sci. (2): 65-70. 3. Harmand, M. J., Hull, D., Oyesiku, I. (1970): The influence of birth weight and nutrition on postanal growth of rabbits. Biol. Neonate, 16:306. 4. Herczeg, B. (1981): Effect of number of suckling on the milk production of does. Diplomwork, PANNON University, Kaposvr. 5. Hudson, R., Distel, H. (1982): The pattern of behaviour of rabbit pups in the nest. Behaviour, 79:255-271. 6. Lebas, F. (1975): Le lapin de chair: ses besoins nutritionnals et son alimentation pratique. ITAVI, Paris. 7. McNitt, J., Moody, G.L. JR. (1988): Milk intake and growth rates of suckling rabbits. J. Appl. Rabbit Res. 11:117. 8. McNitt, J.I., Moody, G.L. (1992): A method for weaning rabbit kits at 14 days. J. Appl.Rabbit Res., 15: 661-665. 9. Padilha, T.S., Licois, D., Gidenn, T., Carre, B., Coudert, P., Lebas, F. (1996): Caecal microflora and fermentation pattern in excusively milk-fed young rabbits. 6th World Rabbit Congress, Toulouse, Vol.1: 247-251. 10. Padilha,T.S., Licois,D., Gidenne,T., Carre,B., Fonty,G. (1994): Evolution de la microflore et de lactivite fermentaire caecale chez le lapereau pendant la periode peri-sevrage: premiers resultats. Vlmes Journes de la Recherche Cunicole. 6-7.
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ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 636.92:636.061.8082.4
EINFLUSS DES FETTGEHALTES IM ORGANISMUS VON MUTTERKANINCHEN AUF EINIGE VERMEHRUNGSBIOLOGISCHE EIGENSCHAFTEN
A. Lvai(1), G. Milisits(2), Zs. Szendr(3), I. Radnai(4), Edit Bir-Nmeth(5)
Preliminary communication ZUSAMMENFASSUNG

Um den Einfluss des Fettgehaltes im Organismus von Mutterkaninchen auf einige vermehrungsbiologische Eigenschaften zu bestimmen, wurden die auf Grund des 10-Wochen-Gewichtes und der Zunahmen zwischen der 6. und 10. Lebenswoche den Durchschnitt reprsentierenden Tiere (Durchschnitt Abweichung) ausgewhlt und ihr Fettgehalt im Organismus in lebendem Zustand mit der TOBEC Methode bestimmt. Auf Grund der geschtzten Werte wurden von den weiblichen Tieren jeweils die extremen 16%, von den mnnlichen Tieren die jeweils extremen 8% zur Weiterzucht ausgewhlt. Jede fette Mutter wurde mit Sperma von fetten Rammlern besamt, jede magere Mutter dagegen mit Sperma von mageren Rammlern. Es wurde festgestellt, da die Trchtigkeitsrate bei den fetten Mutterkaninchen statistisch bewiesend grer (71.4% und 43.7%), die Zwischenwurfzeit statistisch bewiesend kleiner war. Keine statistisch bewiesenen Unterschiede wurden im Wurfzahl (8.3 und 8.3) und Wurfgewicht (437g und 450g) zur Geburt beobachtet, aber die Ausfallsrate bis zum 21. Lebenstag war bei den fetten Mutterkaninchen kleiner (16.7% und 28.3%). Schlsselwrter: Kaninchen, Selektion, Fett, Reproduktion
EINLEITUNG Die vermehrungsbiologischen Eigenschaften der Mutterkaninchen werden von zahlreichen Faktoren beeinflusst. Dazu gehren die Jahreszeit (Csonka und Szendr, 1984; McNitt und Moody, 1990), der aktuelle vermehrungsbiologische Zustand (Szendr, 1988) sowie die Haltungs- (Mattioli, 1982) und Ftterungsbedingungen (Lebas et al., 1988) als bedeutendste und gleichermaen am meisten untersuchte Umstnde. Hauptschlich bei anderen Tierarten - aber auch im humanen Bereich - wurden jedoch schon mehrmals Versuche durchgefhrt um festzustellen, wie der Fettgehalt des Organismus einige verehrungsbiologische Parameter bei weiblichen Individuen beeinflusst. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass sowohl bertriebene Verfettung als auch bertriebene Fettarmut gleichermaen problematisch sind, was sich hauptschlich in verminderter Empfngnis, schlechteren Wurf- und Aufzuchtergebnissen oder in schwereren Fllen sogar im Ausbleiben des strus zeigt. Bei unseren eigenen Untersuchungen hatten das Ziel, zwei hinsichtlich des Fettgehaltes im Organismus abweichende Bestnde zu entwickeln und deren Produktionsergebnisse zu vergleichen. MATERIAL UND METHODE Unsere Untersuchungen wurden in der Versuchsanlage der Fakultt fr Tierproduktion der Universitt Kaposvr mit der Rasse Pannon Weie durchgefhrt. Die
Kaninchen wurden nach der Entwhnung im Alter von 6 Wochen im geschlossenen Gebude bei einer 16-stndigen Beleuchtung und einer Raumtemperatur von 15-20 0C in Kfigen aus punktverschweitem Drahtgitter (800x500mm) in Gruppen von 5-6 Kaninchen/Kfig gealten. Als Futtermittel wurde das im Handel erhltliche Kaninchenfutter (DE 10.30 MJ/kg, Rohprotein 17.5%, Rohfett 3.6%, Rohfaser 12.4%) ad libitum verwendet. Das Trinkwasser stand den Kaninchen aus Selbsttrnken jederzeit zur Verfgung. Im Alter von 10 Wochen wurde der Versuchsbestand gewogen. Auf Grund des 10-Wochen-Gewichtes und der Zunahmen zwischen der 6. und 10. Lebenswoche wurden die den Durchschnitt reprsentierenden Tiere (Durchschnitt Abweichung) ausgewhlt. Ihr Fettgehalt im Organismus wurde in lebendem Zustand bestimmt, und zwar mit dem Gert EM-SCAN SA-3152 - welches die Vernderungen der elektrische Leitfhigkeit des ganzen Krpers messen kann - die sogenannte TOBEC Methode. Jedes Tier wurde dreimal gemessen. Zu den weiteren Berechnungen wurde der Durchschnitt aus den drei Messungen verwendet. Die Messabweichungen blieben bei allen Individuen unter 2 %. Die gemessenen Werte wurden in eine von Milisits et al. (2000) erarbeitete Gleichung eingesetzt und damit der Fettgehalt berechnet. Auf Grund der ge(1) Andrs Lvai, Ph.D Student, (2) Gbor Milisits, DSc, (3) Zsolt Szendr, DSc (4) Istvn Radnai, MSc (5) Edit Bir-Nmeth, MSc - Kaposvrer Universitt, Fakultt fr Tierproduktion, Guba S. u. 40., 7400 Kaposvr, Ungarn
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schtzten Werte wurden von den weiblichen Tieren jeweils die extremen 16%, von den mnnlichen Tieren die jeweils extremen 8% zur Weiterzucht ausgewhlt. Die Mutterkaninchen wurden erstmalig im Alter von 17 Wochen mit frischem verdnnten Sperma besamt, das von Rammlern stammte, die nicht am Versuch teilnahmen. Das Ergebnis der Erstbesamung und des ersten Wurfes wurde nicht ausgewertet. Ab der zweiten Besamung wurde bereits jede fette Mutter mit Sperma von fetten Rammlern besamt, jede magere Mutter dagegen mit Sperma von mageren Rammlern. Auch in diesen Fllen wurde zur Besamung immer frisches, verdnntes Sperma benutzt. Whrend des Versuches wurden folgende Daten festgehalten: - notwendige Besamungen fr einen Wurf, - Trchtigkeitsrate, - Zwischenwurfzeit, - Anzahl der Lebend- und Totgeborenen eines Wurfes, - Wurfgewicht zur Geburt, - Wurfzahl und Wurfgewicht am 21. Lebenstag, sowie - Ausfall im Sugealter. Die Auswertung der Daten erfolgte mit der Einfaktor-Varianzanalyse bzw. dem Chi2-Test. Zu den statistischen Berechnungen wurde das statistische Programm SPSS for Windows benutzt (SPSS for Windows, 1997).
dann auch die Zwischenwurfzeit zwischen den beiden Gruppen signifikant aus. Die fette Mtter hatten nach der zweiten zielgerichteten Besamung durchschnittlich 56 Tage Zwischenwurfzeit, die magere dagegen durchschnittlich 67 Tage. Hinsichtlich der Wurfzahl zur Geburt gab es zwischen den beiden Gruppen keine statistisch bewiesenen Unterschiede (Abbildung 1). Wegen der abweichenden Ausfallrate in der Sugezeit jedoch ist die Wurfzahl am 21. Lebenstag bereits signifikant. Als Ergebnis ist das 21-tgige Wurfgewicht ebenfalls statistisch beweisbar (2406, bzw. 2030g). Auch bei der Ausfallsrate ist der aufgetretene Unterschied (16.7, bzw. 28.3%) - P<0.05 - statistisch nachweisbar.
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 Fette Mtter Magere Mtter
Wurfzahl zur Geburt
Wurfzahl nach 21 Lebenstagen
Abbildung 1. Wurfzahl zur Geburt und nach 21 Tagen bei fetten und mageren Mutterkaninchen
ERGEBNISSE Einige wichtige Parameter der zur Weiterzucht ausgewhlten Tiere aus dem Versuchsbestand zeigt Tabelle 1. Aus den Daten der Tabelle ist gut zu ersehen, dass die geschtzten Fettwerte der beiden extremen Tiergruppen unterschiedlich sind. Bei den fetten und mageren Mttern bzw. Rammlern sind die beobachteten Unterschiede statistisch nachweisbar (P<0.05). Auch bei der Trchtigkeitsrate der Mutterkaninchen, die nach 10-11 Tage nach ihrem ersten Wurf zielgerichtet gepaart wurden (fette Mtter mit fetten Rammlern, magere Mtter mit mageren Rammlern) waren die Unterschiede signifikant. Bei den fetten Mutterkaninchen waren fast dreiviertel (71.4%), bei den mageren dagegen nur weniger als die Hlfte (43.7%) nach der Erstbesamung trchtig. Zu einem Wurf waren bei den fetten Mutterkaninchen durchschnittlich 1.26, bei den mageren 1.41 Besamungen notwendig. Wegen der Unterschiede in den zu einem Wurf notwendigen Besamungen und der Trchtigkeitsrate fiel
SCHLUSSFOLGERUNGEN Aus den Versuchsergebnissen ist eindeutig festzustellen, dass der Fettgehalt des Organismus bedeutend die vermehrungsbiologischen Eigenschaften der Mutterkaninchen beeinflusst. Bei den mageren Mutterkaninchen verschlechtert sich die Trchtigkeitsrate, steigen die zu einem Wurf notwendigen Besamungen, dadurch wiederum wchst die Zwischenwurfzeit. Auf Grund der bisherigen Ergebnisse scheint es, dass der Fettgehalt im Organismus keinen Einfluss auf die Wurfzahl bei der Geburt hat, aber die unterschiedlichen Ausfallzahlen im Sugealter haben doch bedeutende Auswirkungen auf die Wurfzahl am 21. Tag nach der Geburt. Zu den hier vorgestellten Ergebnissen muss man allerdings bemerken, dass diese nur aus dem Anfangsstadium einer langen Versuchsreihe stammen. Die bisherigen Ergebnisse haben demnach nur Informationscharakter. Zur genaueren Ergebnissen und Schlussfolgerungen sind weitere Un-
Tabelle 1. Die wichtigsten Grunddaten der auf Grund der geschtzten Fettwerte zur Weiterzucht ausgewhlten Kaninchen
Fett Eigenschaft Mutter (n=41) Durchschnitt 10-WochenGewicht (g) Fett (%) 2244 7.7 Abweichung 113 1.4 Rammler (n=20) Durchschnitt 2262 8.2 Abweichung 138 1.4 Mutter (n=34) Durchschnitt 2265 4.1 Abweichung 176 1.6 Mager Rammler (n=20) Durchschnitt 2204 3.2 Abweichung 161 1.6
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tersuchungen und die Daten eines greren Bestandes notwendig.
EFFECT OF BODY FAT CONTENT ON SOME REPRODUCTIVE TRAITS OF RABBIT DOES

ABSTRACT
DANKSAGUNG Die Forschung wurde vom Landesfonds fr Wissenschaft und Forschung (OTKA F032594) und vom Jnos Bolyai Forscher Stipendium untersttzt. QUELLENVERZEICHNIS
1. Csonka, L.-n., Szendr, Zs. (1984): Effect of season on productive traits of rabbits (in Hungarian). llattenysztsi s Takarmnyozsi Kutatkzpont kzlemnyei. Gdll, 311-317p. 2. Lebas, F., Viard-Drouet F., Coudert, P. (1988): Reproduction and morbidity of rabbit does effect of diet energy level and origin. 4th World Rabbit Congress Budapest, Hungary, Proceedings Vol 3: 53-57. 3. Mattioli, C. (1982): Influenca del clima sulla riproduzione. Rivista di Coniglicoltura 19: 38-39. 4. McNitt, J. I., Moody, G. L. Jr. (1990): Effect of month, breed, and parity on doe productivity in southern Louisiana. Journal of Applied Rabbit Research Vol 13:169-175. 5. Milisits G., Szendr Zs., Mihlovics Gy., Bir-Nmeth E., Radnai I., Lvai A. (2000): Use of the TOBEC method for predicting the body composition of growing rabbits. 7th World Rabbit Congress, Valencia. 6. Szendr, Zs. (1988): Investigations on frequent kindlings with a view to breeding. 4th World Rabbit Congress Budapest, Hungary. Proceedings Vol 1: 326-331p. 7. . SPSS for Windows (1997): Version 8.0, Copyright SPSS Inc.
The aim of this study was to clarify the effect of body fat content on some reproductive traits of Pannon White rabbit does. For this purpose rabbits of average 1 S.D. live weight at 10 weeks and of average 1 S.D. daily weight gain between 6 and 10 weeks of age were chosen from the experimental stock of the university, and their fat content was determined with an EM-SCAN SA-3152 type Small Animal Body Composition Analyser (by means of the TOBEC method). Based on the fat content determined the best and worst 16% of the does and the best and worst 8% of the bucks were chosen and mated with each other (fatty doe with fatty buck and lean doe with lean buck). It was found that the conception rate was significantly higher (71.4% vs. 43.7%) and the time between two kindlings significantly lower (56 vs. 67 days) in the case of fatty rabbits. No differences were observed in litter size (8.3 vs. 8.3) or litter weight at birth (437g vs. 450g), but mortality among the suckling rabbits was significantly lower (16.7% vs. 28.3%) in the case of fatty rabbits. Keywords: rabbit, selection, fat, reproduction
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ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 636.598
INVESTIGATIONS ON THE NATURAL EGG LAYING HABITS OF DOMESTIC GEESE

Mnika Pandur(1), F. Bogenfrst(2)

The present study was based on the examination of the natural egg laying habits of domestic geese. The authors studied Grey Landes geese during the summer laying period. On the day of arrival of the birds a TyniTalk II artificial egg was placed in each nest. These eggs contain a microchip which detects and records data on the temperature of the surroundings. The results obtained demonstrate that after laying a certain number of eggs females laying under natural conditions sit on the nest not only when laying new eggs, but also to warm the eggs in it. The time devoted to warming increases with the laying period. Keywords: goose female, natural lay, periodic warming, nest, artificial egg
INTRODUCTION Problems arising from the storage of eggs date back as far as artificial incubation itself. As early as 1735 Reaumur (cit. Mayes and Takeballi, 1984) faced this problem and attempted to solve it by dipping eggs in melted mutton fat, thus succeeding in prolonging the storage life of incubated eggs. In the course of the 20th century hatchery practice has improved through a number of results which have been achieved, but it has still not been possible to devise a standard treatment method to prevent deterioration in hatchability due to long-term storage (Valdimirova, 1969; Mayes and Takeballi, 1984; Bogenfrst, 1986). The authors of publications relating to this topic agree on the necessity to apply some type of treatment during storage to prevent the occurence of irreversible changes in the egg. This paper will devote attention to periodic pre-warming treatments linked to the present work of the authors. The necessity for the periodic warming of eggs can be verified on examination of the behaviour of female birds under natural conditions. In such conditions the female sits on the nest and lays a new egg every 1 to 5 days (depending on species), while at the same time warming the eggs laid previously. Thus, the female ensures that the development of the embryo is initiated before she begins brooding (Tretjakov and Krok, 1968). Embryonic development begins almost immediately after the female begins to brood on the nest, as the thread cell is positioned on top of the yolk (Bogenfrst, 1994). As a result of the position of the eggs in the nest the embryo of each is very close to the body of the female (max. 1-1.5 cm) which ensures very rapid heat exchange between the female and the embryo.
Up to the present no attempts have been made to approach the topic of the periodic warming of geese eggs during storage from the aspect of natural laying conditions.
MATERIAL AND METHODS Grey landes geese were studied during the summer laying period in June and July 1999. Five geese, which originated from Haker Plusz Ltd.(Hungary), were housed as follows : 1 female + 1 male (group 1) and 2 females + 1 male (group 2). The birds were taken from the laying farm at 20% general laying intensity. The degree of opening of the laying bones of the females gave an indication of the time already spent laying. This degree of opening was narrowest in the female allocated to group 1; the laying bones in the other two females were already wide opened. The birds were fed the same layer feed as on the laying farm, available ad libitum. Drinking water was also freely available. The birds were allotted to pens of 15 or 20 m2 ground area, in which a covered area was provided to conceal the nest or nests. On the day of arrival of the birds a TyniTalk II artificial egg (hereafter abbreviated to AE) was placed in each nest. These eggs contain a mycrochip which detects and records data on the temperature of the surroundings. An AE has the capacity to save 1800 data, the frequency at which the data are recorded being set by the user. The programme on which an AE operates runs on Windows 95.
(1) Monika Pandur, Ph.D student, (2) Ferenc Bogenfrst, Full Professor University of Kaposvr, Faculty of Animal Sciences,Guba S. u. 40, 7400 Kaposvr, Hungary
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A data recording frequency of 1 min. 30 sec. was set, which enabled data to be recorded for a total of 45 hours.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results obtained demonstrate that after laying a certain number of eggs females laying under natural conditions sit on the nest not only when laying new eggs, but also to warm the eggs in it. The time devoted to warming increases with the laying period, an aspect not yet incorporated into the practice of periodic warming prior to artificial hatching. Examination of the results obtained for group 1 reveals that even during the laying of the first egg the female spent more than an hour on the nest. (Table and Figure). After laying the fifth egg the female sat on the nest each day for a period of varying length to warm the previously laid eggs. On the 19th day of the experiment the female spent more than half of the day on the nest, a condition bordering on brooding. The following day she actually began to brood. Brooding began after nine eggs had been layed. According to data in the literature goose females lay about 11
Table. Lay performance of groups 1 and 2
Day Egg laying Warming length group 1
to 14 eggs before beginning the process of hatching them (Gergely 1957; Bldi, 1961). In this study fewer eggs were laid due to the fact that the females had already laid on the farm from which they were taken. It is thought that the female allocated to group 1 had laid 1 or 2 eggs before being transferred to the experimantal farm. The temperature data shown in Table vary quite considerably. The reason for this is that the females tented to turn the eggs with their beaks before sitting on the nest. This changed the position of the AE in the nest; it was no longer as close to her body as the uppermost side of the eggs, so it recorded data only from the air warmed by the female. It can be supposed that the highest temperature o recorded (37.3 C) was measured very close to the body of the female. The laying bones of the females allocated to group 2 were already wide open on arrival, which reveals an advantage in laying over the female of group 1. The duration of the laying of the first eggs shows same pattern : the females of group 2 each spent one hour on the nest until they had each laid 2 eggs, after which the laying time increased. This indicates that they had both previously laid 3 or 4 eggs on the laying farm. (Table and Figure)
Peak temperature 31.3 C 29.9 C 33.3 C 32.6 C 31.8 C 37.3 C 33.7 C 31.4 C 34.3 C 37.3 C 27.2 C 30.0 C 32.1 C 32.8 C
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
Egg laying
Warming length group 2 1h30 1h40 2h30 1h 3h 20 5h 4h40 6h 10 4h 30 6h 50 10h 30 1h 40 2h 10 10h 12h 55 14h BROODING
Peak temperature 30.2 C 28.9 C 31.8 C 32.4 C 29.2 C 33.7 C 32.6 C 33.6 C 33.1 C 34.8 C 34.9 C 32.2 C 29.6 C 35.3 C 35.3 C 28.1 C
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -
1h30 1h 40 1h30 2h 20 2h 50 3h30 4h 10 2h 20 5h 20 4h 20 7h 50 4h 7h 20 13h 40 BROODING
1n 1k 1n 1 1n 2 2 1 1 1 1k 1k -
145
Time spent on the nest, group 1 and 2

14 12 10 Hours 8 6 4 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Days Group 1 Group 2
After the fifth day of the experiment it became clear that domestic goose females do not remain in the immediate vicinity of their nests. At first the two females of group 2 laid their eggs in separate nests, but on the fifth day the females jointly gathered together the straw from the two nests to create a shared one. Subsequently both females laid their eggs in this nest. After spending much time watching the females it was possible, in half of all instances, to see which female was sitting on the nest. Two different letters in the data of Table indicate the females identified.
REFERENCES
1. Bldy, B. (1961): A baromfi tenysztse. Mezgaz- dasgi Kiad, Budapest. 2. Bogenfrst, F. (1986): A keltethetsg javtsval sszefgg tnyezk hatsnak vizsglata, klns tekintettel a ldfajra. Kandidtusi rtekezs, Kaposvr. 3. Bogenfrst, F. (1994): Keltets. Gazda Kistermeli Lap- s Knyvkiad, Budapest. 4. Gergely, B. (1957) : A baromfikeltets kziknyve. Mezgazdasgi Kiad, Budapest. 5. Mayes, F. J., Takeballi, M. A. (1984): Storage of the eggs of the fowl before incubation, Worlds Poultry Science Journal 40(2):131-140. 6. Tretjakov, N. P., Krok, G. Sz. (1968): Inkubacija sz osznovami embriologii. Kolosz, Moszkva. 7. Vladimirova, J.N. (1969): O predinkubacionnom podogreve kurinh jaic. Pticevodsztvo, 33:77-81.
CONCLUSION This experiment was the first stage in a long-term series of experiments. In this first stage it was possible to verify that goose females sit on their nest not only when they are laying eggs, but also to warm the eggs and keep the embryos alive with more frequent warming than had previously been supposed. The authors intend to repeat this study in traditional goose egg laying in order to gather more data for the purpose of comparison.
146
ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 636.367.37:637.5.04/.07
THE EFFECT OF CHAROLLAIS SHEEP ON THE MEAT PRODUCTION AND THE SLAUGHTER VALUE OF THE HUNGARIAN MERINO
Gy. Toldi(1), A. Lengyel(2), D. Mezszentgyrgyi(3), R. Romvri(4)
Original scientific paper

ABSTRACT
25 Hungarian Merino, 22 Charollais and 20 Charollais F1 lambs were analyzed with CT by the authors. With the help of the 7 pictures taken of the short and long loin muscle and the thigh muscle, the amount of fat put in was analyzed with the different genotypes. According to the results, the Hungarian Merino produces less muscle and more tallow. Statistically verifiable difference between the three genotypes can be established based upon the fat and muscle area on the short loin muscle and the thigh muscle, and the fat tissue area on the long loin muscle. The muscle area measured in the Charollais stock increased significantly, 25 cm2 at the short loin muscle and 13 cm2 at the head of the femur. The Charollais type as a cross breed partner (terminal type) will improve the meat production Table of the Hungarian Merino, primarily at the body parts that supply the most valuable 1st class meat.
Keywords: Charollais sheep, Hungarian Merino, body composition, muscle, fat area
INTRODUCTION The crucial amount of the income of Hungarian sheep-stations comes from selling livestock and mutton. A characteristic feature is exporting live animals in which the unfavorable slaughter value is harder to find. Selling carcass can result in higher income and in this case body composition is more important, as in determining the price of the amount of muscle and tallow are more important in the EUROP rating system (Klosz, 1994). Estimation of body composition earlier was only possible with trial slaughter. Using this method, apart from having to kill the experimental animal, the breeders could calculate slow progress because of the length of the generation interval. In order to improve the efficiency of breeding and to quicken the genetic improvement, the development of a method became the center of research to enable the high-precision estimation of breeding value in vivo state, since knowing the body size will not necessarily give exact results for slaughter value. Skjervold and coworkers (1981) were the first to use computer layer analysis (CT) in pig experiments. Based upon the research of Simm (1987), Vangen (1992), Kvr et al. (1993) with pigs, Bentsen and Sehested (1985), Romvri and Pernyi (1993) with broilers, Sehested (1986), Young et al. (1987), Lengyel et al. (1994) with sheep, it can be established that applying CT analysis results in the selection would greatly improve the work to increase the production of meat.
Our experiments were carried out with the aim to determine how far imported Charollais meat type can improve the meat quality of Hungarian Merino sheep when compared based upon the same live weight and anatomical points.
MATERIAL AND METHODS The experiments to determine body composition in vivo were performed at the CT Biology Centre of the Faculty of Animal Science of Kaposvar University. 25 Hungarian Merino (Me), 22 Charollais (Ch) and 20 Charollais x Hungarian Merino/F1 (Ch F1) sheep were used in the experiment. The Hungarian Merino and the F1 stock was supplied from the farm site of the Lajoskomrom Gyzelem co-op and the Charollais from CSEMEZ Lszls flock, whose whole flock had been imported. Due to the high individual value of the breed sheep, the comparison of the genotypes were made based upon the CT images prepared and the data obtained from these. The live weight of the animals examined was 34 1.5 kg. The keeping conditions for each group were identical, and subsequent to weaning the animals were fed an intensive diet (feed concentrate and hay) up to the time of examinations.
(1) Gyula Toldi, BAg, (2) Attila Lengyel, Ass. Professor, (3) David Mezszentgyorgy, BAg, (4) Robert Romvari, Ass. Professor - University of Kaposvar, Faculty of Animal Science, Guba S. u. 40, 7400 Kaposvar, Hungary
147
8 CT images were taken of each animal. The first image taken was in each case a topogram, this being an orientation image in which the entire length of the body can be seen. In this topogram the spinal column can be clearly distinguished, thus allowing 7anatomical points to marked as sites for the images to be taken. Determination of the sectional surface area of the long loin muscle: 1st image: taken at the 9th thoracic vertebra (vertebra thoracalis nona) 2nd image: taken at the 11th thoracic vertebra 3rd image: taken at the 13th thoracic vertebra Evaluation of the data obtained from these images enabled the area of the M. longissimus dorsi and that of the subcutaneous fat tissue situated above it to be determined in the left half of the body. Determination of the sectional surface area of the short loin muscle: 4th image: taken at the 2nd lumbar vertebra 5th image: taken at the 4th lumbar vertebra The M. psoas major is also depicted in these images. Here, evaluation enabled the total area of the muscle tissue comprising the M. longissimus dorsi and the M. psoas major and also the total collective area of the subcutaneous fat tissue situated above the M. ongissimus dorsi and the fat tissue located between the M. longissimus dorsi and the M. psoas major to be determined in the left half of the body. 6th image: taken at the 6th lumbar vertebra
Table 1. Muscle and fat area data of the long loin
Muscle area, cm2 x Merino (Me) Charollais Ch F1 Statistically significant differences (a; b) 35.76 44.63 41.28
a b b
tissue already examined. This was necessary due to the need for the individual tissue types to be readily distinguishable. The limit values determined, on the basis of the Hounsfield-scale, were the following:
+ 30 - +200 density limit value for the muscle tissue, 0 - +30 density limit value for the liquid phase substances from the muscle tissue, 0 - -30 density limit value for the liquid phase substances from the fat tissue, -30 - -200 density limit value for the fat tissue.
The areas to be examined were delineated on the screen by means of the computer mouse, subsequently the programme was used to calculate from these areas, on the basis of density values, the areas of the respective type of tissue. Statistical analysis was performed by means of the SPSS for WindowsTM (8.0) software package, on the data for muscle and fat area derived from the three images taken both in the long loin muscle (images taken at the 9th, 11th and 13th thoracic vertebra) and in the short loin muscle (images taken at the 2nd, 4th and 6th lumbar vertebra). In each case the minimum and maximum values, the mean of the distribution were calculated, and the t-test and variance analysis were applied for the purpose of comparison.
Fat area, cm2
s
5.81 5.77
x 33.15 22.51 28.03

a b
s
8.28 6.31 5.11
6.17
ab
At this examination point the entire dimensions of the slice, with the exception of the intra-abdominal organs and the reproductive organs, were taken into account. This images was used to determine the area of the muscle tissue and fat tissue. The last image was taken at the head of the femur and was used to determine the sectional surface area of the thigh muscle. Evaluation of this image was performed on the basis of the same procedure as that outlined for the 6th image. Evaluation of the images obtained was performed by means of the CTPC computer programme (Kvr, 1991). This program is suitable for the on-screen depiction of the images required, for the measurement of distances and areas shown on those, for the demarcation and highlighting of certain areas and for the determination of the area of these, and also for the magnification of individual parts of the image. This software also provided the opportunity for the setting of density values for muscle and fat
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In the charrolais and Charollais F1 stocks the values obtained for the sectional area of the long loin muscle proved 4 to 9 cm2 higher than those measured in the Merino rams (Table 1). Significant difference (P<0.01) could only be found between the Merino and the Charollais. Evaluation of the fat area of the fat tissue shows that the difference of the three genotypes examined is statistically verifiable (P<0.01, P<0.001). The Merino can be characterized as having the highest fat area; the Charollais as having the lowest fat area. In the Charollais stock the values of the area of the muscle were 37 cm2 higher than those in the Merino stock (Table 2). In the Charollais F1 stock the area of the muscle increased significantly (25 cm2) compared to the Merino. Significant degrees of difference can be ascertained between the three genotypes at P<0.001 level. The Merino can be characterized as having the highest and the
148 Table 2. Muscle and fat area of the short loin
Muscle area, cm2

x
Fat area, cm2
s
a b
s
a
Merino (Me) Charollais Ch F1
95.38
16.12 15.73 17.30
35.86 26.18 32.33
8.76 6.57 10.39
132.18 120.76
ab
ab
Table 3. The muscle and fat area data taken at the head of the femur
Muscle area, cm2 x Fat area, cm2
s
a
s
a
Merino (Me) Charollais Ch F1
152.97 177.41 165.71
32.08 31.52 29.63
43.82 30.18 37.29
9.56 10.71 11.47
ab
ab
Charollais as having the lowest fat area value. Significant degrees of difference can be found between the Merino and Charollais and the Charollais and Charollais F1. The muscle area at the head of the femur of the Charollais was 25 cm2 higher, and that of the Charollais 13 cm2 higher than the value obtained at the Merino (Table 3). Significant degree of difference can be ascertained between the three genotype at P<0.001 level. The Merino can be characterized as having the highest and the Charollais as having the lowest fat area value. The degrees of difference between the three genotypes are statistically verifiable. At the judgement of the fenotype, the greatest difference can be seen at the thigh muscle and the short loin muscle. The values obtained from the CT also yield this, though the difference could be higher if several images were to be taken of the thigh muscle. The reason for this is that the back legs are stretched when the animals are strapped down. In such a position, especially with the Charollais, a substantial proportion of the thigh muscle is concentrated farther back; therefore, values obtained at the head of the femur cannot really represent the real difference between the types. To determine values of the thigh muscle in the future, a different examination position would be expedient.
- for a more precise determination of the thigh muscle a different sectional surface area is necessary, - in general it can be concluded that using the Charollais type as a cross-breed partner will improve the meat production Table of the Hungarian Merino, primarily the body parts that supply the most valuable 1st class meat. The planned compulsory introduction of he S/EUROP meat classification system into the EU will put the issue of producing quality meat in focus. Using the Charollais type will help Hungary gain the necessary quality improvement.
REFERENCES
1. Bensten, H.B., Sehested, E. (1989): Br. Poultry Sci., 30: 575-585. 2. Klosz, T. (1994): A hs, 4: 212-213. 3. Kvr, Gy., Horn, P., Kovch, G., Pszthy, Gy. (1993): A hs, 4: 235-237. 4. Lengyel, A., Pszthy, Gy., Kvr, Gy., Horn, P. (1994): A hs, 1: 39-41. 5. Romvri, R., Pernyi, M. (1993): Brojler csirkk testzsr tartalmnak in vivo vizsglata CT segtsgvel. MTE Kisllattenysztsi Nap, Kaposvr, 66-77 p. 6. Sehested, E. (1986): In vivo prediction of lambs carcass composition by computerized tomography. Ph. D. Thesis. Dept. of Animal Science, Agricultural University of Norway, 81 p. 7. Skjervold, H., Gronseth, K., Vangen, O., Evense, A. (1981): Z. Tierzcht. Zchtbiol., 98: 77-79 p. 8. Vangen, O. (1992): Assesing body composition of pigs by computer assisted tomography. Rewiew. Pigs News and Inromation, 13(4): 1-22. 9. Young, M.J., Garden, K.L., Knopp, T.C. (1987): Computer aided tomography Comprehensive body compositional data from live animals. Proceedings of New Zealand Society of Animal Production, 47: 69-71.
CONCLUSION Based upon the results of our experiments, the following conclusions can be drawn: - the sectinal surface area of the loin muscle along the full length of the spine and the thigh muscle is higher at the Charollais and the Charollais F1 than those at the Merino, - the Merino can be characterized as having the highest and the Charollais as having the lowest fat area value, - in the Charollais F1 stock the area of the muscle tissue increased along the full length of the spine and the thigh muscle, while the area covered with tallow decreased compared to the Merino, - the greatest improvement was achieved in the crossed flock at the thigh muscle and short loin muscle, in the increase of muscle area and decrease of fat area,
149
ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 636.4:636.085.19
EFFECT OF LOW DOSES OF THE MYCOTOXIN FUMONISIN B1 ON THE BODY MASS GAIN, FEED INTAKE AND FEED CONVERSION RATE OF PIGS
. Tth(1), Melinda Zomborzsky-Kovcs(2), G. Tornyos(3), N. Szalai(4), Krisztina Kbler(5)

The fumonisin group of mycotoxins produced by Fusariun moniliforme is a rather newly discovered contaminant of some agricultural products, especially maize based food and animal feed. Fumonisin was discovered in 1988 of mouldy maize inspected since 1993 has shown FB1
contamination, the degree of this contamination increasing from year to year. Problems of mycotoxins cause significant economic losses due to the reduced feed intake, body weight gain and feed efficiency. We have very few informations about the effect of FB1 on these in South Africa, where high evidence was found between the occurrence of human oesophageal cancer and the rate of FB1 contamination. The discovery of this toxin lead to the explanation of equine leucoencephalomalacia (ELEM), porcine pulmonary oedema (PPC) and possibly liver cancer in rats. In Hungary almost 70 % parameters especially in farm animals. Three experiments were carried out with weaned piglets, in order to study the dose and time dependent effect of FB1. Fungal culture of Fusariun moniliforme was added to the diet so that the FB1 exposure was: 0, 10, 20 and 40 ppm for 4 weeks, 0, 1, 5 and 10 ppm for 8 weeks and 0, 1, 5 and 10 ppm for 5 months. In none of the experiments and the periods examined had FB1 any significant effect on feed consumption, body weight gain and feed conversion of weaned pigs. In spite of these findings mild or severe pulmonary oedema caused by the toxin was found in the animals by dissection carried out at the end of the experiment. Our results draw the attention to human health concerns of FB1. The toxin consumed by the animals without any clinical signs can cumulate in the animals and then enter the human organism by means of products of animal origin (meat, milk, etc.).
Keywords: micotoxins, Fumonisin, pig, gain of body weight
INTRODUCTION Mycotoxins get into the human organism with contaminated plant food and consumer goods such as bread, beer or coffee. In addition to this, foods of animal origin indirectly introduce into the food chain also the mycotoxins contained in feeds consumed by the animals. Prolonged, so-called chronic exposure to low doses of mycotoxins is especially dangerous, as is the additive multitoxic effect that occurs if several toxins are present simultaneously. Fusarium moniliforme is a fungus that occurs on maize all over the world. Under certain conditions it produces mycotoxins of veterinary and medical importance. The most important representative of these mycotoxins is fumonisin B1, which causes equine leukoencephalomalacia and porcine pulmonary oedema, and has been associated with the development of oesophageal cancer in humans. The objective of these experiments was to study the effect of fumonisin B1 exposure of different duration and dose level (low dose) on the body mass gain, feed consumption and feed conversion rate of pigs.

Experimental animals
Twenty weaned barrows of identical body mass (10 kg) and of the same genotype were used in the experiments. Before the start of the experiment the animals were assigned to four groups on the basis of their body mass. The piglets were housed individually. They were fed twice a day, and the quantity of feed not consumed by the animals was weighed and recorded. Drinking water was available ad libitum. During the experimental period the animals were weighed twice a week, then in the experiments of longer term (8 weeks and 5 months) weighing was performed once a week. The clinical status of the piglets was checked twice a day. At the end of the experiment the animals were killed and examined for gross lesions by necropsy.
(1) Akos Tth, Ph.D student, (2) Melinda Zomborszky-Kovacs, Associate Professor, (3) Gabor Tornyos, Ph.D. student, (4) Norbert Szalat, Student (5) Krisztina Kbler, Student - University of Kaposvr, Faculty of Animal Science, Guba S. u. 40, 7400 Kaposvr, Hungary
150 Design of the experiments
Experiment 1: Four random groups of weaned piglets were fed a diet containing 0, 10, 20 or 40 mg/kg fumonisin B1 (FB1) for a relatively short period of time, for 4 weeks. The objective was to determine whether the effect of fumonisin B1 doses much lower than those reported in the literature could be detected already after a short period of exposure. Experiment 2: Four random groups of weaned piglets were fed a diet containing 0, 1, 5 or 10 mg/kg FB1 for 8 weeks. Utilising the results of the first experiment, even lower doses were applied, but for a longer time. Experiment 3: Four random groups of weaned piglets were fed a diet containing 0, 1, 5 or 10 mg/kg FB1 for 5 months. The objective of this experiment was to study the effect of treatment of substantially longer duration, which lasted until end of fattening.
Housing of the animals
was mixed to the ration so as to ensure a daily FB1 intake of 0, 10, 20 and 40 mg/kg of feed (ppm) in Experiment 1 and 0, 1, 5 and 10 mg/kg of feed (ppm) in Experiments 2 and 3. The toxin was produced at the Veterinary Institute of Debrecen according to the method of Fazekas et al. (1998). The feed did not contain other mycotoxins.
Statistical analysis
Comparison of the treated and control groups in terms of feed consumption, body mass gain and feed conversion rate (FCR) was done by one-factor analysis of variance using the ANOVA programme of the SPSS 7.5 programme package.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Clinical signs
The experimental animals were housed individually in battery cages. One cage between two neighbouring groups was left empty, to prevent cross-contamination between the animals. In this way we ascertained that the animals consumed only the toxin quantity designated for them. In the 5-month experiment, the animals were kept in batteries during the first 8 weeks and subsequently they were housed in individual boxes.
Feeding
The animals did not show clinical signs attributable to toxin effect in any of the experiments. No difference was found between the treated and the control groups in the behaviour of the animals either.
Body mass gain, feed consumption and feed conversion rate
The experimental animals were fed a basal ration corresponding to their age. In the 4-week and the 8-week experiment that ration contained 187 g/kg crude protein, 12.8 MJ/kg ME, and 13.1 g/kg lysine (LYS). In the 5-month trial, after the first 8 weeks the ration contained 137 g/kg crude protein, 12.9 MJ/kg ME, and 9.4 g/kg LYS. After a 5-day period of adaptation, a Fusarium moniliforme fungal culture of known fumonisin B1 content
Comparing the three experiments, there was no significant difference in the starting average body mass values. During the study, no significant differences were found between the treated and the control groups in daily average body mass gain and feed consumption in any case. There was no difference in the feed conversion rate either (at least within the sensitivity limits of the method, which in the case of the feed conversion rate means approximately 68% body mass/feed consumption difference, assuming 5% error of first kind and 20% error of second kind). Comparison of the groups was always done by single-factor analysis of variance. The level of significance markedly exceeded 0.05 in all cases.
Table 1. The relative frequency indicate that the incidence of lung lesions depends not only on the amount of toxin ingested but also on the duration of toxin intake
Experiments
Doses 10 ppm
Macroscopic alterations (number of lungs with pathological alterations / number of lungs in the groups) 3 / 4 (75%) 4 / 5 (80%) 5 / 5 (100%) 1 / 4 (25%) 2 / 5 (40%) 3 / 4 (75%) 2 / 5 (40%) 3 / 4 (75%) 6 / 6 (100%)
Weight of the lungs (mean) (a,b,c: P 0.05) 168 210 266 294
a
1.
20 ppm 40 ppm 1 ppm
b c a
276 367 660
2.
5 ppm 10 ppm 1 ppm
b c a
588 769
3.
5 ppm 10 ppm
b c
Agriculture 6 (2000) Gross pathological findings
151
In all three experiments, necropsy revealed gross lesions in the lungs which were indicative of the toxic effect of fumonisin B1. Table 1 show the incidence of these lesions and the average mass of the lungs in the treated groups. CONCLUSION Very few data are available in the literature regarding the effect of fumonisin B1 on growth and body mass gain. Especially little is known about the effects exerted by this toxin in farm animals (including the pig) and in the case of long-term toxin exposure. In an 8-week experiment on weaned piglets (6 weeks old, weighing 612 kg), Rotter et al. (1996) studied the effect of feeding a diet supplemented with purified FB1. While in male animals the body mass gain achieved in weeks 46 decreased in a linear ratio to increasing concentrations of the toxin (1 and 10 ppm), in the gilts no difference could be detected. Body mass gain showed marked fluctuation in the first four weeks, then became more balanced in the second 4-week period. The feed conversion rate was impaired already by toxin levels as low as 0.1 ppm, though the decrease was slight and non-significant. No significant difference was detectable in the feed consumption either; still, it was found that at an FB1 dose of 10 ppm the toxin-treated male piglets ate approximately 10% less than the control males. The toxin doses fed in these experiments did not exert a detectable effect on the body mass gain, feed consumption and feed conversion rate of the animals. This finding somewhat differs from the results reported by Rotter et al. (1996). In their experiments, Rotter et al. fed a diet containing purified FB1 mycotoxin to male and female piglets, while in these studies we added an FB1-containing mycotoxin mixture to the diet of barrows. Rotter et al. could demonstrate a negative effect of FB1 on the performance data only in boar piglets. According to data of the literature, other fusariotoxins affect feed intake and body mass gain already in very low amounts. For example, T-2 toxin was found to cause substantial feed rejection already at a level as low as 3 mg/kg of feed (Rafai et al., 1995). In the experimental animals used in this study, the toxin exerted its harmful effects; however, this was found out only at necropsy, as the animals did not show abnormal clinical signs during the experiment and their performance parameters did not change as an indication of toxicosis. This calls the attention to human health implications, as the mycotoxin may accumulate in animals unnoticed, and humans may ingest it with foods of animal origin. This poses an particularly high risk, as FB1 belongs to the group of potentially carcinogenic substances. The absence of clinical signs in the experimental animals of this study suggests that it may well happen also in humans that this toxicosis is diagnosed only at an already irreversible stage.
It is known that certain mycotoxins may interact with each other. Thus, when several mycotoxins are simultaneously present in the feed, they may mutually amplify the toxic effects of each other. In experiments conducted on piglets, Friend et al. (1992) proved that the negative effect exerted by T-2 toxin on body mass gain and feed intake was substantially enhanced by the presence of deoxynivalenol (DON). In the present experiment the piglets feed contained only the studied Fusarium moniliforme mycotoxin. Thus, these doses probably exert a different effect under natural conditions when the contaminated feed often contains several different mycotoxins. The presence of mycotoxins is a constant problem. It seems that mycotoxins cannot be eliminated from the environment, and thus we must live together with the hazard they pose. Mycotoxicoses represent an important human health problem in Hungary because the population consumes large quantities of cereals, which are the foods most likely to become contaminated with different mould species.
REFERENCES
1. Fazekas, B., Bajmcy, E., Glvits, R., Fenyvesi, A., Tanyi, J. (1998): FumonisinB1 contamination of maize and experimental acute fumonisin toxicosis in pigs. J. Vet. Med. B. 2. Nelson, P.E., Desjardins, A.E., Plattper, R.D.(1993): Fumonisins, mycotoxins produced by Fusarium species: biology, chemistry and significance. Ann. Rev. Cytopathol., 31: 233. 3. Rafai P., Tuboly S., Bata ., Vnyi A., Papp Z., Brydl E., Jakab L., Try E. (1995): Magy. o. Lapja, 682-684 p. 4. Sydenham, E.W., Gelderblom, W.C.A., Thiel, P.G., Marasas, W.F.O. (1990): Evidence for the natural occurence of fumonisin-B1, a mycotoxin produced by Fusarium moniliforme, in corn. J. Agric. Food Chem., 38: 285-290. 5. Weaver, G.A., Kurtz, H. J. (1978a): Vet. Rec., 103: 531 p. 6. Weaver, G.A., Kurtz, H. J. (1978b): Canad. Vet. J., 19: 310 p. 7. Vesonder, R.F., Ellis, J. J. (1981): Appl. Envir. Microbiol., 41: 323 p.
152
ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 619:639.1.052
INCIDENCE OF TRICHINELLOSIS IN WILD BOAR IN HUNTING AREAS OF OSIJEK-BARANJA COUNTY

Z. Tucak(1), T. Florijan~i}(2), P. Dragi~evi}(3), Tatjana Tuek(4)

The environment of the Osijek-Baranja Countys hunting grounds is a potential source of parasitically disease, trichinellosis. In the hounting grounds where wild boar is mostly dwelling, other animals which act as potential disease vectors (rats, foxes, badgers, jackals etc.), dwells too. Despite of the continuous zoo-hygienic control, trichinellosis at wild boar has been observed. Their migration out of the hunting grounds makes possible the contact with pigs, which are in extensive breeding, and spreading of disease in both directions is possible. Due to many reasons, of which the war-situation in the recent past is the main, the Osijek-Baranja County become an endemic area for trichinosis. Our research has confirmed trichinellosis at wild boar, so it requires further and continuous monitoring of disease. Keywords: trichinosis, wild boar, hunting area
INTRODUCTION A fact that parasitically disease, trichinellosis of pigs becomes an endemic in the Osijek-Baranja County is a motive for the research. (Rapi} et al., 1987) examined muscle samples of 78 wild boar by trichinelloscopy, and recorded that 7.89% is invaded by nematode, Trichinella sp. Using the serological and parasitological analyses they recorded 21.76% of pigs holds extensively on the farmlands is invaded by trichina. The economical conditions still tending the extensive pig breeding, that makes contact with wild boar and other disease vectors more possible. The scope of the research is to make sure how much is trichinosis frequent at wild boar. MATERIAL AND METHODS The frequency of parasitically nematode, Trichinella sp., in the meat of wild boar, which have been shot in the Osijek-Baranja Countys hounting grounds in the period 1996-1999, has been researched. Samples of the muscle part of diaphragm has been examined by method of trichinelloscopy in the Veterinary Stations in Beli Manastir, akovo and Osijek. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In the Osijek-Baranja County in the period 1996-1999 has been examined by trichinelloscopy: 1703 samples of wild boar muscle tissue (table 1) and 225,315 samples of domestic pigs muscle tissue (table 2). Table 3 (wild boar) and table 4 (domestic pigs) shows an increase in number of examination from year to year. It can be explained by epidemic series, which occur in akovo (1997), in Baranja region (1998) and in Osijek (1999). A number of the positive results in wild boar is rel-
Table 1. The total number of examined and positive wild boar meat samples in the period 1996-1999
Veterinary Station Beli Manastir akovo Osijek Total Examined samples 544 875 284 1703 Positive samples number 1 0 1 6 % 0.183 0.0 0.352 0.117
Table 2. The total number of examined and positive domestic pigs meat samples in the period 1996-1999
Veterinary Station Beli Manastir akovo Osijek Total Examined samples 58,791 90,403 76,121 225,315 Positive samples number 105 107 410 622 % 0.179 0.118 0.539 0.276
atively lower (0.117%) than in domestic pigs (0.276%), as it is shown by previous studies (Bogut et al., 1999). This can be explained by fact that wild boar possess a much stronger natural immunity and instinctive behav(1) Zvonimir Tucak, Associated Professor, (2) Tihomir Florijan~i}, DVM, (3) MSc Pavao Dragi~evi} - J.J.Strossmayer University of Osijek, Faculty of Agriculture, Trg Svetog Trojstva 3, 31000 Osijek, Croatia, (4) Tatjana Tuek, Ph.D - College of Agriculture at Krièvci, M. Demerca 1, 48260 Krièvci, Croatia
Agriculture 6 (2000) Table 3. The number of examined and positive wild boar meat samples in the period 1996-1999
Veterinary Station Beli Manastir akovo Osijek Total 1996 Examined samples 301 42 92 Positive samples 1997 Examined samples 57 134 88 320 Positive samples 1 1 2 Examined samples 157 195 136 733 1998 Positive samples 1 2 1999 Examined samples 239 245 210 1117
153
Positive samples 1 1 2
Table 4. The number of examined and positive domestic pigs meat samples in the period 1996-1999
Veterinary Station Beli Manastir akovo Osijek Total 1996 Examined samples 8,638 4,160 15,672 Positive samples 9 3 15 1997 Examined samples 1,400 15,250 11,203 35.444 Positive samples 2 8 75 92 Examined samples 8,564 24,855 30,791 90.083 1998 Positive samples 8 37 172 272 1999 Examined samples 38,586 32,060 29,967 142.081 Positive samples 80 42 160 486
iour for not consuming carcasses, which are potentially source of trichinosis (foxes, rats, wild pigs etc). Nevertheless the increasing in the pigs meat sample examination, an evidence that large number of slaughtered domestic and shot wild boar is not undergo to trichinelloscopy is concerning. Consequently, quality of meat and meat products decay which is a potential hazard to human health. To prevent this dangerous disease the Ministry of agriculture and forestry issued an order about obligatory examination for trichinosis of pigs meat, from pigs used in households nutrition, in the entire Republic of Croatia. For further prevention and beating of trichinosis in animals and humans, continuous monitoring of disease is important. Trichinelloscopy examination of all slaughtered and shot pigs should be obligatory, also appropriate dislocation of perished and dead animals (the best way is by burning up), and education of people and hunters about danger of trichinosis are the main tasks too.
REFERENCES
1. Bodako, D. (1997): Trihineloza. Hrvatski veterinarski vjesnik 1-2: 46-51. 2. Bodako, D., Bogut, I. (1998): Trihineloza opaka bolest ìvotinja i ljudi. Hrvatska gospodarska komora, Osijek. 3. Bogut, I., Bodako, D, Lederer, M., Rastija, T., Tucak, Z. (1999): Invadiranost svinja Trichinellom spiralis na podru~ju Osje~ko-baranjske ùpanije 1998. godine. Znanstveni glasnik Sveu~ilita u Mostaru 7: 187-194. 4. Brstilo, M. (1999): Suzbijanje trihineloze u Republici Hrvatskoj. I. hrvatski simpozij o trihinelozi. Knjiga saètaka, 9-10. 5. Marinculi}, A., Gapar, A. (1999): Epizootiologija trihineloze. I. hrvatski simpozij o trihinelozi. Knjiga saètaka, 1-3. 6. Poto~njak, M., Bodako, D., Bogut, I., Zoreti} Dubravka (1998): Invadiranost svinja Trichinellom spiralis tijekom 1997. godine na podru~ju Osje~ko-baranjske ùpanije. 34. znanstveni skup hrvatskih agronoma. Zbornik saètaka, 309-310. 7. Pozio, E. (1999): Epidemiology of trichinellosis in Europe. I. hrvatski simpozij o trihinelozi. Knjiga saètaka, 3-4. 8. Rapi}, D., Wikerhaucer, T., Dàkula, N., Stojiljkovi}, D., Marinculi}, A., Modri}, Z., Juki}, B., Mekanj, L., Vickovi}, M., Kova~, Z., @iger, K. (1987): Eksperimentalna istraìvanja trihineloze u SR Hrvatskoj 1982-1987. Vet. arhiv 57: 113-122. 9. Sviben, M. (1996): Nacionalno izvje}e Republike Hrvatske za sastanak o hrani u svijetu, Rim 13-17. studenog 1996: 80-96.
CONCLUSION 1. In the period 1996-1999 in the Osijek-Baranja County 1703 samples of wild boar meat has been examined by trichinelloscopy. 2. The percentage of wild boar invading by Trichinella sp. is lower compared to domestic pigs. 3. More frequent appear of trichinellosis are result of insufficient realization of measure for prevention and beating.
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ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 636.4:637.5.04/.07
SHARE AND QUALITY OF MUSCLE TISSUE IN CARCASSES OF PIGS PRODUCED ON FAMILY FARM
A. Petri~evi}(1), Gordana Kralik(2), Draènka Gutzmirtl(3), G. Kuec(4)

In this study, 60 pig carcasses were included, divided in 2 groups according to breed (1st=SLxGL; 2nd=SL), and within groups according to sex (gilts F1=15 and F2=14; male castrates M1=17 and M2=14). Pigs were produced on family farm and fattened in same conditions. Primary processed and cooled carcasses were cut according to Kulmbach method (CAC/79). The main parts of the carcasses were dissected on tissues (muscle, fat and bones) and share of lean meat was determined for carcasses and for individual cuts. Muscle tissue share in the carcasses was higher in gilts from 1st and 2nd group (F1=53.93%; F2=51.77%) than in male castrates from both groups (M1=50.13%; M2=49.90%) and regardless the sex it was higher in SL x GL crossbreds (1st group) than in SL breed (2nd group). Statisticaly significant differences (P<0.05) were found only in case of loins between gilts and castrates from 1st group (F1=9.58%; M1=8.30%) and between castrates of the 1st group and gilts from 2nd group (M1=8.30% i F2=9.57%). Mean values of meat quality indicators were mainly within normal boundaries; the only statistically significant difference (P<0.05) was established for meat color between F1 and F2 group. Keywords: fattening of pigs, meat yield, meat quality
INTRODUCTION Production of fattened pigs in Croatia is still not satisfactory regarding meat yield, compared to most of the EU countries. This disadvantage is esspecially noTable in production on family farms. The main reasons for this are genetic background, feeding regimes, environment etc (iki}et al. 1993; Sen~i}et al. 1994, Petri~evi}et al. 1994, Kuec et al. 1998). The improvement of those conditions could also improve overall pig production. Its known that sex has influence on meat yield and distribution of tissues in the carcass of slaughtered pigs as well as on the indicators of meat quality (`gur et al. 1994, Petri~evi}et al. 1990). The aim of this research is to investigate yeald and quality of mucle tissue of pigs of different genetic background according to sex. MATERIAL AND METHODS In this research, 60 pig carcasses were included, divided in 2 groups. In 1st group were 15 carcasses from gilts (F1) and 14 carcasses from male castrates (M1) of crossbreeds between Swedish Landrace annd German Landrace (SLxGL), while 2nd group consisted from 17 carcasses from gilts (F2) and 14 carcasses male castrates (M2), Swedish Landrace (SL) pigs. All pigs were produced on family farm and fattened under the same conditions. After slaughter, primary processing of pigs, and cooling, pig carcasses were cut and totally dissected ac-
cording to Kulmbach method (Commision of European Commities, 1979). Carcasses of pigs were cut on main parts (ham, shoulder, loin, neck, belly-rib part) and less valuable parts (head, lower parts of legs, tail, kidnies). Main parts were further dissected on muscle tissue, fatty tissue with skin and bones. Initial pH the meat was measured 45 minutes after slaughter (pH1) and other indicators of meat quality, such as: pH2, water holding capacity according to Grau and Hamm, color by Gfo device and consistency by compression, were measured next day after chilling. Data were processed on personal computer using standard statistical methods.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 1 contains mean values and standard deviations of carcasses weights, share of muscle tissues in main cuts and meat to fat surface ratio in musculus longissimus dorsi cut. Data on carcass weights show the differences between two groups divided according to breed (1stg = SLxGL; 2nd = SL) and within the breed according to sex. Carcass weight of male castrates from both groups (M1=82.71 kg, M2=80.71 kg) was higher
(1) Antun Petri~evi}, Professor Emeritus, (2) Gordana Kralik, Dr.h.c. Full Professor, (4) Goran Kuec, MSci, - J.J.Strossmayer University of Osijek, Faculty of Agriculture, Trg Svetog Trojstva 3, 31000 Osijek, Croatia, (3) Draènka Gutzmirtl, BAgr, Croatian Advisery Service, Kr. Petra Sva~i}a 4, 31000 Osijek, Croatia
155
than weights of gilts (F1=78.3 kg, F2 = 76.94 kg), and statistically significant differences (P<0.05) were found only between male castrates of the 1st group and females from 2nd group (M1 and F2). Differences in mean values for pH1, pH2,WHC and consistency was not in any case. Muscle tissue share in the carcasses was higher in gilts from 1st and 2nd group (F1=53.93%; F2=51.77%) than in male castrates from both groups (M1=50.13%; M2=49.90%) and regardless the sex it was higher in SL x GL crossbreds (1st group) than in SL breed (2nd group). Statisticaly significant differences (P<0.01) were found between females from 1st group and castrates from both groups (M1 and M2). Statisticaly significant differences (P<0.05) were found only in case of loins between gilts and castrates from 1st group (F1=9.58% i M1=8.30%) and between castrates of the 1st group and gilts from 2nd group (M1=8.30% i F2=9.57%). Petri~evi} et al. (1999) were found similar differences between sexes in carcass weight (P<0.05) and
muscle tissue share (P<0.01), while `gur et al. (1994) were not found statisticaly significant differences between sexes regarding this indicator. Data from Table 2 show the main indicators of meat quality. Mean values of pH1 were on the border of satisfactory (5.96-6.04), while pH2 values were all within normal boundaries for both groups and sexes. Mean values for water holding capacity according to breed and sex were a little bit higher, but still within normal boundaries. Consistency can be assumed satisfactory in all cases. Differences in mean values for pH1, pH2,WHC and consistency were not statisticaly significant (P>0.05) in any case. Statistically significant differences (P<0.05) were found only in color of muscle tissue originated from female pigs (F1 and F2), which could be explained by influence of breed.
Table 1. Share of muscle tissue in pig carcasses produced on family farm

Group 1 Indicators Gender F1 (n=15) Mean Carcass weight (kg) Muscle tissue in carcass (%) Muscle tissue of ham in carcass (%) Muscle tissue of loins in carcass (%) Muscle tissue of shoulder in carcass (%) Muscle tissue of belly-rib part in carcass (%) Muscle tissue of neck in carcass (%) *P<0.05; **P<0.01 78.33 53.93 **M1,M2 18.96 9.58 *M1 9.35 10.43 5.61 1.00 1.01 0.57 s 10.71 2.56 1.47 0.90 M1 (n=14) Mean 82.71*F2 50.13 18.03 8.30 *F2 9.12 9.22 5.46 0.77 1.16 0.79 8.79 9.55 5.49 1.01 0.69 0.83 8.63 9.50 5.60 1.15 1.18 0.91 s 10.06 3.43 1.65 0.39 F2 (n=17) Mean 76.94 51.77 18.37 9.57 s 10.67 3.62 1.81 0.98 Group 2 Gender M2 (n=14) Mean 80.71 49.90 17.61 8.56 s 10.35 4.25 2.54 0.89
Table 2. Meat quality indicators in pig carcasses produced on family farm

Group 1 Indicators Gender F1 (n=15) Mean pH1 pH2 Water holding capacity (WHC), cm2 Color (Gfo) Consistency, cm *P<0.05
2
Group 2 Gender M1 (n=14) F2 (n=17) s 0.29 0.17 1.63 6.22 0.91 Mean 5.96 5.66 9.36 58.35 3.19 s 0.35 0.12 0.98 3.62 0.83 M2 (n=14) Mean 5.98 5.68 9.69 59.07 3.29 s 0.21 0.14 1.19 3.45 0.75 Mean 6.04 5.71 10.04 60.57 3.19
s 0.27 0.17 0.83 3.02 0.61
6.02 5.67 9.45 61.40 *F2 3.47
156 Table 3. Distribution of pH1 values in the muscles of pigs with different genotype and sex
Group 1 pH1-value F1 (n=15) No. >6.0 6.0-5.8 <5.8 7 6 3 % 46.7 40.0 13.3 No. 7 4 3 Gender M1 (n=14) % 50.0 28.6 21.4 No. 7 5 5 F2 (n=17) % 41.2 29.4 29.4 Group 2 Gender
M2 (n=14) No. 7 4 3 % 41.2 29.4 29.4
Because of such a low mean values of pH1 (6.04-5.96), their partial distribution frequency is shown in Table 3. The division of determined individual pH1 values was made in this manner because some experts accept that border value for normal meat is >6.0 (Briskey, 1964) while others appreciate somehow less strong criteria for border value for pH1>5.8 (Kallweit, 1980). There are examples in literature where meat with pH1 values >6.0 is considered as normal, between 6.0 and 5.8 suspicuos and less than 5.8 PSE meat (Petricevic et al., 1994). If pH1 values from Table 3 are viewed from this side than it is clear that only 50% of the sample in one group (M1) can be considered as normal, while in other groups there were less (F1=46.7%; F2 i M2=41.2%). Other samples are classified either all with PSE properties or one fraction is separated as suspicous i.e. with PSE changes less expressed. Hence, if the pH1 values are viewed in this manner and not only through mean values, than the situation is completely different and not satisfying.
pH1 which mean values in both groups and in both sexes lay on the border of what can be described as normal meat (5.36-6.04). Distribution frequency of individual pH1 values shows that in both groups (according to genotype) and in both sexes more than 50% of the carcasses can not be considered as satisfactory in technological sence regarding this indicator.
REFERENCES
1. Briskey, E.J. (1964): Etiological status and associated studies of pale, soft, exudative porcine musculature. Adv. in res., 13:89-148, New York. 2. iki}, Marija, Juri}, I., Petri~evi}, A. (1993): Proportion of tissues of leg and loin in Swedish Landrace and Hypor pigs. Scientific days on animal husbandry. Kaposvar, Hungary, 1-2. September. Proceedings, pp. 82-87. 3. Grau, R., Hamm, R. (1952): Eine einfache metode zur Bestimmung der Wasserbindung im Fleisch. Die Fleischwirtschaft, 4, 295-297. 4. Kallweit, E. (1980): Fleischfle und Fleischbe- schaffenkeit. Schweinezucht und Schweinemast 28(5):148-155. 5. Kuec, G., Kralik, Gordana, Petri~evi}, A., @ivkovi}, J. (1998): Influence of genotype on meat yield estimation in swine carcasses. Czech Journal of Animal Science, 43 (2), 87-91. 6. Petri~evi}, A., Juri}, I., Kralik, Gordana, iki}, Marija (1990): Kvaliteta polovica i kvalitativna svojstva mesa svinja Hypor hibrida prema spolu. Zbornik radova X skupa svinjogojaca Jugoslavije, 191-195, Pan~evo. 7. Petri~evi}, A., Kralik, Gordana, Gutzmirtl, Draènka, Maltar, Zlata, Fazeka, J., Knapi}, A. (1994): Pro- cjena mesnatosti i povezanost va`nijih pokazatelja kakvo}e svinjskih polovica. Znanost i praksa u poljoprivredi i prehrambenoj tehnologiji 24, p. 67-74. 8. Petri~evi}, A., Kralik, Gordana, Kuec, G., Bukvi}, @. (1999): 45th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology, 01.-06.08. 1999., Yokohama, Japan, Congress Proceedings, Vol.II, p.492-493. 9. Sen~i}, ., Kralik, Gordana, Petri~evi}, A., Jovanovac, Sonja (1994): Prinos mii}nog tkiva i povezanost pokazatelja mesnatosti svinja razli~itih genotipova. Znanost i praksa u poljoprivredi i prehrambenoj tehnologiji 24, p. 80-87. 10. @gur, S., Urbas, Joà, Glava~, Marija, egula, B. (1994): Influence of sex on carcass traits in pigs. Znanost i praksa u poljoprivredi i prehrambenoj tehnlogiji 24, p. 75-79.
CONCLUSIONS On the basis of results from this research, following conclusions could be drawn: The carcass weight in both groups was higher in male castrates (M1 and M2) compared to carcasses of gilts (F1 and F2); statisticaly significant differences (P<0.05) were found between male castrates from the 1st group and gilts from 2nd group (M1 and F2). Muscle tissue share in the carcasses of both grouops was higher in gilts (F1 and F2) compared to male castrates (M1 and M2); statisticaly significant differrences (P<0.01) were found between gilts from 1st group and male castrates from both groups (M1 and M2). Percentage of muscle tissue in all carcass parts was highest in gilts of the 1st group (F1), slightly lower in gilts from 2nd group (F2) followed by castrates from the 1st group (M1) and lowest was in castrates from 2nd group (M2). Statisticaly significant differences (P<0.05) were found only in case of loins between gilts and castrates from 1st group (F1 and M1) and between castrates of the 1st group (M1) and gilts from 2nd group (F2). Meat quality indicators (pH2, WHC, color and consistency) could be considered as satisfactory according to established mean values. This could not be stated for
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ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 636.5:636.082.22+637.5
SLAUGHTERING QUALITY OF CROSSBRED PIGS WITH GERMAN LANDRACE AND PIETRAIN AS TERMINAL BREEDS
. Sen~i}(1), Gordana Kralik(2), G. Kuec(3), V. Margeta(4)

In the aim of slaugtering quality improvement of pigs, crossbred sows of Large White and Swedish Landrace (F1) are crossed with German Landrace, Pietrain or some other boars from exemptionaly lean breeds. Triple crosses between Large White, Swedish Landrace and Pietrain are different from triple crosses with German Landrace as terminal breed regarding the conformation and leaness of carcasses and meat quality. Triple crosses with Pietrain have bigger ham diameter (72.40 cm: 70.30 cm), bigger share of ham (29.24% : 28.54%), necks (8.05% : 7.64%) and belly-rib parts (19.15% : 17.33%), better leaness (55.64% : 53.40%), lower pH2 values in muscle tissue (5,50 : 5,86), lower water holding capacity (9.70 cm2 : 8.50 cm2) and paler color (58.00 : 65.50 Gfo values).
Keywords: crossbred pig, Large White, Swedish Landrace, Garman Landrace, Pietrain, carcass, meat quality
INTRODUCTION The largest number of pigs in Croatia are Swedish Landrace and Large White and their crossbred sows are further crossed with boars from exemptionaly lean breeds in order to produce fattening pigs. In recent years, in the aim of improvement of leaness, conformation and composition of pig carcasses, Pietrain boars are used in terminal crossing. Pietrain is very well known to be extreme lean, but also to have poorer meat quality. Crossing with Pietrain can lead to poorer meat quality of offspring (Pellois i Runavot, 1991). Regarding the fact that outcomes of such crossing are not enough studied in Croatia, aim of this research is to point out some characteristics of leaness and meat quality of pigs resulted from crossing with Pietrain. MATERIAL AND METHODES Research have been carried out on pig carcasses originated from triple crosses of Large White (LW), Swedish Landrace (SL) dams and German Landrace sires as well as of triple crosses with Pietrain (P) sires. Following crossing scheme was used: (LW x SL) x GL and (LW x SL) x P. Fifteen pigs from each crossing were fattened up to 100 kg. Sex ratio was equalized. From 25 to 60 kg live weight, pigs were fed diet with 17,5% crude proteins and 14,0 MJ metabolic energy and from 60 to 100 kg live weight they were given diet with 13,7% crude proteins and 12,5 MJ metabolic energy. Diets contained superconcentrate and silaged corn. After slaugther, pig carcasses were cooled 24 hours at +4 C, after that diameter of ham and surface of m. longisimuss dorsi (MLD) cut between 13th and 14th rib
were measured. Carcass leaness were determined indirectly using two points method (ZP-Zwei Punkte) according to official regulations. Right carcass halves were cut on main parts according to Weniger et al. (1963). Less valuable parts were: head, tail and lower parts of legs. Acidity of muscle tissue was measured 45 minutes post mortem (pH1 values), and 24 hours post mortem (pH2 values) at MLD cut. Water holding capacity was determined by Grau and Hamm method (1952) and consistency by Joksimovi} (1979). Meat color was measured by Gfo device. Data were processed statisticaly according to Bara Stani} (1965).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Indicators of pig carcass quality are shown in table 1. Triple crosses with Pietrain sires had larger MLD surface, but this difference was not statisticaly significant (P>0.05). Ham diameter was very significantly higher (P<0.01) in the same cross. Theese crossbreds had also statisticaly significant (P<0.05) higher relative share of ham and very significanly (P<0.01) higher share of belly rib part and neck compared to crosses with German Landrace as terminal breed. No statisticaly significant differences were found regarding the shoulder and double cheen with fat between two crossbreeds investigated. Triple crosses with German Landrace sires had very significantly higher (P<0.01) relative share of loin as well as
(1) uro Sen~i}, Associated Professor, (2) Gordana Kralik, Full Professor, Dr. h. c, (3) Goran Kuec, MSc, (4) Vladimir Margeta, BAg - J.J.Strossmayer University of Osijek, Faculty of Agriculture, Trg sv. Trojstva 3, 31000 Osijek, Croatia
158 Table 1. Pig carcass quality indicators

Crosses Indicators x Cooled carcass weight, kg MLD surface, cm
2
(LW x SL) x GL s 2.67 5.30 2.55 1.04 0.50 1.25 0.80 0.87 0.68 0.85 3.00 Vc 6.83 12.77 3.63 3.64 3.43 7.18 10.54 5.02 8.01 14.03 5.62 x 39.00 43.80 72.40 29.24 14.25 16.25 8.05 19.15 7.44 5.62 55.64 39.10 41.50 70.30* 28.54 14.58 17.41** 7.69** 17.33** 8.39** 6.06 53.40*
(LW x SL) x P s 3.07 6.70 2.60 0.89 0.50 0.86 0.47 1.13 0.67 0.50 3.22 Vc 7.87 15.30 3.64 3.06 3.51 5.29 5.84 5.83 9.00 8.90 5.81
Ham diameter, cm Share in carcass, %: - Ham - Shoulder - Loin - Neck - Belly rib part - Less valuable parts - yawl and fat Carcass leaness, % * P<0.05 ** P<0.01
Table 2. Pig meat quality indicators

Crosses Indicators x pH1 pH2 Water holding capacity, cm2 Consistency, cm2 Color (Gfo) ** P<0.01 6.20 5.86** 8.50** 4.10 65.50** (LW x SL) x GL s 0.28 0.30 1.50 0.50 3.50 vk 4.52 5.20 12.50 12.19 5.34 x 6.30 5.50 9.70 7.20 58.00 (LW x SL) x P s 0.15 0.10 1.20 0.35 2.40 vk 2.38 1.82 12.37 8.33 4.13
less valuable parts in carcasses compared to crosses with Pietrain as terminal breed. Carcass leaness was significantly higher (P<0.05) in Pietrain triple crosses. It is obvious that crossing with Pietrain sires had effect on increase of ham share and on leaness of carcasses. This is in accordance with earlier research of @ivkovic et al. (1992) in which triple crosses with Pietrain sires showed better results regarding MLD cut, share of ham and carcass leaness than triple crosses with German Landrace as terminal breed. Triple crosses with Pietrain sires had poorer meat quality (table 2) compared to triple crosses with German Landrace which was ovbious from statisticaly lower pH2 values of muscle tissue, lower water holding capacity and paler color. The fact that rapid decrease of pH simultaneously decreases the water holding capacity is demonstrated. This is in accrodance with research of Zivkovic et al. (1992) in which meat of triple crossbreds with Pietrain had lower pH1 values, paler color and lower
water holding capacity compared to triple crosses with German Landrace. Pellois and Runavot (1991), studying the meat quality of four genotypes of pigs, found that increase of Pietrain share in crossings leads to worsen of meat quality.
CONCLUSION Triple crosses between Large White, Swedish Landrace and Pietrain as terminal breed differ, compared to triple crosses with German Landrace sires differ regarding conformation and leaness of carcasses as well as regarding the meat quality. Triple crosses with Pietrain have bigger ham diameter (72.40 cm: 70.30 cm), bigger share of ham (29.24% : 28.54%), necks (8.05% : 7.64%) and belly-rib parts (19.15% : 17.33%), better leaness (55.64% : 53.40%), lower pH2 values in muscle tissue (5.50 : 5.86), lower water holding capacity (9.70 cm2 : 8.50 cm2) and paler color (58.00 : 65.50 Gfo values).
159
4. Pellois, H., Runavot, J.P. (1991): Comparaison des performances d'engraissement de carcasse et de qualite de riande de 4 types de porcs ayant une proportion variable de sang Pietrain. In 23 mes Journees de la Recherche Porcine en France, Paris. 5. @ivkovi}, J., Bukovi} Branka, Njari, B. (1992): Utjecaj pasminskog sastava na prinos i kakvo}u svinjskog mesa, Sto~arstvo 46, 1-2, 25-31. 6. .. Pravilnik o utvr|ivanju trgova~kih kategorija i klasa svinjskih trupova i polovica. N.N. br. 79,
REFERENCES
1. Bari} Stana (1965): Statisti~ke metode primijenjene u sto~arstvu, Agronomski glasnik, Zagreb. 2. Grau, R., Hamm, R. (1952): Eine einfache Methode zur Bestimmung der Wasser bildung in Fleisch, Die Fleischwirtschaft 4, 295-297. 3. Joksimovi}, J., Mijatovi}, M., Anastasijevi}, V., Stankovi}, M. (1970): Prilog poznavanju totalne kastracije svinja na kvalitet i tehnoloka svojstva mesa. Arhiv za poljoprivredne nauke XXIII, 81, 33-43.
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Agriculture 6 (2000)

8th International Symposium

ANIMAL SCIENCE DAYS

ANIMAL PRODUCTS AND HUMAN HEALTH

JOSIP JURAJ STROSSMAYER UNIVERSITY OF OSIJEK FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE ZOOTECHNICAL DEPARTMENT

ANIMAL PRODUCTS IN NUTRITION OF HUMAN POPULATION

Table 2. Biochemical composition of nutrition in households in 1998

TOXIC SUBSTANCES IN THE FOOD CHAIN RISK ASSESSMENT

EXAMINATION OF PERINATAL TOXICOSIS OF FUMONISIN B1 IN PREGNANT SOWS AND NEWBORN PIGLETS

THE ROLE OF MEAT IN BALANCED NUTRITION

Scientific review ABSTRACT

Control group 303 17 24 19 35 60

ISSN 1330-7142 UDK = 619:637.1+637.1+637.5

HEALTH SUITABILITY CRITERIA OF FOOD OF ANIMAL ORIGIN

Professional paper ABSTRACT

24 Table 1. Tolerances for bio-residua as per the Statute

Agriculture 6 (2000) Table 2. Tolerances for bio-residua as per the Statute

TRACEABILITY OF BEEF MEAT FROM SLAUGHTER LINE TO CONSUMERS

Keywords: traceability, meat labelling, identification

Figure 1. Function diagram of the process in slaughterhouse

Figure 2. An example of a label

Original scientific paper ABSTRACT

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Land per capita is given in Table 1.

other 0,940 0,420 0,899

total 1,216 0,902 1,019

0,275 0,482 0,120

Milk Croatia Hungary Slovenia 132 198 309

Meat poultry 8,4 36,9 34,9 total* 24,4 117,8 92,6

*Horse and sheep meat added Source: FAO

lower production. Animal production per capita is shown in Table 2.

to Hungarian and Slovenian becomes more unfavorable, as shown in Table 4.

1995 Crop production Croatia Hungary Slovenia

56,7 70,9 98,0

Table 4. Value of import and export of animal products (export = 100)

Food + animals Croatia Hungary Slovenia

Live animals 977 9 547

Meat +poultry 207 8 96

Original scientific paper ABSTRACT

Producer price 1.0 1.0 1.0

Direct payments 0.9 0.9 0.0

Structural payments 0.6 0.6 0.0

EU+++ 149.930 47.026 -4.009 -23.787

EU+ - o 122.549 21.553 -44.829 -25.047

EU - - o 92.722 10.069 -142.791 -41.803

BS EU+++ EU+-o EUo

14.033 12.821 11.503 7.196

10.837 10.406 7.036 4.412

7.897 6.819 6.750 5.079

3.973 2.875 2.859 1.567

-13.640 -11.307 -11.307 -7.184

-10.283 -6.914 -6.914 -4.223

-13.258 -11.431 -11.431 -8.760

-3.657 -2.704 -2.704 -1.527

BS EU+++ EU+-o EUo

-4.641 -7.933 -3.970 -2.809

-3.178 -10.739 -3.320 -3.190

-318 -1.056 -532 -518

-764 -532 -452 -178

-4.248 -6.419 -3.774 -2.796

-2.624 -7.248 -3.199 -3.001

-5.679 -5.668 -5.213 -4.199

-448 -361 -297 -138

PLANUNGSPRAXIS IN DER AGRARUNTERNEHMEN