The cellular level of organization

The cell is a basic unit of all living things Prokaryotic cells are simple cells that are pro (before) karyon (nucleus) they have no nucleus o Most are unicellular bacteria Eukaryotic cells are complex cells with a nucleus and subcellular structures (organelles) o All fungi, plants and animals are eukaryotes All eukaryotic cells are composed of three main parts: o Plasma membrane or plasmalemma o Cytoplasm a gelatin-like substance, plus structural fibers and organelles (but not the nucleus) o Nucleus contains the genetic library of the cell The plasma membrane forms the cells outer boundary and seperates the cells internal environment from the outside environment o It is a selectively permeable barrier, allowing the passage of some things and not others o It plays a role in cellular communication The cytoplasm contains all the cellular contents between the plasma membrane and the nucleus o The cytosol is the fluid portion (mostly water) o Organelles are subcellular structures embedded in the cytosol, having characteristic shapes and specific functions The nucleus is a large organelle that contains DNA in molecules called chromosomes o Each chromosome consists of a single molecule of DNA and associated packaging proteins o A chromosome contains thousands of hereditary units called genes The plasma membrane is much more than just a fence it is a flexible yet sturdy, intelligent semipermeable regulator that: o Covers and protects the cell o Controls what goes in and comes out o Links to other cells o Flies certain flags to tell other cells who it is The fluid mosaic model describes the arrangement of molecules within the membrane: they resemble a sea of phospholipids with protein icebergs floating in it o The lipids act as a barrier to certain polar substances o The proteins act as gatekeepers, allowing passage of specific molecules and ions The structure of the membrane: o Phospholipids form a lipid bilayer cholesterol and glycolipids (sugar-lipids) also contribute o Integral proteins extend into or through the bilayer Transmembrane proteins (most integral proteins) span the entire lipid bilayer

Peripheral proteins attach to the inner or outer surface but do not extend through the membrane The functions of the membrane: o Some integral proteins are ion channels o Transporters selectively move substances through the membrane o Receptors for cellular recognition; a ligand is a molecule that binds with a receptor o Enzymes catalyze chemical reactions o Others act as cell-identity markers Examples of different membrane proteins include: o Ion channels: (integral) allows specific ion to move through water-filled pore. Most plasma membranes include specific channels for several common ions o Carriers: (integral) carries specific substances across membrane by changing shape. For example, amino acids, needed to synthesize new proteins, enter body cells via carriers. Carrier proteins are also known as transporters o Receptors: (integral) recognizes specific ligand and alters cells function in some way. For example, antidiuretic hormone binds to receptors in the kidneys and changes the water permeability of certain plasma membranes o Enzymes: (integral and peripheral) catalyzes reaction inside or outside cell( depending on which direction the active site faces). For example, lactase protruding from epithelial cells lining your small intestine splits the disaccharide lactose in the milk you drink o Linkers: (integral and peripheral) anchors filaments inside and outside the plasma membrane, providing structural stability and shape for the cell. May also participate in movement of the cell or link two cells together o Cell identity markers: (glycoprotein) distinguishes your cells from anyone elses (unless you are an identical twin) an important class of such markers are the major histocompatibility (MHC) proteins Because of the distribution of lipids and the proteins embedded in it, the membrane allows some substances across but not others; this is called selective permeability o Rule of thumb: small, neutrally charged, lipid-soluble substances can freely pass. Water is a special case it is highly polar, yet still freely permeable For those substances that are needed by the cell but for which the membrane is impenetrable (impermeable), transmembrane proteins act as channels and transporters. o They assist the entrance of certain substances that either cant pass at all (glucose) or for which the cell needs to hasten passage (ions) Transport Processes o Passive processes involve substances moving across the cell membranes without the input or any energy they are said to move with or down their concentration gradient o Active processes involve the use of energy, primarily from the breakdown of ATP, to move a substance against its {gradient}

Example:

According to concentration, I have too many A outside the cell, and the cell needs more. So as a passive process, without energy, the As move inside the cell o If inside the cell there are many A, and only one outside the cell, but the cell is still in need of more A, the active process allows that one lonely A to use energy to be moved inside the cell Passive processes o Diffusion of solutes o Diffusion of water (called osmosis) o Facilitated diffusion (requires a specific channel or a carrier molecule, but no energy is used Active Processes o Various types of transporters are used, and energy is required Passive transport processes Diffusion is the passive spread of particles through random motion, from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration o It is affected by the amount of substance and the steepness of the concentration gradient o Temperature o Surface area o Diffusion distance Channel-Mediated Facilitated diffusion An example of channel-mediated facilitated diffusion is the passage of potassium ions through a gated K+ channel Carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion En example of carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion is the passage of glucose Osmosis is the net movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of high water concentration to one of lower water concentration Water can pass through plasma membrane in 2 ways: o Through lipid bilayer by simple diffusion o Through aquaporins (integral membrane proteins) In the body, tonicity refers to the concentration of salt solutions in the blood and elsewhere. Since semipermeable membrane separate these fluid compartments, osmosis of water is free to occur between any fluid space and another. The effect of changing tonicity is demonstrated in this graphic, as water moves in and out of red blood cells

Active Transport Processes Solutes can also be actively transported across a plasma membrane against their concentration gradient (low) to (high) by using energy (usually in the form of ATP) The sodium-potassium pump is found in all cells

Secondary active transport mechanisms Antiporters carry two substances across the membrane in the opposite directions Symporters carry two substances across the membrane in the same direction

Transport in vesicles Vesicle a small spherical sac formed by budding off from a membrane Endocytosis materials move into a cell in a vesicle formed from the plasma membrane o Three types: Phagocytosis Receptor-mediated endocytosis Bulk-phase endocytosis (pinocytosis) Exocytosis vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane, releasing their contents into the extracellular fluid Transcytosis a combination of endocytosis and exocytosis

Cytoplasm 2 components Cytosol intracellular fluid, surrounding the organelles o The site of many chemical reactions o Energy is usually released by these reactions o Reactions provide the building blocks for cell maintenance, structure, function and growth Organelles o Specialized structures within the cell

The cytoskeleton Network of protein filaments ( like threads) throughout the cytosol Provides structural support for the cell Types: o Microfilaments o Intermediate filaments o Microtubules

Organelles Centrosome located near the nucleus, consists of two centrioles and pericentriolar material Cilia short, hair-like projections from the cell surface, move fluids along a cell surface Flagella longer than cilia, move an entire cell; only example is the sperm cells tail Ribosomes sites of protein synthesis (consists of large subunit + small subunit = Complete functional ribosome) Endoplasmic reticulum network of membranes in the shape of flattened sacs or tubules

Rough ER (endoplasmic reticulum) connected to the nuclear envelope, a series of flattened sacs, surface is studded with ribosomes, produces various proteins o Smooth ER a network of membrane tubules, does not have ribosomes, synthesizes fatty acids and steroids, detoxifies certain drugs Golgi complex consists of 3-20 flattened, membranous sacs called cisternae o Modify, sort, and package proteins for transport to different destinations o Proteins are transported by various vesicles Lysosomes vesicles that form from the Golgi complex and contain powerful digestive enzymes *** Lysis means destruction ie: lysosomes, to digest/destroy Peroxisomes o Smaller than lysosomes o Detoxify several toxic substances such as alcohol o Abundant in the liver Proteasomes o Continuously destroy unneeded, damaged, or faulty proteins o Found in the cytosol and the nucleus Mitochondria the powerhouses of the cell o They generate ATP o More prevalent in physiologically active cells: muscles, liver and kidneys o Have inner and outer mitochondrial membranes similar in structure to the plasma membrane o Cristae the series of folds of the inner membrane o Matrix the large central fluid-filled cavity o Self-replicate during times of increased cellular demand or before cell division o Contain own DNA Inherited only from your mother

Organelles Nucleus Spherical or oval shaped structure Usually most prominent feature of a cell Nuclear envelope a double membrane that separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm Nuclear pores numerous openings in the nuclear envelope, control movement of substances between nucleus and cytoplasm Nucleolus spherical body that produces ribosomes Genes the cells hereditary units, control activities and structure of the cell Chromosomes long molecules of DNA combined with protein molecule