CIVL3520 Hydraulics

Laboratory A Energy Losses in Pipes 1. Introduction Energy losses in pipes are the sum of major losses due to friction between the pipe wall and the moving fluid, and minor losses or local losses due to the occurrence of adverse pressure where the pressure downstream is larger than the pressure upstream, creating a separation zone to dissipate energy through turbulence. The analysis of a fully developed flow in a straight tube of uniform cross-section shows that the pressure difference (p1 p2) between two points in the tube is due to the effects of viscosity (fluid friction). The head-lossh is directly proportional to the pressure difference (loss) and is given by: ( p p2 ) h = 1 g A friction factor, f, is related to the head-loss expressed by the following equation:

fLV 2 h = 2 gd
Where, d is the pipe diameter,h is measured directly by a manometer which connects to two pressure tapping a distance L apart; V is the mean velocity and can be expressed in terms of the volume flow rate Qt : 4Qt V = d2
The theoretical result for laminar flow is: f =
Vd 64 Re

Where Re is the Reynolds number, Re =

, where is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid.

For turbulent flow in a smooth pipe, a well-known curve fit to experimental data is given by f = 0.316 Re 0.25 The main objective of this experiment is to investigate the head loss due to friction in the flow of water through a pipe and to determine the associated friction factor. Both variables are to be determined over a range of flow rates and their characteristics identified for both laminar and turbulent flows.

2. Apparatus
The sketches below show the general setup of the experiment. The accessory is to be positioned on the side channels at the top of the hydraulic bench.

There are two methods of supplying water to the test pipe. For higher flow rates the inlet pipe is connected directly to the bench supply. For lower flow rates, the inlet pipe is connected to the outlet at the base of the constant head tank and the inlet to the tank is connected to the bench supply. The test section of pipe is mounted vertically on the rig and is instrumented using two manometers. A water-mercury manometer is used to measure large pressure differentials and a pressurized water manometer is used to measure small pressure differentials. When not in use a manometer may be isolated using Hoffman clips. Flow through the test section is regulated using a flow control valve, which should face the volumetric tank when it is in use. A short length of flexible piping attached to the valve could prevent splashing.

3. Experimental Procedures 3.1 Method By measurement of the pressure difference between two fixed points in a long (length = many diameters) straight tube of circular cross-section for steady flows. The range of flow rates will cover both laminar and turbulent flow regimes. 3.2 Equipment The following pieces of equipment are required for this experiment: The Hydraulic Bench The Pipe Friction Apparatus A stopwatch to allow us to determine the flow rate of water A thermometer A spirit level or bubble level for setting up the equipment

A measuring cylinder for measuring very low flow rates

3.3 Technical Data The following dimensions from the equipment are used in the appropriate calculations. If required these valves may be checked as part of the experimental procedure and replaced with your own measurements.
Length of test pipe: Diameter of test pipe: L = 0.500 m d = 0.003 m

3.4 Procedure - General Equipment Set Up Mount the test rig on the hydraulic bench and, with a spirit level, adjust the feet to ensure that base plate is horizontal and, hence, the manometers are vertical.
Check with a demonstrator that the mercury (Hg) manometer is correctly filled; this should not be attempted by students because Hg is a hazardous substance. Attach a Hoffman clamp to each of the two manometer connecting tubes and close them off. Setting-up for high flow rates The test rig outlet tube must be held by a clamp to ensure that the outflow point is firmly fixed. This should be above the bench collection tank and should allow enough space for insertion of the measuring cylinder. Join the test rig inlet pipe to the hydraulic bench flow connector with the pump turned off. Close the bench gate-valve, open the test rig flow control valve fully and start the pump. Now open the gate valve progressively and run the system until all air is purged. Open the Hoffman clamps and purge any air from the two bleed points at the top of the Hg manometer. Setting up for low flow rates (using the header tank) Attach a Hoffman clamp to each of the two manometer connecting rubes and close them off. With the system fully purged of air, close the bench valve, stop the pump, close the outflow valve and remove Hoffman clamps from the water manometer connection. Disconnect test section supply tube and hold high to keep it liquid filled. Connect bench supply tube to header tank inflow, run pump and open bench valve to allow flow. When outflow occurs from header tank snap connector, attach test section supply tube to it, ensuring no air entrapped. When outflow occurs from header tank overflow, fully open the outflow control valve. Slowly open air vents at top of water manometer and allow air to enter until manometer levels reach convenient height, then close air vent. If required, further control of levels can be achieved by use of hand-pump to raise manometer air pressure.

3.5 Procedure - Taking a Set of Results

Running high flow rate tests Apply a Hoffman clamp to each of the water manometer connection tubes (essential to prevent a flow path parallel to the test section). Close the flow control valve and take a zero flow reading from the Hg manometer, (may not be zero because of contamination of Hg and/or tube wall). With the flow control valve fully open, measure the head loss hHg shown by the manometer. Determine the flow control by timed collection and measure the temperature of the collected fluid. The Kinematic Viscosity of Water at Atmospheric Pressure can then be determined from the table provided in this manual. Repeat this procedure to give at least nine flow rates; the lowest to give hHg = 30mm Hg, approximately. Running low flow rate tests Repeat procedure given above but using water manometer throughout. With the flow control valve fully open, measure the head loss h shown by the manometer. Determine the flow rate by timed collection and measure the temperature of the collected fluid. The Kinematic Viscosity of Water at Atmospheric Pressure can then be determined from the table provided in this manual. Obtain data for at least eight flow rates, the lowest to give h = 30 mm, approximately. Plot the following graphs: (1) In (friction factor) vs In (Reynolds no.) and (2) In (head loss) vs In (velocity)

Kinematic Viscosity of Water at Atmospheric Pressure Temperature (degree C) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Kinematic Viscosity (106 x m2/s) 1.793 1.732 1.674 1.619 1.568 1.520 1.474 1.429 1.386 1.346 1.307 1.270 1.235 1.201 1.169 1.138 1.108 1.080 1.053 1.027 1.002 0.978 0.955 0.933 0.911 Temperature (degree C) 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 Kinematic Viscosity (106 x m2/s) 0.893 0.873 0.854 0.836 0.818 0.802 0.785 0.769 0.753 0.738 0.724 0.711 0.697 0.684 0.671 0.658 0.602 0.554 0.511 0.476 0.443 0.413 0.386 0.363 0.342

e.g. At 20C the kinematic viscosity of water is 1.002 10-6m2/s.

4. Recording Results Tabulate your results as follows:

Test pipe length L (m) Test Pipe Dia. d (m) Volume Time to collect t (sec) Temp of Water (C) Kinematic Viscosity (m2/s) Man. h1 (m) Man. h2 (m) Head loss h (m) Flow rate Qt (m3/s) Velocity Friction factor Reynolds Number In f V (m/s) Re f In Re In h In V

V
(m3)

5. Questions and Discussions

1. 2. Identify the laminar and turbulent flow regimes. What is the critical Reynolds Number? Assuming a relationship of the form f = K Re n calculate these values from the graphs you have plotted and compare these with the accepted values shown in the theory section. What is the cumulative effect of experiments errors on the values of K and n? What is the dependence of head loss upon flow rate in the laminar and turbulent regions of flow? What is the significance of changes in temperature to the head loss?

3. 4.

5.

This laboratory sheet is prepared based on the Manual for Operating Instructions and Experiments by Armfield Limited.