Table of Content

Sr No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Particulars

Page no. 6 9 12 14 16 18 22 23 27 28 32 36

INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION INTRODUCTION LABOUR MIGRATION THE BACKGROUND INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION PROGRAM INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION FROM INDEPENDENT INDIA INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR MIGRATION CAUSES OF MIGRATION DATA AND METHODS IMPACT OF MIGRATION EMPLOYMENT ORIENTED MIGRATION TRENDS IN GLOBAL MIGRATION EFFECTS OF MIGRATION CONCLUSION

International Migration Introduction

International labour migration is defined as the movement of people from one country to another for the purpose of employment. Today, an estimated 105 million persons are working in a country other than their country of birth. Labour mobility has become a key feature of

globalization and the global economy with migrant workers earning US$ 440 billion in 2011, and the World Bank estimating that more than $350 billion of that total was transferred to developing countries in the form of remittances. However, despite the efforts made to ensure the protection of migrant workers, many remain vulnerable and assume significant risks during the migration process.

International labour migration is defined as the movement of people from one country to another for the purpose of employment. Today, an estimated 105 million persons are working in a country other than their country of birth. Labour mobility has become a key feature of

globalization and the global economy with migrant workers earning US$ 440 billion in 2011, and the World Bank estimating that more than $350 billion of that total was transferred to developing countries in the form of remittances. However, despite the efforts made to ensure the protection of migrant workers, many remain vulnerable and assume significant risks during the migration process.

When properly managed, labour migration has far-reaching potential for the migrants, their communities, the countries of origin and destination, and for employers. While job creation in the home country is
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the preferred option, demographic, social and economic factors are increasingly the drivers of migration. As a result, a growing number of both sending and receiving countries view international labour migration as an integral part of their national development and employment strategies. On one hand, countries of origin benefit from labour migration because it relieves unemployment pressures and contributes to development through remittances, knowledge transfer, and the creation of business and trade networks. On the other hand, for destination countries facing labour shortages, orderly and well-managed labour migration can lighten labour scarcity and facilitate mobility.

International migration occurs when peoples cross state boundaries and stay in the host state for some minimum length of time. Migration occurs for many reasons. Many people leave their home countries in order to look for economic opportunities in another country. Others migrate to be with family members who have migrated or because of political conditions in their countries. Education is another reason for international migration, as students pursue their studies abroad. While there are several different potential systems for categorizing international migrants, one system organizes them into nine groups: temporary labour migrants; irregular, illegal, or undocumented migrants; highly skilled and business migrants; refugees; asylum seekers; forced migration; family members; return migrants; and long-term, low-skilled migrants. These migrants can also be divided into two large groups, permanent and temporary. Permanent migrants intend to establish their permanent residence in a new country and possibly obtain that countrys citizenship.
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Temporary migrants intend only to stay for a limited periods of time; perhaps until the end of a particular program of study or for the duration of a work contract or a certain work season. Both types of migrants have a significant effect on the economies and societies of the chosen destination country and the country of origin.

Similarly, the countries which receive these migrants are often grouped into four categories: traditional settlement countries, European countries which encouraged labour migration after World War II, European countries which receive a significant portion of their immigrant populations from their former colonies, and countries which formerly were points of emigration but have recently emerged as immigrant destinations.

LABOUR MIGRATION THE BACKGROUND

Migration from one area to another in search of improved livelihoods is a key feature of human history. While some regions and sectors fall behind in their capacity to support populations, others move ahead and people migrate to access these emerging opportunities. Industrialisation widens the gap between rural and urban areas, inducing a shift of the workforce towards industrialising areas. There is extensive debate on the factors that cause populations to shift, from those that emphasise individual rationality and household behaviour to those that cite the structural logic of capitalist development.

Moreover, numerous studies show that the process of migration is influenced by social, cultural and economic factors and outcomes can be vastly different for men and women, for different groups and different locations. In the past few decades new patterns have emerged, challenging old paradigms. First, there have been shifts of the workforce towards the tertiary sector in both developed and developing countries. Secondly, in developed countries, urban congestion and the growth of communication infrastructure has slowed down urbanisation. Thirdly, in developing countries, the workforce shift towards the secondary/tertiary sector has been slow and has been dominated by an expansion of the informal sector, which has grown over time. In countries like India, permanent shifts of population and workforce co-exist with the circulatory movement of populations between lagging and developed regions and between rural and urban areas, mostly being absorbed in the unorganised sector of the
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economy. Such movements show little sign of abating with development. The sources of early migration flows were primarily agro-ecological, related to population expansion to new settlements or to conquests (e.g. Eaton, 1984). There is considerable information on patterns of migration during the British period.

Indian emigration abroad was one consequence of the abolition of slavery and the demand for replacement labour. This was normally through indenture, a form of contract labour whereby a person would bind himself for a specified period of service, usually four to seven years in return for payment of their passage. They left for British, Dutch and French colonies to work in sugar plantations and subsequently for the tea and rubber plantations of Southeast Asia. Similar demands for labour rose internally with the growth of tea, coffee and rubber plantations, coal mines and, later, modern industry. Much of this labour was procured through some form of organised mediation and some portion of it remained circulatory and retained strong links with the areas of origin. But as it settled down, it provided a bridgehead to other migrants, whose numbers grew to satisfy colonial demand. Urban pockets like Kolkatta and Mumbai attracted rural labourers mainly from labour catchment areas like Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Orissa in the east and Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and parts of Kerala and Karnataka in the south. The historical pattern of the flow of labourers persisted even after independence. In 2001, Indias population exceeded 1 billion. At that time, 67.2% lived in rural areas and 32.8% in towns and cities. Between 1951

and 2001, the proportion of the population living in urban areas rose from 17.3% to 32.8%. Of the total workforce, 73.3% remained in rural areas, declining marginally from 77.7% in 1991 and 79.3% in 1981; 58% remained dependent upon agriculture. In a country of Indias size, the existence of significant regional disparities should not come as a surprise. The scale and growth of these disparities is, however, of concern. The ratio between the highest to lowest state per capita incomes, represented by Punjab and Bihar in the first period, and Maharashtra and Bihar in the second period, has increased from 2.6 in 198083 to 3.5 in 199700. The Planning Commission estimates that 26.1% of Indias population lives below the poverty line (based on the controversial National Sample Survey of 19992000). The rural poor has gradually concentrated in eastern India and rain fed parts of central and western India, which continue to have low-productivity agriculture. In 19992000, the states with the highest poverty levels were: Orissa (47.2%), Bihar (41.2%), Madhya Pradesh (37.4%), Assam(36.1%) and Uttar Pradesh (31.2%) Generally, Indias poor have meagre physical assets and human capital and belong largely to socially deprived groups such as scheduled castes (SC) and tribes (ST). Women share an extraordinary burden of deprivation within households. The poor rely on different types of work to construct a livelihood; wage labour and cultivation are the most important. Earlier studies have shown that poor households participate extensively in migration. More recent studies have reconfirmed that migration is a significant livelihood strategy for poor households in several regions of India.
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International Migration Program

In this era of globalization, almost all countries in the world are involved in migration as countries of origin, destination, or transitor all three. Of the several millions of people living outside their countries of birth, the ILO estimates that almost 90 per cent are migrant workers and their families. While international migration can be a positive experience for migrant workers, many suffer poor working and living conditions, including low wages, unsafe work environments, a virtual absence of the social safety net, denial of freedom of association and workers rights, discrimination and xenophobia. Therefore, the ILO approaches

international labour migrationinternational migration undertaken for workfrom a labour market and rights-based perspective with the intent to promote decent working conditions for migrants as well as migrants labour and human rights.

As the UN specialized agency on labour issues, the ILO has been dealing with labour migration since its foundation in 1919. The very Constitution of the ILO specifically mandates the organization in its Preamble to give attention to the "protection of the interests of workers when employed in countries other than their own". The International Migration Branch (MIGRANT) is the main unit responsible for labour migration issues in the ILO.

MIGRANT promotes the ratification and implementation of international standards; facilitates the participation of ILO's tripartite constituents in formulating and implementing migration policy; provides
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advisory services and a forum for consultations; serves as a global knowledge base on international labour migration; and conducts or coordinates various projects to strengthen the capacity of ILO's tripartite constituents and other relevant partners such as non-governmental organizations and migrants' associations, to deal with a wide range of labour migration issues.

INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION FROM INDEPENDENT INDIA

In India, the migration of its labour force within and across its national boundaries is nothing new. Indias geographical position has ensured contact with the Persian Gulf region and South East Asian countries for trade in goods and movement of people, a contact which goes back to several centuries. The migration of workers on a significant scale was, however, to come much later. It began in the colonial era and continues now to independent India.

Migratory flow during the period of colonial domination was very much tied to the investment interests of the colonial rulers and took place under their aegis. For instance a great part of the nineteenth century and the early twentieth century witnessed a regular migration of Indian workers as indentured labour for plantations or mines in the British colonies; this migration was to faraway places such as Guyana, Jamaica and Fiji, to not so-distant lands such as Malaysia and Singapore and even to neighbouring countries such as Sri Lanka and Burma.

Since Independence, two distinct types of labour migration have been taking place from India. The first is characterized by a

movement of persons with technical skills and professional expertise to the

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industrialized countries like the United States, Britain and Canada which began to proliferate in the early 1950s. The second type of migration pertains to the flow of labour to the oil exporting countries of the Middle East which acquired substantial dimensions after the dramatic oil price increases of 1973-74 and 1979. The nature of this recent wave of migration is strikingly different, as an overwhelming proportion of these migrants are in the category of unskilled workers and semi-skilled workers skilled in manual or clerical occupations.

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International Organization for Migration

IOMs Vision

IOM strives to protect migrant workers and to optimize the benefits of labour migration for both the country of origin and destination as well as for the migrants themselves. IOMs Objectives

In its labour migration programming, IOM builds capacity in labour migration management by: offering policy and technical advice to national governments; supporting the development of policies, legislation and administrative structures that promote efficient, effective and transparent labour migration flows; assisting governments to promote safe labour migration practices for their nationals; facilitating the recruitment of workers, including pre-departure training and embarkation preparedness; Promoting the integration of labour migrants in their new workplace and society.

Principal Beneficiaries

IOM implements various labour migration programs in 70 countries. The beneficiaries of these programs include:

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 migrants, their families and their communities; local and national governments; private sector entities such as employers and industry representatives; and regional organizations. IOMs Approach

Through its global network of more than 440 offices, IOM is able to bring together governments, civil society and the private sector to establish labour migration programs and mechanisms that balance their various interests, and address migrants needs. The IOM approach to international labour migration is to foster the synergies between labour migration and development, and to promote legal avenues of labour migration as an alternative to irregular migration. Moreover, IOM aims to facilitate the development of policies and programs that are in the interest of migrants and society, providing effective protection and assistance to labour migrants and their families.

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Causes of migration
Given the diversity in the nature of migration in India, the causes are also bound to vary. Migration is influenced both by the pattern of development, and the social structure. The National Commission on Rural Labour, focusing on seasonal migration, concluded that uneven development was the main cause of seasonal migration. Along with inter regional disparity, disparity between different socio economic classes and the development policy adopted since independence has accelerated the process of seasonal migration. In tribal regions, intrusion of outsiders, the pattern of settlement, displacement and deforestation, also have played a significant role. Most migration literature makes a distinction between pull and push factors, which, however, do not operate in isolation of one another. Mobility occurs when workers in source areas lack suitable options for employment/livelihood, and there is some expectation of improvement in circumstances through migration. The improvement sought may be better employment or higher wages/incomes, but also maximization of family employment or smoothing of employment/income/consumption over the year At one end of the migration spectrum, workers could be locked into a debt-migration cycle, where earnings from migration are used to repay debts incurred at home or in the destination areas, thereby cementing the migration cycle. At the other end, migration is largely voluntary, although shaped by their limited choices.

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The NCRL has recognized the existence of this continuum for poor migrants by distinguishing between rural labour migration for survival and for subsistence. The landless poor, who mostly belong to lower caste, indigenous communities, from economically backward regions, migrate for survival and constitute a significant proportion of seasonal labour flow.The growth of intensive agriculture and commercialization of agriculture since the late 1960s has led to peak periods of labour demand, often also coinciding with a decline in local labour deployment. In the case of labour flows to the rice producing belt of West Bengal, wage differentials between the source and destination have been considered as the main reason for migration. Moreover, absence of non-farm employment, low agricultural production has resulted in a growth of seasonal migration. Migration decisions are influenced by both individual and household characteristics as well as the social matrix, which is best captured in social-anthropological studies.

Factors such as age, education level, wealth, land owned, productivity and job opportunities influence the participation of individuals and households in migration, but so do social attitudes and supporting social networks. Where migration is essentially involuntary, it makes little sense to use voluntaristic models to explain the phenomenon. In Dhule region sugarcane cultivation leads to high demand for labour, but landowners recruit labourers from other districts for harvesting as they can have effective control over the labour. Local labourers are thus forced to migrate with their households to South Gujarat.

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Labour mobility is one of the key features of economic development and its characteristics are closely tied with the nature of this development. Historically, development is associated with unevenness and structural change, giving an impetus to the movement of workers from one region to another, and from one sector to another. Even within the macro-structural features which determine the supply of, and demand for, certain types of migrant labour, the pattern of migration depends on a host of factors determined by labour market characteristics, together with individual, household and community level features, and the existence of social networks, among other things. These factors cumulatively determine the causes of migration. On the other hand, labour migration plays a key role in influencing the pattern of development, through its impact on a host of economic and non-economic variables, both in the origin and destination areas. Labour migration does not recognize bordersbut borders, whether urban, state, or international influence migration through a host of policies and regulatory measures. A key distinction between internal and international migration is the existence of national regulatory frameworks such as immigration controls (which leads to a distinction between regular and irregular migration). But regulatory frameworks and restrictive policies also operate within nation states.

Early development literature conceptualized labour migration as occurring from the rural to urban, agricultural to industrial, and informal to formal sectors. However, the workforce pattern has changed across the

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world in favour of the services sector, and the informal sector is more prominent today, both in developing and developed countries than it was twenty or thirty years ago. In developing countries, the informal sector is no longer conceived as a temporary destination for migrants but in most cases, as a final destination. The (changing) structural features of world capitalism have an important bearing on both internal and international migration.

The theme on labour migration will explore all types of labour migration internal, inter-state, cross-border and international. It will encourage cross disciplinary studies and papers based on both fieldwork and secondary data.

We would welcome papers which explore not only economic issues but also historical, political, sociological and psychological factors affecting labour migration and the consequences of migration at more disaggregate levels, viz., for various socio-economic strata and segments of the population and for women, men, the elderly and children separately, wherever possible. The contributors should confine themselves to the issue of worker migration, as conventionally defined in SNA accounts, and to leave out those types of forced labour migration, which are not conventionally included in work but are covered in international conventions on forced labour and trafficking. The paper contributors should not be concerned with other forms of non-labour migration (such as refugee or student migration) or with population mobility, which is important for an understanding urban growth.

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Data and methods

The paper uses data from Census of India 2001 as well as data from the National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) 55th Round on Migration. According to Indian Census, a Person is considered a migrant if birthplace or place of last residence is different from Place of enumeration. The National Sample Survey Organization of Government of India Carried out an all-India survey on the situation of employment and unemployment in India during the period July 1999-June 2000. This 55th Round Data was published in August 2001. In this survey, data was collected on migrants as well. It defines a migrant as a member of the sample household who had stayed continuously for at least six months or more in a place other than the place of enumeration. It collects the reasons for leaving the last usual place of residence under the following heads: (a) in search of employment (b) in search of better employment (c) to take up employment/better employment (d) transfer of service/contract (e) proximity to place of work (f) studies (g) acquisition of own house/flat (h) housing problems (i) social/political problem (j) health (k) marriage (l) migration of parent/earning member of the family and (m) others.

A simple analysis using vicariate tables has been carried out in the paper to bring out the extent of employment oriented migration in India. Moreover, the paper also attempts to study the difference between the stated reasons for migration and the labor force participation, taking into account duration and educational qualification of the migrants.

Employment oriented migration

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Impact of migration
On migrants and their families

Poorer migrant workers, crowded into the lower ends of the labour market, have few entitlements vis a vis their employers or the public authorities in the destination areas. They have meagre personal assets and suffer a range of deprivations in the destination areas. In the source areas, migration has both negative and positive consequences for migrants and their families.

Living conditions: migrant labourers, whetheragricultural or nonagricultural, live in deplorableconditions. There is no provision of safe drinking water or hygienic sanitation. Most live in open spaces or makeshift shelters in spite of the Contract Labour Act which stipulates that the contractor or employer should provide suitable accommodation (NCRL, 1991; GVT, 2002; Rani and Shylendra, 2001). Apart from seasonal workers, workers who migrate to the cities for job live in parks and

pavements. Slum dwellers, who are mostly migrants, stay in deplorable conditions, with inadequate water and bad drainage. Food costs more for migrant workers who are not able to obtain temporary ration cards.

Health and Education: labourers working in harsh circumstances and living in unhygienic conditions suffer from serious occupational health problems and are vulnerable to disease. Those working in quarries, construction sites and mines suffer from various health hazards, mostly lung diseases. As the employer does not follow safety measures, accidents
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are quite frequent. Migrants cannot access various health and family care programmes due to their temporary status. Free public health care facilities and programmes are not accessible to them. For women workers, there is no provision of maternity leave, forcing them to resume work almost immediately after childbirth. Workers, particularly those working in tile factories and brick kilns suffer from occupational health hazards such as body ache, sunstroke and skin irritation (NCRL, 1991). Changes in migrants attitudes: Exposure to a different environment, including the stresses that it carries, has a deep impact on the attitudes, habits and awareness levels of migrant workers, depending upon the length of migration and the place to which it occurs. Changes are more dramatic in the case of urban migrants. Migrant workers develop greater awareness regarding conditions of work (Srivastava, 1999). Life style and changes in awareness may lead to a mixed impact on family members. The increased awareness which migrants, especially in urban areas, gain often helps them realise the importance of their childrens education.

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Impact on source areas

The major impacts of migration on source areas occur through changes in the labour market, income and assets, changes in the pattern of expenditure and investment.

Although seasonal outmigration potentially has the effect of smoothing out employment over the annual cycle, rural outmigration could cause a tightening of the labour market in some circumstances. However, empirical evidence from out-migrant areas does not often attest to this. This may be because outmigration often takes place in labour surplus situations. There is also evidence of the replacement of out-migrant male labour by female and even child labour. Study of seven villages in Uttar Pradesh showed some variation over regions. While the situation in the study villages in Eastern and central Uttar Pradesh conformed to a situation of labour surplus, this was not the case in Western Uttar Pradesh where seasonal migration coincided with the agricultural peak season (Rabi) and employers complained of labour shortages. Significantly in all the regions studied, labourers on their part gave uncertainty of employment along with employment conditions and poor relations with their agricultural employers as the major reasons for outmigration.

Even if labour tightening is not an outcome, outmigration may still speed up qualitative changes in existing labour relationships in rural areas, and thereby affect the pace of change. This may occur in several ways. First, there is the well-documented impact of migration on attitudes and awareness as migrant labourers and return migrants are more reluctant
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to accept adverse employment conditions and low wages. Secondly, outmigration leads to a more diversified livelihood strategy. Combined with some increase in the income and employment portfolio of poor households, this may tend to push up acceptable level of wages (reservation wages) in rural areas and may make certain forms of abour relationships (as for example, those involving personalised dependency) less acceptable.

Outmigration as a result of debt at home, or debt-interlocking (i.e. the repayment of debts through advance labour commitment) involving employers in the destination areas or their middlemen, is quite common. Such outmigration may or may not eliminate the causes of debt. The reduction of personalised dependencies or interlocked relationships may also accelerate labour mobility and migration as labourers seek out alternative sources of cash income.

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Employment oriented migration

Employment oriented migration is obtained by combining the migrants that have given work/employment and business as their reason for migration. It is found that employment oriented migration is quite small, particularly among female migrants with just around 2 percent of total female migrants giving employment or business as the reason for their migration.

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Trends in Global Migration

Mankind and migration have been linked to each other since the beginning of time; life without migration could not be thought of. Migration has a history of its own, both at the national and international levels. The mobility of capital and technology has indeed changed the history of peoples. At the same time, migration has created a greater impact on history.

In India, the cultural ethos of the country has actually dissuaded people from going abroad. There are myths and superstitions surrounding migration in almost every Indian tradition. The fear of kala-pani, literally translated as black waters, which meant ostracism, was a strong deterrent. Such myths were prevalent also in other ancient cultures like China and Japan, preventing people from going abroad. For a variety of reasons, be it economic or cultural or personal, the concept of we and they, and the notions of individual, intellectual and spiritual pollution and the fear of consequent ostracism prevented people from leaving their home soil until the advent of the Europeanswhich in turn stimulated an interest for Indians to migrate overseas.

Characteristically, most of these migrants were poor, illiterate and unskilled. It was supposed to be a voluntary system, but there are horror stories about coercion, and how these people were picked up literally from the streets of their hometowns, collected at various embarkation points, and forced to go to a foreign land, of which they knew nothing about. Gender did not come in the way, and women picked up as indentured labour were
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made to stay with men. Many were declared man and wife, and packed off to foreign destinations. All said and done, this can be considered as a precursor to the global migration of Indians.

However, there is the problem of Indian embassies in most of these countries not being very cooperative towards the migrant community. The embassies are not exactly attuned to the needs of these people, nor are the officials always aware of their problems, their issues and their needs be it in terms of their labour contracts, or the laws of the land. There is greater room for the Indian embassies to play a more effective and cooperative role in this context. Many a time, because of the indifference and the ignorance of the Indian missions in these countries, the migrant workers are almost always at the mercy of the employers and the laws that they adhere to. It is only in recent years that the Government is waking up to the need for appointing a separate Labour Attach in the Indian embassies in these countries, to cater to the demands of the workers, and to take care of their needs.

In 2000, the high-powered Indian Diaspora Committee, chaired by the jurist, Dr. L.M.Singhvi, recommended the Pravasi Bharatiya Divas celebrations on January 9 each year, and also contributed to the setting up of a full-fledged Ministry for Overseas Indians at the Centre. Following up on this report, the Prime Minter of the day announced the institution of the Prabhasi Bharatia Samman awards in recognition of the contribution made by the Indian Diaspora, to the nation. The report also raised major issues of concern to the Diaspora -- from consular difficulties to larger and abiding

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issues pertaining to culture, economic development, education, health, media, science and technology, philanthropy, and dual citizenship. Based on carefully-gathered statistics on overseas Indians, the Singhvi Committee report is the first ever-comprehensive statement of the Indian Diaspora, and provides a comprehensive framework for discussing Indias relations with Indians overseas. Till now, these relations had been discussed in a tentative and casual manner. The report is full of highly novel and important practical suggestions, including special economic and political concessions to overseas Indians all leading to effective NRI contribution to Indias economic, political, cultural and other areas of development. The report will increase the general level of consciousness in India about the countrys overseas connections, going back to several centuries. We tend to think of ourselves as a people 7 whose history was made only in India. The report shows how wrong this view is, and how PIOs are a part of the body politic in 119 countries

There is the possibility of migration from India growing in the coming years and decades. The probability of a younger age population in India coupled with declining birth-rates in the developed world leading to a labour shortage, be it unskilled, skilled or professional, are among the causes. The interface between outsourcing, migration and growing social networks are also contributory factors. There is also the factor of newer destinations, Japan, for instance, emerging on the horizon. In this, the Indians abroad have transitioned from being dependants to being dictators through their significant presence, positional clout and numerical strength coupled with effective networking, and coordinated organisation. There is
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now the Global Organization for the People of Indian Origin (GOPIO), which has set its priorities in pooling resources, both financial and professional, for the benefit of PIOs, in the countries they come from, and in India. In all this, India derives material support from the Diaspora, and they derive psychological satisfaction of being a part of the Indian nationhood, and in the process of crafting a resurgent India.

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EFFECTS OF MIGRATION
Migration of labour has its positive as well as negative effects both on native and host countries. We will examine these effects as under:

Positive Effects:

1. Wage Rate: Labourers usually migrate from low wage counties to higher wage nations. Unless prevented or guarded by law, wages will change in both countries. Such an effect on wages is brought out in Home country and foreign. It is also possible that over a period of time real wages may increase both in host countries and native countries. A case study by Jeffery G. Williams, of eight countries, host countries Argentina, Australia, Canada and United States of America and native (home) countries Ireland, Italy, Norway and Sweden between the period 1870 and 1913 has come to the conclusion that real wages during this period had increased in all the countries, but substantially in the home countries. 2. Supply of labour: Developed countries like Canada, Australia, some European countries and USA have experienced scarcity of skilled as well as unskilled labour. Many Asian doctors and engineers, nurses and teachers are employed in developed countries. Unskilled labour migrated from developing countries, provided labour to those areas where the native people would not wish to take up the jobs. This is more evident in the so called dirty jobs. In USA such jobs are taken up by labourers from Mexico, South American, Africa and Asia. 3. Employment: Migration takes place primarily in search of employment, to earn, more income and to enjoy better quality of life. While enjoying these
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benefits in the host countries the migrants at the disguised unemployment. In the early stages of large scale migration from Europe to North America, it helped in mitigating population problem of European countries. 4. Remittance: Emigrants remit a part of their income back to their families in their native country. Many of the European countries, Mexico and Asian countries have benefited from the remittance of their emigrants. At present china and India receive a substantial amount of remittance. It helps the home countries reduce their balance of payment problem or increase investment at home; import capital goods thus promote development of their economies.

Remittance would reduce over a period of time as the emigrants settle in the migrated country along with their families. The size of the remittance depends on the number of emigrants from a country and the nature and duration of employment. Many countries including India, offer additional incentives to the emigrants to remit and keep the money back in their home country.

NEGATIVE EFFECTS

1. Brain Drain: Emigrants comprise people educated and trained at different levels. Majority of the emigrants are of low education and unskilled. Emigrants also include highly educated professionals such as doctors, engineers, professors and other technically and professionally trained people. A good number of medical, engineering and management students from India migrate to countries like USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Germany, France and to some rich gulf countries. These students take the advantage of subsidised education financed by tax payer money and leave the country when they become productive agents or labourers. Ts is also
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argued that educated emigrants help the home countries when these countries rare not in a position to employ them. Beside it also reduces the claim on goods and service of the home country when labourers migrate. 2. Problem of social Integration: Immigrants in a country belong to different countries, race, religion and culture. They form their own groups based on the above factors. In the initial stages these groups live in ghettoes. Social assimilation with the people of the host country becomes difficult. In USA, Canada and Australia or in countries dominated by white coloured people, social integration becomes difficult due to colour complex. Religion is another factor which makes immigrants identify with the host country where the majority belong to another religion. Cultural differences also deter the process of integration specially when each group develops a complex of cultural superiority. At times ethnic and religious differences create a problem for the host country as it happens in UK and India. 3. Illegal Immigrants: It is a serious problem for many countries. USA has a large number of illegal immigrants from Mexico. Similar problems are faced by Canada, Australia and some of the European countries. Illegal migration to a neighbouring country is a common occurrence due to political, economic, social and religious factors. India is facing such a problem with illegal immigrants from Bangladesh, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. 4. Cheap Labour: Developed countries, specially organise labour through their Trade Union oppose the liberal migration policy. They argue that the migrant labourers who are willing to work at lower workers. However this argument does not merit serious consideration wage rate in such economies

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is determined by market forces, Exploitation can be prevented through minimum wage law, which also safeguards the interest of migrant labourers. 5. Fiscal Imbalance: Immigrants positively contribute to the growth of the host country. When immigrants constitute in large numbers, the host country requires to spend huge amount of capital to provide the required economic and social infrastructure. As they settledown permanently, the government requires to spend for providing social security benefits. Expenditure on all these counts may create fiscal imbalance in the form of increased budgetary deficit.

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CONCLUSION
Migration has become a global phenomenon. As discussed earlier people migrate to another country for a number of reasons of which economic and political are the important ones. From our earlier explanation it is evident that migration has positive as well as negative effects both on the host and native countries. In a globalised world, the number of migrants is bound to increase. However in the larger interest of nations and people (migrants) involved it is necessary to introduce measures so that the positive effects are maximised while the negative ones are minimised if they cannot be totally eliminated.

The suggestions in this direction are to promote labour rights to immigrants. Allow the migrant workers to join Trade Unions. Treat immigrants on the same level as those of workers of host country. Safety conditions should be made applicable even if they are on temporary work. Promote ethical recruitment. Prevent exploitation and discrimination. Reform work permits schemes to reduce powers of employers. Legislate to prevent employers from withholding migrant workers passport. Initiate international action to regulate the activities of private recruitment agencies. All the countries should ratify 1990 UN convention on the protection of rights of all migrant workers and their families.

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