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Nonlinear Modeling of DC/DC Converters Using the Hammersteins Approach

Francesco Alonge, Member, IEEE, Filippo DIppolito, Member, IEEE, Francesco Maria Raimondi, and Salvatore Tumminaro

AbstractThis paper deals with the modelling of highly nonlinear switching power-electronics converters using black-box identication methods. The duty cycle and the output voltage are chosen, respectively, as the input and the output of the model. A nonlinear Hammerstein-type mathematical model, consisting of a static nonlinearity and a linear time-invariant model, is considered in order to cope with the well-known limitations of the more common small-signal models, (i.e., the entity of the variations of the variables around a well-dened steady-state operating point and the incorrect reproduction of the steady-state behavior corresponding to input step variations from the above steady-state operating point. The static nonlinearity of the Hammerstein model is identied from inputoutput couples measured at steady state for constant inputs. The linear model is identied from inputoutput data relative to a transient generated by a suitable pseudorandom binary sequence constructed with two input values used to identify the nonlinearity. The identication procedure is, rst, illustrated with reference to a boost dc/dc converter using results of simulations carried out in the PSpice environment as true experimental results. Then, the procedure is experimentally applied on a prototype of the above converter. In order to show the utility of the Hammerstein models, a PI controller is tuned for a nominal model. Simulation and experimental results are displayed with the aim of showing the peculiarities of the approach that is followed. Index TermsDC/DC converters, Hammerstein model identication.

I. INTRODUCTION

ODELING and simulation are essential tools for both the analysis and design process in power electronics. In particular, with reference to switching converters, it is very difcult to design stable feedback controllers using exact mathematical descriptions because of their inherent high nonlinearity. In a switching converter, some conduction congurations exist, depending on the state of conduction of its nonlinear components (i.e., diodes and transistors and, consequently, as many linear and time-invariant dynamical models can be obtained as

Manuscript received July 15, 2006; revised August 7, 2006. A part of this paper was presented at the PESC04 Conference, Aachen, Germany, June 2024, 2004. Recommended for publication by Associate Editor B. Fahimi F. Alonge is with the University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Palermo 90128, Italy, and also with the Dipartimento di Ingegneria dellAutomazione e dei Sistemi, University of Palermo (e-mail: alonge@unipa.it). F. DIppolito and F. M. Raimondi are with the University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Palermo 90128, Italy S. Tumminaro is with STMicroelectronics, Catania I-95121, Italy. Color versions of one or more of the gures in this paper are available online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org. Digital Object Identier 10.1109/TPEL.2007.900551

the number of conduction congurations). Then, it is possible to describe the switching converter using a switched model consisting of a set of linear- and time-invariant mathematical models and a logic supervisor which extracts from the above set, the model which corresponds to the actual conduction conguration. Such a switched model gives accurate results when the converter has to be analyzed but, obviously, it is not useful for designing a controller. For control purposes, suitable procedures are brought to approximate models, which describe the essential low-frequency dynamics of the converter, and have to be utilized. Many of these procedures are circuit oriented, implying that circuit idealization and detailed knowledge of the circuit operation are required. As is well known among these procedures, a widely used method for modeling power switching converters controlled by pulse-width modulation (PWM) techniques is the state-space averaging method [1][3] which practically links, with certain approximations, all linear models appearing in the switched model. This method enables obtaining a nonlinear mathematical model that is sufciently accurate when the carrier basic frequency is much higher than the natural frequencies of the power stage. It provides a good tradeoff between accuracy and simplicity of the modeling approach. An advantage of the state-space averaging method is its efciency compared to that of the switched model because there is not any switching frequency ripple and, consequently, the simulation time required by the averaged model is much lower than that required by the switched model [4]. By means of linearization of the nonlinear model around a specic operating point, a small-signal model can be obtained which requires short simulation times and is suitable for designing a controller and describing the converter in presence of small variations of the duty cycle. However, a small-signal model fails in the presence of large signal perturbations and is not suitable to describe with accuracy the steady-state behavior of the system corresponding to input step variations beginning from the operating point. Instead of using circuit-oriented modeling approaches, the dynamic behavior of power-electronic systems can be modeled using identication techniques. Compared to the circuit-oriented modeling approach, the modeling of power-electronics circuits using system identication possesses an effective advantage of simplicity especially for complex converter topologies because detailed knowledge of the circuit operation is not needed. The identication-based approach can be used for identifying whether there are small-signal models or nonlinear models. The advantages of this approach are no circuit

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idealization, no detailed knowledge of system operation and the generation of an effective reduced-order model, independent of the internal structure of the power converter. In [5] and [6], the identication approach is employed for obtaining small-signal models. NARMAX models valid over a wide operating range, obtained by means of either gray-box or black-box identication techniques, were proposed in [7] and [8]. Another approach for modeling dcdc converters is that oriented to the study of highly nonlinear phenomena, such as chaos and bifurcations, which occur in these converters. A popular approach is that based on the modeling by means of nonlinear mapping [9][15] (i.e., a nonlinear function that relates a sample of a state vector sequence to the successive sample of sequence); this mapping governs the evolution of the discrete time system without taking into account, explicitly, the time. These nonlinear maps, however, have not been used for designing a controller for dc/dc converters. Obviously, modeling a generic system is oriented not only for analysis purposes but also for the synthesis of a model-based controller. Classical control techniques have been applied for designing small-signal model-based analog controllers for power converters operating in either continuous conduction mode (CCM) [16], [17] or discontinuous conduction mode (DCM) [18]. In [16] and [19], a sliding-mode nonlinear control is also employed. Digital control techniques have been also applied for designing controllers based on a discrete time model obtained by means of either the discretization of continuous time small-signal models or identication [20][22]. The implementation of a digital controller on the eld-programmable gate array (FPGA) has been discussed in [22]. In this paper, a nonlinear modeling technique for dc/dc converters is discussed, based on the Hammerstein mathematical model assuming the duty cycle and the output voltage as input and output quantities, respectively. As is well known, a Hammerstein model consists of a nonlinear static characteristic followed by a linear time-invariant autoregressive model with exogenous input (ARX model). This modeling technique has been employed, for example, in [23] and [24] to a Buck converter and to an insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), respectively. This technique is a tradeoff between linear small-signal and NARMAX modeling techniques with particular reference to controller synthesis purposes. Moreover, it represents a direct way to incorporate priory information about the static nonlinearity into the model of the converter [7]. An identication-based approach is proposed for obtaining the Hammerstein model. Assuming the gain of the ARX model that is equal to 1, the static nonlinear characteristic exactly matches the steady-state behavior of the whole system, whereas the ARX model captures the essence of the dynamic behavior. A two-step procedure is proposed for the identication of the Hammerstein model. In the rst step, the nonlinear characteristic is constructed from a certain number of inputoutput couples obtained by supplying the converter with some waveforms at constant duty cycles and measuring the output voltage at the steady state. In the second step, the ARX linear model is identied using the results of a transient corresponding to

a suitable PRBS sequence whose values are chosen among the above inputoutput couples. The approach employed in this paper is more time consuming but more accurate than that described in [23]. Note that the use of a pseudorandom binary sequence (PRBS) to excite the dynamics of the system is widely used for the identication of small-signal models (cf., for example, [7] and [22]). The approach just described can appear to be quite complex and time consuming. Even though this is true, the following considerations have to be kept in mind. The static nonlinearity is easily obtained as described before. Then, a PRBS sequence is constructed for the chosen range of a duty cycle. This sequence can be applied to the converter using the MATLAB/SIMULINK environment and suitable digital signal processor (DSP). The identication process is performed ofine only a time for a given converter structure. The data that are suitable for identication are acquired experimentally and then employed in the MATLAB environment to obtain the ARX model. Data that are useful for identication can be acquired also by simulation of the converter in the PSpice environment. The purpose of the identication method is aimed for ofine identication carried out on a prototype of SMPS. For complex SMPS, the method is particularly effective because it allows constructing a model that is useful for both control purposes, because it is able to describe the essential aspects of the system, and simulation in very popular environments such as MATLAB. The simulation on the PSpice environment, as is well known, is more accurate but very time consuming. The approach is illustrated with reference to a dc/dc boost converter operating in CCM [25]. The Hammerstein model is rst identied and tested by means of simulation, using PSpice and MATLAB software. Then, it is identied and tested experimentally on a prototype. Moreover, the Hammerstein modeling approach is compared with the classical small-signal modeling approach which is the more common mathematical technique for the study of the power-electronics converters. It is shown that Hammerstein modeling allows extending the validity of the operating range of the model. However, in order to describe the converter in the whole operating range, a low number of models (ve in the case study) have to be identied. For simulation purposes, implementation of all these models is performed and, among them, a supervisor selects the model to be processed corresponding to the actual operating condition. For control purposes, gain scheduling could be applied for designing a controller for each identied model. Alternatively, robust control techniques could be conveniently applied but, because the aim of the paper is to show how a Hammerstein model can be controlled, a simple proportional, integral and derivative (PID)-type controller is designed for the nominal model of the system in question, keeping in mind that this controller is, in general, efcient only in the range of validity of the nominal model. This paper is organized as follows. Section II deals with some methods for modelling of the Boost converter. Section III il-

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Fig. 2. Hammerstein model. Fig. 1. Basic scheme of the boost converter.

lustrates the identication method of the Hammerstein model, its validation, and the comparison of Hammerstein and smallsignal model approaches; simulation results, obtained by using MATLAB and PSpice software, and experimental results are displayed. Section IV describes the design of a model-based discrete time PID controller, designed by means of the identied model, and shows some simulation and experimental results obtained considering a closed-loop control system consisting of a prototype of a Boost converter and the above PID controller. Finally, Section V deals with the conclusions. II. MODELING OF THE DC/DC BOOST CONVERTER A basic scheme of the dc/dc boost converter is given in Fig. 1. The output voltage of the converter is greater than the input voltage ; the static gain (i.e., the output to input voltage ratio) depends on the duty cycle of the PWM signal supplying the metaloxide semiconductor eld-effect transistor (MOSFET) which, as already stated, is the input variable of the converter. It is assumed that the values of the parameters of the converter are chosen so that it operates in CCM. A. Small-Signal Modeling As is well known, according to the circuit-oriented modeling approach, a mathematical model of the boost can be constructed using the state space averaging technique [2], assuming the parameters have their nominal values. This technique practically links each other with the linear and time-invariant mathematical models which describe the converter in correspondence to its conduction congurations. Its validity is ensured if the basic frequency of the PWM waveform, which controls the converter, is much higher than the natural frequencies of the converter in question. The mathematical model obtained by the above technique is still nonlinear. From this model, a linear- and time-invariant small-signal model can be derived by means of linearization around a well-dened operating point. Another approach for modeling the boost converter is the parametric identication approach. This approach does not require neither the knowledge of the values of the parameters nor the a priori analysis of the conduction congurations of the converter. Assuming that the converter is input-to-state stable (ISS) so that open-loop identication can be affected, the approach in question is based on the following steps: Step 1) excitation of the dynamics of the system by means of a suitable input signal (i.e., the duty cycle ); Step 2) choice of a suitable structure of the mathematical model of the system and identication of its parameters so that the dynamics of Step 1) are recovered by the model itself.

Since the real system contains components which exhibit nonlinear behaviors, in order to describe it by linear models, it is convenient to constraint the input to a low range of values. Obviously, the validity of the model is constrained to the state space region to which the dynamics excited by the input belong to. Practically, the described identication approach gives a small-signal model. Note that the small-signal models describe the dynamics of the converter around a well-dened operating point but they are not able to reproduce the steady-state behavior corresponding to small-step variations of the input. B. Hammerstein Modeling Another approach for modeling converters is that based on the use of a Hammerstein model consisting of a static nonlinearity followed by a linear discrete-time and time-invariant model, as shown in Fig. 2, where is the input variable (i.e., the duty is the static nonlinearity; is a nonaccessible incycle); termediate voltage variable; is the output; and LTI denotes the linear- and time-invariant model. Since the variable is inaccessible, it is convenient to put the gain of the LTI system equal to 1. This implies that the represents the static characteristic nonlinear characteristic of the whole system which completely describes the steadystate behavior of the converter. It follows that the Hammerstein model is able to correctly describe the steady-state behavior of the converter. This is an advantage of the Hammerstein modeling over the conventional small-signal modeling. The identication of the static nonlinearity by means of the steady-state characteristic of the whole system is proposed in [26]. suggests employing the following identiThe role of cation method in two steps. In the rst step, some inputoutput of the nonlinear static characteristic are obcouples and tained by supplying the converter with constant inputs measuring the corresponding output at the steady state. In the second step, the LTI model is identied from a set of inputoutput data acquired during a transient generated by supplying the converter with a suitable input sequence. The LTI model considered in the paper is the autoregressive model with exogenous input (ARX model) of the form (1) where

(2) and are the input and output voltage of the linear part of the Hammerstein (1), respectively, and is the unit delay

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Fig. 3. PSpice scheme of the boost converter.

operator. The assumption regarding the gain of the LTI model implies that its transfer function from to satises the equation [27] (3) The structure of the model (1) shows that accurate identication of the LTI model strongly depends on the identication accuracy of the nonlinear characteristic . In fact, if is known with high accuracy, the input to the LTI model can be computed with high accuracy and, consequently, the inputoutput data useful for identication are known with only the uncertainties due to the output measurement noise. Then, the least-squares method can be applied successfully in order to solve the identication problem. More precisely, the above inputoutput data can be acquired supplying the converter by a PRBS, which is a persistently exciting signal having a bandwidth wide enough to excite the dynamics of the converter [28], involving two suitable values of such that . It can be shown that and of model (1) satisfy estimates of the parameters the consistency property if the nonlinear characteristics are identied with a good degree of accuracy [29]. This can be as a mean of M steady-state performed by computing outputs corresponding to the same input [29]. III. IDENTIFICATION OF A HAMMERSTEIN MODEL FOR A BOOST CONVERTER In order to prove the validity of the Hammerstein model for modeling the boost converter, simulation experiments were carried out using PSpice software which, as is well known, is a circuit simulator that is able to perform realistic simulations of electronic systems [5], [8], [30]. Although PSpice software, as all circuit simulators, is time consuming, it is an economical and

Fig. 4. Nonlinear characteristics of the boost converter.

reliable tool to study the time-domain behavior of power-electronics systems. The scheme of the boost converter simulated with PSpice is given in Fig. 3. The values of the electrical components of the Boost converter of Fig. 1 are

A resistance was added to take into account the resistance of the inductor. The input voltage is given by . A. Identication of the Nonlinear Static Characteristic In order to determine the nonlinear static characteristic of the Hammerstein model, the MOSFET of the circuit shown in Fig. 1 was supplied with pulse signals, having a basic frequency that . For is equal to 100 kHz of different duty cycles each signal of the duty cycle , the steady-state output voltage was acquired and then the characteristic represented in Fig. 4 was obtained.

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Determine the parameter vector p given by

so as to minimize the following cost function:

subject to the constraint (5). From (5), the following regression model is obtained: (6) where

Fig. 5. Output voltage corresponding to PRBS: PSpice simulation, ARX model.

B. Identication of the LTI Model In order to identify the ARX model, since PSpice does not have a built-in way to generate a random signal in the time domain, the PRBS random signal was simulated by using the piecewise-linear (PWL) voltage-source model. This PWL source model consists of two random numbers that appear at specic instants of time and was easily created using the random number generator available in MATLAB. Supplying the system with a PRBS consisting of two different and values of the duty cycle to which two values correspond to (cf. Fig. 2), and , the output signal of Fig. 5 was obtained by means PSpice simulation. From this signal, a set of inputoutput couples was extracted in a set of time instants for the identication of the ARX model (1). In order to identify the coefcients of the polynomials and , an error is added to model (1) which takes into account measurement noise and modelling approximations. This error, called system noise, is assumed to be white noise . Consequently, in order to with zero mean and variance formulate the identication problem, it is convenient to rewrite model (1) as follows: (4) In order to avoid the solution of a constrained problem, it is convenient to solve (3) for and substitute the relative expression in (4). The following equation is obtained:

where is the initial acquisition instant and is the number of acquisitions. As is well known, the solution of the above identication problem is given by [31] (7) The identication was performed in the MATLAB environment by choosing a second-order ARX model. This choice is justied considering that the Boost converter contains two elements that are able to store energy and, consequently, a second-order model should be suitable for describing the converter; however, validation of the identied model allows verifying the correctness of the chosen order. Using this approach, the following ARX model was identied:

(8) and denote, respectively, the input and the where output voltage of the linear part of the model of the Boost converter at the time , and

(5) Then, the formulation of the identication problem is as follows.

In Fig. 5, the output voltage of the converter computed by means of the identied Hammerstein model is shown together with the output voltage used for identication. The comparison of the two waveforms shows that the identied Hammerstein model is able to reproduce the output voltage of the circuit simulated using PSpice, in correspondence to the same input signal which has generated this voltage.

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Fig. 6. Responses relative to the step variation of the duty cycle from 0.3 to 0.55 corresponding to ARX models identied by means of PRBS signals consisting of the two values of the duty cycle shown in the displayed legend.

Fig. 7. Responses relative to two steps of the duty cycle from 0.45 to 0.50 and from 0.5 to 0.55 using the described arrangement consisting of ve models.

C. Validation of the Model In order to validate the Hammerstein model identied in the previous subsection, another PRBS signal with the same values of the duty cycle and was applied to the boost converter; also in this case, the output voltage generated by the circuit model in the PSpice environment is practically superimposed to that generated by the identied Hammerstein model. Successively, the behavior of the identied model was investigated in a range of values of larger than that used for identication. In particular, a step variation of the duty cycle from 0.3 to 0.55 was applied to ve Hammerstein models identied with PRBS signals consisting of different couples of the duty cycle, beginning with a steady-state situation characterized from a duty cycle equal to 0.3. The corresponding results are given in Fig. 6. Examination of Fig. 6 shows: all of the models give the same steady-state value independent of the PRBS used for identifying them; the transient behavior in terms of overshoot, rise time, and undershoot, depends on the duty cycle couple used for the identication of the model. It follows that it is convenient to consider some models identied with different couples of the duty cycle if greater accuracy is desired. This is shown in Fig. 7 where results are shown corresponding to two steps of the duty cycle from 0.45 to 0.50 and from 0.50 to 0.55. These results were obtained using an arrangement in which ve models appear identied using PRBS signals constructed with the duty cycle couples (0.3,0.35), (0.35, 0.40), (0.40,0.45), (0.45,0.50), and (0.50,0.55); a decision block chooses the model to be processed according to the actual value of the duty cycle. D. Comparison of Hammerstein and Small-Signal Models In order to compare the Hammerstein and the small-signal models, the last model has been identied using a PRBS se-

quence with values of the duty cycle equal to 0.455 and 0.465. The Hammerstein model tested is that identied considering the PRBS sequence with values of the duty cycle equal to 0.43 and 0.49. Both models have been tested in three different supply situations (i.e., with three PRBS sequences characterized by the following three couples of the duty cycle: (0.455, 0.465), (0.45, 0.47), and (0.43, 0.49). The results are given in Fig. 8(a)(c). Examination of these gures shows that the Hammerstein model allows better reproduction of the dynamic behavior of the converter in a range wider than that corresponding to the smallsignal model. In fact, in the range of duty cycle [0.455, 0.465] and [0.45, 0.47], both models display practically the same behavior (the Hammerstein model gives slightly better results), whereas in the range [0.43, 0.49], the output of the Hammerstein model tracks the true output data much better than the small-signal model. Another experiment was affected, supplying the above three up to 5 ms and then models at a constant duty cycle a step variation of the duty cycle from 0.43 to 0.49 was imposed. The results are shown in Fig. 9, where the output voltage waveforms given by the Hammerstein model, the small-signal model, and the PSpice model are displayed together. An examination of Fig. 9 shows that the Hammerstein model is able to reproduce the static and the transient behaviors of the converter better than the small-signal model. The Hammerstein and the small-signal models capture the low-frequency behavior of the converter whereas the PSpice model is able to also display the ripple due to the high-frequency commutations. The previous discussion shows that the principal differences of low signal and Hammerstein modeling approaches are the following. The small-signal approach is brought to a linear model, describing the true nonlinear model in a little neighborhood of a given equilibrium point, but this point does not appear explicitly in the model but it is implicitly included in the parameters of the linear model; as a consequence, the small-signal model sufciently describes the transients for small signals around the equilibrium point but it does

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Fig. 9. Responses of the Hammerstein, low-signal, and PSpice models to step variation of the duty cycle from 0.43 to 0.49.

Since the point around which the original nonlinear model is linearized is not explicitly included in the model, it is difcult to carry out a simulation in a given region of the state space considering some linear models obtained by linearization of the original nonlinear model around contiguous equilibrium points. Using the Hammerstein approach, considering few linear models and the static nonlinearity, it is possible to carry out a simulation study to cover a given space state region. This is shown in Fig. 7. The small-signal model includes the equilibrium point in the parameters of the model itself. The Hammerstein model describes the original nonlinear model in a given state space region (i.e., in an interval of equilibrium points with the same linear model together with the static nonlinearity). E. Validation of the Identication Method In order to show the validity of the identication method of the Hammerstein model and the capabilities of this model for modelling the converters, the identication method itself has been applied for the modeling of a prototype of a boost converter working in CCM. The experimental setup consists of a DSP DS1103 with SW DSpace, a 500-MHz, 1-GSamples/s, four-channel digital oscilloscope and a 0500 V, 06 A power supply. The input voltage was chosen to be equal to V. The duty cycle was imposed using the DSP. In order to obtain the nonlinear characteristic, constant values of the duty cycle from 0.35 to 0.6 with steps of 0.05 were imposed and the corresponding steady-state value of the output voltage was acquired using the digital oscilloscope. Due to the quantization noise, in order to obtain the value of the output voltage, it was necessary to pass the output voltage through an anticausal lter. The identied static nonlinear characteristic is displayed in Fig. 10. In order to estimate the LTI model, a PRBS was generated in the MATLAB environment and then imposed to the converter through the DSP. Data relative to the corresponding transient were acquired by means of the above oscilloscope with the following setup: sampling frequency 10 MHz; acquisition time 50 ms;

Fig. 8. Comparison of the Hammerstein, low signal, and PSpice models for sinusoidal duty-cycle variations. (a) Responses relative to a PRBS sequence with duty cycle values of 0.455 and 0.465. (b) Responses relative to a PRBS sequence with duty cycle values of 0.45 and 0.47. (c) Responses relative to a PRBS sequence with duty cycle values of 0.43 and 0.49.

not describe steady-state behavior well. The Hammerstein model is a nonlinear model consisting of a static nonlinearity followed by a linear model. The static nonlinearity included in the model describes the steady-state behavior well and the linear part of the model, together with the static nonlinearity, describes the transients in a certain region of the state space well, instead of only a neighborhood of a given equilibrium point.

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Fig. 10. Experimental nonlinear characteristic.

Fig. 12. Comparison of the ltered true output and the output computed by the identied model.

Fig. 13. Basic control scheme.

Fig. 14. Equivalent closed-loop system.

Fig. 11. True and ltered output waveforms corresponding to the PRBS imposed.

duty cycle updating frequency: 10 kHz. This means that the duty cycle of the PRBS signal can be changed every 0.1 ms and from the 500000 acquired samples; 500 can be extracted to be useful for the identication. After data acquisition, a le suitable to be processed by MATLAB was generated. The output voltage was ltered by means of an anticausal lter using MATLAB in order to remove both the quantization noise and the switching ripple so as to obtain data useful for identication by means of the least-squares method. As is well known, an anticausal lter [32] is not physically realizable and cannot be implemented online for data processing. It is characterized by a real transfer function and, consequently, it does not introduce inputoutput phase delay as a conventional causal lter. As a result, the output of the anticausal lter, computed ofine, coincides with the exact mean value of the input signal, with acceptable amplitude distortion by choosing a suitable bandwidth. The true and ltered output waveforms corresponding to the PRBS imposed are given in Fig. 11. From the input sequence and the ltered output, an LTI model with the structure shown in (8) has been obtained. The values of the parameters of the model are practically the same of those obtained by simulation in the PSpice environment and displayed in Section III-B. Consequently, these parameters have been chosen as nominal parameters for both simulation and control purposes. In Fig. 12, the waveforms of the output voltage are obtained experimentally and that given by the model are shown, both corresponding to the same PRBS sequence but different from that

used for identifying the model. The examination of this gure shows that the identication method employed in this paper is suitable to be applied experimentally; moreover, the obtained results show the possibility of identifying the model accurately by simulation in the PSpice environment. IV. CONTROL OF THE HAMMERSTEIN MODEL A. Design of a Discrete Time PID Controller The control of the Hammerstein model can be carried out and is according to the simple scheme of Fig. 13, where the discrete time transfer function of the controller and the plant is perfectly is shown in Fig. 1. Assuming that function known, the scheme of Fig. 13 becomes that of Fig. 14, where is the nominal discrete time transfer function of the linear part of the plant given by [cf. (8)]

Note that the transfer function of the converter is stable but nonminimum phase (NPM), due to the presence of two zeros, is out of the unit circle. The design of the PID discrete time controller has been carried out by means of the following steps [33]. Step 1) The function is, rst of all, computed where is a complex variable. having the folStep 2) A PID controller in the domain lowing form is considered: (9)

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where the term has been added so as and, consequently, can be physically realizable. has been designed so that the Step 3) The controller (rad) closed-loop system obtains a phase margin . The parameters of and a crossover frequency the controller, designed according to Steps 1)3), satisfy the relationships

Fig. 15. Closed-loop control scheme.

(10) where

and is the phase of case study

in rad. In the present

Fig. 16. Waveform of the inductor current.

where (10) becomes

is the frequency corresponding to . With the above requirements,

(11) From the rst equation of (11), and imposing that the tracking error corresponding to a linear ramp is less than 5%, the following constraints on can be established:

The parameter error. B. Simulation Results

SIMULINK

has been chosen by trial and

Fig. 17. Tracking output error.

The controller has been tested by simulation in the MATLAB/ environment, using the converter for the switching model consisting of

when the mosfet is on

when the mosfet is off and in CCM

For a given input voltage , the output voltage varies from a and a maximum value , corresponding minimum value and the to, respectively, the minimum value of the duty cycle , choosing maximum value . Assuming and , is obtained. The nonlinear

static characteristic is identied for some values of the duty cycle and then it is stored into a lookup table so that the entry is the voltage and the output is the duty cycle. The control scheme appears as in Fig. 15, where blocks SAT and LUT denote a satis uration block and the lookup table, respectively, and the transfer function of a discrete-time PID controller with the derivative action physically realizable, given by the following. The results obtained by simulation of the scheme of Fig. 15, with a switching frequency of 100 kHz, a reference voltage step variation of 20 V, and load variations from 100 to 50 at s and from 50 to 100 at s, assuming are given in Figs. 1618. The controller, as already stated, works at 10 kHz, whereas the integration method is ODE 4 with a xed . step of Fig. 16 shows that the converter works in CCM in practically all operating conditions, except for a few instants of each period of the controller. Fig. 17 shows that the tracking error cor-

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Fig. 18. Tracking error during a load variation of 50%.

Fig. 20. Duty cycle. Reference step variation from 15 to 17 V.

Fig. 19. Input voltage. Reference step variation from 15 to 17 V.

Fig. 21. Output voltage. Reference step variation from 15 to 17 V.

responding to a step variation of the reference voltage gets high overshoot and undershoot which can be reduced by employing an antiwindup control scheme. Fig. 18 shows the behavior of the system for sudden variation of the load from 100 to 50 and vice-versa. C. Experimental Results Considering that the experimental investigation is performed with the aim of verifying the validity of Hammerstein modeling for analysis and control purposes, experimental results have been obtained using a rapid prototyping system based on the microcontroller DS 1103 which generates the switching frequency of 100 kHz, computes the duty cycle at a frequency of 10 kHz, and acquires the data useful for processing the control law and displaying the results. The results are given in Figs. 1924. In particular, Figs. 1321 show the response of the control system to a step variation of the reference voltage from 15 to 17 V and Figs. 2225 show the response of the control system to a load step from 100 to 50 . V. CONCLUSION In this paper, with reference to a boost converter, the possibility of describing the switching converters using Hammerstein models consisting of a nonlinear static characteristic fol-

Fig. 22. Zoom of output voltage. Reference step variation from 15 to 17 V.

lowed by an ARX model is shown. The two-steps approach employed in this paper gives good results as it can be veried from the comparison of the behavior of the real system and that of the Hammerstein model. The method in question allows determining the nonlinear characteristic with a good degree of accuracy and to obtain good estimates of the linear ARX model. However, it is shown that in order to describe the converter with high accuracy in a wide range of the duty cycle, it is convenient

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Fig. 23. Duty cycle. Step variation of the load from 100 to 50
.

behavior from the range of values of the duty cycle in which an ARX model is identied. This is due to the peculiarity of the Hammerstein models to capture the steady state and the dynamics of a system by means of the static characteristic and the ARX model, respectively. The Hammerstein model of the converter can be used for both the analysis and the design of a controller for the converter itself. The design of the controller can be carried out in the following two approaches: 1) a controller is designed for each model identied in a range of values of the duty cycle and the controller operating in a particular operative situation is selected according to the gain scheduling technique and 2) a robust controller is designed assuming that the converter be described by a set of models, instead of only one model, to take parameter variations and unmodelled dynamics into account. In this paper, a simple discrete-time PID controller has been tuned on the identied Hammerstein model. Simulation and experiments on a prototype show that the performance of the closed-loop control system is satisfactory.

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Fig. 24. Output voltage. Step variation of the load from 100 to 50
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Fig. 25. Zoom of output voltage. Step variation of the load from 100 to 50 ! .

to consider a low number of models, identied in contiguous intervals of the duty cycle itself and, for simulation purposes, to dene a suitable switching law which selects the model to be processed in the current operating condition. It is also shown that the Hammerstein model is able to describe the converter in a range of the quantities involved that are wider than that of small-signal models. An important feature of the Hammerstein modeling approach is the independence of the steady-state

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Francesco Alonge (M02) was born in Agrigento, Italy, in 1946. He received the Laurea degree in electronic engineering from the University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy, in 1972. Currently, he is a Full Professor of Automatic Control in the Department of Systems and Control Engineering with the University of Palermo. His research topics include electrical drive control (including also linear and nonlinear observers, stochastic observers, parametric identication), robot control, parametric identication and control in power electronics, and UAV motion control in aeronautics.

Filippo DIppolito (M00) was born in Palermo, Italy, in 1966. He received the Laurea degree in electronic engineering from the University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy, in 1991, and the Research Doctorate degree in systems and control engineering from the University of Palermo in 1996. Currently, he is a Research Associate in the Department of Systems and Control Engineering at the University of Palermo. His research interests include control of electrical drives, adaptive and visual/force control of robot manipulators, and control of electrical power converters. Dr. DIppolito received the 2000 Kelvin Premium from the Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE), for the paper Parameter identication of induction motor model using genetic algorithms.

Francesco Maria Raimondi was born in Palermo, Italy, on April 16, 1969. He received the Electrical Engineering degree in industrial automation systems (Hons.) and the Ph.D. degree in control engineering from the University of Palermo, Palermo, in 1993 and 1998, respectively. Since 1999, he has been teaching a course on industrial automation and since 2002 a course on Foundation of Automatic Control. His research interests include diffusion modeling and the control of pollutants and acquisition systems of meteorological and pollutants, motion control of electrical autonomous vehicles with sensor data fusion, and identication methods of nonlinear systems and control systems managed by industrial controllers (PLC).

Salvatore Tumminaro was born in Marianopoli, Caltanissetta, Italy, in 1970. He received the M.S. degree in electronic engineering and the Ph.D. degree in automation and system engineering from the University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy, in 2000 and 2005, respectively. In 2001, he joined STMicroelectronics, Catania, Italy, as an Integrated Circuit Designer for industrial and converter applications. Currently, he is a Design Team Leader of Integrated Circuits for acdc converters. He has published some papers in system modeling and power management, and holds one patent.