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12. What is emitter follower?

Ans 1: In electronics, a common-collector amplifier is one of three basic single-stage bipolar junction transistor amplifier topologies, typically used as a voltage buffer. ... Ans 2: In electronics, a common collector amplifier (also known as an emitter follower) is one of three basic single-stage bipolar junction transistor (BJT) amplifier topologies, typically used as a voltage buffer. In this circuit the base terminal of the transistor serves as the input, the emitter is the output, and the collector is common to both (for example, it may be tied to ground reference or a power supply rail), hence its name. The analogous field-effect transistor circuit is the common drain amplifier.

Figure 1: Basic NPN common collector circuit (neglecting biasing details).

Ans 3: Emitter Follower An emitter follower circuit shown in the figure is widely used in AC amplification circuits. The input and output of the emitter follower are the base and the emitter, respectively, while the collector is at AC zero, therefore this circuit is also called common-collector circuit.

13. Give the electromagnetic equations in the order of discovery. Ans: Maxwell's Equations are a set of 4 complicated equations that describe the world of electromagnetics. These equations describe how electric and magnetic fields propagate, interact, and how they are influenced by objects. James Clerk Maxwell [1831-1879] was an Einstein/Newton-level genius who took a set of known experimental laws (Faraday's Law, Ampere's Law) and unified them into a symmetric coherent set of Equations known as Maxwell's Equations. Maxwell was one of the first to determine the speed of propagation of electromagnetic (EM) waves was the same as the speed of light - and hence to conclude that EM waves and visible light were really the same thing. Maxwell's Equations are critical in understanding Antennas and Electromagnetics. They are formidable to look at - so complicated that most electrical engineers and physicists don't even really know what they mean. Shrouded in complex math (which is likely so "intellectual" people can feel superior in discussing them), true understanding of these equations is hard to come by. This leads to the reason for this website - an intuitive tutorial of Maxwell's Equations. I will avoid if at all possible the mathematical difficulties that arise, and instead describe what the equations mean. And don't be afraid - the math is so complicated that those who do understand complex vector calculus still cannot apply Maxwell's Equations in anything but the simplest scenarios. For this reason, intuitive knowledge of Maxwell's Equations is far superior than mathematical manipulationbased knowledge. To understand the world, you must understand what equations mean, and not just know mathematical constructs. I believe the accepted methods of teaching electromagnetics and Maxwell's Equations do not produce understanding. And with that, let's say something about these equations. Maxwell's Equations are laws - just like the law of gravity. These equations are rules the universe uses to govern the behavior of electric and magnetic fields. A flow of electric current will produce a magnetic field. If the current flow varies with time (as in any wave or periodic signal), the magnetic field will also give rise to an electric field. Maxwell's Equations shows that separated charge (positive and negative) gives rise to an electric field - and if this is varying in time as well will give rise to a propagating electric field, further giving rise to a propgating magnetic field. To understand Maxwell's Equations at a more intuitive level than most Ph.Ds in Engineering or Physics, click through the links and definitions above. You'll find that the complicated math masks an inner elegance to these equations - and you'll learn how the universe operates the Electromagnetic Machine.

The equations have two major variants. The "microscopic" set of Maxwell's equations uses total charge and total current, including the complicated charges and currents in materials at the atomic scale; it has universal applicability, but may be unfeasible to calculate. The "macroscopic" set of Maxwell's equations defines two new auxiliary fields that describe large-scale behavior without having to consider these atomic scale details, but it requires the use of parameters characterizing the electromagnetic properties of the relevant materials. The term "Maxwell's equations" is often used for other forms of Maxwell's equations. For example, space-time formulations are commonly used in high energy and gravitational physics. These formulations, defined on space-time rather than space and time separately, are manifestly[note 1] compatible with special and general relativity. In quantum mechanics, versions of Maxwell's equations based on the electric and magnetic potentials are preferred. Since the mid-20th century, it has been understood that Maxwell's equations are not exact laws of the universe, but are a classical approximation to the more accurate and fundamental theory of quantum electrodynamics. In most cases, though, quantum deviations from Maxwell's equations are immeasurably small. Exceptions occur when the particle nature of light is important or for very strong electric fields. Conceptual descriptions (wiki)Gauss's law Gauss's law describes the relationship between a static electric field and the electric charges that cause it: The static electric field points away from positive charges and towards negative charges. In the field line description, electric field lines begin only at positive electric charges and end only at negative electric charges. 'Counting' the number of field lines passing though a closed surface, therefore, yields the total charge (including bound charge due to polarization of material) enclosed by that surface divided by dielectricity of free space (the vacuum permittivity). More technically, it relates the electric flux through any hypothetical closed "Gaussian surface" to the enclosed electric charge.

Gauss's law for magnetism: magnetic field lines never begin nor end but form loops or extend to infinity as shown here with the magnetic field due to a ring of current. Gauss's law for magnetism Gauss's law for magnetism states that there are no "magnetic charges" (also called magnetic monopoles), analogous to electric charges.[3] Instead, the magnetic field due to materials is generated by a configuration called a dipole. Magnetic dipoles are best represented as loops of current but resemble positive and negative 'magnetic charges', inseparably bound together, having no net 'magnetic charge'. In terms of field lines, this equation states that magnetic field lines neither begin nor end but make loops or extend to infinity and back. In other words, any magnetic field line that enters a given volume must somewhere exit that volume. Equivalent technical statements are that the sum total magnetic flux through any Gaussian surface is zero, or that the magnetic field is a solenoidal vector field. Faraday's law In a geomagnetic storm, a surge in the flux of charged particles temporarily alters Earth's magnetic field, which induces electric fields in Earth's atmosphere, thus causing surges in electrical power grids. Artist's rendition; sizes are not to scale. Faraday's law describes how a time varying magnetic field creates ("induces") an electric field.[3] This dynamically induced electric field has closed field lines just as the magnetic field, if not superposed by a static (charge induced) electric field. This aspect of electromagnetic induction is the operating principle behind many electric generators: for example, a rotating bar magnet creates a changing magnetic field, which in turn generates an electric field in a nearby wire. (Note: there are two closely related equations which are called Faraday's law. The form used in Maxwell's equations is always valid but more restrictive than that originally formulated by Michael Faraday.) Ampre's law with Maxwell's correction An Wang's magnetic core memory (1954) is an application of Ampre's law. Each core stores one bit of data. Ampre's law with Maxwell's correction states that magnetic fields can be generated in two ways: by electrical current (this was the original "Ampre's law") and by changing electric fields (this was "Maxwell's correction"). Maxwell's correction to Ampre's law is particularly important: it shows that not only does a changing magnetic field induce an electric field, but also a changing electric field induces a magnetic field.[3][4] Therefore, these equations allow self-sustaining "electromagnetic waves" to travel through empty space (see electromagnetic wave equation).

The speed calculated for electromagnetic waves, which could be predicted from experiments on charges and currents,[note 2] exactly matches the speed of light; indeed, light is one form of electromagnetic radiation (as are X-rays, radio waves, and others). Maxwell understood the connection between electromagnetic waves and light in 1861, thereby unifying the theories of electromagnetism and optics. Vacuum equations, electromagnetic waves and speed of light Further information: Electromagnetic wave equation and Sinusoidal plane-wave solutions of the electromagnetic wave equation This 3D diagram shows a plane linearly polarized wave propagating from left to right with the same wave equations where E = E0 sin(t + k r) and B = B0 sin(t + k r) In a region with no charges ( = 0) and no currents (J = 0), such as in a vacuum, Maxwell's equations reduce to:

Taking the curl () of the curl equations, and using the curl of the curl identity (X) = (X) 2X we obtain the wave equations

which identify

with the speed of light in free space. In materials with relative permittivity r and relative permeability r, the phase velocity of light becomes

which is usually less than c. In addition, E and B are mutually perpendicular to each other and the direction of wave propagation, and are in phase with each other. A sinusoidal plane wave is one special solution of these equations. Maxwell's equations explain how these waves can physically propagate through space. The changing magnetic field creates a changing electric field through Faraday's law. In turn, that electric field creates a

changing magnetic field through Maxwell's correction to Ampre's law. This perpetual cycle allows these waves, now known as electromagnetic radiation, to move through space at velocity c. 13.Find the transfer function of a given RLC circuit. Teja wil do the answer 14. What happens when you type user-name and password while logging on to a Unix system? Ans: When you log in, you identify yourself to the computer. On modern Unixes you will usually do this through a graphical display manager. But it's possible to switch virtual consoles with a Ctrl-Shift key sequence and do a textual login, too. In that case you go through the getty instance watching that console tto call the program login. You identify yourself to the display manager or login with a login name and password. That login name is looked up in a file called /etc/passwd, which is a sequence of lines each describing a user account. One of these fields is an encrypted version of the account password (sometimes the encrypted fields are actually kept in a second /etc/shadow file with tighter permissions; this makes password cracking harder). What you enter as an account password is encrypted in exactly the same way, and the login program checks to see if they match. The security of this method depends on the fact that, while it's easy to go from your clear password to the encrypted version, the reverse is very hard. Thus, even if someone can see the encrypted version of your password, they can't use your account. (It also means that if you forget your password, there's no way to recover it, only to change it to something else you choose.) Once you have successfully logged in, you get all the privileges associated with the individual account you are using. You may also be recognized as part of a group. A group is a named collection of users set up by the system administrator. Groups can have privileges independently of their members privileges. A user can be a member of multiple groups. (For details about how Unix privileges work, see the section below on permissions.) (Note that although you will normally refer to users and groups by name, they are actually stored internally as numeric IDs. The password file maps your account name to a user ID; the /etc/group file maps group names to numeric group IDs. Commands that deal with accounts and groups do the translation automatically.) Your account entry also contains your home directory, the place in the Unix file system where your personal files will live. Finally, your account entry also sets your shell, the command interpreter that login will start up to accept your commmands.

What happens after you have successfully logged in depends on how you did it. On a text console, login will launch a shell and you'll be off and running. If you logged in through a display manager, the X server will bring up your graphical desktop and you will be able to run programs from it either through the menus, or through desktop icons, or through a terminal emulator running a shell. Ans 2: Finish entering your username by pressing Enter or Return. After you type your username, UNIX asks you to enter your password, which you type the same way and end by pressing Enter. Because your password is secret, it doesn't appear on-screen as you type it. How can you tell whether you've typed it correctly? You can't! If UNIX agrees that you've typed your username and password acceptably, it displays a variety of uninteresting legal notices and a message from your system administrator (usually delete some files, the disk is full) and passes you on to the shell.

15. Draw the circuit for an adder using NAND gates.


Half Adder using NAND gate only

Full Adder using NAND gate only To construct a full adder circuit, well need three inputs and two outputs. Since well have both an input carry and an output carry, well designate them as CIN and COUT. At the same time, well use S to designate the final Sum output. The resulting truth table is shown to the right. Hmmm. This is looking a bit messy. It looks as if COUT may be either an AND or an OR function, depending on the value of A, and S is either an XOR or an XNOR, again depending on the value of A. Looking a little more closely, however, we can note that the S output is actually an XOR between the A input and the half-adder SUM output with B and CIN inputs. Also, the output carry will be true if any two or all three inputs are logic 1. What this suggests is also intuitively logical: we can use two half-adder circuits. The first will add A and B to produce a partial Sum, while the second will add CIN to that Sum to produce the final S output. If either half-adder produces a carry, there will be an output carry. Thus, COUT will be an OR function of the halfadder Carry outputs. The resulting full adder circuit is shown here ( fig 3.2 not available).

fig 3.3 Using only NAND gates

16. Explain internal organization of memory chips.

Ans: Organization of a 1K 1 memory chip.

Ans 2: Internal Organization of Memory Chips

16. What are the different types of control systems? Answer check with teja
Ans: Types of Control Systems There are two types of control systems namely: 1. Open loop (feedback ) 2. Closed loop (non-feedback) Open loop If in a physical system there is no automatic correction of the variation in its output, it is called an open loop control system. That is, in this type of system, sensing of the actual output and comparing of this output (through feedback) with the desired input doesn't take place. The system

on its own is not in a position to give the desired output and it cannot take into account the disturbances. In these systems, the changes in output can be corrected only by changing the input manually. These are simple in construction, stable and cost cheap. But these are inaccurate and unreliable. Moreover these systems don't take account of external disturbances that affect the output and they don't initiate corrective actions automatically. Examples of open loop control: 1. Automatic washing machine 2. Traffic signal 3. Home heating (without sensing, feedback and control) Any non-feedback can be considered as a feedback CS if it is under the supervision of someone. Although open loop control systems have economical components and are simple in design, they largely depend on human judgment. As an example, let us consider a home furnace control system. This system must control the temperature in a room, keeping it constant. An open loop system usually has a timer which instructs the system to switch on the furnace for some time and then switch it off. Accuracy cannot be achieved as the system doesn't switch on/off based on the room temperature but it does as per the preset value of time. Closed loop A closed loop is a system where the output has an effect upon the input quantity in such a manner as to maintain the desired output value. A normal system becomes a closed loop control by including a feedback. This feedback will automatically correct the change in output due to disturbances. This is why a closed loop control is called as an automatic control system. In a closed loop, the controlled variable (output) is sensed at every instant of time, feedback and compared with the desired input resulting in an error signal. This error signal directs the control elements in the system to do the necessary corrective action such that the output of the system is obtained as desired. 17. Explain open loop with block diagram examples

Control Systems

1 Different types of systems


All our tools and machines need appropriate control to work, otherwise it will be difficult to finish their designated tasks accurately. Therefore, we need control systems to guide, instruct and regulate our tools and machines. Common control systems include mechanical, electronic, pneumatic and computer aided. A system usually contains three main parts: input, process and output.

(a) Mechanical system


A mechanical system is a device made up of various mechanical parts. Its input is provided by

an effort. Once the effort and is applied, it can set off a motion to move a load. The force applied to the load is the output of the mechanical system. Examples of mechanical systems include levers, gears and shafts. Fig. 1 shows some examples of mechanical systems. (a) Can opener (b) Corkscrew

(b) Electronic system


An electronic system is a system that employs electronic signals to control devices, such as radios, calculators, video game machines, mobile phones, portable computers, etc (Fig. 2). The input of an electronic system is provided by electronic signals. After they are processed, they can generate output signals, which control the operation of various devices, such as amplifiers and LCD. Electronic systems can carry out many different tasks, such as generating sound, transmitting information, displaying video, measuring, memorising, calculating, etc. Common examples of electronic devices include semi-conducting diode, transistors, capacitors that they are usually welded onto electronic circuit boards (a) Mobile phone (b) Portable computer

(c) Computer control system


A computer control system uses a computer to control its output devices according to different input signals. Its function is similar to that of an electronic system. Yet a computer control system can use high speed calculation to process large volume of input signals within a very short time, and then generates appropriate outputs with the help of preset programs . Examples of computer control systems include computer numerical control press brakes, computer controlled home appliances, computer controlled underground railway systems, etc (a) CNC press brake (b) A proposed computer controlled home appliances

(d) Pneumatic system


A pneumatic system is a system that uses compressed air to transport and control energy. Air is first pressurized to give energy in the cylinder. Then signals are input into the system through the use of switches. Next, air is transferred through sealed pipes to the pneumatic parts for processing. Finally, the force produced by the pneumatic parts is utilized to finish the designated task. The use of pneumatic systems is very extensive, for example, in controlling the movement of train doors, the operation of automatic production lines and mechanical clamps, etc (a) Production line of CD-ROM (b) Mechanical clamp

(e) Other systems


There exist many other control systems apart from the ones mentioned above, for example, mail processing systems, commercial operation systems, etc. The input, process and output of different systems have different properties. In this chapter, we will discuss some of the most common control systems.

2 Sub-systems
A system can be very simple, for example, a switch is only needed in controlling a light bulb to work. However, with the advancement of technology, most of the control systems gradually become complicated that various parts are involved. Take a lift as an example. It needs a number of parts to be cooperative in operation, so as to transport passengers to different storeys safely and rapidly (Fig. 6). Fig. 6 (a) A sightseeing lift in a shopping arcade (b) A lift in a hospital A system may comprise some relatively small parts. They are known as sub-systems. For instance, a lift system includes driving system, door opening system, control system, safety system, lighting system, ventilation system and security system (b) Driving system Fig. 8 Sub-systems in a lift In fact, each sub-system can be considered as an independent system that includes input, process and output. While there exist relationships between the sub-systems that an output of one sub-system may become the input of another. Ta ke the lift as an example. The output generated from the control system may affect the driving and door opening systems (Fig. 9). However, attention should be paid in the complexityof relationships of some subsystems.

Therefore, when analyzing a complicated control system, that system can be divided into several comparatively simple sub-systems so as to familiar with the operation of the whole system easily. Besides, based on the sub-system concept, we could understand the relationships of the parts of the whole system much easier.

3 Different types of control systems


(a) Open loop and closed loop control systems
There are basically two types of control system: the open loop system and the closed loop system. They can both be represented by block diagrams. A block diagram uses blocks to represent processes, while arrows are used to connect different input, process and output parts. Explain open loop with block diagram examples A washing machine is an example of an open loop control system. Fig. 12 shows its block diagram. The input and output of an open loop system are unrelated. An example is that the operation of a washing machine does not depend on the cleanness of the clothes, but rather on the preset time. Both the structure and the control process of an open loop control system are very simple, but the result of the output depends on whether the input signal is appropriate or not. Fig. 12 Block diagram of an open loop control system (washing machine) More sophisticated example of an open loop control system is the burglar alarm system (Fig. 13). The function of the sensor is to collect data regarding the concerned house. When the electronic sensor is triggered off (for example, by the entry of an unauthorized person), it will send a signal to the receiver. The receiver will then activate the alarm, which will in turn generate an alarm signal. The alarm signal will not cease until the alarm is stopped manually. Fig. 13 Block diagram of an open loop control system (burglar alarm)

18. What are the advantages of closed loop?


closed loop control system compares the output with the expected result or command status, then it takes appropriate control actions to adjust the input signal. Therefore, a closed loop system is always equipped with a sensor, which is used to monitor the output and compare it with the expected result. The output signal is fed back to the input to produce a new output. A well-designed feedback system can often increase the accuracy of the output. One advantage of using the closed loop control system is that it is able to adjust its output automatically by feeding the output signal back to the input. When the load changes, the error signals generated by the system will adjust the output. However, closed loop control systems are generally more complicated and thus more expensive to make. 1. Accuracy: They are more accurate than open loop system due to their complex construction. They are equally accurate and are not disturbed in the presence of non-linearities. 2. Noise reduction ability: Since they are composed of a feedback mechanism, so they clear out the errors between input and output signals, and hence remain unaffected to the external noise sources. 3. Closed loop control systems are more accurate even in the presence of non-linearities 4. The sensitivity of the system may be made small to make the system more stable 5. The closed loop systems are less affected by noise. 19. How can you design a stable system and Explain different stability criteria.
the stability of a control system is often extremely important and is generally a safety issue in the engineering of a system. An example to illustrate the importance of stability is the control of a nuclear reactor. An instability of this system could result in an unimaginable catastrophe.

The stability of a system relates to its response to inputs or disturbances. A system which remains in a constant state unless affected by an external action and which returns to a constant state when the external

action is removed can be considered to be stable. A systems stability can be defined in terms of its response to external impulse inputs.. A system is stable if its impulse response approaches zero as time approaches infinity.. The system stability can also be defined in terms of bounded (limited) inputs.. A system is stable if every bounded input produces a bounded output. Control analysis is concerned not only with the stability of a system but also the degree of stability of a system.. A typical system equation without considering the concept of integral action is of the form. To know that the system is stable is not generally sufficient for the requirements of control system design. There is a need for stability analysis to determine how close the system is to instability and how much margin when disturbances are present and when the gain is adjusted.. The objectives of stability analysis is the determination of the following

The degree or extent of system stability The steady state performance The transient response

The standard method of completing a system analysis includes the following steps..

Determine the equations or transfer functions for each component Create a model - generally a block diagram Formulate the system model by appropriately connecting the blocks nodes and branches Determine the system characteristics

A number of methods are available for determining the system characteristics including the following.

Root locus method using the s domain plot Frequency Response notes. Using Nyquist diagrams via frequency domain techniques Using Bode Plots via frequency domain techniques

20. Explain Ruthz-Hervitz rule in one sentence. Ans: n control system theory, the RouthHurwitz stability criterion is a mathematical test that is a necessary and
sufficient condition for the stability of a linear time invariant (LTI) control system. The Routh test is an efficient recursive algorithm that English mathematician Edward John Routh proposed in 1876 to determine whether all the roots of the characteristic polynomial of a linear system have negative real parts.

21. What are poles and their significance? The poles and zeros are properties of the transfer function, and therefore of the differential equation describing the input-output system dynamics. Together with the

gain constant K they completely characterize the differential equation, and provide a complete description of the system. Ans 2: the transfer function is telling you what kind of an OUTPUT the system produces to a given INPUT ... *** Think of POLEs and ZEROs as INFINITY's and ZEROs. *** At ZEROs, the system produces ZERO output ... At POLEs, the system produces INFINITE output ... Obviously, you cannot produce infinite voltage with any electronics :) So, it means that, the output will be unbounded (in theory) and SATURATED AT THE HIGHEST POSSIBLE VALUE (in practice). ======================= Now, let's talk about a specific case: The TRANSFER FUNCTION can be the IMPEDANCE of a filter, it will be zero (short circuit) at zeros, and INFINITY (open circuit) at poles ... ============== EXAMPLE: Take an inductor and a capacitor, and connect them in parallel. Their impedances are Ls and 1/Cs ... So, the parallel inductor and capacitor will have an impedance of Ls/(1+s^2LC) ... Substitute s=j*2*PI*f. This means that, it has a ZERO at f=0 and a POLE at (2*PI*f)^2=LC (meaning, POLE at f=1/(2*PI*sqrt(LC)). ===================== It is clear what the ZERO means. It means that, if f=0 (i.e., NO oscillation activity is present or in other words, if you apply a DC voltage to the pins), since the capacitor is open circuit and the inductor is SHORT circuit, inductor will short circuit the capacitor, and the resulting impedance is ZERO. Since our transfer function is the impedance, we have ZERO impedance, and, thus, it corresponds to the ZERO of the transfer function. ======================= The POLE is a little less obvious. Let's assume that, C=1 microfarad, and L=1 microhenry. So, C=1E-6, L=1E-6. The POLE of the impedance is at f=159,236 Hz. This means that, if you apply a sine wave of frequency 159 KHz to the pins of the parallel capacitor and resistor, since the impedance is INFINITY at that frequency, the oscillation will be forever sustained and never lost ... ========== However, of course, these components will have a little bit of resistance which will make them non-ideal which will eventually kill the oscillation ... 22. Is there any control system in this room (interview hall)? Not got answer. 23. What is Karnaugh map?
The Karnaugh map, also known as the K-map, is a method to simplify boolean algebra expressions. Maurice Karnaugh introduced it in 1953 as a refinement of Edward Veitch's 1952 Veitch diagram. The Karnaugh map reduces the need for extensive calculations by taking advantage of humans' pattern-recognition capability. It also permits the rapid identification and elimination of potential race conditions.

The required boolean results are transferred from a truth table onto a two-dimensional grid where the cells are ordered in Gray code, and each cell position represents one combination of input conditions, while each cell value represents the corresponding output value. Optimal groups of 1s or 0s are identified, which represent the terms of a canonical form of the logic in the original truth table.[1] These terms can be used to write a minimal boolean expression representing the required logic. Karnaugh maps are used to simplify real-world logic requirements so that they can be implemented using a minimum number of physical logic gates. A sum-of-products expression can always be implemented using AND gates feeding into an OR gate, and a product-of-sums expression leads to OR gates feeding an AND gate.[2] Karnaugh maps can also be used to simplify logic expressions in software design. Boolean conditions, as used for example in conditional statements, can get very complicated, which makes the code difficult to read and to maintain. Once minimised, canonical sum-of-products and product-of-sums expressions can be implemented directly using AND and OR logic operators.[3] karnaugh Maps are used for many small design problems. It's true that many larger designs are done using computer implementations of different algorithms. However designs with a small number of variables occur frequently in interface problems and that makes learning Karnaugh Maps worthwhile. In addition, if you study Karnaugh Maps you will gain a great deal of insight into digital logic circuits.

24. What are the 4 methods to reduce a Boolean expression?


A Boolean expression is composed of variables and terms. The simplification of Boolean expressions can lead to more effective computer programs, algorithms and circuits. Minimisation can be achieved by a number of methods, four well known methods are: 1.Algebraic Manipulation of Boolean Expressions 2. Karnaugh Maps 3. Tabular Method of Minimisation 4. Tree reduction

25. Draw 8086 internal architecture. # Block Diagram:

Fig: Internal architecture of 8086 Microprocessor

26. What are the different types of buses?


In computer architecture, a bus (from the Latin omnibus, meaning "for all") is a communication system that transfers data between components inside a computer, or between computers. This expression covers all related hardware components (wire, optical fiber, etc.) and software, including communication protocols. There are many different types of buses in a computer. There are PCI buses, Monitor buses, cable buses and memory buses just to name a few of them. Changing the voltage on buses such as a memory bus can be used to help you to overclock your memory. The bus connecting the CPU and memory is one of the defining characteristics of the system, and often referred to simply as the system bus.

It is possible to allow peripherals to communicate with memory in the same fashion, attaching adaptors in the form of expansion cards directly to the system bus. This is commonly accomplished through some sort of standardized electrical connector, several of these forming the expansion bus or local bus. As the number of potential peripherals grew, using an expansion card for every peripheral became increasingly untenable. This has led to the introduction of bus systems designed specifically to support multiple peripherals. Common examples are the SATA ports in modern computers, which allow a number of hard drives to be connected without the need for a card., the most common example being Universal Serial Bus. All such examples may be referred to as peripheral buses, although this terminology is not universal. In modern systems the performance difference between the CPU and main memory has grown so great that increasing amounts of high-speed memory is built directly into the CPU, known as a cache. In such systems, CPUs communicate using high-performance buses that operate at speeds much greater than memory, and communicate with memory using protocols similar to those used solely for peripherals in the past. These

system buses are also used to communicate with most (or all) other peripherals, through adaptors, which in turn talk to other peripherals and controllers. Such systems are architecturally more similar to multicomputers, communicating over a bus rather than a network. In these cases, expansion buses are entirely separate and no longer share any architecture with their host CPU (and may in fact support many different CPUs, as is the case with PCI). What would have formerly been a system bus is now often known as a front-side bus. Given these changes, the classical terms "system", "expansion" and "peripheral" no longer have the same connotations. Other common categorization systems are based on the buses primary role, connecting devices internally or externally, PCI vs. SCSI for instance. However, many common modern bus systems can be used for both; SATA and the associated eSATA are one example of a system that would formerly be described as internal, while in certain automotive applications use the primarily external IEEE 1394 in a fashion more similar to a system bus. Other examples, like InfiniBand and IC were designed from the start to be used both internally and externally.
Internal bus

The internal bus, also known as internal data bus, memory bus, system bus or Front-Side-Bus, connects all the internal components of a computer, such as CPU and memory, to the motherboard. Internal data buses are also referred to as a local bus, because they are intended to connect to local devices. This bus is typically rather quick and is independent of the rest of the computer operations.
External bus

The external bus, or expansion bus, is made up of the electronic pathways that connect the different external devices, such as printer etc., to the computer.

27.What are the different registers in CPU? Ans : Registers are normally measured by the number of bits they can hold, for example, an "8-bit register"

or a "32-bit register". A processor often contains several kinds of registers, that can be classified accordingly to their content or instructions that operate on them:

User-accessible registers instructions that can be read or written by machine instructions. The most common division of user-accessible registers is into data registers and address registers. o Data registers can hold numeric values such as integer and, in some architectures, floatingpoint values, as well as characters, small bit arrays and other data. In some older and low end CPUs, a special data register, known as the accumulator, is used implicitly for many operations. o Address registers hold addresses and are used by instructions that indirectly access primary memory. Some processors contain registers that may only be used to hold an address or only to hold numeric values (in some cases used as an index register whose value is added as an offset from some address); others allow registers to hold either kind of quantity. A wide variety of possible addressing modes, used to specify the effective address of an operand, exist. The stack pointer is used to manage the run-time stack. Rarely, other data stacks are addressed by dedicated address registers, see stack machine. o General purpose registers (GPRs) can store both data and addresses, i.e., they are combined Data/Address registers and rarely the register file is unified to include floating point as well.

Conditional registers hold truth values often used to determine whether some instruction should or should not be executed. o Floating point registers (FPRs) store floating point numbers in many architectures. o Constant registers hold read-only values such as zero, one, or pi. o Vector registers hold data for vector processing done by SIMD instructions (Single Instruction, Multiple Data). o Special purpose registers (SPRs) hold program state; they usually include the program counter, also called the instruction pointer, and the status register; the program counter and status register might be combined in a program status word (PSW) register. The aforementioned stack pointer is sometimes also included in this group. Embedded microprocessors can also have registers corresponding to specialized hardware elements. o In some architectures, model-specific registers (also called machine-specific registers) store data and settings related to the processor itself. Because their meanings are attached to the design of a specific processor, they cannot be expected to remain standard between processor generations. o Memory Type Range Registers (MTRR) Internal registers registers not accessible by instructions, used internally for processor operations. o Instruction register, holding the instruction currently being executed. o Registers related to fetching information from RAM, a collection of storage registers located on separate chips from the CPU: Memory buffer register (MBR) Memory data register (MDR) Memory address register (MAR)

Hardware registers are similar, but occur outside CPUs. 28. What is the use of segment register?
Ans 1.In the x86 processor architecture, memory addresses are specified in two parts called the segment and the offset. One usually thinks of the segment as specifying the beginning of a block of memory allocated by the system and the offset as an index into it. Segment values are stored in the segment registers. There are four or more segment registers: CS contains the segment of the current instruction (IP is the offset), SS contains the stack segment (SP is the offset), DS is the segment used by default for most data operations, ES (and, in more recent processors, FS and GS) is an extra segment register. Most memory operations accept a segment override prefix that allows use of a segment register other than the default one.

Ans 2: basically registers are used to store data and address. for specifying the base address i.e starting
block of memory ,segment registers are used . it gives only the starting adress of any segment .one thing is important in the case of 8086 architechture is that ,for producing physical address ,the segment register address must be rotate bit-wise 4 times left and 0000 must be embedded. now offset address is added in the modify content of segment register to get the required memory location.

29.Which is the 1st 32-bit microprocessor? (not getting the answer)


Ans: the first 32 bit intel micro processor was Intel 386 processor, released in October 1985

Ans 2: The first true 32-bit processor was the Intel 80386. 30. What are the different UPS?
UPS types A variety of design approaches are used to implement UPS systems, each with distinct performance characteristics. The most common design approaches are as follows:

1. Standby : The Standby UPS is the most common type used for Personal Computers. the transfer switch is set to choose the filtered AC input as the primary power source (solid line path), and switches to the battery / inverter as the backup source should the primary source fail. When that happens, the transfer switch must operate to switch the load over to the battery / inverter backup power source (dashed path). The inverter only starts when the power fails, hence the name "Standby." 2. Line Interactive : is the most common design used for small business, Web, and departmental servers. In this design, the battery-to-AC power converter (inverter) is always connected to the output of the UPS. Operating the inverter in reverse during times when the input AC power is normal provides battery charging. When the input power fails, the transfer switch opens and the power flows from the battery to the UPS output. With the inverter always on and connected to the output, this design provides additional filtering and yields reduced switching transients when compared with the Standby UPS topology. In addition, the Line Interactive design usually incorporates a tap-changing transformer. This adds voltage regulation by adjusting transformer taps as the input voltage varies. Voltage regulation is an important feature when low voltage conditions exist, otherwise the UPS would transfer to battery and then eventually down the load. This more frequent battery usage can cause premature battery failure. However, the inverter can also be designed such that its failure will still permit power flow from the AC input to the output, which eliminates the potential of single point failure and effectively provides for two independent power paths. This topology is inherently very efficient which leads to high reliability while at the same time providing superior power protection.
3 Standby on-line hybrid : The Standby On-Line Hybrid is the topology used for many of the UPS under 10kVA which are labeled "online." The standby DC to DC converter from the battery is switched on when an AC power failure is detected, just like in a standby UPS. The battery charger is also small, as in the standby UPS. Due to capacitors in the DC combiner, the UPS will exhibit no transfer time during an AC power failure. This design is sometimes fitted with an additional transfer switch for bypass during a malfunction or overload. Figure 3 illustrates this topology. 4. Standby-Ferro The Standby-Ferro UPS was once the dominant form of UPS in the 3-15kVA range. This design depends on a special saturating transformer that has three windings (power connections). The primary power path is from AC input, through a transfer switch, through the transformer, and to the output. In the case of a power failure, the transfer switch is opened, and the inverter picks up the output load.

5. Double Conversion On-Line This is the most common type of UPS above 10kVA. The block diagram of the Double Conversion On-Line UPS, illustrated in Figure 5, is the same as the Standby, except that the primary power path is the inverter instead of the AC main. In the Double Conversion On-Line design, failure of the input AC does not cause activation of the transfer switch, because the input AC is NOT the primary source, but is rather the backup source. Therefore, during an input AC power failure, on-line operation results in no transfer time. The on-line mode of operation exhibits a transfer time when the power from the primary battery charger / battery / inverter power path fails. This can occur when any of the blocks in this power path fail. The inverter power can also drop out briefly, causing a transfer, if the inverter is subjected to sudden load changes or internal control problems.

6. Delta Conversion On-Line This UPS design is a new technology introduced to eliminate the drawbacks of the Double Conversion On-Line design and is available in the range of 5kVA to 1 MW. Similar to the Double Conversion On-Line design, the Delta Conversion On-Line UPS always has the inverter supplying the load voltage. However, the additional Delta Converter also contributes power to the inverter output. Under conditions of AC failure or disturbances, this design exhibits behavior identical to the Double Conversion On-Line.

31. Compare 8086 and 80286


The 8086/8088 is a 16 bit processor running on a 16 bit (8086) or 8 bit (8088) bus with a 20 bit address. It can address 1 MB of memory. Addressing consists of adding the program's effective address to the (left shifted by 4) value of one of the segment registers. Think of segments as multiple 64kb regions of memory, overlapping at a distance of 16 bytes. The 80286 is a 16 bit processor running on a 16 bit bus with a 24 bit address. It can address 16mb of memory.

In real mode, it operates the same as an 8086. This is the power on reset state. In protected mode, the segment register changes meaning. Instead of a segment address (left shifted by 4 base address), the segment register is an index into a page descriptor table, which is a table that supports virtual mode. Each element in the page descriptor table also contains information about the protection status of that page, so that page protection can be provided. Unfortunately, since the meaning of the segment register changed, the 80286 was not object code compatible with programs written for the 8086/8088. This is one of the factors that made the 80286 unpopular.

Sent up to here

1. Explain the internal architecture of 8086


8086 CPU ARCHITECTURE The microprocessors functions as the CPU in the stored program model of the digital computer. Its job is to generate all system timing signals and synchronize the transfer of data between memory, I/O, and itself. It accomplishes this task via the three-bus system architecture previously discussed. The microprocessor also has a S/W function. It must recognize, decode, and execute program instructions fetched from the memory unit. This requires an Arithmetic-Logic Unit (ALU) within the CPU to perform arithmetic and logical (AND, OR, NOT, compare, etc) functions. The 8086 CPU is organized as two separate processors, called the Bus Interface Unit (BIU) and the Execution Unit (EU). The BIU provides H/W functions, including generation of the memory and I/O addresses for the transfer of data between the outside world -outside the CPU, that is- and the EU. The EU receives program instruction codes and data from the BIU, executes these instructions, and store the results in the general registers. By passing the data back to the BIU, data can also be stored in a memory location or written to an output device. Note that the EU has no connection to the system buses. It receives and outputs all its data thru the BIU.

The only difference between an 8088 microprocessor and an 8086 microprocessor is the BIU. In the 8088, the BIU data bus path is 8 bits wide versus the 8086's 16-bit data bus. Another difference is that the 8088 instruction queue is four bytes long instead of six. The important point to note, however, is that because the EU is the same for each processor, the programming instructions are exactly the same for each. Programs written for the 8086 can be run on the 8088 without any changes.

Ans 2:
The Intel 8086 is a 16-bit microprocessor intended to be used as the CPU in a microcomputer. The term 16-bit means that its arithmetic logic unit, internal registers, and most of its instructions are designed to work 16-bit binary words. It has 16-bit data bus and 20-bit address bus. Words will be stored in two consecutive memory locations. If the first byte of a word is at an even address, the 8086 can read the entire word in one operation. If the first byte of the word is at an odd address, the 8086 will read the first byte in one operation, and the second byte in another operation. Following figure shows the internal block diagram of 8086 microprocessor. The 8086 CPU is divided into two independent functional parts, the bus interface unit or BIU, and the execution unit or EU.

Fig. 8086 internal block diagram. BIU (Bus Interface Unit): It sends out tasks.

It fetches instructions from memory. It reads data from memory and ports. It also writes data from memory and ports. So BIU takes care of all the address and data transfers on the buses.

Execution Unit: It tells the BIU, from where to fetch the instruction or data. It decodes the fetched instructions. It executes the fetched instructions. EU takes care of performing operations on data.

2. What do you know about antennas?


Ans: Also called an aerial, an antenna is a conductor that can transmit, send and receive signals such as microwave, radio or satellite signals. A high-gain antenna increases signal strength, where a low-gain antenna receives or transmits over a wide angle.

Ans 2: Buying an antenna optimized for digital TV reception is different than analog reception because digital signals are encoded differently than analog - a bunch of 1s and 0s versus a waveform. As a result, the antenna design was tweaked from a rod to a wider, dish-like appearance that acts like a catchers mitt to the digital signal. Not every old antenna will have to be replaced because of digital TV. Many antennas designed before digital will receive digital signals without issue, but if you experience poor digital reception then you may need to buy a different antenna to improve your reception. Ans 3: Most people have television in their homes. However, everyone accesses television broadcasting differently. Many access programming via cable, by subscribing to a service provider. Others use antennas and dishes to access programming. Antennas and satellite dishes work in different ways to bring programming into a home. Antennas pick up radio waves broadcast by ground-based stations. Different types of antennas receive signals from varying distances, and signals of different types. Satellite dishes receive radio signals from satellites in orbit about the planet. The broadcasters send the signals into space, and the satellite bounces the signal back to Earth, where a dish receives it and a decoder box decodes the it for display on the TV screen.
3. Define control system. Why are control systems so important Ans: a system for controlling the operation of another system

A control system is a device, or set of devices, that manages, commands, directs or regulates the behavior of other device(s) or system(s). Industrial control systems are used in industrial production for controlling an equipment or a machine. There are two common classes of control systems, open loop control systems and closed loop control systems. In open loop control systems output is generated based on inputs. In closed loop control systems current output is taken into consideration and corrections are made based on feedback. A closed loop system is also called a feedback control system. The human body is a classic example of feedback control system. Fuzzy logic is also used in control systems.

Control engineering has an important role in several major emerging technologies: next generation smart manufacturing systems, smart grid technologies, engine management systems for energy efficiency, hybrid vehicle control, autonomous systems and production of high valued added pharmaceuticals. This area plays an important role in societal challenges such as energy (wind turbines) and healthcare (e.g. prosthetics control systems, automated drug administration), and its importance is likely to increase with transition to leaner, intensive sustainable technologies. The area is undergoing resurgence due to a need for more sophisticated control for more complex technologies; it has transformative potential, for example in smart manufacturing and process systems. A number of "grand challenges" for control have been identified in The Impact of Control Technology (The Impact of Control Technology, T. Samad and A.M. Annaswamy (eds.), IEEE Control Systems Society, 2011) and the Position Paper on Systems and Control in FP8 (PDF 2MB) (HYCON2, Oct 2011). 4. Draw the block diagram of a control system and write its transfer function

Ans: block diagrams are ways of representing relationships between signals in a system. Here is a block diagram of a typical control system. Each block in the block diagram establishs a relationship between signals.

4. What is ROC? Not got answer 6. Transformation between S and Z plane. Ans: There are a number of different mappings that can be used to convert a system from the complex Laplace
domain into the Z-Domain. None of these mappings are perfect, and every mapping requires a specific starting condition, and focuses on a specific aspect to reproduce faithfully. One such mapping is the bilinear transform, which, along with prewarping, can faithfully map the various regions in the s-plane into the corresponding regions in the z-plane.

7. What is wave studio? 8. What is bit rate? 9. In telecommunications and computing, bit rate is the number of bits that are conveyed or processed per unit of time. The bit rate is quantified using the bits per second (bit/s or bps) unit, often in conjunction with an SI prefix such as kilo- (kbit/s or kbps), mega- (Mbit/s or Mbps), giga- (Gbit/s or Gbps) or tera- (Tbit/s or Tbps).It describes the rate at which bits are transferred from one location to another. In other words, it measures how much data is transmitted in a given amount of time.

10. What is the difference between mp3 and wave formats Ans: There are two types of file formats. Lossy, and on-Lossy. In the case of audio, MP3 is a lossy one
because it compresses the audio. Though this is intended to save filespace, it does this by weeding out the unneccessary data. In doing this , the quality of the audio can suffer some, but not enough so that you'd be able to tell the difference.

Wav on the other hand is raw sound, and is usually only used for sound effects because the filesize is so huge. Too many wav files eat up your harddrive fast! Hence, many people convert them to MP3. The difference in size is quite noticeable! Anyways, my point is this! Because MP3 is a lossy format (and is usually already converted from a wav when you get to it), converting to Wav won't up your quality, because the original data has already been lost in the initial conversion to MP3. You can't get back what's already been deleted. If anything you'll just be stuck with a big file and no difference in quality.

Hence Use .WAV files for TV, radio, DVD or any other media requiring top uncompromised audio quality. WAV files are lossless, uncompressed, broadcast CD quality music files. WAV files are also the right choice for loops to be processed with Flash for web animations. Use MP3 files for web pages, web videos, in fact for anything on the Internet. An MP3 file is a compressed music file. It loads rapidly and still plays with a very good sound quality. There are several levels of possible compression but for Internet usage we recommend 128kbps which is what you download automatically from our server when you order music from us.

11.What is sampling?
In signal processing, sampling is the reduction of a continuous signal to a discrete signal. A common example is the conversion of a sound wave (a continuous signal) to a sequence of samples (a discrete-time signal).

Ans2 : Sampling may refer to:


Sampling (signal processing), converting a continuous signal into a discrete signal Sampling (graphics), converting continuous colors into discrete color components Sampling (music), re-using portions of sound recordings in a piece o Sampler (musical instrument), an electronic music instrument that plays back sound recordings on command Sampling (statistics), selection of observations to acquire some knowledge of a statistical population Sampling (case studies), selection of cases for single or multiple case studies Sampling (audit), application of audit procedures to less than 100% of population to be audited Sampling (medicine), gathering of matter from the body to aid in the process of a medical diagnosis and/or evaluation of an indication for treatment, further medical tests or other procedures. Sampling (for testing or analysis), taking a representative portion of a material or product to test (e.g. by physical measurements, chemical analysis, microbiological examination), typically for the purposes of identification, quality control, or regulatory assessment. See Sample (material).

12. How do you damp noises and jerks in recording


If you're recording vocals place a pop shield between the microphone and the vocalist and most unwanted noises and accentuations will be gone. As for anything else, I recommend clever EQing to remove bleed and other unwanted sounds.

13. What is Winamp? Winamp is a media player for Windows, Android, and OS X developed by Justin Frankel and Dmitry Boldyrev[3][4][5] by their company Nullsoft, which they later sold to AOL. Since version 2 it has been sold as freemium and supports extensibility with plug-ins and skins, and features music visualization, playlist and a media library, supported by a large online community.

Version 1 of Winamp was released in 1997, and grew quickly popular with over 3 million downloads,[6] paralleling the developing trend of MP3 (music) file sharing. Winamp 2.0 was released on September 8, 1998. The 2.x versions were widely used and made Winamp one of the most downloaded Windows applications.[7] By 2000, Winamp had over 25 million registered users.[8] A poor reception to the 2002 rewrite, Winamp 3, was followed by the release of Winamp 5 in 2003, and a later release of version 5.5 in 2007. 14. What are plugins?
In computing, a plug-in (or plugin, extension, or add-on / addon) is a software component that adds a specific feature to an existing software application. When an application supports plug-ins, it enables customization. The common examples are the plug-ins used in web browsers to add new features such as search-engines, virus scanners, or the ability to utilize a new file type such as a new video format. Wellknown browser plug-ins include the Adobe Flash Player, the QuickTime Player, and the Java plug-in, which can launch a user-activated Java applet on a web page to its execution a local Java virtual machine.

15.Explain the functioning of an OP-AMP.

Op-amp stands for operational amplifier. It is available in IC (Integrated Circuit) chip. It is an electronic circuit of many electronic components already connected and packaged inside a chip of many pins for external connection. Originally, op-amps were so named because they were used to model the basic mathematical operations of addition, subtraction, integration, differentiation, etc. in electronic analog computers. In this sense a true operational amplifier is an ideal circuit element. Basic Op Amp Function
1) If (inverting input) > (non-inverting input) output saturates towards -Vss 2) If (inverting input) < (non-inverting input) output saturates towards +Vss 3) Without feedback maximum saturation occurs with the slightest difference between inputs. 4) Ideal op-amp has infinite impedance on the inputs, infinite gain, and zero resistance on output. 5) In real life gain is limited to voltage present at +Vss/-Vss 6) For practical purposes there is no current flow from the inputs to the outputs. The input voltage serves only as a reference to control the output.

16. What is the difference between input and output plugins?


INPUT PLUGIN is a plug-in that adds a new file type to Winamp's list of supported types.

Output plugins provide the audio system backend of the player. A small Winamp plugin that allows users to automatically convert the played audio files to MP3 format quickly and with minimum effort
What do you know about CD writing? The blank disc has a pre-groove track onto which the data are written. The pre-groove track, which also contains timing information, ensures that the recorder follows the same spiral path as a conventional CD. A CD recorder writes data to a CD-R disc by pulsing its laser to heat areas of the organic dye layer. The writing process does not produce indentations (pits); instead, the heat permanently changes the optical properties of the dye, changing the reflectivity of those areas. Using a low laser power, so as not to further alter the dye, the disc is read back in the same way as a CD-ROM. However, the reflected light is modulated not by pits, but by the alternating regions of heated and unaltered dye. The change of the intensity of the reflected laser radiation is transformed into an electrical signal, from which the digital information is recovered ("decoded"). Once a section of a CD-R is written, it cannot be erased or rewritten, unlike a CDRW. A CD-R can be recorded in multiple sessions. A CD recorder can write to a CD-R using several methods including:
1. Disc At Once the whole CD-R is written in one session with no gaps and the disc is "closed" meaning no more data can be added and the CD-R effectively becomes a standard read-only CD. With no gaps between the tracks the Disc At Once format is useful for "live" audio recordings. 2. Track At Once data are written to the CD-R one track at a time but the CD is left "open" for further recording at a later stage. It also allows data and audio to reside on the same CD-R. 3. Packet Writing used to record data to a CD-R in "packets", allowing extra information to be appended to a disc at a later time, or for information on the disc to be made "invisible". In this way, CD-R can emulate CDRW; however, each time information on the disc is altered, more data has to be written to the disc. There can be compatibility issues with this format and some CD drives.

With careful examination, the written and unwritten areas can be distinguished by the naked eye. CD-Rs are written from the center outwards, so the written area appears as an inner band with slightly different shading.

17.How do you mix BGM? What is its procedure? See the site http://manual.audacityteam.org/index.php?title=Tutorial__Mixing_a_Narration_With_Background_Music 18. What is bus? Ans:: Computing - a distinct set of conductors carrying data and control signals within a computer system, to which pieces of equipment may be connected in parallel. In computer architecture, a bus (from the Latin omnibus, meaning "for all") is a communication system that transfers data between components inside a computer, or between computers. This expression covers all related hardware components (wire, optical fiber, etc.) and software, including communication protocols. Early computer buses were parallel electrical wires with multiple connections, but the term is now used for any physical arrangement that provides the same logical functionality as a parallel electrical bus. Modern

computer buses can use both parallel and bit serial connections, and can be wired in either a multidrop (electrical parallel) or daisy chain topology, or connected by switched hubs, as in the case of USB.

18. What do you mean by 20-bit address bus?


An address bus is a computer bus (a series of lines connecting two or more devices) that is used to specify a physical address. The width of the address bus determines the amount of memory a system can address. For example, a system with a 32-bit address bus can address 232 (4,294,967,296) memory locations. If each memory address holds one byte, the addressable memory space is 4 GB. Ans2 : An internal channel from the CPU to memory across which the addresses of data (not the data) are transmitted. The number of lines (wires) in the address bus determines the amount of memory that can be directly addressed as each line carries one bit of the address. For example, a 20-line address bus represents the binary number 1,048,576 and reaches that number of memory bytes (the size of the address bus in the IBM PC in 1981). A computer with a 32-bit address bus can directly address 4GB of physical memory, while one with 36 bits can address 64GB.

19. What is the ideal gain of an opamp?


The open-loop gain of an operational amplifier is the gain obtained when no feedback is used in the circuit. Open loop gain is usually exceedingly high; in fact, an ideal operational amplifier has infinite open-loop gain. Typically an op-amp may have an open-loop gain of around .

20. What is a database?


A database is an organized collection of data. The data are typically organized to model relevant aspects of reality in a way that supports processes requiring this information. For example, modeling the availability of rooms in hotels in a way that supports finding a hotel with vacancies.

21. What is the database software that is proprietary of IBM?


IBM DB2 is a family of database server products developed by IBM.

22. What is the difference between half adder and full adder?
Ans 1: basically half adder we use only 2 inputs and we get 2 output for that,but in case of full adder gate we give 3 input for that we get 2 out put which in the form of SUM and CARRY... Ans 2: half adder does not have a carry in (Cin) while a full adder has the Cin. Basic diff is Number of input bits. Half adder: (Cout,Q) := A+B Full adder: (Cout,Q) := A+B+Cin. one is twice as good duh Ans 3:a half adder has only two inputs: A & B, no carry input; the sum can only be 0, 1 or 2.a full adder has three inputs: A, B & carry; the sum can be 0, 1, 2, or 3.

23. Implement a half adder and a full adder. Ans 1: Connect two half Adders with an OR gate to make a Full Adder.

Ans 2: A full adder can be implemented in many different ways such as with a custom transistorlevel circuit or composed of other gates. One example implementation is with and .

In this implementation, the final OR gate before the carry-out output may be replaced by an XOR gate without altering the resulting logic.[citation needed] Using only two types of gates is convenient if the circuit is being implemented using simple IC chips which contain only one gate type per chip. A full adder can be constructed from two half adders by connecting A and B to the input of one half adder, connecting the sum from that to an input to the second adder, connecting Ci to the other input and OR the two carry outputs.

24. What is packet switching and circuit switching? Ans 1: Circuit switching is a methodology of implementing a telecommunications network in which two network nodes establish a dedicated communications channel (circuit) through the network before the nodes may communicate. The circuit guarantees the full bandwidth of the channel and remains connected for the duration of the communication session. The circuit functions as if the nodes were physically connected as with an electrical circuit. The defining example of a circuit-switched network is the early analog telephone network. When a call is made from one telephone to another, switches within the telephone exchanges create a continuous wire circuit between the two telephones, for as long as the call lasts. Circuit switching contrasts with packet switching which divides the data to be transmitted into packets transmitted through the network independently. In packet switching, instead of being dedicated to one communication session at a time, network links are shared by packets from multiple competing communication sessions, resulting in the loss of the quality of service guarantees that are provided by circuit switching.
Packet switching is a digital networking communications method that groups all transmitted data regardless of content, type, or structure into suitably sized blocks, called packets.

25. What is VOIP (Voice over Internet Protocol)? Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) is a methodology and group of technologies for the delivery of voice communications and multimedia sessions over Internet Protocol (IP) networks, such as the Internet. Other terms commonly associated with VoIP are IP telephony, Internet telephony, voice over broadband (VoBB), broadband telephony, IP communications, and broadband phone service. The term Internet telephony specifically refers to the provisioning of communications services (voice, fax, SMS, voice-messaging) over the public Internet, rather than via the public switched telephone network (PSTN).

26. What types of communications do you know?


Communication (from Latin commnicre, meaning "to share" [1]) is the activity of conveying information through the exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech, visuals, signals,

writing, or behavior. It is the meaningful exchange of information between two or more living creatures.

Explain various types of digital communication. Types of communication based on the communication channels used are: 1. Verbal Communication 2. Nonverbal Communication Verbal Communication is further divided into:

Oral Communication Written Communication

Nonverbal communication have three elements: i.e Appearance, Body Language, Sounds

Types of Communication Based on Purpose and Style 1. Formal Communication 2. Informal Communication

27.Explain the structure of MOSFET - where and why they are preferred.
The metaloxidesemiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS FET) is a transistor used for amplifying or switching electronic signals. Although the MOSFET is a four-terminal device with source (S), gate (G), drain (D), and body (B) terminals,[1] the body (or substrate) of the MOSFET often is connected to the source terminal, making it a three-terminal device like other field-effect transistors. Because these two terminals are normally connected to each other (short-circuited) internally, only three terminals appear in electrical diagrams. The MOSFET is by far the most common transistor in both digital and analog circuits, though the bipolar junction transistor was at one time much more common. A mosfet is used for intensifying or swapping electronic signals since it a semiconductor gadget. It has three terminals, the collector, the emitter, and the base. In which current in the base terminal is used to control the flow of current between the emitter and the collector. It is by far the most common transistor in both digital and analog circuits.

MOSFET switching circuits consists of two main part- MOSFET (works as per transistor) and the on/off control block. MOSFET passes the voltage supply to a specific load when the transistor is on. In most of the cases n-channel MOSFETs are preferred over p-channel MOSFETs for several advantages
In a MOSFETs switching circuit the drain is connected directly to the input voltage and the source is connected to the load. For turning on n-channel MOSFET, the gate to source voltage must be greater than the threshold voltage must be greater than the threshold voltage of the device. For p channel MOSFET the source to gate voltage must be greater than the threshold voltage of the device. MOSFET behaves as a better switch than BJT because the offset voltage does not exist in MOS switches

28. How is amplification possible in a transistor?


A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current through another pair of terminals.

Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits.

29. Classify power amplifiers (A, B, AB). Generally, amplifiers are classified according to their circuit configuration and method of operation, and as such Amplifier Classes are used to differentiate between them. Amplifier classes range from entirely linear operation (for use in high-fidelity signal amplification) with low efficiency, to entirely non-linear (where faithful reproduction is not so important) operation with high efficiency, while others are a compromise between the two. Amplifier Classes are mainly lumped into two basic groups. The classically controlled conduction angle amplifier forming amplifier classes A, B, AB and C, which are defined by the length of their conduction state over some portion of the output waveform, such that the output stage transistor operation lies somewhere between being fully-ON and fully-OFF, and the so-called switching amplifier classes of D, E, F, G, S, T etc, that are constantly being switched between fully-ON and fully-OFF. The most commonly available amplifier classes are those that are used as audio amplifiers, mainly A, B, AB and C. Class A Amplifiers are the simplest in design, and probably the best sounding of all the amplifier classes due to their low signal distortion. The class A amplifier has the highest linearity over the other amplifier classes and as such operates in the linear portion of the characteristics curve. Class B amplifiers were invented as a solution to the efficiency and heating problems associated with the class A amplifiers. The basic class B amplifier uses two complimentary transistor devices (one NPN and one PNP transistor connected in common collector mode) in its output stage configured in a push-pull arrangement, with each device amplifying only half of the output waveform.
Class AB Amplifier is a combination of the two class A and class B type amplifiers above, and is currently one of the most common types of power amplifier design. The class AB amplifier is a variation of a class B amplifier as described above, except that both devices are allowed to conduct at the same time around the crossover point eliminating the crossover distortion problems of the pure class B amplifier.

What is doping? 30. Describe DMA controllers. Direct memory access (DMA) is a feature of modern computers that allows certain hardware subsystems within the computer to access system memory independently of the central processing unit (CPU). Without DMA, when the CPU is using programmed input/output, it is typically fully occupied for the entire duration of the read or write operation, and is thus unavailable to perform other work. With DMA, the CPU initiates the transfer, does other operations while the transfer is in progress, and receives an interrupt from the DMA controller when the operation is done. This feature is useful any time the CPU cannot keep up with the rate of data transfer, or where the CPU needs to perform useful work while waiting for a relatively slow I/O data transfer. Many hardware systems use DMA, including disk drive controllers 31. What is the protocol used in telephone network?

Telnet is a network protocol used on the Internet or local area networks to provide a bidirectional interactive text-oriented communication facility using a virtual terminal connection. User data is interspersed in-band with Telnet control information in an 8-bit byte oriented data connection over the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).

32. Explain different types of switching

Switching is used for local exchange and long distance carrier. switching method in which a communication way in physical form between two ways within a network is established. Types are : packet switching ,circuit switching & message switching.
Ans:

33. How many pins are there in 8086?


40 pins are there in 8086 microprocessor. ( it have 40 pins 1st one is ground and last one is Vcc.)

34. What is the most important advantage of blue tooth?


There are many advantages of using Bluetooth wireless technology. The most important is the fact that any two devices can be connected with each other without the use of any cables or wires. (Bluetooth will allow the use of wireless headsets as well a handy and quick way to share information between cellular phones that doesn't use data service.)

35. Which is the universal flip-flop?


In electronics, a flip-flop or latch is a circuit that has two stable states and can be used to store state information

The JK flip-flop augments the behavior of the SR flip-flop (J=Set, K=Reset) by interpreting the S = R = 1 condition as a "flip" or toggle command. Specifically, the combination J = 1, K = 0 is a command to set the flip-flop; the combination J = 0, K = 1 is a command to reset the flip-flop; and the combination J = K = 1 is a command to toggle the flip-flop, i.e., change its output to the logical complement of its current value. Setting J = K = 0 does NOT result in a D flip-flop, but rather, will hold the current state. To synthesize a D flip-flop, simply set K equal to the complement of J. Similarly, to synthesize a T flip-flop, set K equal to J. The JK flip-flop is therefore a universal flip-flop, because it can be configured to work as an SR flip-flop, a D flip-flop, or a T flip-flop. 36. What are interrupts? How will you set an interrupt? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. What is Dynamic Memory Access? What is SRAM, DRAM? Compare the two, relative cost of the two. What will happen in case of a power failure for the above? What is modulation? What are the different modulation techniques? What is FM, PM and AM? Compare the three and what happens in them? Which waves will travel longer distance - FM or AM?

http://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%95%E0 %B1%8D%E0%B0%95_%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B 0%95_%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%B0

http://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/sammakka_sarakka_jatara

Explain various types of digital communication (not get correct inf)


Data transmission, digital transmission, or digital communications is the physical transfer of data (a digital bit stream) over a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint communication channel. Examples of such channels are copper wires, optical fibres, wireless communication channels, and storage media. The data are represented as an electromagnetic signal, such as an electrical voltage, radiowave, microwave, or infrared signal.

Types of Digital Communication Systems Signal Type Transmission Example Analog Analog Classical telephony Analog Digital PCM TDM Digital Analog Modems Digital Digital ISDN, LANs
75. What are interrupts? How will you set an interrupt? Ans: An interrupt is an indication to a thread that it should stop what it is doing and do something else. It's up to the programmer to decide exactly how a thread responds to an interrupt, but it is very common for the thread to terminate. This is the usage emphasized in this lesson. A thread sends an interrupt by invoking interrupt on the Thread object for the thread to be interrupted. For the interrupt mechanism to work correctly, the interrupted thread must support its own interruption. Ans 2: An interrupt is a signal (an "interrupt request") generated by some event external to the CPU , which causes
the CPU to stop what it is doing (stop executing the code it is currently running) and jump to a separate piece of code designed by the programmer to deal with the event which generated the interrupt request. This interrupt handling code is often called an ISR (interrupt service routine). When the ISR is finished, it returns to the code that was running prior to the interrupt, which then resumes running with no awareness that it has been pre-empted by the interrupt code. It is this ability to run the appropriate code for an external event at any point in time that is both the chief benefit of, and the potential source of difficulties from, interrupts

Interrupts: An event that causes processor to halt what it is doing, and execute an interrupt service routine (ISR). Sources of interrupts include: Timers, External interrupts, DMA (direct memory access), McBSP transmit or receive.

76. What is Dynamic Memory Access? (not get correct ans) Ans : direct data transfer between memory and peripherals, without going through the CPU DMA stands for Direct Memory Access, a capability in modern computers that allows peripheral devices to send data to the motherboards memory without intervention from the CPU. Direct memory access, a computer feature that allows hardware subsystems to access system memory independent of the CPU Dynamic memory allocation, the allocation of memory storage for use in a computer program during the runtime

77. What is SRAM, DRAM? Compare the two, relative cost of the two.

Static random-access memory (SRAM) is a type of semiconductor memory that uses bistable latching circuitry to store each bit. The term static differentiates it from dynamic RAM (DRAM) which must be periodically refreshed. SRAM exhibits data remanence,[1] but it is still volatile in the conventional sense that data is eventually lost when the memory is not powered Dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) is a type of random-access memory that stores each bit of data in a separate capacitor within an integrated circuit. The capacitor can be either charged or discharged; these two states are taken to represent the two values of a bit, conventionally called 0 and 1. Since even "nonconducting" transistors always leak a small amount, the capacitors will slowly discharge, and the information eventually fades unless the capacitor charge is refreshed periodically. Because of this refresh requirement, it is a dynamic memory as opposed to SRAM and other static memory.

The main memory (the "RAM") in personal computers is dynamic RAM (DRAM). It is the RAM in desktops, laptops and workstation computers as well as some of the RAM of video game consoles. The advantage of DRAM is its structural simplicity: only one transistor and a capacitor are required per bit, compared to four or six transistors in SRAM. This allows DRAM to reach very high densities. Unlike flash memory, DRAM is volatile memory (vs. non-volatile memory), since it loses its data quickly when power is removed. The transistors and capacitors used are extremely small; billions can fit on a single memory chip. Comparision:
1. SRAM is static while DRAM is dynamic 2. SRAM is faster compared to DRAM 3. SRAM consumes less power than DRAM 4. SRAM uses more transistors per bit of memory compared to DRAM 5. SRAM is more expensive than DRAM 6. Cheaper DRAM is used in main memory while SRAM is commonly used in cache memory

sram: *faster *expensive *used as cache *more power consumption *uses internal flip flop to store binary information. dram: *slower *cheaper *used as main memory *less power consumption *used to store binary info. in the form of electric charges that are applied to capacitors.

78. What will happen in case of a power failure for the above?
Not get ans Nonvolatile RAM (NVRAM): Nonvolatile RAM (NVRAM) is a special kind of RAM that retains data when the computer is turned off or there is a power failure. Like the computer's read-only memory (ROM), it is powered by a battery within the computer. It can also work by writing its contents to and restoring them from an EEPROM. 79. What is modulation? What are the different modulation techniques (not get ans)

Ans: In electronics and telecommunications, modulation is the process of varying one or more properties of a periodic waveform, called the carrier signal (high frequency signal), with a modulating signal that typically contains information to be transmitted.

In telecommunications, modulation is the process of conveying a message signal, for example a digital bit stream or an analog audio signal, inside another signal that can be physically transmitted. Modulation of a sine waveform transforms a baseband message signal into a passband signal. 80. What is FM, PM and AM? Compare the three and what happens in them

Different Types of Modulation


Consider a carrier wave represented by Here ec is instantaneous value, Ec is amplitude (maximum value), wc is angular frequency and q is the phase angle of carrier voltage. Corresponding to the three variables Ec, wc and q, we can have three different types of modulation.

Amplitude of Modulation Frequency Modulation Phase Modulation

Amplitude of Modulation : In this type if modulation, wc and q are kept constant. The amplitude Ec of the carrier wave is varied in accordance with the modulating wave. The method of varying amplitude of a high frequency carrier wave in accordance with the information to be transmitted, keeping the frequency and phase of the carrier wave unchanged is called Amplitude Modulation Frequency Modulation: In this type of modulation, Ec and q are kept constant. The frequency wc of the carrier wave is varied in accordance with the modulating wave. Phase Modulation: In this type of modulation, Ec, wc are kept constant. The phase angle q of the carrier wave is varied according to the modulating wave. The common name for "phase modulation" and "frequency modulation" is "angle modulation".
The digital transmission of analog signals involves pulse modulation. In analog pulse modulation, time is represented in discrete form. In digital pulse modulation, both time and signal amplitude are represented in discrete form.
81. Which waves will travel longer distance - FM or AM Long-distance radio communication Amplitude Modulation (AM) is the answer because Frequency Modulation (FM) works at frequencies greater than from 50 MHz and can only be used for line-of-site communication, although it can be used to communicate for long distances into space. For long-distance communication, AM and Singlesideband (SSB) modulation can be used in the high-frequency (HF) range in the region of 30 MHz, but the distance is limited to about 30 to 100 kilometers. If ionospheric conditions are good, however, communicating with someone at the opposite side of the globe is possible, because radio signals bounce off the ionosphere back to the Earth and then back to the ionosphere This phenomenon is called "skip." If you desire continuous long-distance communication, you need to use the lower band of the RF spectrum: long-wave, medium-wave or short-wave signals. With AM, these frequency ranges are not affected by obstacles like mountains or buildings and are called ground waves,

Ans2 : First you have to understand radio waves, which are like waves on water. Now, AM stands for amplitude modulation, which means that the radio waves vary by height, not frequency. FM stands for frequency modulation, which means more or fewer cycles per second, but the wave height stays the same. AM can travel over longer distance because you are not changing the frequency, but you lose the sound quality of FM. AM is also more succeptible to atmospheric influences on the amplitude of the radio wave. FM produces a better sound because of the higher frequency of radio waves. FM requires more energy to maintain the cycle rate, so the range of FM is not nearly as far.

82.What is a thyristor? Differentiate between thyristor and diode.


A thyristor is a two- to four-lead solid-state semiconductor device with four layers of alternating N and P-type material. They act exclusively as bistable switches, conducting when their gate receives a current trigger, and continue to conduct while they are forward biased (that is, while the voltage across the device is not reversed). The functional drawback of a thyristor is that, like a diode, it only conducts in one direction. A similar self-latching 5layer device, called a TRIAC, is able to work in both directions. the difference between a thyristor and diode is mainly a diode is a un controlable device where as thyristor is a controble through gate voltage.

A diode is a solid state passive device that will only allow current to flow in one and only one direction (Anode->Cathode). A Thyristor behaves exactly like a Diode except that in order for current to flow it must "see" current at its gate, if it does not see current (ie logic 0 or ground) then current is not allowed to flow from its anode to cathode. Note: The Thyristor gate requires little current to trigger its gate, meaning a small amount of current can be used to switch on/off a load require much more current. Another Note: Since the Thyristor has a gate which controls its output it is not a passive device like the diode 83.Explain the witching action of SCR and triggering. A silicon-controlled rectifier (or semiconductor-controlled rectifier) is a four-layer solid state current controlling device. The name "silicon controlled rectifier" is General Electric's trade name for a type of thyristor. Some sources define silicon controlled rectifiers and thyristors as synonymous,[1] other sources define silicon controlled rectifiers as a subset of a larger family of devices with at least four layers of alternating N and P-type material, this entire family being referred to as thyristors.[2][3] SCRs are unidirectional devices (i.e. can conduct current only in one direction) as opposed to TRIACs which are bidirectional (i.e. current can flow through them in either direction). SCRs can be triggered normally only by currents going into the gate as opposed to TRIACs which can be triggered normally by either a positive or a negative current applied to its gate electrode.
This device is generally used in switching applications. In the normal "off" state, the device restricts current to the leakage current. When the gate-to-cathode voltage exceeds a certain threshold, the device turns "on" and conducts current. The device will remain in the "on" state even after gate current is removed as long as current through the device remains above the holding current.

84.Draw the diagram of thyristor.

Layer diagram of thyristor. 1. CMOS and TTL

1. What technology is used in cmos logic?

Ans: In CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor) technology, both Ntype and P-type transistors are used to realize logic functions. Today, CMOS technology is the dominant semiconductor technology for microprocessors, memories and application specific integrated circuits (ASICs). The main advantage of CMOS over NMOS and bipolar technology is the much smaller power dissipation. Unlike NMOS or bipolar circuits, a CMOS circuit has almost no static power dissipation. Power is only dissipated in case the circuit actually switches. This allows to integrate many more CMOS gates on an IC than in NMOS or bipolar technology, resulting in much better performance.
CMOS is also sometimes referred to as complementary-symmetry metaloxide semiconductor (or COS-MOS).[1] The words "complementary-symmetry" refer to the fact that the typical digital design style with CMOS uses complementary and symmetrical pairs of p-type and ntype metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETs) for logic functions Two important characteristics of CMOS devices are high noise immunity and low static power consumption 2. What are VLSI and ULSI? What is the number of components in both?
VLSI: Very-large-scale integration (VLSI) is the process of creating integrated circuits by combining thousands of transistors into a single chip. VLSI began in the 1970s when complex semiconductor and communication technologies were being developed. The microprocessor is a VLSI device.

ULSI: Ultra large-scale integration (ULSI) is the process of integrating or embedding millions of transistors on a single silicon semiconductor microchip. ULSI technology was conceived during the late 1980s when superior computer processor microchips, specifically for the Intel 8086 series, were under development. ULSI is a successor to large-scale integration (LSI) and very large-scale integration (VLSI) technologies but is in the same category as VLSI. ULSI was designed to provide the greatest possible computational power from the smallest form factor of microchip or microprocessor dye. This was achieved by embedding and integrating integrated circuits (IC), which were formed with transistors and logic gates. The close placement and design architecture enabled faster resolution of tasks and processes. However, even though VLSI now contains more than millions of transistors, any IC or microchip with more than one million transistors is considered a ULSI implementation. VLSI (very large-scale integration): From 100,000 to 1,000,000 electronic components per chip ULSI (ultra large-scale integration): More than 1 million electronic components per chip

3.

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