A study on POWER DISTRIBUTION AT NFC CONTENTS

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ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION POWER DISTRIBUTION AT NFC ARIOUS !OAD CENTERS AT NFC

4 5 13 15 #$ #& 31 34 35 3* 5+ 51

CAPTI E POWER "ENERATION P!ANT RE!IABI!IT% FACTOR INSU!ATION COORDINATION 'INI'I(ATION OF !OSSES PROTECTION OF SUBSTATION E)UIP'ENT DIFFERENT T%PES OF E)UIP'ENTS IN POWER DISTRIBUTION NEUTRA! "ROUNDIN" I'PRO E'ENTS IN POWER DISTRIBUTION

 CONC!USION APPENDI- I RATIN"S OF E)UIP'ENTS SPECIA! E)UIP'ENTS APPENDI- II BUS I'PEDANCE 'ATRI FAU!T CA!CU!ATIONS

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,# ,4

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ABSTRACT
The power distribution is one of the complex structures. So, in order to study power distribution system we have chosen Nuclear Fuel Complex (NFC), oula!"li, #yderabad. $ur pro%ect report provides in!depth &nowled'e of NFC(s power distribution networ&. )n addition to that various facts re'ardin' short circuits and other faults are discussed. )t also discusses about various method of improvin' the power distribution *uality. $ur pro%ect report is presented in four sections. $ne section covers power distribution in NFC, section two 'ives various ratin's of e*uipment(s, section three deals with various short circuit studies and section four deals with the improvements made for the minimi+ation of losses, and their analysis. ,nder section one all relevant topics related to power distribution have been discussed. )n the minimi+ation of losses we covered topics li&e -ner'y ana'ement System (- S), power factor control, reduction of harmonics, etc.

.ISTOR% OF NFC
Today )ndia is one of the handful countries which have achieved the capability to desi'n, construct, operate and commission nuclear power plants and all nuclear fuel cycle facilities entirely throu'h indi'enous efforts. )t has uni*ue facilities in the world, which has all the fuel and core structural components, production and fabrication facilities all under one roof. The contribution of NFC to the nuclear power scenario in )ndia has been one of the 'reatest si'nificance. NFC was conceived by /r. #.0.1#"1#" to ma&e )ndia self sufficient in the nuclear power technolo'y usin' natural uranium. 2ocated near the famous shrine of oula!"li at #yderabad, NFC is spread over an area of 345 acres6 it is a uni*ue center in the world where reactor fuel and other reactor core components are manufactured under one roof startin' from ore concrete to finished ready!to!use products. 7roduction activity in its various plants was started in the early seventies it has around 8555 personnel. NFC was established in the year 39:; to cater the re*uirements of fuel and +ircaloy hardware for all the power reactors in the country. NFC is the industrial unit of department of atomic ener'y (/"-) at #yderabad, has been playin' a &ey role in fuel cycle and nuclear power pro'ram for peaceful use of atomic ener'y from the last ;5 years. NFC is perhaps the only industry in the world where under one roof natural, enriched and depleted uranium oxide pellets, reactor 'rade +irconium spon'e and +irconium alloy components for 7#<= (pressuri+ed heavy water reactor) and 1<= (boilin' water reactor) fuel assemblies for 7#<=(s and 1<=(s stainless steel claddin' tubes and core assemblies for li*uid water cooled fast breeder reactors and thorium pellets and assemblies for 7#<= and 2 F1= are manufactured. The other products of NFC are special and hi'h purity materials li&e sodium oxide, tantalum oxide and sodium and tantalum metals, hi'h purity 'allium, silver 'as&ets and a

wide variety of stainless steel, titanium and its alloys for nuclear and non!nuclear applications.

PRODUCTION ACTI ITIES OF NFC

3. 7roduction of nuclear fuel bundles for )ndian power reactors both pressuri+ed heavy water and boilin' types. .. 7roduction of +ircaloy reactor core components such as fuel tubes, coolant tubes, cylindrical tubes i.e., seamless tubes. ;. 7roduction of very hi'h purity i.e. 99.99> materials for electronics and other industries. 8. NFC produces seamless stainless tubes of various dimensions and ball bearin' tubes also. <hile plannin' for the activities the department ta&es care of occupational healthy, safety, fire production systems, and medical facilities. NFC has different types of production plants, which include the a) (IRCONIU' O-IDE P!ANT /(OP0 for the production of +ircon to pure +irconium oxide. b) (IRCONIU' SPON"E P!ANT /(SP0 for the production of +irconium spon'e. c) (IRCONIU' FABRICATION P!ANT /(FP0 for meltin' alloyin', billet preparation, extrusion of +ircaloy tubes and fabrication of +irconium components. d) T.E URANIU' O-IDE P!ANT /UOP0 for processin' of crude uranium concentrates to pure uranium dioxide pellets and assemblin' fuel bundles for the 7#<=(s e) T.E ENRIC.ED URANIU' O-IDE P!ANT /EUOP0 for processin' imported enriched uranium. f) URANIU' FUE! FABRICATION P!ANT /UFFP0 produces enriched uranium dioxide pellets.

') The industry has a SPECIA! 'ATERIA! P!ANT5 /S'P0 for producin' a number of electronic 'rade hi'h purity materials. h) STAIN!ESS STEE! TUBE P!ANT /SSTP0 producin' seamless tubes and other special tubes. i) CERA'IC FUE! FABRICATION P!ANT /CFFP0?! There are new plants set up by NFC to meet the future re*uirements li&e the N@F7, N,$F7, and N,F"7 of nuclear fuel for the 7#<=(S of the country. The total activities of NFC dealin' with hi'h technolo'y the core man power has mostly come from 1="C trainin' school set up in trombay in 394:. NFC is multi disciplinary activity and one of its own &inds in the world where all activities for ma&in' nuclear fuel from uranium concentrate to uranium oxide, from +ircon sand to +irconium metal and fabrication of +ircaloy shapes and finally the fuel elements are housed at one place under one mana'ement. The settin' up of this multi disciplinary complex was the responsibility of 1"=C. Control laboratory was also set up to meet the re*uirements of testin', analysis and *uality control for various plants. $ther facilities li&e *uality control, wor&shop, effluent mana'ement, waste treatment facilities, etc were established. The main ob%ective of formin' of NFC was to create an or'ani+ation to meet the future re*uirements of fuel for nuclear power pro'ram. The important feature at NFC is that apart from indi'enous process development, a 'ood portion of that plant for chemical extraction and extractive metallur'ical operations has been indi'enously desi'ned and fabricated by the )ndian industries. The )ndian nuclear power pro'ram is based on three sta'es. Strate'y lin&in' the closed fuel cycle of 7#<=(s in the first sta'e and li*uid metal cooled fast breeder reactions in the second sta'e and advanced heavy water reactors in the third sta'e i.e. development of reactor based on ,!.;; fuel obtained from irradiated thorium. NFC has arran'ed to send bac& re'ularly the products arisin' out of uranium operation to uranium corporation of )ndia 2td.(,C)2), 0adu'uda, where minin' of uranium ore is carried out. NFC also exports the +irconium components and even nuclear fuel sub%ect to appropriate condition on the end use.

FACI!ITIES AT NFC

FABRICATION FACI!ITIES FOR PRESSURISED .EA % WATER REACTOR FUE!1 The )ndian nuclear pro'ram is mainly on 7#<=. This type of reactors are found in Aalpa&&am in TN, Narora in ,.7, Aota in =a%asthan, Aa&rapar in Bu%arat )ndia which can produce a total power 'eneration capacity of 3555 < by the end of the century. The fuel for these reactors consists of natural uranium dioxide (,$ .) pellets canned in thin walls of +ircaloy tubes. 7ure ,$. is produced from crude ma'nesium di!urinate ( /,) concentrate received from ,C)2, 0adu'uda 1ihar. /, is treated throu'h solvent extraction, precipitation, calcinations and reduction sta'es to obtained nuclear 'rade uranium oxide powder. The ,$. is compacted into cylindrical pellets and sintered at a hi'h pressure and 3:55CC. The sintered pellets are then center less 'round to precise dimensions and loaded in +ircaloy tubes which are then hermitically sealed by resistance windin', 39 such pins are assembled in specific and precise confi'uration in the form of bundles. ;D:. bundles are re*uired towards one full char'e of a .;4 w power reactor. "ll the fuel bundles re*uired for 7#<= both for initial loadin' and for replacement are fabricated and supplied from NFC.

PRODUCTION OF (IRCA!O% CO'PENENTS1 The +ircaloy production line consists of three different chemicals and metallur'ical plants devoted to manufacture of +ircaloy hardware for fuel assemblies for tubes, wires, rods, sheets, strips and reactor core components li&e coolant, calandria and D

flow tubes. The startin' material of +ircaloy is the mineral +ircon sand found on the beach sands of south )ndia. @ircon is processed and purified to nuclear 'rade @=$ . powder by solvent extraction process for separation of hafnium and other impurities. This powder is chlorinated and reduced with ma'nesium to spon'e metal. The spon'e is then vacuum arc melted into +ircaloy in'ots after addition of alloyin' elements. The in'ots are extruded into tube blan&s, rods or slabs by a series of extrusions utili+in' a ;:45tonn hori+ontal extrusion press and a D;5tonn vertical extrusion press. Fuel and coolant are produced to very strin'ent specifications by a special rollin' &nown as pil'erin', sheets re*uired for the fabrication of various seam wielded tubes and other components are produced from extruded slabs by a series of hot and cold passes on a four hi'h rollin' mill.

FUE! FOR BOI!IN" WATER REACTOR1 The only boilin' water reactor in )ndia is at Tarapur, which uses the enriched uranium oxide ,ranium hexa fluoride (,FD) that is imported. The ,FD is treated throu'h hydrolysis and reduction process to obtain nuclear pure ,$ . powder. This powder is made into ,$. pellets to in the same way as in the case of 7#<=(s. These are encapsulated in +ircaloy tubes. The fuel assembly for these reactors consists of ;D pins of about 8mt len'th compared to 39 pins of 455mm len'th for 7#<=(s assemblies. FAST BREEDER T.ORIU' REACTORS1 /ifferent types of subassemblies namely fuel, nic&el, blan&et and steel sub assemblies for F1T= at Aalpa&&am. "ll the components of these assemblies except fuel pins are fabricated here. The blan&et assemblies contain sintered thorium oxide pellets are fertile material for core. "ll the e*uipments and fixtures for fabrication the sub assembly components with intricate desi'n have been developed indi'enously. PRODUCTION OF STAIN!ESS STEE! AND BA!! BEARIN" TUBES1 NFC has been producin' the seamless stainless steel and seamless ball bearin' tubes. These tubes are essentially produced from bellets to finished tubes by extrusion followed by cold pil'erin' and cold drawin'. Stainless steel lin&er(s tubes and thic& walled lattice tubes for nuclear power stations are also produced in these plants in addition to tubes re*uired for heavy water plants. Seamless tubes of titanium, cupronic&el, silver, mar'in' and other alloy steels have also been produced in small *uantities. These plants have capability of producin' seamless tubes in the ran'e of 8! .55mm diameter.

SPECIA! 'ATERIA! P!ANT1 Eery hi'h purity (nearly 99.99>) materials li&e tin, indium, bismuth, cadmium, 'old etc and capacitor 'rade. Tantalum re*uired by electronic and other industries in the country are bein' produced in this plant usin' sophisticated techni*ues li&e +one!refinin', electron beam meltin' and electro refinin'.

POWER DISTRIBUTION
7ower distribution is a part of the power system by which electric power is distributed amon' various consumers for their use is &nown as power distribution. ainly distribution system consists of 3. Feeders .. /istributors ;. Service mains The 'eneral structure of distribution system is as shown in fi'ure below,

Feede2s1 " line or conductor, which connects the 'eneration station to the distribution lines, is &nown as feeders.

D3st234uto2s1 " line or conductor to which various consumers are connected throu'h service mains is &nown as distributor. Se2536e 7a3ns? " line (conductor or cable), which connects the consumer to the distributor, is &nown as service mains. C!ASSIFICATION OF DISTRIBUTION S%STE' 1. A66o2d3ng to ty8e o9 6u22ent a. /C /istribution b. "C /istribution #. A66o2d3ng to 6onst2u6t3on a. $ver head distribution system b. ,nder'round distribution system 3. A66o2d3ng to se2536e a. Beneral li'htin' and power b. )ndustrial power c. =ailways d. Street 2i'htin' 4. A66o2d3ng to nu74e2 o9 :32es a. Two wire b. Three wire c. Four wire 5. A66o2d3ng to s6;e7e o9 6onne6t3ons a. =adial system b. =in' system c. )nter connected system DC DISTRIBUTION1 The electric power is exclusively 'enerated, transmitted and distributed as "C, but for certain applications such as electro chemical wor&s. The operation of variable speed machinery li&e /C motors is necessary. For this purpose "C is converted into /C at the sub station and is distributed by 3. .!wire system .. ;!wire system AC DISTRIBUTION1

The electric power is invariably 'enerated, transmitted and distributed in the form of alternatin' current. The main reason of adaptin' "C system for 'eneration, transmission and distribution of electric power is that the alternatin' volta'e can conveniently be chan'ed to any desired value with the help of a transformer. 1. P237a2y d3st234ut3on The system in which electric power is conveyed at 855Av or ..5Av or 3;.Av or DDAv or ;;Av or 33Av or D.DAv or ;.;Av to different sub station for distribution or to bi' consumers li&e industries etc is called primary distribution system. #. Se6onda2y d3st234ut3on syste7 The system in which electric power is distributed at 8;;G.;;Av to various consumers li&e residential consumer is called low volta'e or secondary distribution system.

C$NN-CT)$N SC#- -S $F /)ST=)1,T)$N SHSTRad3a< syste71 )n this system feeders radiate from sin'le sub station and feed the distribution at one end only. Ad5antages1 3. )ts initial cost is minimum .. )t is simplest distribution system D3sad5antages1 3. The end of distributor nearest to the 'eneratin' station would be heavily loaded. .. The consumers are dependent on sin'le feeder or distributor. Therefore when fault occurs on the feeder or distributor the supply is not cut off to all of the consumers who are on the side of the fault, away from the station. ;. The consumer at the farthest end of the distributor would be sub%ected to serious volta'e fluctuations with the variation in the load. R3ng 7a3n syste71 )n this system each consumer is supplied via two feeders. The arran'ement is similar to two feeders in parallel on different routes. Ad5antages1 3. 2ess copper is re*uired at each part of the rin' and carries less current than in the radial system. .. 2ess volta'e fluctuations. ;. )t is more reliable. 8. )n the event of fault on any one section the continuity of the supply to all consumers can be maintained by isolatin' the faulty section.

35

Inte2 6onne6ted syste71 )n this system the feeder rin' is ener'i+ed by two or more 'eneratin' stations or sub stations. Ad5antages1 3. )t increases the reliability of supply. .. /urin' the over loads the area fed from one 'eneratin' station can be fed from other 'eneratin' station. This reduces the reserve plant capacity improves the reliability, increases the load factor and efficiency of the system.

POWER DISTRIBUTION AT NFC

T.E 13#= 'AIN RECEI IN" STATION1 NFC receives electric power at 3;.&E from "7T="NSC$ on a double circuit overhead transmission line. ain step down and distribution system ( S/S!3) or the main receivin' station ( =S) has been installed outside the NFC boundary. 3;.&E is step down to ;;&E or 33&E over two ; windin's transformer of capacity .5G;3.4 E" 3;.&EG;;&EG33&E. The two feeders at 3;.&E are of 355> capacity each to ma&e feedin' system 355> standby. The existin' bus bar arran'ement between this feeder facilities chan'e over of the transformer to any feeder. =emote controlled operator isolators have been installed in the system at nine points for easy and safe operation and maintenance. "n $N 2$"/ T"7 C#"NB-= ($2TC) has been installed on the each transformer which is controlled by automatic volta'e re'ulator to provide a constant secondary volta'e of 33&E irrespective of primary incomin' feeder volta'e in a ran'e of 3;F.D&E to 99&E. $2TC has total .3 tap positions and so one has to ensure that the system volta'e is a constant with a little variation.

T.E 33= DISTRIBUTION S%STE'1 The power is supplied from the secondary windin' (;;&E) of transformer at S/S!3 yard to 11T7 of NFC. The ;;&E supply is connected throu'h an overhead open

33

type bus bar to the SFD 'as circuit brea&er at S/S!3. "t S/S!. yard the ;;&E is step down to D.D&E by two 34G.5 E", ;;&EGD.D&E transformer. The feeders at ;;&E are of 355> capacity with 355> standby facilities. The step down secondary volta'e is connected to the switch board throu'h a closed type bus duct D.D&E switch board as .5 bul& oil circuit brea&er to feed the 3.45&E", D.D&EG8;;E transformer.

T.E 11= DISTRIBUTION S%STE'1 The 33&E supply from .5G;3.4 E" transformer is drawn to the switch panel throu'h I27- cables. The 33&E panel has provided with SFD 'as circuit brea&er. There are a total number of ei'hteen 33&E feeders. There are four feeders for C7" and @F7 sub!station. Two feeders each supplies power to most of the plants of NFC. =est of the feeders at S/S!3 are for N,F"7, N,$F7, #C, construction power supply (C7S) etc.

T.E C.E'ICA! P!ANT AREA SUB STATION1 C7" sub station receives two 33&E feeders throu'h under 'round cables (aluminum conductors, paper insulated, lead sheathed, double steel tape and served). The 33&E panel is provided with $C1 controlled by relays and ;5E battery ban&s. Earious feeders at C7" sub station are @S7, @$7, S 7, C$NT=$2 2"1, $,7, CFF7, load centers, pump house!. and services plant which are connected throu'h 33&E under'round cables connected to 3.45&E" 33&EG834E transformer. T.E (FP SUB STATION1 The substation which is situated inside NFC near @F7 plant receives two 33&E feeders throu'h under 'round cables from S/S!3, the 3;.&E sub station is situated outside NFC. There are . panels in this substation one is 33&E panel with two incomin' @F7 feeders with a bus coupler and 33&E out 'oin' feeders feedin' load center!3, @F7 lc!., SST7 and -77 sections and the other is a D.D&E panel which 'ets supply from 33&E panel throu'h two 4 E", 33GD.D&E transformer. This D.D&E panel havin' out'oin' feeders to synchronous motors for pump accumulator stations and two lin& feeders to S/S!., the ;;GD.D&E substation which mainly supplies power to 11T7 loads centers. These are the two lin& feeders throu'h which emer'ency power can be fed to D.D&v at S/S!. yard.

3.

ARIOUS !OAD CENTERS AT NFC

")N ST-7 /$<N S,1 ST"T)$N!))

The power to this sub station is fed from =S throu'h "72STS cables as two incomin' feeders. "s part of power distribution, the incomin' volta'e is directly stepped down to D.D&E by two step down transformer (34 E"G.5 E") Jratin' are shown in "ppendix!)K. The power from this sub station is distributed to the followin' plants throu'h two incomin' feeders. F2o7 INCO'IN" 11 3. .. ;. 8. 4. D. :. F. 9. @F7 2F!3 345 E = 7)2B-= )22 2C!. T=!3 2C!; T=!3 2C!; T=!. "nnealin' Furnace!3 Capacitor 1an& #ori+ontal Furnace!3 #ori+ontal Furnace!.

F2o7 INCO'IN" #1 3. 2C!8 T=!.

3;

.. ;. 8. 4. D. :. F.

#ori+ontal Furnace!; New meltin' shop Eertical Furnace 2C!. T=!. :4 E = 7)2B-= )22 2C!; T=!; @F7 2F!.

CPA SUB STATION

The power to this sub station is fed from main receivin' station throu'h "72STS cables. The incomin' volta'e is 33&E which is distribution as follows? F2o7 INCO'IN" 11 3. .. ;. 8. 4. D. :. Services ,$7 "N/ CFF7 T!3 ,$7 "N/ CFF7 T!8 2C!4 T=!3 @$7 T!3 @S7 T!8 @S7 T!3

F2o7 INCO'IN" #1 3. .. ;. 8. 4. D. :. B-N-="T$= ,$7 "N/ CFF7 T!. @$7 T!. @S7 T!. 7#!. 2"1 "N/ S 7 2C!4 T=!. 38

F. CFF7 "N/ ,$7 T!; 9. Spare

(FP AREA SUB STATION>I

The power to this sub station is fed from throu'h two incomin' feeders. The power to this station is distribution as follows? F2o7 INCO'IN" 11 3. .. ;. 8. 4. SST7 T=!3 2C!. T=!. 2C!3 T=!3 2C!3 T=!. 4 E" T!3

=S throu'h 33&E "72STS cables

F2o7 INCO'IN" #1 3. .. ;. 8. 4. 4 E" T=!. 2C!3 T=!; 2C!. T=!. SST7 T=!. 33&E 7)2B-=

)22

34

(FP AREA SUB STATION>II

The power to this substation is fed from @F7 33&E panel throu'h two incomin' feeders throu'h 33&E I72- cables throu'h a 4 E" transformer each. The feeders are coupled throu'h a bus coupler. The power from this sub station is distribution as follows?

F2o7 INCO'IN" 11 3. .. ;. 8. 4. D. :. F. 2F!3 S/S!. 7, 7!4 7, 7! D 7, 7! : 7, 7! F 7, 7! 9 7, 7! 35 B S-T!.

F2o7 INCO'IN" #1 3. B S-T !3 .. 7, 7! 8

3D

;. 8. 4. D. :. F.

B S-T 7, 7! ; 7, 7! . 7, 7! 3 2F!. S/S!. EF!8

NEW URANIU' O-IDE FABRICATION P!ANT SUB STATION

The power to this sub station is fed from the =S throu'h two incomin' feeders of 33&E I72- cables. The two incomin' are coupled throu'h a bus coupler. The power from this sub station is distribution as follows? F2o7 INCO'IN" 11 3. .. ;. 8. 4. D. :. 2$"/ C-NT-=!3 T=!3 2C!3 T=!. 2C!. T=!3 2C!. T=!. N@F7 T=!3 N@F7 T=!. S7"=-!3

FRO' INCO'IN" #1 3. 2C!3 T=!; .. 2C!3 T=!8

3:

;. 8. 4. D. :. F. 9.

2C!. T=!; 2C!. T=!8 N@F7 T=!; N@F7 T=!8($,TB$)NB) N@F7 T=!4($,TB$)NB) S7"=T-ST 7"N-2

SSTP SUB STATION

The power to this plant is fed from @F7 throu'h 33&E "72STS cables. The incomin' volta'e is 33&E which is stepped down to 8;;E throu'h a transformer to 33&EG8;;E, 3.45&E" connected throu'h bus coupler. The power to this sub station is distribution as follows. F2o7 INCO'IN" 11 3. .. ;. 8. 4. D. 7/1 7!F @F7 "F 7/1 7!3D 7/1 7!4 F, - -IT="CT)$N 2/1

F2o7 INCO'IN" #1 3. .. ;. 8. 7/1 7!. 7/1 7!; 7/1 7!3 7/1 7!9 3F

4. "NN-"2)NB F,=N"CD. SST7 7/1 7!8

NEW URANIU' O-IDE FABRICATION P!ANT !OAD CENTER>I

The power to this load is fed from N,$F7 substation throu'h four incomin' feeders of 33&E I27- cables. The incomin' volta'e 33&E is stepped down to 8;;E by four step down transformers of 33&EG8;;E, 3D55&E" with three bus couplers. F2o7 INCO'IN" 11 3. .. ;. 8. 4. D. =-/,CT)$N F,=N"C2)B#T)NB "C/1 7/1!: 7/1!D 7/1!F CC " $N)"

F2o7 INCO'IN" #1 3. <-T 72"NT CC .. "C/1!3. ;. CC E1 8. C"7"C)T$= 1"NA

39

F2o7 INCO'IN" 31 3. =-/,CT)$N CC .. S7"=;. - -=B-NCH " F 7"N-2 8. CC E" F2o7 INCO'IN" 41 3. CC!3 .. CC E# ;. ST"N/ 1H F--/-= 72"NT 8. S7"=4. S7"=-

CC

NEW URANIU' O-IDE FABRICATION P!ANT !OAD CENTER>II

The power to this load center is fed from N,$F7 sub station throu'h four incomin' feeders of 33&E I27- cables. The incomin' volta'e of 33&E is stepped down to 8;;E by four step down transformer of 33&EG8;;E, 3D55&E" for all incomin' feeders each with three bus couplers. F2o7 INCO'IN" 11 3. "C/1!35 .. F)=- #H/="NT ;. "C/1!4 )NC$ -=!3 F2o7 INCO'IN" #1 3. .. ;. 8. 4. CC!; C7S!2C (T- 7 S#-/) S7"="C/1!4 )NC$ -=!. "C/1!D )NC$ -=!3

.5

F2o7 INCO'IN" 31 3. .. ;. 8. 4. D. #@ B-N-="T$= 72"NT S7"=ST"N/ 1H F--/-= #@ B-N-="T$= 72"NT CC!E/ "C/1!3; "C/1!38

F2o7 INCO'IN" 41 3. .. ;. 8. "C/1!D S)NT-=)NB F,=N"C"C/1!33 S7"=-

NEW ARC 'E!TIN" !OAD CENTER

The power to this plant is fed from S/S!. sub station throu'h an incomin' feeder. The incomin' current ampere is ;.55". The power to this load center is 33&E which is stepped down to D.D&E and then a'ain to 8;;E. The power is distribution to the load follows? F2o7 INCO'IN" 11 3. E" F =-CT)F)-=!3 .. E" F =-CT)F)-=!. ;. E" F =-CT)F)-=!; 8. 7=-SS 4. -1<!3 D. -1<!. :. "C 7/1 F. 2)B#T)NB 9. S7"=35. " F C$NT=$2 7"N-2

.3

SER ICE !OAD CENTER

The power to this load center is fed from C7" substation throu'h only one incomin' feeder of 33&E "72STS cables. The incomin' volta'e of 33&E is step down to 8;;E throu'h a step down transformer of 33&EG8;;E, 3.45&E". F2o7 INCO'IN" FEEDER1 3. .. ;. 8. 4. D. :. S-=E)C- 7/1 7!8 C"NT--N S 7 T)- 2)N<$=A S#$7 S-=E)C- 7/1 7!3 ()NC$ -=!.) C"7"C)T$= 1"NA S-=E)C-S 7/1 7!3 ()NC$ -=!3)

..

UOP AND CFFP !OAD CENTER SUB STATION

The power is distributed to this load center from which C7" sub station throu'h four incomin' feeders of 33&E "72STS cables. The incomin' volta'e of 33&E is step down to 8;;E throu'h a transformer of 33&EG8;;E, 3.45&E" with two bus couplers. The incomers 3 L . are coupled throu'h a bus coupler and incomers ; L 8 are coupled throu'h a bus coupler. The power from this load center sub station is distributed as follows? F2o7 INCO'IN" 11 3. 7/1 7!. .. -,$7 7!3, 7!; ;. 7/1 7!; 8. 7/1 7!3 4. 7/1 7!4 F2o7 INCO'IN" #1 3. S7"=.. S7"=;. 7/1!D 8. N-< 7/1!D" F2o7 INCO'IN" 31 3. 7/1!3: .. 7/1!3F

.;

;. 8. 4. D. :. F.

7/1!3D 7/1!39 7/1!3. -,$7 7!. 7/1!35 7/1!34

F2o7 INCO'IN" 41 3. 7/1!.5 .. 7/1!38 ;. CFF7 )NS,2"T)$N 2)B#T)NB 8. E-NT 7/1 4. 7/1 7!3; D. 7/1 7!:

!AB ? S'P !OAD CENTER

The power to this load center is fed from C7$" substation throu'h one incomin' feeder of 33&E. The volta'e is step down from 33&E to 8;;E throu'h a step down transformer of 33&EG8;;E, 3.45&E". The power is distributed as shown below? F2o7 INCO'IN" FEEDER1 3. .. ;. 8. 4. D. :. F. 9. 35. 33. 3.. 3;. 2"1 7/1 7!3 (D55") 2"1 E-NT 7/1 (.55") 2"1 7/1 7!. (;55") 2"1 7/1 7!4 (D55") T)- 2)N- (F=$ S-=E)C-S) (455") F1T= 7/1 S 7 E-NT 7/1(;55") 2"1 L S 7 2/1 (455") T)- 2)N- (F=$ S-=E)C-S) (D55") B=$,7 C$NT=$2 (F=$ S-E)C-S) (.55") 2"1 - 7/1(/GB 7"N-2) S7"=S7"=- (D55")

.8

!OAD CENTER>5

The power to this load center is fed from C7" substation throu'h two incomin' feeders. The incomin' volta'e is 33&E. The power to this load center is distributed as follows? F2o7 INCO'IN" 11 3. .. ;. 8. 4. <"T-= 7$N/S 1$)2-= #$,SBS1 ("/#"= 1,)2/)NB) S7=)NA2-= 7, 7 !3 "/ !3(S"="T#) 1,)2/)NB)

F2o7 INCO'IN" #1 3. .. ;. 8. 4. B,"=/ #$,SS7=)NA2-= 7, 7 !. 1$)2-= #$,S- !. 7, 7 #$,S- !3 "/ !. (S"="T#) 1,)2/)NB)

.4

CAPTI E POWER "ENERATION P!ANT /CP"P0

Nuclear Fuel Complex (NFC) obtains most of its productions durin' 'eneral shift hours (59?55#rs to 3:?55#rs) and ener'y demand catchin' their pea& value durin' 35?55" to 35?557 . )n order to avoid any interruption in supply of electrical power ( aximum demand not tot exceed 35 E") there is no way but to 'o for a captive power plant of sufficient capacity. "t the time of installation of NFC, an arran'ement of 35 E" ( aximum /emand) was made with "7T="NSC$. <ith passin' of time 'rowin' demand of nuclear material, it has need expanded. New plants li&e N,F"7, N,$F7 and N@F7 have been set up. 1ut the ener'y contract with "7T="NSC$ has not been updated. The captive power 'eneration plant is of capacity :.4 E", consistin' of ; /B sets, each of ..4 E" capacity. $ur main ob%ective is to curtail the electricity bill and that also not affectin' the production at different plants by meetin' the demand durin' pea& hours. Throu'h the share of self 'eneration towards total consumption of NFC is not more than 4> but it helps 'reatly in achievin' the above said ob%ective. 1ein' so important, the /B sets deserve maintenance L monitorin' under runnin' condition, so that they can be useful at the time of demand.

PRINCIP!E OF OPERATION
$n sensin' the power failure from 'rid, the /iesel Benerator (/B) sets automatically one after the other, 'et synchroni+ed amon' them L feed the supply to the .D

33&E distribution. $n resumption of power supply from the 'rid the /B power 'et synchroni+ed with the 'rid L run in parallel with the 'rid for a pre set time L then switch off the /B brea&ers L the en'ine. "part from the above auto operation, manual start L synchroni+in' facility have also been provided.

!OADIN" PATTERN
"ll /B sets are connected to an 33&E bus of the power plant which is lin&ed with the 33&E with board of S/S!3 over to full capacity feeders. )n case of total failure of "7T="NSC$ system, the power supply is au'mented by startin' re*uired number of /B sets. <ith this arran'ement it is possible to feed all the loads connected to the 33&E switch board of S/S!3 either completely or partially dependin' upon the available capacity of C7B7. "part from the captive power 'eneration plant (C7B7(s) contribution, every production unit is provided with a diesel 'enerator set of capacity 85&E" or 3F5&E" or 455&E" accordin' to their emer'ency demand.

STAB!E AND RE!IAB!E POWER SUPP!%

"part from considerin' the economical aspect of power distribution stability L reliability of power supply is also ta&en care. -very machine or furnace of any other e*uipment at different production units do operate with some volta'e band, below or above which may brin' dama'e to the e*uipment. So in order to stable power at rated volta'e much care L sincere effort is made at each substation. The wor&s is done with the help of on!load or off!load tap chan'ers. The rated receivin' volta'e from "7T="NSC$ is 3;.&E. This is the main supply input to NFC. So every control to maintain constant volta'e at each substation depends directly or indirectly on the input volta'e. "s the input volta'e never stays at 3;.&E because of one or other reason, to reach our ob%ective, on!load tap chan'er ($2TC) has been installed at the 3;.&E side of both the transformers at S/S!3 yard. <ith the help of $2TC L "utomatic Eolta'e =e'ulator ("E=), a constant volta'e of 33&E (allowable ran'e 35.D&E to 33..&E) is achieved where the input volta'e can ta&e any value in between 99&E to 3;F.D&E. )f the volta'e dips below the lowest limit of 99&E it sends a si'nal to under volta'e relay, which in fact causes the brea&er at the #E side of the transformer to be tripped L hence a power failure is observed. The main advanta'es of $2TC are that it does its wor& without any interruption in power supply, which is the most desirable. -xcept the incomin' transformers at S/S!3 all other transformers e.'. 3.45&E", 33&EG834E is all provided with off!load tap chan'ers, where in order to chan'e the volta'e level, a supply interruption is must. The -N/ C"7 72"NT, where the final touch is 'iven is sealin' and pac&in' of nuclear fuel bundles, need supply at a very stable volta'e else the weldin' *uality may be dama'ed. This plant which 'ets power from C7" substation is always 'iven a special attention by providin' an additional volta'e re'ulator.

.:

RE!IABI!IT% FACTOR
The prime responsibility of power system operation is to operate their systems in such way that they will provide maximum reliability of service possible with the facilities under their control. /esi'n of the system is such that many years of reliable service can be expected, even under adverse condition. The commonly used desi'n criterion is to provide facilities and capacities to withstand, without interpretation, a MSin'le Contin'encyN. Fa6to2s e99e6t3ng 8o:e2 syste7 2e<3a43<3ty?! 3. .. Rese25e 6a8a63ty plays ma%or role in case of excessive loads and interpretive loads, start and stop of other loads inter connected etc. Ade@uate t2ans73ss3on and stat3on 6a8a43<3ty , i.e., the load carryin' capacity of transmission and stations is sufficient to carry their normal loads and with enou'h over!load capacity to carry additional loads that may be expected to occur. The amount of overload capacity to be provided is mana'ement decision and could be affected by cost and importance of the load is served. E99e6t o9 te78e2atu2e on e@u387ent1 The limitin' loadin' factor on all electrical e*uipment is temperature rise. Temperature rise can result in insulation failures or may be the cause of lines, sa''in' into trees. )n any case, excess temperature is the cause of e*uipment failure and service interruptions

;.

.F

8.

Po:e2 Fa6to2 6ons3de2at3on1 "nother factor that should be under the constant surveillance of the system operator is the pf of 'eneratin' e*uipment. )f total ratin' may be exceeded even thou'h the me'awatt load is below ratin'. <hen varyin' load is bein' supplied, there is an increased possibility of heatin' the end laminations of 'enerator amours and other e*uipment. Temperature sensin' device such as resistance thermal devices or thermocouples are usually provided to monitor such conditions. T2ans73ss3on <3ne 2at3ngs1 Transmission line ratin's are determined by conductor type, si+e and line len'th, ambient temperature, wind and solar input. "lso tower hei'ht, the presence of under built low colla'e line, or presence of trees that must be &ept trimmed can effect ratin's of lines. For short lines thermal capacity plays ma%or role than stability but for lar'er lines reverse is true. <here the overhead lines are not permitted and in industrial area the 'round cables are preferred. The ratin's of lines include thermal and stability limits, of lines to station buses permit proper division of load ensurin' minimum ris& in the event of bus or transformer ban& failure and proper relay action. /urin' emer'encies, system operations are fre*uently re*uired to device alternative arran'ements of line and station. -*uipment in order to restore services with a minimum delay. Common procedures are to parallel lines over an auxiliary bus or to ma&e us of bus parallel brea&ers to replace a brea&er that is dama'ed out of service for wor&. )n some cases, line can be sectionali+ed or %umper(s opened at dead!end structures to restore at least a portion of the services until repairs can be made and the system returned to normal. D3s6onne6t3ng 9au<ted <3nes o2 e@u387ent and 2esto23ng 9a63<3t3es1 $ne important measure in maintainin' power system security is the rapid disconnection of lines or e*uipment that are in trouble. 1ecause rapid action is necessary automatic devices usually are relied upon instead of manual operations. any types of troubles, such as insulators flashovers on transmission lines, often are only momentary. The protection system desi'n there fre*uently provides for automatic enclosure followin' such incidents on the other hand, transformer ban& different or 'enerator elevated neutral relay operation usually indicate more serious troubles. )n the event that automatic enclosure is un!successively or after relay action has occurred that indicate e*uipment trouble, the e*uipment should be disconnected and cleared for repairs. "lternative lined station bus arran'ements should be effected in order to restore interrupted load of 'eneratin' e*uipment to service, so that normal loads will be served and 'eneration mar'ins are restored. :. A<te2nat35e A22ange7ents1 Normal arran'ements of Transmission, distribution lines and the confi'uration of lines to station buses permit proper

4.

D.

.9

division of load ensurin' minimum ris& in the event of bus or transformer ban& failure and proper relay action. /urin' emer'encies, system operators are fre*uently re*uired to device alternative arran'ements of line and station e*uipment ) order to restore services for wor&. )n some cases, line can be sectionali+ed or %umper(s opened at dead!end structures to restore at least a portion of the services until repairs can be made and the system returned to normal F. Ind36at3on o9 syste7 6ond3t3on and 6o77un36at3on1 1ecause of the nature of their wor&, system operators must rely on communication and si'nalin' devices to &eep them aware of conditions on their power systems. )n order to provide the system operated with information on the status of the system. Aey information is remotely indicated in dispatchin' offices, control channels and telephone contact with operators at carious stations throu'hout the system and between control centers to inter connected systems. The reliability of the telemeter, control and voice channels is of ma%or importance to the system reliability. Earious means of providin' communication facilities are used.

INSU!ATION COORDINATION
)t is the main feature in power distribution e*uipment. )t means the correlation of the insulation of the protective devices used for the protection of those e*uipments a'ainst over volta'es. The basic concept re*uired in this is &nowin' of Eolt Time characteristics of different e*uipments to be coordinated i.e., protective e*uipments and e*uipments to be protected. The e*uipment havin' some withstand volta'e level is protected by the one which is havin' lower withstand level that that. The volt time curve is a 'raph showin' relation between crest flash over volta'es and time to flash over for a series of impulse applications of a 'iven wave. The e*uipments are basically protected a'ainst switchin' sur'e and li'htnin' sur'e. The former plays ma%or role at volta'e level above ;84&E, below this level li'htnin' sur'e dominates. The problem of coordinate insulation of protective devices involves

a. Buardin' the e*uipment insulation b. )t is desired that protective e*uipment should not be dama'ed. To assist the coordination process basic insulation levels are provided with reference to standard wave 3..G45 micro sec. "pparatus insulation as demonstrated by suitable test shall be e*ual to or 'reater than the 1asic )nsulation 2evel (1)2). Se<e6t3on o9 Insu<at3on <e5e<1

;5

)nsulation level is a function of reference class volta'e e*ual to 3.54 multiplied to operation volta'e of system. Earious e*uipments desi'ned such that its withstand volta'e e*uals or exceeds that selected level. Selection of protective devices that will 'ive the apparatus as 'ood as protections can be %ustified economically. For every reference level there will be the correspondin' 1)2. The e*uipment to be protected should have withstand level 'reater than correspondin' 1)2. For solidly 'rounded systems and where switchin' sur'es dominated reduced insulation level are used.

!OSSES IN POWER DISTRIBUTION AND .OW TO REDUCE T.EIR !OSSES1

Benerally the losses in distribution system are? 3. 2osses in Transformers and .. 2osses in $verhead lines I. TRANSFOR'ER !OSSES1 Since a transformer is a static device there are no mechanical6 losses. a. 2osses independent of current i.e., iron losses or core losses (ma'netic losses). b. 2osses dependent on current i.e., copper losses (due to flow of current in windin's). c. /ielectric losses d. Stray ma'netic losses CORE !OSSES1 Core losses are due to flow of current in windin's. They are of two types 3. #ysterisis losses. .. -ddy current losses.

;3

#ysterisis loss is proportional to maximum value of flux density and the supply fre*uency. (i.e., 1#3.D F). -ddy current losses are proportional to the s*uare of the maximum flux density and s*uare of the fre*uency and the thic&ness of the laminations (i.e., 1#.FT). a'netic losses are present as lon' as the primary is ener'i+ed. Since the no!load current is only the order of 4> of the rated or full load current. So the input to the transformer is ta&en or the ma'netic loss or the iron or the core losses. )t is assumed to be the same under all operatin' conditions ri'ht from no load to full load. )t is denoted as 7). #ysterisis losses can be reduced by stainless steel case. -ddy current losses can be reduced by reducin' the thic&ness of laminations.

COPPER !OSSES1 The flow of current throu'h the windin's 'ives rise to the copper losses vi+., )3.r3adn )..r.. The no load copper loss in the primary windin' is ne'lected. The copper losses vary with the value of secondary currents. The copper loss correspondin' to the noted value of the currents is called the full load copper loss and is represented as 7c. Eariable copper losses O constant iron losses i.e., I.7c P 73c I is the fraction of the full load at which the transformer is wor&in'. I P s*rt (7iG7') Copper losses can be reduced by reducin' the flow of currents throu'h windin'. DIE!ECTRIC !OSSES1 The loss that occurs in the di!electric oil in the case of the oil filled transformer is call /ielectric loss. STRA% 'A"NETIC !OSSES1 These losses are due to the cur induced in the transformer tan& tower. /ielectric losses and stray ma'netic losses are normally ne'lected except in the case of very hi'h volta'e testin' transformer (i.e., Q855&E). EFFICIENC% OF T.E TRANSFOR'ER1 The efficiency of a transformer is the ratio of the power output and power input both in out and out are expressed in the same with i.e., in <atts, &ilowatts and me'awatts. 2ets RS( be the &E" of the transformer and be the fraction of the full load at which the transformer is wor&in' and cosS the power factor of the load.

;.

Is cosS T P !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Is cosSO7iOx.7c )nput P $utput O 2osses O!TA"E RE"U!ATION OF TRANSFOR'ER1 The numerical chan'e in the terminal volta'e when full load of a 'ive power factor is thrown off is called volta'e re'ulation. 7v volta'e re'ulation P U-. U ! UE.UGUE3U The volta'e re'ulation of a transformer depends upon the ma'nitude of the secondary currents and the power factor of the load. Core losses can be determined by conductin' short test on the transformer.

'INI'ISATION OF DISTRIBUTION !OSSES

$ne of the ob%ectives of the NFC is loss minimi+ation. #ere we mean losses in distribution and which are mainly transformer losses. This can be achieved by efficiency loadin' of transformer and &eepin' li'htly load to other transformer under shutdown by switchin' the loads to other transformer which are moderately loaded. -ach transformer is havin' some fixed losses which always be there when transformer primary will be char'ed and some variable losses which depend on the loadin' (we measure it by currents in the section windin') 'enerally fixed losses are core losses or iron losses (#ysterisis losses L -ddy currents losses) and the variable losses are copper losses ().= losses). For efficiency loadin' of a transformer it is re*uired that fixed losses P variable losses. )f a transformer is li'htly loaded, we can save the fixed losses by &eepin' the transformer out the circuit and shiftin' the load to another transformer which is moderately loaded. "nd this operation only is done when we have 'ood &nowled'e about the distribution system, example location of transformer, their ratin's, brea&ers, bus couplers to ta&e the load. 1y minimi+in' the losses in the distribution, or by savin' few units of ener'y, electricity bill can be lowered to same extent. !OSSES IN TRANS'ISSION !INES1

;;

7ower losses due to char'e currents is ()c.x=)Gs*rt; therefore the overall power is e*ual to one third of maximum power loss. )n the transmission of power by over head lines havin' a line over 355Am the capacitance is to produce a currents called Mchar'in' currentN. )n overhead transmission lines, and electric 'radient is setup between conductors, electrons and ions are set in the motion in electric field. This electrons and molecules collide with each other producin' more number of ions. This process of ioni+ation is cumulative and forms an electron avalanche. This may result in a flash over between the conductors if the ratio of spacin' between conductor to radius of the conductor is very small. )oni+ation is accompanied by a violet luminous 'low around the conductor with a hissin' noise. This phenomenon is &nown as corona. This causes power losses ratio interference. 7ower losses due to corona depend upon surface 'radient, atmospheric conditions. The power losses can be minimi+ed by increasin' spacin' between the conductor diameters. The corona dischar'e unit radiation which introduces noise si'nal in the communication channel that is radio receivers. This is called radio interference. Corona loss P .83V35!4J(fO.4)GWKJ(rGd)V(Ep!Eo)K &<G&mGphase F P fre*uency of supply W P air density correction factor Ep P operatin' volta'e in &EGphase Eo P critical descriptive volta'e in &EGphase The P distance of separation in meters = P radius of conductor in meters

FAU!T AND PROTECTION OF SUB>STATION E)UIP'ENT

FAU!T AND PROTECTION OF TRANSFOR'ER1 FAU!T PROTECTION /A4no27a< 6ond3t3ons0 3. 2ar'e internal faults phase to phase, 1uchol+ relay trips the circuit brea&er. phase to 'round, below oil level. .. Faults in tap chan'ers. 7ercenta'e differential protection. #i'h speed over current relay is used. ;. Saturation of ma'netic circuit $ver flux protection and over volta'e relays. 8 -arth fault -arth fault relay. 4. Throu'h fault For protection of distribution transformer 'raded time la' over current and for small

;8

distribution transformer up to 455&E" #=C fuses are used. D. $ver load $ver load relays, as temperatures inverse is indicated on control board temperature relays, sound alarms are used. :. #i'h volta'e sur'es due to li'htnin', #orn 'ap sur'e arrestors, sur'e switchin'. suppressors.

For small distribution transformers only hi'h!volta'e uses for earth faults protection and phase fault protection. $verload protection 'enerally not provided. For more important transformers of about 455&E". $ver currents relays and instantaneous earth relays are used. Transformers in important location, ratin' 455&E" and above =estricted earth!fault protection $ver current protection -arth fault protection 1uchol+ relay Transformer of about 4 E" and above /ifferential protection =estricted earth fault protection $ver current protection $ver fluxin' relays 1uchol+ relays Sudden pressure relays =everse power relay is used for parallel transformer.

;4

E!ECTRICA! SUBSTATION AND E)UIP'ENT

The electrical power system can be divided into followin' re'ions? 3. Beneration station .. Transmission systems ;. =eceivin' station 8. /istribution system 4. 2oad points "ll these re'ions need switch 'ear, bus bars are conductin' bars to which a number of local feeders are connected. 1us bars operated at which volta'e. They are insulated from earth and each other. 1esides the bus bars there are other e*uipment in the electrical substation such as circuit brea&ers, currents transformers, potential transformers etc., these e*uipments can be installed accordin' to various schemes dependin' upon re*uirements. The total plant consists of several e*uipment. Su4stat3on E@u387ent and t;e32 Fun6t3ons1 S.No -*uipment Functions

;D

3 .. ;. 8. 4. D. :. F. 9. 35.

1us bars 2i'htenin' arrestors Shunt reactor in -.#.E substations Series reactors Neutral Broundin' =esistor Couplin' Capacitor 2ine Trap Shunt Capacitors 7ower Transformers Series Capacitors

)ncomin' and out'oin' circuits are connected to bus bars To dischar'e li'htnin' over volta'es and switchin' over volta'es to earth To provide reactive power compensation durin' low loads. To reduce the short circuit currents or startin' currents. To limit the earth fault currents. To provide connection between hi'h volta'e line and line carrier currents e*uipment. To prevent hi'h fre*uency si'nal from enterin' other +ones To provide compensations to reactive loads of la''in' power factors. To step!up or step!down the volta'e and transfer power from one ".C volta'e to other ".C volta'e at same fre*uency. Compensation of series reactors of lon' lines.

The sub stations have followin' main circuits throu'h which power flows from 'enerators to transmission lines. The components in series with the main circuits of power flow include bus bars, circuit brea&ers, isolators, series rectors, diode thruster, rectifiers. The components in shunt circuit are connected phase to 'round which include shunt capacitors, shunt reactors, static E"= sources, harmonic filters, volta'e transformers and sur'e arrestors.

S.No 3.

Sy74o<

E@u387ent Circuit 1rea&er

Fun6t3on Switchin' durin' normal and abnormal conditions, interrupt the fault currents. /isconnectin' a part from the system from live parts under no load conditions. /ischar'e the volta'e on the lines to earth after disconnectin' them.

..

)solator disconnectin' Switch) -arthin' Switch

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8.

2i'htenin' "rresters

4.

Currents Transformer

D.

7otential Transformer

/ivertin' the hi'h volta'e sur'e to earth and maintainin' continues durin' normal volta'e. Steppin' down the volta'e for the purpose of protection measurement, protection control. Steppin' down the volta'e for the purpose of protection measurement and control.

T2ans9o27e2 7a3n<y 6ons3sts o91 Conse25ato2 Tan=1 /ue to variations in load and climatic conditions, the oil in oil filled, self!cooled transformers expand or contract. )n the absence of conservator tan&, hi'h pressures are developed which may lead to explosions of the transformer.

Bus;3ngs1 To provide proper insulations to the output leads to be ta&en, from the transformer tan&. 7orcelain type bushin's are used up to ;;&E and oil filled type bushin's are used beyond ;;&E. B2eat;e21 To prevent moisture and dusty from enterin' the conservator tan& oil, breather is provided. Rad3ato2s1 Function of radiator is coolin'. 7roperty of li*uid is when it is heated up molecules move hi'her and hi'her and this will flow to radiator and then it cools. "fter coolin' molecules becomes heavier and comes to tan&. Bu6;o<A Re<ay1 )t is a protective device. )f any fault occurs in transformer windin' then it will come into picture. )t will be connected between conservator and oil tan&.

BUS BARS

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1us bars or buses are conductors to which several local feeders or sources are connected. Now the conductors carryin' heavy currents are also called buses. The standard definitions are 'iven below. So7e te27s and de93n3t3ons1 > 3. Bus 4a2s? ! Conductors to which a number of circuits are connected. .. Bus 4a2s 6onne6t3on1 > The conductors that from the electrical connection between the bus bars and individual piece of apparatus. ;. O8en Bus 4a2s1 >The 1us bars that is contained in a duct or a cover of any material. The bus bars enclosed in metal enclosures are called metal -nclosed 1us bars. The enclosures are either aluminium or sheet steel. 8. Outdoo2 Bus 4a2s? ! $pen or metal enclosed bus bars desi'ned for installation under open s&y. $utdoor 1us bars are supported on 'la+ed porcelain insulators. 4. Indoo2 Bus 4a2s? ! The bus bars desi'ned for indoor use. D. Co78ound I77e2sed Bus 4a21 > -nclosed 1us bars immersed in li*uid or semi solid materials.

RATIN"S 3. Rated 6u22ent? The = S value of current which the bus bar can carry continuously with temperature rise within specified limits. .. Rated o<tage? !The = S value of volta'e between lines for which the bus bars intended. ;. Rated F2e@uen6y? ! ,sually 45#+. 8. Rated S;o2t C326u3t T37e Cu22ent? ! This corresponds to the short time currents ratin' of circuit brea&erGswitchesGisolators. )t is defined as the =. .S value of the circuit which the bus bar can carry with temperature rise within specified limits for a specified duration. 'ATERIA! FOR BUSBAR1 Copper and aluminium are used for bus bars, copper bein' rare and costly aluminium is bein' increasin'ly used for bus bars. The material used for bus bars should

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have low cost. applications.

Now aluminium is bein' increasin'ly used for various switchin'

Des3gns Cons3de2at3ons? 3. Fo27s1 The structural forms of bus bars are 'enerally selected in the basis of mechanical considerations of stren'th supportin' arran'ement. <hen the spacin' between bus bars is small mechanical forces are ne'lected. Typically bus bars shapes include sin'le flat rectan'ular sections, multiple rectan'ular sections, an'les, channels, hollow tubular and rectan'ular sections. .. Cu22ent 6a22y3ng 6a8a63ty1 The various aluminium companies 'ive re'ular tables of cross sections and their current carryin' capabilities based on ambient temperature (85XC or 45XC) and temperature rise (;4XC avera'e, 85XC maximum) for various conditions and arran'ements. ;. Te78e2atu2e 23se du23ng s;o2t 6326u3t 6ond3t3ons1 "t temperatures 3D5XC aluminium becomes soft and loses its mechanical stren'th. The calculations of temperature rise are complicated. For preliminary calculations, the followin' expression can be used.

T B /ICA0#/1Dae0.1+># T! Temperature riseGsec durin' short circuit C! 5.48 for copper, 3.3: for aluminium )! = S value of short circuit current "! Cross Sectional area (mm.) a! Temp. Coeff. of resistivity e! Temp. at the instant of short circuit 8. C<ea2an6es 4et:een 8;ases and 4et:een 8;ase ? ea2t;1 The minimum clearance is specified in standards. 4. C2ee8age D3stan6e1 The shortest distance alon' the conductor alon' the external of insulators from earth to the conductor. The porcelain insulator is exclusively used for outdoor bus supports. D. "2ound C<ea2an6e1 /istance between the hi'hest earthed part of the e*uipment and the 'round. This should be minimum ..:4 mts. This is for safety of personals movin' in the substation. a23ous ty8es o9 4us 4a2s a22ange7ent1

85

S3ng<e Bus 4a2 A22ange7ent1 The simple arran'ement consists of a sin'le bus bar to which the various feeders are connected. )ncase of a fault or maintenance of a bus bar the entire bus bar has to be de!ener'i+ed and the total shutdown. #ence this type of arran'ement is most economical and simple which provides least flexibility and immunity from total shutdown. Du8<36ate Bus 4a2 A22ange7ent1 The duplicate bus bar system provides additional flexibility, continuity of supply and permits periodic maintenance without total shutdown. )n event of fault on one bus other can be used. Se6t3ona<3Aat3on o9 Bus1 Sectionali+in' the buses has added advanta'es. $ne section can be completely shut down for maintenance and repairs while the other continuous to supply, secondly by addin' a current limitin' reactor between the sections. The fault .E.". can be reduced, thereby circuit brea&er of lesser capacity may be permitted. R3ng Bus1 =in' bus provides 'reater flexibility. The supply can be ta&en from any ad%acent section, the effect of fault in one section is locali+ed to that section alone, the other section continues to operate.

CIRCUIT BREAEERS
"n electrical power is very complex. )t needs some form of protection e*uipment in order that it must be safely and efficiently controlled or re'ulator under both normal and abnormal operatin' conditions. The basic construction of any circuit brea&er re*uires the separation of contacts in a presence of a dielectric medium which serves two functions as a. )t extin'uishes arc between two contacts. b. 7rovides ade*uate insulation between the contacts and from each contact to earth. ARC P.ENO'ENA1 The arc consists of a column of ioni+ed 'as i.e. a 'as in which the molecules have lost one or more of their electrons resultin' in positive ions and electrons. The electrons which have ne'ative char'e are attracted towards the anode and bein' li'ht positive ions are attracted towards the ne'ative contact. The cathode, but as they comprise almost the

83

entire wei'ht of the atom, they move towards it relatively slowly. The electron movement thus constitutes the current flow. TER'S ASSOCIATED WIT. CIRCUIT BREAEERS1 Re6o5e2y o<tage and Rest23=3ng o<tage1 The power fre*uency =. .S volta'e that appears across the brea&er contacts after the transient oscillations die out and final extinction of arc has resulted in all poles is called the recovery volta'e. The resultant transient volta'e which appears across the brea&er contacts at the instant of arc extinction is &nown as the restri&in' volta'e. Rate o9 23se o9 2est23=3ng 5o<tage /RRR 01 The avera'e ===E P 7ea& value of restri&in' volta'e !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! Time ta&en to reach the pea& value .E P !!!!!!!!! YZ2C

C<ass3936at3on o9 C326u3t B2ea=e21 The Circuit 1rea&ers are classified based on dielectric medium used to *uench the arc. O3< C326u3t B2ea=e21 The mineral oil due to its excellent arc *uenchin' properties, it is used in Circuit 1rea&er as a dielectric medium. )t has hi'h dielectric stren'th but it has some disadvanta'es i.e., it is inflammable, may cause fire ha+ards. )t may form an explosive mixture with air because of the production of carbon particles in the due of heatin', periodical reconditionin' or replacement is re*uired. P23n638<e o9 O8e2at3on1 7rinciple involves simple process of separation the currents carryin' contacts oil with no special control over, the resultin' arc other than the increase in len'th caused by the movin' contact. The final arc extinction is obtained when a certain 'ap between the contacts is reached, the len'th of which depends upon the arc currents and recovery volta'e.

8.

"t the instant of contact separation ac is established between then initially the separation is very small and hi'h volta'e 'radient between the contacts ioni+ed the oil. The 'as obtained from the oil mainly hydro'en. <hich contain remain in molecules form and is dissociated in its atomic form releasin' lots of heat. The mixture of 'ases occupies a volume about one thousand time that of the oil decomposed. The oil is therefore pushed away from the arc and an expandin' 'as bubble surrounds the arc re'ion. 1ased on ener'y balance principle, final extinction of arc ta&es place at a currents +ero when the power input to the arc is less than that dissipated between the contacts. The oil circuit brea&ers are divided into ; types as plane, bul& and minimum oil circuit brea&ers. A32 C326u3t B2ea=e21 )n this type of brea&ers the brea&in' ta&es place by the force air blaster with different method such as axial blast, cross blast air etc., ost of circuit brea&er up to 33&E are of air brea&ers type and oil brea& type, between 3;.&E and .:4&E. $il and 'as blast brea&ers share the mar&et. SF, 6326u3t 42ea=e2s1 7ure SFD 'as is used as dielectric medium in the brea&er as it is inert and thermal stable. )t posses very 'ood arc *uenchin' as well as insulatin' properties which ma&e it ideally suitable in a C.1. SFD remains in 'aseous form up to temperature of 9CC. The operatin' mechanism is pneumatically operated and is to provide with suitable inter loc&s and safety device. " closed is used for the 'as. Since the 'as is costly it is reconditioned and reclaimed after each operation of the brea&er necessary auxiliary system is provided for this purpose.

Ad5antages1 3. /ue to out standin' arc *uenchin' property of SF D the arcin' time is very small. This reduces contact erosion. .. Compact in si+e and electrical clearances are drastically reduced. D3sad5antages1 The only disadvanta'e is that SFD is to some extent suffocatin'. )ncase of lea&a'e in the brea&er tan& this 'as bein' heavier than air, in the surroundin's and may lead to suffocation of the operatin' personnel thou'h it is non poisonous.

CO'PARISION OF CIRCIUT BREAEER

Ty8e 'ed3u7 o<t>B2ea=3ng Ca8a63ty at 8;5!355E, 34! ;4 E" recently ;D! Des3gn 9eatu2es )ncorporate? "rc runners, arc splitters, Re7a2=s ,sed medium volta'es of low "c,

"ir Circuit "ir 1rea&ers atmosphere pressure

8;

3.&E, 455 E" iniature "ir at atmosphere 8;5!D55E Circuit pressure 1rea&er 1ul& $il /ielectric oil 7referred for Circuit ;.D&E!384&E 1rea&er

ma'netic coils

Small si+e, current limitin' feature. The C1 chamber is separate from supportin' small si+e. "rc controlled devices used.

/C industrial C1(s has currentlimitin' features ,sed for low and medium volta'es ,sed for metal enclosed switch outdoor type between ;4&E and .84&E and now suppressed SFD C1. ,sed for metal enclosed switch'ear up to ;D&E

inimum oil /ielectric oil Circuit 1rea&er

#E/C Circuit 1rea&er

$il or "ir 1last

7referred for The C1 ;.D&E!384&E chamber is separate from supportin' chamber, small in si+e are control devices used. ;;&E, .&" "rtificial currents by switchin' in capacitors

,sed for metallic return transfer brea&er.

PROTECTI E RE!A%S
)n order to 'enerate electric power and transmit it to customers, millions of rupees must be spent on power station e*uipment. This e*uipment is desi'ned to wor& under specified normal conditions. #owever a short circuit may occur due to failure of insulation caused by 3. $ver volta'e due to switchin'. .. $ver volta'es due to the direct and indirect li'htenin' stro&es. ;. 1rid'in' of conductors by birds. 8. 1rea&down of insulation due to decrease of its electric stren'th. 4. echanical dama'e to the e*uipment. )n modern power station minimi+e dama'e to e*uipment and would also cause incredible interruption of service to consumers, the other is to accept the possibility of faults and ta&e steps to 'uard a'ainst the effect of these faults.

88

7rotective relays are the devices that detect abnormal conditions in electrical circuits by constantly measurin' the electrical *uantities which are different under normal and fault conditions. Se<e6t353ty1 )t is the ability of the protective systems to determine the point at which the fault occurs and select the nearest of the circuit bea&er trippin' of which will lead to clearin' of faults with minimum or low dama'e to the system. Sens3t353ty1 )t is the capability of the relayin' to operate reliably under the actual conditions that produce the least operatin' tendency. There may be abnormalities in the normal operatin' conditionin' of the faults for which the protection has been desi'ned. Re<3a43<3ty1 eans that the protective relayin' must be ready to function, reliable and correct in operation at all times under &ind of fault and abnormal conditions of the power station for which it has been desi'ned.

I78o2tant te27s 2e<ated :3t; 2e<ays

P36= u8 <e5e<1 The value of the activatin' *uantity current or volta'e, which is on the threshold above, which the relay operates. Ra3< <e5e<1 The value of current or volta'e below which a relay opens its contacts and comes to ori'inal positions. O8e2at3ng t37e1 The time which elapses between the instant when the actual *uantity exceeds the pic& up value to the instant when the relay contacts close. Reset t37e1 The time which elapses between the instant when the actual *uantity becomes less than the reset value to the instant when the relay contact returns to its normal position. P237a2y Re<ays1 The relays, which are connected directly in the circuit to be protected. Se6onda2y Re<ays1 The relays, which are connected in the circuit to be replaced throu'h current and potential transformers. AuF3<3a2y Re<ays1 =elays, which operate in response to the openin' or closin' of its operatin' circuit to assist another relay in the performance of its function. This relay may be instantaneously or may have a time delay. RE!A% C.ARACTERISTICS1

84

In5e2se t37e 6;a2a6te23st36s is one in which operatin' time reduces at the activatin' *uantity from increase in ma'nitude. Instantaneous Re<ay is one in which no intentional time delay is provided for the operation. T;e Un35e2sa< Re<ay To2@ue e@uat3on? This e*uation characteri+es the type of relay that is over current or distance or over volta'e or reactance relay. T P A3). O A.E)cos(e!o) O A

ISO!ATOR
)solator (disconnectin' switch) operates under no load condition. )t does not have any specified current brea&in' capacity or current ma&in' capacity. )solator is not even used for brea&in' load currents. )solators are used in addition to circuit brea&ers and are provided on each side of every circuit brea&er to provide isolation and enable maintenance. )solators used in power systems are 'enerally three!pole isolators. The three!pole isolator has three identical poles6 each pole consists of two or three insulators post mounted on a fabricated support. The conductin' parts are supported on the insulated post. The operation of three poles is obtained by mechanical interloc&in' of the three poles. Further there is a common operatin' mechanism. The operatin' mechanism is manual plus one of the followin'? 3. -lectrical otor echanism .. 7neumatic echanism.

Ty8es o9 Iso<ato2s1 3. Eertical 1rea& type. .. #ori+ontal 1rea& type. ;. Eertical 7ant Braph Type. The vertical pant 'raph desi'n is used for rated volta'es of 8.5&E and above. The other type of desi'n is used from 3. to 8.5&E. )n N.F.C. electrical substation we use hori+ontal brea& type. This type of construction has three insulator stac&s per pole. The two on each side are lined and one at the centre is rotatin' type. The central insulator type can swin' about its vertical axis throu'h about 95X. The lined contacts are provided on the top of each of the insulator stac&s on the side. The contact bar is lined hori+ontally on the central insulator in closed position6 the contact connects the two lined contacts. <hile openin', the central stac& rotates throu'h 95X and the contact shaft swin's hori+ontally 'ivin' double brea&.

8D

CURRENT TRANSFOR'ER
)nstrument transformers used in con%unction with ammeters, over current relays etc. C.T.(s step down current from hi'h value to a low value. Their current ratio is substantially constant for 'iven ran'e of primary current and phase an'le error is within specified limits. =ated 7rimary Current? The value of primary current on which the performance of the current is specified by manufacturer. =ated short time current? )t is defined as = S value of "C components which the CT can carry for rated time without dama'in' the thermal stresses. =ated secondary current? The value of secondary current mar&ed on the ratin' plate. =ated transformation ratio? The ratio of rated primary current to rated secondary current. CTGs 9o2 O5e2 Cu22ent P;ase Fau<t P2ote6t3on1 <hile selectin' CT(s for over current phase fault protection by )/ T relays it should be ensured that CT(s are so selected that they do not saturate up to at lease .5 times current settin' relay. This is achieved by selectin' CT on low burden and by selectin' CT ratio of approximate hi'h value. #i'h ratio CT will have hi'h rated primary current and would saturate at hi'her values of short circuit current. CTGs 9o2 D3stan6e P2ote6t3on1 The current coil of distance relay is connected to CT. #ere also the saturation of CT due to fault current relay is considerably increased. The transient saturation factor of the source should be considered. CTGs 9o2 D32e6t3ona< Re<ay1 7hase an'le errors are particularly important for CT(s used for directional relays. The CT(s should not saturate for maximum throu'h fault current. Ty8es o9 CTGs1 /ependin' on the construction they are classified into two types =in' Type or <indow Type CT. Core Type CT. )n NFC we use rin' type CT with primary as conductor and secondary windin' conductor wound on the tape core by means of hand windin' or toroidal windin' machine.

O!TA"E TRANSFOR'ER
Eolta'e Transformer is used for measurement and protection. "ccordin'ly, they are either measurin' type or protection type volta'e transformers. ET(s are necessary for volta'e, directional, distance protection. " primary of ET is connected to power

8:

circuit between phase and 'round. The Eolt "mpere ratin' of ET(s is smaller as that of 7T. S8e63936at3ons o9 TGs1 3. Rated P237a2y o<tage1 The primary volta'e mar&ed on the ratin' plate of the ET. The method of connection of primary ET to system and system volta'e should be considered while selectin' the ET of correct primary volta'e ratin'. .. Rated T2ans9o27e2 Rat3o1 The ratio of rated primary volta'e to rated secondary volta'e. ;. Rated Se6onda2y ratin' plate. o<tage1 )t is the value of secondary volta'e mar&ed on the

8. Res3dua< o<tage1 Eector sum of two lines to earth. 4. Res3dua< T1 The three phase ET or a 'roup of three sin'le phase residual connected. ET(s in which residual volta'e appears across secondary terminals when three phase volta'es are applied to primary windin'. D. Rat3o E22o21 7ercentile ratio error sometimes called percenta'e volta'e error. Ty8es o9 6onst2u6t3on o9 TGs 3. -lectroma'netic volta'e transformer. .. Capacitor volta'e Transformer.

SUR"E ARRESTERS /!I".TIN" ARRESTERS0

Sur'e arresters are usually connected between phase and 'round in distribution system6 near the terminals of the lar'e medium volta'e rotatin' machines and in #E, -#E, #E/C substations to protect the apparatus insulation from li'htnin' sur'es and switchin' sur'es. The sur'e arresters do not create short circuits li&e rod 'aps and retains the residual volta'e across its terminals. Sur'e arresters dischar'es current impulse sur'e to earth and dissipate ener'y in the form of heat. "fter dischar'in' the impulse wave to earth, the resistor bloc& in the sur'e arrester offer a very hi'h resistance to the normal power fre*uency volta'e and the arrester acts as open circuit. Sur'e arresters are not a'ainst temporary power fre*uency over volta'es. They provide protection a'ainst sur'e volta'e waves. T;e2e a2e t:o ty8es o9 Su2ge A22este2s1 3. Bappin' Silicon Carbide Sur'e "rresters .. @inc $xide Bapless "rresters. 8F

P2ote6t35e de536es aga3nst !3g;t3ng Su2ges1 De536e W;e2e a88<3ed Re7a2=s =od Baps "cross insulator strin', /ifficult to coordinate. bushin' insulator, support Flash hour volta'e varies by insulator. [;5>. Create dead short circuit, cheap. $ver #ead Bround <ires "bove overhead lines, 7rovide effective protection above the substation area. a'ainst direct stro&es on line conductor towers, substation e*uipment. Eertical asts )n Sub Stations )nstead of providin' overhead shieldin' wires. 2i'htin' Spi&esG=ods "bove tall buildin's 7rotect buildin's a'ainst direct stro&es. "n'le of protection ;5 to 85X 2i'htenin' "rresters $n incomin' lines in each /ivert over!volta'e to earth substation near terminals of without causin' short transformers and circuits. ,sed to every 'enerators. 7ole mounted volta'e level in every on distributed line. substation and for each line. 7hase to 'round. Sur'e "bsorbers Near rotatin' machines or =esistance capacitance switch'ear, across series combination absorbs the reactors, valves. over volta'e sur'e and reduce steepness of wave.

NEUTRA! "ROUNDIN"
The neutral 'roundin' is an important aspect of power system desi'n because the performance of the system in terms of the short circuits, stability, protection etc., is 'reatly affected by the state of the neutral. )n most of the modern hi'h volta'e systems the neutral of the system is solidly 'rounded. Benerally the neutral of the 'enerator is connected throu'h the resistance to limit the stator short circuit current and also for stability reasons. The advanta'es of neutral 'roundin' are 3. Eolta'es of he phases are limited to phase to 'round volta'es. .. The hi'h volta'es due to arcin' 'rounds or transient line to 'round faults are eliminated. ;. Sensitive protection relays a'ainst line to 'round faults can be used. 8. The over volta'es due to li'htenin' are dischar'ed to 'round6 otherwise there will be positive reflection at the isolated neutral of the system. 'et;ods o9 Neut2a< "2ound3ng 89

3. So<3d "2ound3ng o2 E99e6t35e "2ound1 Consider 2!B fault on phase!C. the neutral and terminal are at earth potential. The volta'e of the healthy phase remains unchan'ed i.e., phase to 'round. The char'in' current will be fully eliminated. Since in this system of 'roundin' the volta'e of the healthy phases in case of a line the 'round fault does not exceed F5> of the 2!2 and is much less as compared to other forms of 'roundin', the e*uipment for all volta'e classes are less expensive. .. Res3stan6e "2ound3ng1 The value of resistance commonly used is *uite hi'h as compared with the system reactance. <ith the increase of operatin' volta'e the value of resistance re*uired for 'roundin' also increases so as to limit the short circuit current durin' line to 'round faults. =esistance 'roundin' is normally used where the char'in' current is small i.e., for low volta'e short len'th over head lines. =esistance 'roundin' reduces the arcin' 'round ha+ards and it permits ready relayin' of 'round faults. ;. Rea6tan6e "2ounded Syste71 " reactance 'rounded system is one in which the neutral is 'rounded throu'h impedance which is hi'hly reactive. For reactance 'roundin' IoGI3Q;. For solid 'roundin' IoGI3\;. =eactance 'roundin' lies between effective 'roundin' and resonant 'roundin'. This method of 'roundin' may be used for 'roundin' the neutral of synchronous motors and capacitors and also for circuits havin' lar'e char'in' current. 8. Ea2t;3ng T2ans9o27e2s1 These transformers do not have secondary windin'. -ach limb of transformer has two identical windin's wound differently such that under normal conditions the total flux in each limb is ne'li'ibly small and therefore the transformer draws very little ma'neti+in' current. These are of short time ratin', usually of 35sec to 3min and small in si+e as compared to the power transformers of the same ratin'. $f a +i'+a' transformer is not available a star!delta transformer can be used without loadin' the delta side.

I'PRO E'ENTS IN POWER DISTRIBUTION

ENER"% 'ANA"E'ENT S%STE'1
)ndustrial ener'y mana'ement systems are &ey factors in ener'y cost conservation. "mon' their relevant technical functions are monitorin', and, even more important, load forecastin' and load sheddin'. This chapter introduces ener'y mana'ement systems, which focus on technical functions that support ener'y conservation or ener'y cost conservation. )ndustrial ener'y mana'ement )ndustrial ener'y mana'ement supports your efforts toward ener'y cost conservation. )ndustrial ener'y mana'ement provides you with the followin' services? )nte'rated data ac*uisition for diverse forms of ener'y or resources (i.e. electrical ener'y, fuel, pressuri+ed air, water, heat, cold.

45

$peration and monitorin' of your ener'y distribution system(s). -valuation and further processin' of data by advanced technolo'ical functions (analysis, mana'ement, documentation, archivin', forecastin'). The &ey components for ener'y cost conservation are? onitorin' and reports 2oad sheddin' 2oad forecastin'

Typical Components of -ner'y

ana'ement System are shown in Fi'ure?

'on3to23ng and Re8o2t? The monitorin' and report services of an ener'y mana'ement system provide you with a better insi'ht into our company(s ener'y flow. 2oad data recorded can be displayed in a clear layout which reveals ma%or consumers, ma&in' it clear where to optimi+e first. onitorin' and reports also reveal at what times there were particularly hi'h loads. "n analysis of these hi'h!load events can show which situations typically cause load pea&s. From here strate'ies can be developed to avoid such critical situations. !oad S;edd3ng? 2oad measurements are 'enerally ta&en as mean values over a short period of time. i.e., for 34 minute interval. )f you wish to &eep the demand below a certain threshold, it is important to determine the amount of ener'y you will have consumed at the end of the

43

current interval as soon as possible. This amounts to a very short!term forecast. See Fi'ure ..; for illustration?

)n the example, .G; of the current interval has elapsed and an estimate of the ener'y that will be used can be made (blue line). The fi'ure su''ests a linear extrapolation but forecastin' al'orithms can be even more subtle. The result of the forecast reveals that the maximum avera'e power will be exceeded, thus raisin' the overall pea& load of the year thereby si'nificantly increasin' your electricity bill. Somethin' should be done but there are only five minutes left to cut down on the power demand and brin' the curve below the 'reen line. This means that some consumers must be throttled down or turned off at short notice. Such drastic action should not be implemented spontaneously. )t must be thou'ht!out well ahead of time. 2oad sheddin' modules in an ener'y mana'ement system offer the possibility of specifyin' a ]turn!off strate'y] which states precisely which consumers may be turned off at all and in which order. The possibilities for applyin' load sheddin' are limited to those parts of the production process, where it is clear, that these can be temporarily postponed without influencin' overall production 'oals, e.'. a cold stora'e house.

Indust23a< <oad 9o2e6ast3ng1 2oad forecastin' 'ives you a preview of your company(s load curve, it stores &nowled'e about the production processes( behavior in typical production situations from several hours to several days ahead (see Fi'ure ..8). <hen a plant is 'iven a production schedule, production is initiated usin' ener'y accordin' a characteristic pattern which is metered as a load curve. The combination of the production schedule and the resultin' load curve is stored in the load curve database. =elevant production parameters include? The ]recipe] for products bein' manufactured, i.e. the *uantity and the *uality of the product. The forecastin' component only needs to consider which recipe parameters will si'nificantly influence the load profile of the production process. <eather information, mainly the temperature but fre*uently wind and irradiation data as well. 4.

Calendar information, e.'. determinin' whether a day is a wor&in' day or a holiday.

<hen enou'h information is available, the forecastin' system can be'in ma&in' load forecasts. The forecastin' system must be supplied with the future production schedule. 1ased on experience of the load curve database, the forecastin' system selects those load curves which were produced for similar recipes. The load curves selected are combined and the combined curve is then delivered as a forecast. 2oad forecastin' may be done in one of the modes ]assistance], ]semiautomatic] or ]fully automatic]. )n assistance mode the forecastin' system will alert the person in char'e of production plannin' of the load curve for the near future. The production planner himself decides which modifications, if any, will be made. )n semi-automatic mode optimal modifications for the production schedule are su''ested by an additional optimi+er component. The production planner decides whether to accept, re%ect or modify the optimi+er(s su''estion. )n fully automatic mode if the company mana'ement has developed a hi'h level of confidence in the forecasts the optimi+ation of the production schedule will be automatic. The responsible person will merely have a supervisory role.

4;

-ner'y mana'ement has tools which help you to detect and avoid load pea&s? monitorin', load sheddin' and load forecastin'. onitorin' 'ives you an overview of your ener'y consumption. )f your company has a few outstandin' load pea&s and that the year(s top pea& load could be si'nificantly reduced by avoidin' a few critical situations. 2oad sheddin' is desi'ned to avoid load pea&s by temporarily turnin' off consumers and thus postponin' ener'y consumption. The load curve is smoothed and the level of demand cost is lowered. 2oad forecastin' warns you of load pea&s several hours or even days ahead. This is enou'h lead time to consider whether and how the production schedule should be altered to avert the situation.

DR% T%PE TRANSFOR'ERS1

Cast!resin /ry!type distribution and power transformers in ratin's from 355 to more than .5 555 &E" and 2) values up to 3:5 &E are full substitutes for oil!immersed transformers with comparable electrical and mechanical data. They only ma&e use of flame!retardant inor'anic insulatin' materials which free these transformers from all restrictions that apply to oil!filled electrical e*uipment, such as oil!collectin' pits, fire walls, fire extin'uishin' e*uipment, etc. /ry Type Transformers are installed wherever oil!filled units cannot be used? inside buildin's, in tunnels, on ships, cranes and offshore platforms, in 'round!water catchments areas, in food processin' plants, etc. They have similar noise levels to comparable oil!filled transformers. Ta&in' the above indirect cost reductions into account, they are also fre*uently cost!competitive. 1y virtue of their desi'n, these transformers are completely maintenance!free for their lifetime.

48

. :3nd3ng1 The hi'h!volta'e windin's are wound from aluminum foil(thermal expansion coefficients of aluminum and cast resin are so similar that thermal stresses resultin' from load chan'es are &ept to a minimum), interleaved with hi'h 'rade polypropylene insulatin' foil. The assembled and connected individual coils are placed in a heated mold, and are potted in a vacuum furnace with a mixture of pure silica (*uart+ sand) and specially blended epoxy resins. The only connections to the outside are copper bushin's, which are internally bonded to the aluminum windin' connections. )n a conventional round!wire windin', the interturn volta'e can add up to twice the interlayer volta'e, while in a foil windin' it never exceeds the volta'e per turn because a layer consists of only one windin' turn. =esult? a hi'h "C volta'e and impulse!volta'e withstand capacity.

44

High-voltage encapsulated winding design of cast-resin transformer

! :3nd3ng1 The standard low!volta'e windin' with its considerably reduced dielectric stresses is wound from sin'le aluminum sheets with interleaved cast!resin impre'nated fiber'lass fabric. The assembled coils are then oven!cured to form uniformly bonded solid cylinders that are impervious to moisture. Throu'h the sin'le!sheet windin' desi'n, excellent dynamic stability under short!circuit conditions is achieved. Connections are submer'ed!arc!welded to the aluminum sheets and are extended either as aluminum or copper busbars to the secondary terminals.

A'ORP.OUS TRANSFOR'ERS1
"s a use for pole transformer, amorphous transformer had been adopted since 3993 in order to reduce loss of electric power distribution. #owever it has become well &nown after ]Super amorphous transformer] produced by #itachi 2td., "morphous transformer uses amorphous alloy in the core. "t the time, it was &nown that transformer was already!matured e*uipment as even an old model had an efficiency of more than 9:>. #owever, with the launch of amorphous transformer, it went to ]super hi'h! efficiency (over 99.4>) era] leadin' the world. No><oad <ossH !oad <oss /Ty836a< eFa78<e o9 3>8;aseH 5++= A and 5+.A0 Type No!load loss(<) 2oad loss(<)

4D

"morphous transformer

.84

.,F55 ;,334 4,935 D,835

Silicon steel plate transformer (Super hi'h!efficiency 894 type) Silicon steel plate transformer (Standard low!loss 3,335 type) Silicon steel plate transformer (.4 years a'o) .,;:5

POWER FACTOR CORRECTION1

"s technolo'y advances, electric power usa'e is movin' from simple, non!electronic loads (tun'sten lamps, motors, relays, resistive heaters, etc.) to electronic ones (fluorescent lamps with ener'y!efficient ballasts, motors with solid!state drivers, personal computers and home appliances) with more electronics in them. The electric current drawn by these new devices is typically different from that of the predecessors, and causes problems in overall capacity of the electric utilities. odern power supplies are amon' the devices that have a characteristic of distorted input current. ^uite different from resistive heaters, toasters and tun'sten li'ht bulbs, typical switched!mode power supplies such as those in computers draw input current in short pulses rather than in smooth sine waves. )n order to deliver the same amount of power in short pulses, the current pea&s are much hi'her. This puts more stress on the wirin' in the

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industry, the circuit brea&ers, and even the 'eneration and distribution e*uipment provided by the electric utilities. To minimi+e these stresses and maximi+e the power handlin' capabilities of a switched! mode power supply, circuitry can be added to improve the shape of the input current. 1y definition, the input power factor is the real power divided by the apparent power (volts rms x amperes rms). The power factor will be unity (3.55) when the input current wave shape matches the input volta'e wave shape. )t also follows that the input current harmonics will be +ero, since all of the power is concentrated in the fundamental fre*uency component. <ithout power factor correction (7FC) circuitry, typical switched! mode power supplies have power factors of approximately 5.D, and have considerable odd!order harmonic distortion (third harmonic often as lar'e as the fundamental, with hi'her order harmonics decreasin' as their fre*uency increases). <ith power factor correction, today(s switched! mode power supplies can approach the ideal case, with power factors of 5.99 and harmonics well below 4>. Po:e2 Fa6to2 Co22e6t3on > !o: Po:e2 Un3ts For low power products, the power factor of the power supply is not as important as in the hi'h power applications. This is because the power drawn by the product comprises a small portion of the power on a branch circuit of a facility. " 3.5 watt product with a power factor of only 5.D will draw 3.D amperes, in contrast to a power factor corrected unit which would draw 3.5 ampere. This difference of 5.D ampere is not si'nificant compared to the .5!ampere capacity of the source. Po:e2 Fa6to2 Co22e6t3on > .3g; Po:e2 Un3ts 7ower factor correction is important at hi'her power levels, as the product(s input current approaches the maximum available from the mains. For example, a product with an input power of 3555 watts would draw 35 amperes from a 355 volt ac source, assumin' its power factor is unity (3.5). )f the power factor is 5.D, then the input current would be 3D.: amperes (35 amperes _ 5.D). )t is universally accepted that a 'iven product should not draw more than F5> of the available current, which means that even a .5!ampere mains service would provide 3D amperes, which is less than the 3D.: amperes in the example above. In8ut .a27on36 Redu6t3on1 "lthou'h there are no re'ulations that specifically re'ulate the power factor of products, there are international re'ulations that limit the input harmonic content. )t establishes limits on harmonics of the ac input current up to the 85th harmonic (.&#+). 2imits are based on the input power, the type of product, and the specific harmonic. "s stated earlier, low input harmonics are accomplished by ma&in' the input current a sine wave. Note? a product with a sinusoidal input current can still result in low power factor if the current is not in phase with the volta'e. Bene93ts o9 Po:e2 Fa6to2 Co22e6t3on1 4F

3. =eleased System Capacity? )mprovement in power factor will reduce the current drawn by the system. So, reduced conductor si+e will wor& for the same load operatin' on it. This is illustrated in the fi'.

.. =educed 7ower 2osses? "s current flows throu'h the conductor, the conductor heats up. This is power loss in the conductor. 7ower loss is proportional to current s*uared J7 (loss) P ) `=K. Conductor loss can account for as much as .!4> of total load. Capacitors can reduce losses by 3!.> of the total load.

;. Eolta'e )mprovement? <hen capacitors are added, volta'e will increase. This volta'e rise will be typically of little percenta'e. Not a si'nificant economic or system benefit. Severe over!power factor correction (7.F.Q3) will cause a volta'e rise that can dama'e insulation L e*uipment6 or result in utility surchar'es. ,sually this is caused by lar'e fixed capacitors at mains

POWER S%STE' .AR'ONICS

The &nowled'e of harmonics has been around for a lon' time. )n fact, musicians have been aware of such since the invention of the first strin' or woodwind instrument. #armonics (called MovertonesN in music) are responsible for what ma&es a trumpet sound li&e a trumpet, and a clarinet li&e a clarinet. )t can be shown that any complex waveform, whether it is produced by a musical instrument or a power system, can be bro&en up into harmonic components. The typical definition for a harmonic is Ma sinusoidal component of a periodic wave or *uantity havin' a fre*uency that is an inte'ral multiple of the fundamental fre*uencyN. Some references refer to McleanN or MpureN power as those waveforms without any harmonics. Today, such clean waveforms typically only exist in a laboratory. The harmonic fre*uencies are inte'er multiples J., ;, 8 ...K of the fundamental fre*uency. For example, the .nd harmonic on a D5 #+ system is .VD5 or 3.5 #+. "t

49

45#+, the second harmonic is .V 45 or 355#+. ;55#+ is the 4th harmonic in a D5 #+ system or the Dth harmonic in a 45 #+ system. Fi'ure 4 shows how a si'nal with dominant 4th and :th harmonics would appear on an oscilloscope!type display, which some power *uality analy+ers provide. Fre*uencies that are not inte'er multiples of the fundamental fre*uency are called MinterharmonicsN. There is also a special cate'ory of interharmonics, which are fre*uency values less than the fundamental fre*uency, called subharmonics. The presence of sub!harmonics is often observed by the li'htin' flic&er. $ne other parameter to be aware of is the phase an'le of the harmonic relative to the fundamental. )n the fi'ure, a third harmonic with an amplitude of ;;> of the fundamental is combined with the fundamental. )n the left hand picture, the fundamental and the third harmonic are in phase. )n the ri'ht hand picture, they are 3F5 de'rees out!of!phase with each other. $bviously, the resultin' waveform loo&s *uite different.

CAUSES OF .AR'ONICS The amount of volta'e harmonics will often depend on the amount of harmonic currents bein' drawn by the load, and the source impedance, which includes all of the wirin' and transformers bac& to the source of the electricity. $hm(s 2aw says that Eolta'e e*uals Current multiplied by )mpedance. This is true for harmonic values as well. )f the source harmonic impedance is very low (often referred to as a MstiffN system) then the harmonic currents will result in lower harmonic volta'es than if the source impedance were hi'h (such as found with some types of isolation transformers). The impedance of an inductive device 'oes up as the fre*uency 'oes up, while the impedance 'oes down for capacitive devices for hi'her harmonics. The main sources of harmonic current are at present the phase an'le controlled rectifiers and inverters. These are often called static power converters. These devices ta&e "C power and convert it to /C, then sometimes bac& to "C power at the same or different fre*uency based on the firin' scheme. The firin' scheme refers to the controllin' mechanism that determines how and when current is conducted. $ne ma%or variation is the phase an'le at which conduction be'ins and ends. 7ower converters come in different si+es. 2ow power, "C volta'e re'ulators for li'ht dimmers and small induction motors ad%ust the phase an'le or point on the wave

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where conduction occurs. edium power converters are used for motor control in manufacturin' and railroad applications, and include such e*uipment as "S/s (ad%ustable speed drives) and EF/s (variable fre*uency drives). etal reduction operations, li&e electric arc furnaces, and hi'h volta'e /C transmission employ lar'e power converters, in the .!.5 E" ratin'. ost electrical loads (except half!wave rectifiers) produce symmetrical current waveforms, which means that the positive half of the waveform loo&s li&e a mirror ima'e of the ne'ative half. This results in only odd harmonic values bein' present. -ven harmonics will disrupt this half!wave symmetry. EFFECTS OF .AR'ONICS The presence of harmonics does not mean that the factory or office cannot run properly. 2i&e other power *uality phenomena, it depends on the MstiffnessN of the power distribution system and the susceptability of the e*uipment when operatin' in the presence of the harmonics. $ne factory may be the source of hi'h harmonics but be able to operate properly. This harmonic pollution is often carried bac& onto the electric utility distribution system, and may effect nei'hborin' facilities on the same system which are more susceptible. There are a number of different types of e*uipment that may experience misoperations or failures due to hi'h harmonic volta'e andGor current levels? -xcessive neutral current, resultin' in overheated neutrals. The currents of triplen harmonics, especially the odd harmonics, (;rd, 9th, 34th...) are actually additive in the neutral of three phase wye circuits. This is because the harmonic number multiplied by the 3.5 de'ree phase shift between the three phases is a inte'er multiple of ;D5 de'rees, or one complete cycle. This puts the harmonics from each of the three phase conductors MinphaseN with each other in the neutral, as shown in Fi'ure.

)ncorrect readin' meters, includin' induction disc!type <!hr meters and avera'in' type current meters.

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=educed true 7F, where 7FP<attsGE". $verheated transformers, especially delta windin's where triplen harmonics 'enerated on the load side of a delta!wye transformer will circulate in the primary side. Some type of losses 'o up as the s*uare of harmonic value (such as s&in effect and eddy current losses). This is also true for solenoid coils and li'htin' ballasts. 7ositive, ne'ative, and +ero se*uence volta'es on motors and 'enerators. These are volta'es at a particular fre*uency that try to rotate the motor forward, bac&ward, or neither (%ust heats up the motor), respectively. "s shown in Table, the volta'e of a particular fre*uency in a balanced system harmonics can have either a positive (fundamental, 8th, :th,...), ne'ative (.nd, 4th, Fth...) or +ero (;rd, Dth, 9th,...) se*uencin' value.

Nuisance operation of protective devices, includin' false trippin' of relays and failure of a ,7S to transfer properly, especially if the controls incorporate +ero!crossin' sensin' circuits. 1earin' failure from shaft currents throu'h uninsulated bearin's of electric motors. 1lown!fuses on 7F correction caps, due to hi'h volta'e and currents from resonance with line impedance. is!operation or failure of electronic e*uipment.

2i'ht flic&er results when there are volta'e subharmonics in the ran'e of 3!;5#+. The human eye is most sensitive at F.F#+, where %ust a 5.4> variation in the = S volta'e is noticeable with some types of li'htin'. WA%S TO 'INI'I(E .AR'ONICS Care should be underta&en to ma&e sure that the corrective action ta&en to minimi+e the harmonic problems don(t actually ma&e the system worse. This can happen as the result of resonance between harmonic filters, 7F correctin' capacitors and the system impedance. Some methods to minimi+e the harmonic problems include? )solatin' harmonic pollution devices on separate circuits with or without the use of harmonic filters.

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 2oads can be relocated to try to balance the system better. 7hase shifted transformers, such as M+i'!+a' transformersN, can be used to cancel out specific harmonics by ma&in' one volta'e circuit 3F5 de'rees out!of!phase from another. Neutral conductors should be properly si+ed accordin' to the latest N-C!399D re*uirements coverin' such. <here as the neutral may have been undersi+ed in the past, it may now be necessary to run a second neutral wire that is the same si+e as the phase conductors. This is particularly important with some modular office partition! type walls, which can exhibit hi'h impedance values. The operatin' limits of transformers and motors should be derated, in accordance with industry standards from )---, "NS) and N- " on such. ,se of hi'her pulse converters, such as .8!pulse rectifiers, can eliminate lower harmonic values, but at the expense of creatin' hi'her harmonic values.

INTRODUCTION TO S.ORT CIRCUIT STUDIES

The fast 'rowin' demand for the electrical power ma&es a power system more complicated. The volta'e and power ratin' of the e*uipment used in the power systems are continuously increasin'. The maximum transmission volta'e level presently is 855&E and it may 'o beyond that level in the future. ,nder such predictions, the reliability of the individual e*uipment, as well as the system, assume 'reater importance, as an unexpected outa'e of an e*uipment (i.e., transformer, or a 'enerator, or any switch 'ear apparatus) not demand hi'her repair char'es to be incurred, but also affects system reliability seriously. oreover this leads to the loss in the power transmission durin' distribution. )t is imperative that a proper understandin' of the system is always re*uired to ensure its reliability for havin' practical measurements, which are very useful6 there exists a need for special and accurate measurin' systems, these at times pose practical problems. To overcome these problems, many theoretical tools were made available by which a power system can be simulated and studied. oreover these tools are also useful in the power system fault analysis. This pro%ect covers symmetrical faults, and method of symmetrical components and use of a di'ital computer in fault calculations. The circuit brea&ers should be capable of brea&in' and ma&in' the currents as per their ratin's. #ence for proper section of circuit brea&ers and other switchin'Gswitch'ear D;

components, &nowled'e of current durin' normal and abnormal conditions (at various respective locations) is necessary. The desi'n of machines, busbars, isolators, circuit brea&ers, etc is based on considerations of normal and short circuit currents. Fault studies are also necessary for system desi'n, stability considerations, selection of layout, etc. )n fault calculations, many assumptions are made for simplifyin' the calculations e.'. 3. =esistances are ne'lectin' when their value is ne'li'ible as compared with the resistance. .. Capacitance is ne'lected. ;. Saturation effect is ne'lected. 8. achine reactance is assumed to be constant. 4. Benerated volta'es are assumed to be constant. D. Contribution of shunt capacitor ban&s is usually ne'lected. Short circuit calculations provide currents and volta'es on a power durin' fault conditions. This information is re*uired to desi'n and ade*uate protective relays system and to determine interruptin' re*uirement for circuit brea&ers at each switchin' system location. =elayin' systems must reco'ni+e the existence of a fault and initiate circuit brea&er operation to disconnect faulted facilities. This action is re*uired to assure disruption if electrical service and to limit dama'e in the faulted e*uipment. Short circuit studied? Short circuit study of a 'iven power system networ& involves the followin' steps? 3. athematical modelin' of a power system networ&. .. 7reparation of input data. ;. Formulation on bus impedance matrix.

CONC!USION
7ower distribution in NFC are studied and observed the followin'. 3. 7ower supply obtained from 'rid for all production plants. .. -mer'ency power is arran'ed by diesel 'enerator sets in various plants for critical loads in that plant. ;. Two number of ..4 E" /.B sets cater to power re*uirements of critical plants durin' power failure 'rid. 8. -*uipments re*uired for power distribution networ& in any industry are Transformer Circuit brea&er 7rotective relay CablesGtransmission lines 1attery ban&s

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Capacitor ban&s Selection of the above e*uipment is done based on the load distribution critically, etc., 4. Earious methods of improvin' the power distribution *uality, methods such as -ner'y ana'ement System /ry Type Transformer "morphous core Type Transformer 7ower Factor Control =eduction of harmonics

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"77-N/)I!)

RATIN"S OF E)UIP'ENTS
Rat3ng o9 STN T2ans9o27e2s /O99 !oad Ta8 C;ang3ng0 &E" Eolts on #E Eolts on 2E "mps on #E "mps on 2E )mpedance Eolta'e Fre*uency a 45#+ 3F5 33&E 834E F" ..D.D" 8.4>

Ty8e o9 6oo<3ng I O3< A32 Natu2a< Eector Broup <ei'ht of $il Total <ei'ht Eolume of $il /H33 .:5&'s 945&'s ;55lts

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O99 C326u3t Ta8 C;ange21 Switch 7osition 3. .. ;. 8. 4. Connection 4aD Da8 8a: :a; ;aF #E 33445 33.:4 33555 35:.4 35845 2E 834 834 834 834 834

13#C33C11= T2ans9o27e2 Rat3ng Type of Coolin' =ated E" #E 2E3 2E. =ated AE #E 2E3 2E. 2ine "mps #E 2E3 2E. No. of phases Temp. =ise in XC $il "v'. <d' $N"N .5 35 35 3;. ;; 33 F:.4 3:4 4.8.9 ; 45 44 $N"F ;3.4 34.:4 34.:4 3;. ;; 33 3;:.F .:4.D F.D.: ; 45 44

A32 C326u3t B2ea=e2 Rat3ngs

Eolta'e Current otor =atin' Control circuit volt =atin' of motor 7hase #eater Eolta'e 3;.&E F55" 5.4#7 335E /C 834E ; .;5E

Rat3ng o9 O3< C326u3t B2ea=e2

$ut'oin' of Circuit 1rea&er Current 855" Eolta'e 33555E 1rea&in' Capacity 3;.3&" a&in' Capacity ;;.8&"

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Capacity )ncomin' $il Circuit Current Eolta'e 1rea&in' Capacity a&in' Capacity Capacity

.45NE", 34 S*. Cms, ; core. D55" 33555E 3;.3&" ;;.8&" .45NE", .V;V.85 S*.cms

Rat3ngs o9 '3n37u7 O3< C326u3t B2ea=e2

Service Eolta'e Normal Current Capacity Fre*uency D.DAE .555" .45 E" 45 #+

SPECIA! E)IP'ENT AT NFC

F<a7e P2oo9 'oto2? NFC is )ndustry where so many chemical processes are ta&in' place. "t some places that is in load centers different chemical products are produced, li&e Tri!butane 7hosphate (T17), Aerosene, which are inflammable. So we need to ta&e more care. So the motors in these plants have a different construction than other motors. These motors do not allow any spar&or heat on the armature to 'et outside into the environment. For the construction of this motor they use thic& cast iron for its castin' and different screws, so these motors are called flame proof motors. '362o P2o6esso2 Based Re<ays? These are advanced type of relays which include the features as Combined over current and earth fault relay <e can choose our desired characteristics of the relay it may )/ T, inverse time, instantaneous etc. -nhanced system reliability and availability due to continuous hardware and software self supervision with auto dia'nosis.

DF

7owerful hardware support for settin' and parameterin' of the relay and for recordin' of relay parameters with a portable /C. 1uilt in brea& failure protection function Numerical display of settin' values, measured values, memori+ed fault values, fault codes etc. -xtensive data communication capabilities over built!in serial port.

D3g3ta< 'ete2s1 )t is measurin' instrument used which measures current, volta'e, phase an'le, fre*uency, etc., and it operates electrically. )t facilitates the distribution system by reducin' wei'ht, inertia, maintenance, etc.

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"77-N/)I!))

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