Cells & Primary

y Tissues
Levels of Structural Organization of the Human Body

The Cellular Level of Organization

g
• Parts of a Cell & Functions
• Plasma Membrane – Transport Mechanisms
• Cytoplasm – Cytosol & Organelles
• Nucleus
N l

The Tissue Level of Organization

• Types of Tissues
• Epithelial Tissue – Types & Distributions
• Cell Junctions
• Types of Glands
• Connective Tissues - Types & Distributions
• Skin as an organ made of different tissues
LIANG Fengyi
Dept of Anatomy

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Levels of Structural Organization of the Human Body

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 Label the different parts of this cell
The Cellular Level of Organization
Plasma
Parts of a Cell membrane

Plasma Membrane Cytoplasm

– Cell’s outer surface
– Separating internal & Nucleus
external environments
– Regulate flow of
materials into & out –
Selective barriers
– Key role in
communication
Cytoplasm
– Cytosol – fluid portion
– Organelles
Nucleus
– Large organelle that
houses most of a
cell’s DNA
– Chromosomes -
genes

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Red and white blood cells

Smooth muscle cells

Human Sperm

Cells: diverse morphological features

Two categories of cells: prokaryotes & eukaryotes. Here we talk about eukaryotes only

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Plasma Membrane

Fluid Mosaic Model

- molecular arrangements resembles an ever-moving sea of fluid lipids that contains
a mosaic of many different proteins

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Plasma Membrane
Lipid Bilayer
• 2 back-to-back
back to back layers
• 3 types of lipid molecules – phospholipids**, cholesterol & glycolipids
• Ampiphatic molecules (both polar & nonpolar parts)
Membrane Proteins
• Integral – transmembrane proteins
• Peripheral
Glycocalyx
• carbohydrate
y portions
p of g
glycoproteins
y p &g
glycolipids
y p form an extensive
sugary coat
• composition acts like a molecular “signature” - enables cells to recognize
one another
• enables cells to adhere to one another.
Functions
• The plasma membrane protects & maintains the intracellular environment.
• Semipermeability of the membrane allows certain substances to pass
through,
g but not others.
• Molecules on the membrane may also serve as emzymes, markers, linkers,
receptors or transporters (see next slide).

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Functions of Membrane Proteins

IIon channels
h l ffor
Na , K , Ca2+ etc
+ + Enzymes

Transporter, e
Transporter e.g.,
g Cell
for amino acids markers

Receptors, e.g.,
for hormones & Cell
neurotransmitters linkers

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Cytoplasm
Cytosol
y
• Fluid portion
• Water + dissolved & suspended components
• Ions; glucose; amino acids; fatty acids; proteins; lipids; ATP; waste
products
• Organic molecules aggregate into masses for storage
eg lipid droplets; glycogen granules
• Site of many chemical reactions – eg Glycolysis
Organelles
• Specialized structures that have characteristic shapes and perform
specific functions in cellular growth, maintenance & reproduction.
Examples are:
- ribosome
- mitochondrion
- Golgi body
- endoplasmic reticulum
- lysosome

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 Ribosome
• About 20x30 nm in size
• Composed of 2 subunits contaning
ribosomal RNA & proteins
• Free in cytosol or attached to rER
• Sites of protein synthesis

Functions
- Ribosomes
Rib associated
i t d with
ith rER
ER synthesize
th i proteins
t i ffor lysosomes
l / plasma
l
membrane / secretions
- Free ribosomes synthesize proteins for cytoplasm, nucleus & mitochondria

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Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
- Membranous network of flattened sacs /
tubules
- Extend throughout the cytoplams
Functions:
Rough ER ((rERrER))
- Covered by ribosomes
- Connect to the nuclear envelope
- synthesizes glycoproteins &
phospholipids – inserted into plasma
membrane
b or secreted
t ddduring
i
exocytosis
Smooth ER
- Lacks ribosomes
- synthesizes
th i fatty
f tt acids
id & steroids
t id
(eg estrogens);
- inactivates / detoxifies drugs & other
potentially harmful substances;
- removes phosphate group from G G-6-
6
PO for utilizing liver glycogen store;
- store & release Ca++ that triggers
contraction in muscle cells

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 Golgi Complex / Apparatus
• Series of flattened membranous sacs (cisternae)
• Convex
C fforming/entry/cis
i / t / i face,
f medial
di l cisternae
i t & th
the
concave maturing/exit/trans face.
• The opposite faces differ in size, shape, content &
enzymatic activities

Functions:
• modifies,
modifies sorts
sorts, packages & transports proteins received from ER
• Forms secretory vesicles that discharge processed proteins via exocytosis
• Forms membrane vesicles for plama membrane
• Forms transport vesicles that carry molecules to other organelles, eg lysosomes

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Processing & Packaging of Proteins by GA

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 Mitochondria (mitochondrion)
• Consist of:
– outer & inner membranes,
– cristae, matrix & intermembranous space
• Contain own DNA mostly inherited from mother
• A typical liver cell may have 1,700 mitochondria

Function
Generate cellular energy in the form of ATP molecules by the systematic
breakdown of glucose (aerobic cellular respiration).

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 LYSOSOMES

• Vesicles formed from Golgi apparatus

• Contains several types of digestive
enzymes

Functions:
- Digest substances that enter
via endocytosis & transport
final products into cytosol
- Carryy out autophagy
p gy –
digestion of worn-out
organelles
- Carryy out autolysis
y –
digestion of entire cell

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Cytoskeleton
Protein filaments

- Microfilaments: made of actin

- Intermediate filaments (10-20
nm): such as neurofilaments,
GFAP keratins
GFAP, k ti & vimentin
i ti
- Microtubules: made of tubulin.
Form cilia, flagella &
centrosome etc

Functions:
- Serves as a scaffold – helps
determine cell’s shape & to
organize cellular contents
- Aids movement of whole cells &
organelles within the cell

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 NUCLEUS
Consists of:
• nuclear envelope
with pores
• Nucleolus
• Chromosomes or
chromatin
(euchromatin /
heterochromatin).
• Nuclear matrix

• Contains most of the cell’s genes,

which are located on chromosomes

• Functions
– Site of DNA storage & replication
(for cell division).
– Site of DNA control of cellular
structure & activities (e.g.
t
transcription)
i ti )
– Ribosome subunits produced in
nucleolus

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The Tissue Level of Organization

All tissues of the body develop from the 3 Primary

Germ Layers:
Layers Ectoderm, mesoderm & endoderm

Types of Tissues & Their Origins

• Epithelial Tissue - All germ layers
• Connective Tissue - Mesoderm
• Muscle Tissue - Mesoderm
(to be detailed later)
• Nervous Tissue - Ectoderm
(to be detailed later)

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Epithelial Tissue
• Covering body surface & internal organs
organs. Lines vessels &
cavities or specializes into secretary glands.
• Mesothelium provides serous lining of cavities (pericardium,
pleura
l & peritoneum,
it etc).
t )
• Endothelium lines vessels.
• Types
– Simple Squamous Epithelium
– Simple Columnar Epithelium
– Ciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium
– Stratified Squamous Epithelium
– Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
– Transitional Epithelium
– Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
– Glandular Epithelium

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Simple Squamous Epithelium
• Description: Single layer of flat cells with centrally located nucleus
• Location: Lines heart, blood vessels, lymph vessels, air sacs of lungs, glomerular
(Bowman’s) capsule of kidneys, & inner surface of tympanic membrane (eardrum);
forms epithelial layer of serous membranes, such as the peritoneurm.
• Function: Filtration, diffusion, osmosis & secretion of serous membranes

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Simple Columnar Epithelium
• Description: Single layer of nonciliated rectangular cells with nuclei near base of
cells; contains goblet cells and cells with microvilli in some locations.
• Location: Lines the gastrointestinal tract from stomach to anus, ducts of many
glands, & gallbladder.
• Function: Secretion and absorption.

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Ciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium
• Description: Single layer of ciliated rectangular cells with nuclei near base of cells;
contains g
goblet cells in some locations.
• Location: Lines a few portions of uppepr respiratory tract, uterine (Fallopian) tubes,
uterus, some paranasal sinuses, and central canal of spinal cord.
• Function: Moves mucus and other substances by ciliary action.

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Stratified Cuboidal / Columnar Epithelium
• Description: Two or more layers of cells in which cells in the apical layer are cube-
shaped.
• Location:
L i D
Ducts off adult
d l sweat glands
l d & esophageal
h l glands
l d & part off male l urethra.
h
• Function: Protection & limited secretion & absorption.

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Stratified Squamous Epithelium
• Description: Several layers of cells. Cuboidal/columnar in deep layers; squamous
cells form the superficial layers; cells from basal layer replace surface cells as they
are lost.
lost
• Location: Keratinized variety forms superficial layer of skin; nonkeratinized variety
lines wet surfaces, such as lining of mouth, esophagus, part of epiglottis, & vagina,
& covers the tongue.
• Function: Protection.

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Pseudo--stratified Columnar Epithelium
Pseudo
• Description: Not truly stratified; nuclei of cells are at different levels;all cells
attached to basement membrane, but not all reach the surface.
• Location: Lines the airways of most of upper respiratory tract.
• Function: Secretion & movement of mucus by ciliary action.

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Transitional Epithelium
• Description: Appearance variable (transitional); shape of cells in apical layer
ranges from squamous (when stretched) to cuboidal (when relaxed)
relaxed).
• Location: Lines urinary bladder & portions of ureters & urethra.
• Function: Permits distention.

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Glandular Epithelium – Exocrine Gland
• Description: Secretory products release into ducts.
• Location: Sweat,
Sweat oil & earwax glands of skin
skin.
Digestive glands such as salivary glands and
pancreas.
• Function: Produce mucus, sweat, oil, earwax, saliva
or digestive
g enzymes.
y

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Glandular Epithelium – Endocrine Gland
• Description: Secretory products (hormones) diffuse into blood after passing through
interstitial fluid
fluid.
• Location: Examples include pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid adrenal glands,
pancreas, ovaries, testes & thymus.
• Function: Produce hormones that regulate various body activities.

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Cell Junctions
• Contact points between plasma
membranes of tissue cells.
• Most epithelial cells, some
muscle & nerve cells are tightly
j i d into
joined i functional
f i l units.
i

Functions:
1. Forming seals between cells
2 Anchoring
2. A h i cells ll
3. Providing channels that allow
ions / molecules to pass

Types of Cell Junctions:

a. Tight Junction
b. Adherens Junction
c. Desmosome
d Hemidesmosome
d.
e. Gap Junction

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Types of Cell Junctions

(Claudins,
occludin etc)
occludin,

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Types of Cell Junctions: continued

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 Connective Tissues

• It binds together, supports & strengthens other body tissues. Fills empty spaces.
• Consists of 2 Basic Elements:
Elements
• Cells – fibroblasts, macrophages, plasma cells, mast cells, adipocytes & white blood cells
• Matrix – fills up wide spaces between cells
• Consists of protein
protein--based fibers & ground substance (material between cells & fibers)
• Types:
yp
• General - loose or dense
• Specialized - eg. bone, cartilage, blood

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Areolar Connective Tissue
• Description: Consists of fibers (collagen, elastic & reticular) & several kinds of cells
(fibroblasts macrophages
(fibroblasts, macrophages, plasma cells,
cells adipocytes & mast cells) embedded in a
semifluid ground substance.
• Location: Subcutaneous layer deep to skin; papillary (superficial) region of dermis
of skin; lamina propiia of mucous membranes; & around blood vessels, nerves &
body organs.
• Functions: Stretch, elasticity & support.

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Adipose Tissue: a type of connective tissue
• Description: Consists of adipocytes, cells specialized to store triglycerides (fats) as
a large
g centrally
y located droplet;
p nucleus & cytoplasm
y p are p
peripherally
p y located.
• Location: Subcutaneous layer deep to skin; around heart & kidneys, yellow bone
marrow, & padding around joints & behind eyeball in eye socket.
• Function: Reduces heat through skin. Serves as an energy reserve, suports &
protects. Brown adipose tissue in newborns generates considerable heat that helps
maintain
i t i b
body
d ttemperature.
t

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Reticular Connective Tissue
• Description: Consists of a network of interlacing reticular fibers & reticular cells.
• Location:
L ti St
Stroma (supporting
( ti framework)
f k) off liver,
li spleen,
l llymph
h nodes,
d red
dbbone
marrow, reticular lamina of the basement membrane; & around blood vessels &
muscles.
• Function: Forms stroma of organs; binds together smooth muscle tissue cells;
filters & removes worn-out
worn out blood cells in spleen and microbes in lymph nodes

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Dense Connective Tissue
• Description: Matrix looks shiny white; consists mainly of collagen fibers arranged in
bundles; fibroblasts present in rows between bundles
bundles.
• Location: Forms tendons (attach muscle to bone), most ligments (attach bone to
bone), & aponeuroses (sheetlike tendons that attach muscle to muscle or muscle
to bone).
• Function: Provide strong attachment between various structures.

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Elastic Connective Tissue
• Description: Consists of predominantly freely branching elastic fibers; fibroblasts
present in spaces between fibers
fibers.
• Location: Lung tissue, walls of elastic arteries, trachea, bronchial tubes, true
vocal cords, suspensory ligment of penis & ;igments between vertebrae.
• Function: Allows stretching of various structures.

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Skin as an organ made of different tissues
• Skin:
S : largest
a ges organ
o ga
2
(1.5-2 m , 15% body
weight)
– Epidermis
– Dermis
– Hypodermis
(subcutaneous fat):
Anchors skin to
y g tissue /
underlying
organs. Not
Hair follicle Sweat gland
exactly part of
Sebaceous gland
skin. Blood vessel Blood vessel
Nerve fiber
• The derivatives of epidermis
– Nails, sudoriferous (sweat) gland, sebaceous glands, mammary glands
• Two types of skin
– Thick skin: Found on palm, soles, fingers & toes. Has sweat glands, but no
a follicles,
hair o c es, nor
o oil
o (sebaceous) gglands.
a ds.
– Thin skin: Covers the rest of the body. Has hair follicles, sebaceous glands
& sweat glands.

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Skin functions & skin color changes
Functions of skin
1 Protection: against dehydration,
1. dehydration physical or chemical insult,
insult microbes,
microbes UV.
UV
2. Thermoregulation: sweating, arteriovenous anastomoses
3. Expression
4. Sensory reception: heat, cold, touch, texture, pressure, vibration, pain, etc.
5 Excretion
5. E i
6. Absorption
7. Synthesis of compounds, such as vitamin D
8. Storage of chemical compounds
9. Excretion of wastes

Skin discoloration
Skin color is determined by hemoglobin (red pigment within red blood cells), melanin
(brown pigment in skin) & carotene (orange-yellow
(orange yellow pigment found in both epidermal
cells and dermal fat cells). Skin color changes are important signs for clinical diagnosis.
• Pallor – often decreased blood flow or anemia.
• Flushing – increased blood flow, often related to exercise, fever, or infection.
• Cyanosis – blueing of the skin due to decreased oxygenation of the blood
blood.
• Jaundice – yellowing of the skin from increased blood bilirubin often associated with
liver disease and hemolytic disease.

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1. Cell membrane Match organelles (left) with
2. Flagellum cellular functions (right)
3. Mitochondrion
4. Chromosomes a. Produces enzymes to destroy
5. Golgi body bacteria.
6. Endoplasmic reticulum b. Produces proteins.
7 Nucleus
7. c. Internal
I t l structural
t t l supportt
8. Lysosome system for cell.
9. Ribosome d. Packages proteins into vesicles.
10.Cytoskeleton e. Transport system inside cell.
11 N l l
11.Nucleolus f. Control centre of cell.
g. Long tail-like structure for cell
locomotion.
h. "Powerhouse" of the cell
(produces ATP).
i. Semipermeable to control enter
and exit of materials.
j Produces ribosomes.
j. ribosomes
k. Genetic material in nucleus.

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