THE FUTURE OF NOSTALGIA

SVETLANA BOYM
I\ /\\ I t
B
page 3 to 32
Copyright 200 I by S\'etlana Boym
Published by Basic Books
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Designed hy Elizabeth Lahey
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Boym, S\'etlana, 1959-
The future of nostalgia/Svetlana Boym.
p. cm. Includes index.
ISB1 0 465 00707-4
1. Ci,ilization, Modern- 1950- 2. Nostalgia- Social aspects.
Men10r) Social aspects. 4. Nostalgia in literature. 5. Authors, Exiled.
6. National characteristics. 7. Biograph). 8. Identit y (Ps)chology)
9. Post communism snci.11 .is pl'('lS.
1.Titl l'.
CIH27 .1167 )()tll
' l () 'I x l .i.) I
00
01 !ilOIOI I lll'> S / 1,, I I
1
I
To n"9' parents,
Yuri and Musa Goldberg
CONTENTS
, lcknowfedgmcnts ix
/111roduc1 ion: 'llihoo on Nostalgia? xii i
PART I
HYPOCHONDRIA OF THE HEART:
NOSTALGIA, HISTORY AND MEMORY
I I 111111 Cured Soldiers to Incurable Romantics:
Nostalgia and Progress 3
1
11,, \11gcl ol' 1 Iistmy: Nostalgia and Modernity 19
t 111< I >1110\.lllr: lostalgia and Po pular Culture 33
I l{ .. , 1n1-.1li\1 Nostalgia: Conspiracies and
llt'turn lo Origins 4 1
l{1ll1Ttin Nostalgia: Virtual Reality and
Coll1Ttil'l' Memory 49
1. Nc" l.".L: i.t .111d Post Communi st Memory 57
PART 2
( 11 l[S AND RE - INVENTED TRADITIONS
I 1\1 1 IH' ll logv of' Ml'lropol is 75
S /\ lo\ 1 O\\, llw IZ11ssi.rn !{01111 X {
'' 'I l '1 l11 , J1111 g, lit" ('11s11 1<1poli l.111 f' n>111111 l } I
Ill l\11 li 11, 11" \ 111 11.d ( '. 1p11.d I I I
II l111 11p.1\ l1 11s
1
1'1
I ii
INTRODUCTION
Taboo on Nostalgia?
lt1 .1 Russian newspaper I read a story of a recent homecoming. After the opening
' .i 1 hv Soviet borders, a couple from Germany went to visit the native city of their
11.1rn1ts, Konigsberg, for t he first t ime. Once a bastion of medieval Teutonic
k111 ghts, Konigsberg dur ing the postwar years had been transformed into Kali-
11111grJd, an exemplary Soviet construction site. A single gothic cathedral without
,, 1 upola, where rain was all owed to drizzle onto the tombstone of Immanuel
1, .1111, remained among the ruins of the city's Prussian past. The man and the
"<1111an walked arOlmd Kaliningrad, recognizing lit tle unt il they came to t he Pre-
11 11lv.1 River, where the smell of dandelions and hay brought back the stories of
illl'ir parents. The aging man knelt at the ri ver's edge to wash his face in the na-
11" waters. Shrieking in pain, he r ecoiled from the Prcgolya, the skin on his face
h1 1rning.
"I 'oor ri ver," comments the Russian journalist sarcastically. "Just think how
11111 ch trash and toxic waste had been dumped into it . ... "'
The Russian journalist has no sympathy for the German's t ears. While the long-
111g is universal , nostalgia can be divisive. The city of Kaliningrad-Konigsbcrg itsel ft
1 ,,1111blcs a theme park of lost illusions. What was the coupl e nostalgic for, the old
, 1 l y or t heir childhood stories? How can one be homesick for a home that one
11 1' l'r had?The man longed for a ri tual gestur e known from movies and fairy talcs
11' mark his homecoming. He dreamed of repairing his longing with final belong-
111g. l'ossesscd by nostalgia, he forgot his actual past. The illusion left bmns on his
i.ll'l'.
Nostalgia (from nostos- return home, and alaia- longing) is a longi ng for ~
l111mc that no longer exists or has never existed. Nostalgia is a sentiment of loss
.ind displacement, but it is also a romance with one's own fantasy. Nostalgic love
, .111 only survive in a long-distance r elationship. A cinematic image of nostalgia is
XIII
''' I N I 1tt1lll \ I I 1N
a douhk l'x posurl', or,\ sup1 11111pns1 l1rn1 ol' l\\o 1m.1gl'' ol 11111111 .111d .1hrnad,
t past and present , drcJm .rnd lik. Tlw moment \ll' try lo li>rtT it into a
image, it breaks the frame or burns the surface.
It would not occur to us to demand a prescri ption for nostalgia. Yet in these\-
enteenth century, nostalgia was considered to be a curable di sease, akin to the
common cold . Swiss doctors bclie\'ed that opium, leeches and a journey to the
Swiss Alps would take care of nostalgic symptoms. By the twenty-first century,
the passing ailment turned into the incurable modern condition. The twentieth
century began with a futuristic utopia and ended with nostalgia. O ptimisti c belief'
j.n the future was discarded like an outmoded spaceship sometime in the 1960s.
1
Nostalgia itself has a utopian dimension, only it is no longer directed toward the
future. Sometimes nostalgia is not directed toward the past either, but rather
sideways . The nostalgic feels stifled within the conventional conllncs of time and

A contemporary Russian saying claims that the past has become much more
unpredictable than the future. Nostal gia depends on thi s strange unpredictability.
In fact nostalgics from all over the world would llnd it difficult to say what exactly
they yearn for- St. Elsewhere , another time, a better life. The alluring object of
nostalgia is notoriously elusil'e. The ambivalent sentiment permeates t wentieth-
century popular culture, where technological advances and specia l effects arc fre-
quently used to recreate visions of the past, from the sinking Titanic to dying
gladiators and extinct dinosaurs. Somehow progress didn' t cure nostalgia but ex-
it. Similarl y, gl obali zation encouraged stronger local attachments. In
counterpoint to our fascination with cyberspace and the virtual global vi ll age,
there is a no less global epidemic of nostalgia, an affecti ve yearning for a commu-
nity with a coll ecti ve memory, a longing for continui ty in a fragmented world .
Nostalgia inevitably reappears as a dcrense mechanism in a time of accelerated
rhythms or life and historical uphea\'als.
Yet the more nostalgia there is, the more heatedl y it is denied. Nostalgia is
something of a bad word, an affectionate insult at best. "Nostalgia is to memory
as kitsch is to art," writes Charl es Maier. ' The word nosialsia is frequently used
... dismi ssively. "Nostalgia ... is essentially history without guilt. 1 lcri tage is some-
thing that suffuses us with pride rather than with shame," writes Michael Kam-
._, men. ' Nosta lgia in thi s sense is an abdicati on o f personal responsibility, a
guilt-free homecoming, an ethi cal and aestheti c failure.
I t oo had long held a prej udi ce against nostalgia. I remember when I had just
emigrat ed from the Soviet Union to the United States in 1981, strangers often
asked , "Do you miss it?" I ne1er quite knew how to answer. "No, but it's not what
I N I Ht,llll I lll N
1
.,
11
th111k," I'd ,,11, <>r ")'"' hul it \ not \\ h.1l vou thi nk." I \\"1S told at the Sovkt
l11 inlcr th.11 I \\0;1ld 1w11r lw ahil' to return. ;o a waste
1 i11H and an un;ilfordabk luxury. I had only just learned to answer the question
"hm\ arl' YOU?" with an efficient "fine" inst ead of the Russian roundabout discus-
' '"" of' life's unbearable shades of gray. At t hat time, being a "resident ali en"
,nmcd t he only appropriate form of identi ty, which I slowly began to accept.
I ,\ler, when I was interviewi ng immigrants, especially those who had left under
.J il'firnlt personal and political circumstances, I real ized that for some nostalgia
\\ a taboo: it was the predicament of Lot 's wife, a fear that looki ng back might
1
1.1r.1ly;1e you forever, t urning you into a pillar of salt, a pitiful monument to your
, I\ n grief and the futi lity of departure. First-vvave immigrants are often notori-
' .u,lv unsentimental, leaving the search for roots to their children and grandchil-
' unburdened by visa probl ems. Somehow t he deeper the loss, the harder it
"" to engage in public mourning. To giYe name to this inner longing seemed to
1 .... 1 profanation that reduced the loss to little more than a sound bite.
Nostalgia caught up with me in unexpected ways. Ten years after my departure
I 1 durncd to my native city. Phantoms of famil iar faces and facades, the smell of
11
1
ing cutlets in the cluttered kitchen, a scent of ur ine and swamps in t he deca-
' 1
1
11t hallways, a gray dr izzle over the Neva Ri ver, the rubble of recognition- it all
t 111t heel me and left me numb. What was most striking was the different sense of
111111. It fe lt like traveling into another temporal zone where everybody was late
I 1111 ,
0 111
ehow t here was always time. (For better or worse, this sense of temporal
J11,
1
11y quickly disappeared during perestroika.) The excess of time for conversa-
111 >11 ,
1
nd refl ection was a per verse outcome of a socialist economy: ti me was not
,, J>ITcious commodity; the shortage of pr ivate space allowed people to make pri-
' .111 of their t ime. Retrospecti vely and most likely nostalgically, I thought that
!111 , loll' rlwthm of reflective time made possible the dream of freedom.
rl'a lizccl tJ1at nostalgia goes beyond individual psychology. At first glance, nos-
1.il gi.1 is a longing for a place, but actually it is a xearni!:Jg_for a the
1111 1, of our childhood, the slower rhythms of our dreams. In a broader sense, nos_-
1
I dg1.1 is rcbcllioD-ag.ainsL of-timc,-th.e_ time of history
I" ' The nostalgic .to history a.nd turn it into private or.
1., l1\v mythology, t o rev1s1t time like space, refusmg to surrender to the 11 re-
' ' " 1hility of ti me that plagues the human condition.
'-< 1st,1lgia is paradoxi cal in the sense that longing can make us more empathetic
I,,\
1
rd fd lm\ humans, yet the moment we try to repair longi ng with belongi ng,
1111 .ipprC'hension of loss with a r ediscovery of identity, we often part ways and put
111 , 11rl to mutual understanding. Alsia- longing- is what we share, yet nostos-
\\' I I N I I(( 11111 t I I llN
thl' ret ur n holll\' is" lt.11 di, us. 11 1, 1ltv p101111M In 11h11 ild llw ideal home
that li es at the Core of lll ,111)' l)Ol\'Vrful of 1od,JV tl'l11lllin11 US lO 1-clin-
, , b
guish criti cal thinking for emotional bonding. Thl danger of nostalgia is that it
tends to confuse the actual home and t he imaginary one. In extreme cases it can
create a phantom homeland, for the sake of which one is ready to die or kill . Un-
nostalgia breeds monsters. Yet t he sentiment itself, t he mo urning
pl aceme nt and temporal irreversibility, is at the very core of the modern
condition .
The nostalgia t hat interests me here is not merely an indi vidual sickness but a
symptom of our age, a hist orical emotion. It is not necessarily opposed to moder -
nity and indi vidual responsibility. Rather it is coeval with modernity itself. Nos-
talgia and progress arc like Jekyll and Hyde : alter egos. Nostalgia is not merely an
expression of local longing, but a result of a new understanding of time and space
that made the dhision into "local " and "uni ver sal" possible.
Outbreaks of nostalgia oft en follow revolut ions; t he French Revolution of
1789, t he Russian Revolution and recent "velvet" revoluti ons in Eastern Europe
were accompanied by politi cal and cultural manifestat ions of longing. In Fran ce it
is not only the ancicn regime that produced revolution , but in some respect the
re,olution produced the ancien regime, ghing it a shape, a sense of closure and a
gilded aura. Similarly, the revoluti onary epogue of perestroika and the end of the
Soviet Union produced an image of the last Soviet decades as a time of stagnation,
or alternati vely, as a Soviet golden age of stability, strength and "normalcy," the
I
view in R . ussia today. the nostalgia expl ored here is not always for
the anc1en regime or fall en empire but also for t he unrealized dreams of the past
and visions of the future that became obsolete. The histor y of nostalgia might al-
low us to look back at modern history not solely searching for newness and tech-
r nological progress but for unreali zed possibil iti es, unpredi ct abl e turns and
crossroads.
Nostalgia is not always about the past ; it can be retrospect ive but also prospcc-
thT. Fantasies of the past determined by needs of the present have a direct impact
on reali ti es of the fu t ure. Consideration of the fut ure makes us take responsibi lity
for o ur nostalgic talcs. The future of nostalgic longing and progressive thinking is
I at t he cente r of this inquiry. Unl ike melancholi a, which confines itself to t he
planes of indi vid ual consciousness, nostalgia is about the relationship between in-
di vi dual bi ography and t he biography of groups or nations, between per sonal and
collective memory.
Ther e is in fact a tradition of criti cal refl ection on the modern condition that
incorpor ates nostalgia, which I will call dJmod;;;;) The adverb <?ff confuses our
I N I H i 111tl\ 1 1 tl N ''I I
, 11 w 111 cl11 n t1011 ; 1t 111 ,1 kl'' us l':>. pl o1l' ' uk,li .1cl o\" .11u l li.1l k ,dkys rathl'r t han thl'
11.1t th1 ro.HI ol pm!.',r\'ss; it ,1 !10\\ s us to lrom t hl' deterministic nar-
1 111\ 1 nl 1 \\l' ll ti l't h rffercd a C'.-itigue of the l l
11 11 ,, l,111 ,,ith lll'\\ness and no less modern rcuwenllon oft rad1t10n. In Ji
1111 1111 mockrn tradition, reflect ion and longing, estrangement and affection go
1 ..
1
., 1 hl'r. Moreover, for some twentieth-centur y off-modernists who came from
, , 1 111 1ri(' t raditions ( i. e., those often considered marginal or pro\'incial with re-
l", 1 10 the cul t ural mainstream, from Eastern Europe Lo Latin Amer ica) as well
, 1111 many displaced people from all over the world, creat ive rethinking of nos-
1 di1 .1 ,, as not merel y an artisti c device but a strategy of sur vival, a way of making
'-
' ""' ,,r the impossibili ty of homecoming.
I li 1 most common currency of the globalism exported all over the world is
111 Ill ' \ .rnd po pular cul tu re. Nostalgia too is a feature of global culture, but il de-
111.11 u I, .1 differe nt cur rency. After all , t he key words de fining globalism-
I" "!'I moder nity and virtual rea lity were invented by poets and
1
.i1i111, ophers: progress was coined by Immanuel Kant; the noun moJernity is a cre-
1111111 of Charles Baudelaire; and l'irwal rcalir.y was first imagined by Henri Berg-
"" IH>l Bill Gates. Only in Ber gson 's definition, 1irwal rea/11.Y referred to planes
, .i , 1111sciousness, potential di mensions of time and creativity that are distinctly
11111 11 11mitably human. As far as nostalgia is concerned, eighteenth-cent ury doc-
1 . 1 ' l,1iling to uncover its exact locus, recommended seeking hel p from poets and
1
,1,, 1.,,nphcrs. poet nor phi losopher, l never theless deci ded to 'vvrite a his-
11", nl" nosta lgia, alternating between cr iti cal reflection and storytelling, hoping
I, i 1 .1sp the r hythm of longing, its enticements and l'ntrapments. Nostalgia speaks
111 11ddks and puzzles, so one must face t hem in order not to become its next vic-
11111 or its next victimizer.
t lw of' nostalgia docs not hclong t o any specific discipline : it frustrates
I' 1 , liologists, sociologists, literary theorists and philosophers , even computer
, 11 11t"ts who thought t hey had gotten away from it all until they too_ tookJ-J
1. 1111>1 in their home pages and the cyber -pastoral \'Ocabulary of the global village.
11 11 O\'Crabundancc of nostalgic artifacts marketed by the enter tai nment in-
, 11 1.t1,, most of them sweet ready-mades, reflects a fear of untamable longing and
11, 111 1 >mmodified t ime. Ovcrsaturation, in this case, underscores nostalgia's fun-
I 11111 11tal insatiabil ity. With the dimi nished role of ar t in Western societies, the
111 Id or Sl' lf-consc ious exploration of long ing without a qu ick fix and sugar-
' .. .i1nl p;ill iati vcs had significantly dwi ndled.
l\i , ,.., talgia tantalizes us with its fundamental ambivalence; it is about t he repcti-
11 . ,, , , ,r the unrepeatable, materialization of t he immat erial. Susan Stewart writes
''I ll I N I Ht 11111 ( I I l I N
lhal "nostalgi.1 is tlw rl'pd1ti1>11 tl1.1t 1111111111' th" 111.111tl1111tH 111 nl .di rq >l'l1t1011s
and denies the r-c1wtition 's capacity l o dvii1w idn11it;."' Nost.1lgi.1 di.1rls space on
time and lime on spacl' and hinders the dist inction lwlwtTn subjl'l'l and object ; it
is Janus-faced, like a double-edged sword. To unear th the fragments of nostalgia
one needs a dual archeology of memor y and of place , and a dual historv of ill u-
sions and of actual practices. ,
Part I, "Hypochondria of the Hean," traces the history of nostalgia as an ail-
ment its transformation from a curable disease into an incurable condition
fr om maladie du pays to ma! du siecle. We will follow the course of nostalgia
the past oral scene of' romantic nationali sm to the urban ruins of modernity, from
poetic landscapes of the mind into cyberspace and outc1- space.
Instead of' a magic cure for nostalgia , a typology is offered that might illuminate
some of nostalgia 's mechanisms of seduction and manipulation. Herc two kinds of
nostal ia arc distingui shed: the restorative and the reAectiYe. Rcstorati1e nostal -
nosws an attempts a transhistorical reconstruction of the lost home.
I Rcllecti1' e nostalgia thri1es in algia, the longing itself, and delays the homecom-
ing - wistfully, ironically, desperately. R<.'storativc nostalgia docs no t it- -
self as nostalgia, but rather as truth and tradi tion. Reflective nostalgia ch-veils on
the ambil'al ences of human longing and belonging and docs not shy away f'rom the
contradictions of modernity. Restoratil'c nostalgia protects the absolute truth,
r while reflecti1c nostalgia calls it into doubt.
Rest orative nostalgia is at t he core of recent national and religious revilals; it
knows two main plots the return to origins and the conspiracy. Rdlccti1e nos-
talgia docs not follow a sin le Jlot but ex lores wa s of inhabiting many places at
once and imagining different time zones; it loves details, not syrnbo s. At Jest, re-
fl ecti1-c nostalgia can present an ethical and crcatil'c challenge, not merely a pre-
text for midnight melancholias. This typology of nostalgia allows us to distingui sh
between national memorl" that is based on a single plot of nati onal identity and
social memory, which of coll ective frameworks that mark but de-
fine the indi vidual mcmorv.
I
Part II focuses on citi es and postcommuni st memo ries. The physical spaces of
city ruins and construction si tes, fiagmcnts ;md bricolages, renol'ations of the his-
torical heritage and decaying concrete buildings in the International style embody
nostalgic and antinostalgic 1isions. The recent rei rwcntion of urban identity sug-
gests an alternati1e to the opposition bctll"ccn local and global culture and offers
a new kind of regionalism - local internationali sm. We will travel to three Euro-
pean capitals of the present, past and future Moscow, St. Pet ersburg and
I N tH41llll ( lll N ' ' '
11, 1 !111 l' ,,1111111111 <> ,1 du,11 .1n lwol11u1 111 tl1" 1 "111 11'11 11rh.111 ' jl.l<"l' ,rnd ol urh.111

1111 th, throu11h ,1n hit11turl' lill'ratur\' and 1w11 urh,m t"l'l"l' lllOnil's, l"rom the St.
b '
I', 11-r,hu10 CJrni1.ll ol' cit)' monuments lo tht ahislorical Berlin Love Parade. The
b
.i11 , induclL' intl'ntional and unintentional memorials, from a grandiose cathedral
111 l\1.,sco11 rebuilt from scratch to the abandoned modern Palace of the Republic
111 lkrlin; from the largest monument to Stalin in Prague supplanted by a disco
.1111 I ,1 modern sculpture of a metronome to the park of 1-cstorcd totalitarian mon-
111111 11 ts in Moscow; the Leningrad unofficial bar "Saigon" recently commemorated
, . . 1 rnuntcrcultural landmark to the new "Nostalgija" cafc in Ljubljana decorated
11 11 Ii Yugoslav bri c-a-brac and Tito's obituary. At the encl we will look at the dream
111 I uropa from the margins, t he eccentric vision of the experimental civil society
111.I .ll'stheti c, rather than market, liberalism. Unlike t he Western pragmatic trans-
11t1011al relationship of' t he idea of"Europc," the "Eastern" attitude used to be
11 1111 L romantic: the relationship with Europe ll"as conceived as a love affair with
di possible var iations- from unrequited love to autoeroticism. Not curos but
, 11" dominated t he metaphors for the East- \Nest exchange. By 2000 thi s roman-
I 11 1icw of t he "West" ddincd by the dream of experimental democracy and, to a
111111 h lesser degree, by the expectations of free- market capitalism, became largely
" 11t modcd and supplanted by a more sober s<.' lf-rd lectivc attitude.
I '.11-t III explores imagined homelands of exil es \\"ho never returned. At once
1,, 1111Lsick and sick of home, they developed a pecul iar kind of diaspori c intimacy,
1 ' "nirnlist aesthetics of estrangement and longing. We wi ll examine imagined
l111111elands of artists Vladimir Nabokov, Joseph Brodsky and
111.1 Kabakov- and peck into the homes of' Russian immigrants in New York who
, 11,-rish t hei r diasporic souvenirs but do not think of going back to Russia pcrma-
11 1 11tly. These immigrants remcmbc1- t heir old homes, cluttered with outmoded
, 1l 111Tts and bad memories and yearn for a community of close fri ends and another
I' ",. of life that had allowed t hem to dream thei r escape in the first place.
l'hL' study of nostalgia inevitably slows us down. There is, after all something
1 il1,1santly outmoded about the very idea of longing. We long to prolong our t ime,
1 .. make it free, to daydream, agai nst all odds resisting external pressures and
1111 kcring computer screens. A blazing leaf whirl s in the twilight outside my un-
' "heel ll"indow. A squirrel freezes in her saho morwle on the telephone pole, bc-
111 1 ing somehow that when she docs not move I cannot sec her. A cloud moves
.11111 ly above my computer, refusing to take the shape l wish to give it. Nostalgi c
111 11t is that lime-out-of-time of daydreaming and longing that jeopardizes one's
111111tablcs and work ethic, even when one is working on nostalgia.
PART I
HYPOCHONDRIA OF THE HEART:
NOSTALGIA, HISTORY AND MEMORY
The ruin of a monument and shadow of t he author. Photo by Sl'etlana Boym.
FROM CURED SOLDIERS
TO INCURABLE ROMANTICS:
NOSTALGIA AND PROGRESS
Till' word nostalgia comes from two Greek roots, yet it did not originate in an-
' 11nt Greece. Nos10/9ia is only pseudo-Greek, or nostalgicall y Greek. The word ]
. 1 ~ coined by the ambitious S\\'iss doctor Johannes Hofer in his medical disscrta-
111111 in He believed that it was possible "from the force of the sound os-
1. tl gia to defi ne the sad mood originating from the desire for return t o one's native
l.111d ."
1
(Hofer also suggested nosomania and philopatriclomania to describe the same
"' 111ptoms; luckily, Lhe latter fai led to enter common parlance.) Contrary to our
1111ui tion, nostalaia came from medicine, not from )OCtr or )Olitics. Among the
lint victims of the newly diagnosed disease were various displaced people of the
,,q ' ntccnth century, freedom-loving students from Lhc Republic of Berne study-
111g in Basel, domesti c he lp and servants working in France and Germany and
" " iss soldiers fighting abroad.
Nostalgia was said to produce "erroneous representations" that caused the af'-
llu ll'd to lose touch with the present. Longing for their native land became their
111gk -minded obsession. The patients acquired "a lifeless and haggard countc-
11.11Hc ,"and "indiff n ~ n c e to ...rnrds eYeryt hing," confusing past and present, real and
11 11.1ginary events. One of the early symptoms of nostalgia was an abili ty to hear
" ' (TS or sec ghosts. Dr. Albert Yon Hall er wrote: "One of Lhc earli est symptoms
l hv sensation of hearing the 1oiee of a person that one loves in Lhe voice of an-
" ' 1"-r with whom one is conversing, or to sec one's fami ly again in drcams."
2
It
, 111lll'S as no surprise that Hofer's fe licitous bapti sm of' t he new di sease both
111 l1wd to identify t he exjsting condition and enhanced the epidemi c, making it a
11 1dvspread European phenomenon. The epidemic of' nostalgia was accompanjed
I 01 .Ill even more dangerous epidemic of "feigned nostalgia," particularly among
J 11 1 I II I Cl It I j ti N 11\ I\ I I , f \
soldi l' rs tirn l ol' Sl ' I"\ i11g .1l1n1.1d, nn.1li11g tlw co11t ,
1
giou.\
11
,itui l ol' th<' er roneous
representa ti ons.
Nostalgia, t he disease ol, an alll ictcd imagination, incapacitated the body. Hofer
thought t hat the course of the disease \\'as myster ious : the ail ment spread "along
uncommon routes through the unto uched course of the channels of the brain to
the body," arousing "an uncommon and eve rp rescnt idea of the recalled nali\'c
land in the ."' Longing for home exhausted the ' \ ital spi r its," causing nausea,
loss of appeti te, pathological changes in the lungs, brain inflammat ion, cardiac ar-
rests , high fe ,cr, as well as marasmus and a propensity for sui ci de.
Nostalgia operat ed by an "associati onist magic ," by means of which all aspects
of life rdated to o.nc sing le o bsession. In thi s respect nostalgia was aki n
to only mstcad of a per secuti on mania , the nostalgic was possessed by
a mama of .long ing. On the other hand, the nostalgic had an amazing capacity for
rcmcmbermg sensati ons, tastes, sounds, sme ll s, the minutiae and tri\'ia of the
lost paradi se that those who remained home never noticed Gastio cl
. . nom1 c an au-
ditory nostalgia were of par ti cular importance. Swiss scienti sts found that
1
-ust ic
soups, t hick l'i ll age mi lk and the folk melodics of Alpine \'alleys were
particularly conduchc t o t riggeri ng a nostalgic react ion in Swiss soldiers. Sup-
pos.cdly sou.nds of"a cer tain rustic canti lcna" that accompani ed shepherds in
thc1'. dr ll'l ng of the herds to pasture immediate ly provoked an epidemic of nos-
talgia among S\\'iSs soldiers scr\'i ng in France. Simi larly, Scots, par t icularly High-
landers, .were known to succumb to inc:apacitating nostalgia \\' hen heari ng the
the bagpipes so much so, in fact, that their mil itary superiors had to
t hem from playing, singing or even whistli ng native t unes in a suggcs-
tJ\e manner. Jean-Jacgucs Ro usseau talks about the effects of co\\'bells the rus-
ti c sounds that excite in the Swiss the joys of life and youth and a bitt; r sor ro\\'
fo r ha,ing lost them. The music in thi s case "docs not act precisely as music, but
as a m.cmorative sign."
1
The music of home , whet her a rustic cantil ena or a pop
song, is t he permanent accompani ment of nostalgia its ineffable charm that
makes the nostalgic teary- eyed and tongue- tied and often clouds cri ti cal refl ec-
t ion on the subject.
In the good old days nostalgia was a curabl e disease, dangerous but not always
lethal. Leeches, warm hypnotic emulsions, opium and a return to the Alps usually
sootJicd the symptoms. Purging of the stomach was also recommended but noth-
ing to the return lo the mot herland bclie\'Cd to be the best for
nostalgia. proposing t he t reatment for the disease, Hofer seemed proud of
some of hi s .pati ents; for him nostalgia was a demonst rati on of the patTiotism of
l11S compatriots who lo"cd the charm of their nathe land to the point of sickness.
I 1\11" ( ' 111t1 Ii ''1111ltll11 \ I I N i l l H \Ill I H1 1\1 \N I I t '
sh.1nd so111 l' 'Yllll>to111' \\ 1tl1 1111-l.11H l11 ,l1.1 .1 11d h) podumdr i.1. Md,111
, l1o li.1 to the (;,1l cnic l'OIH'l' IHion , \\ ,ls .1 di sl',\Sl' of till' hlat' k hik that al'-
' b
In tcd the blood and produced such physical and emoti onal symptoms as "vertigo,
1111Hh wit , headache, .. . much waking, rumbling in t he guts . .. t roublesome
, 111.i ms, heaviness of the heart . . . continuous fear, sorrow, discontent , superflu-
" "' cares and anxiet y." For Robert Burton, melancholia, far fr om being a mere
11li ysical or psychological condition, had a phil osophical dimension. The melan- I
, h;1l ic sa\\' the \rnrlcl as a theater rul ed by cap;:icious fat e and demonic play." Of- /
1111 mist aken for a mere mi sant hrope, the melancholic was in fact a uto pi an
d1 camcr who had higher hopes for humanity. In th is respect , mel ancholia was an
.ilflTl and an ai lment of' intellectuals, a doubt , a side effect of cr itical
, ' "1son; in melancholia, feeling, spirit and matter, soul and body were
1wrpetual ly in confli ct . Unlike melancholia, which \\'as regarded as an ailment of
111011ks and philoso phers, nostalgia was a more "democratic" disease that threat-
, lll' cl to affect soldier s and sailors displaced far from home as wel l as many coun-
t
1
, people \\' ho began to move to t he citi es . Nostalgia was not merely an
111clh idual but a publi c . that revealed the contradictions of modcr-
11 11 y and acgmred a greater poli t ical impor tance.
T he o utburst of nost algia both enforced and challenged the emerging conccp-
111111 of' patriotism and nati onal spirit. It was unclear at fi rst what was lo be done
111 th the alll icted soldi ers who lo\'ecl their motherl and so much that they never
11 .111 ted to lea\' C it , or for that matter to die for it. When the epidemic of nostal -
" l.1 s1Jread bevond the Swiss garrison, a more radical treatment was under taken.
" J
I hl' f-r ench doctor Jourdan Le Cointe suggested in his book v\'riltcn dur-ing tl1e
I rrnch Revol ution of 1789 that nostalgia had to be cured by inciti ng pai n and ter-
1 "" As scientific evidence he offered an account of drasti c treatment of nostalgia
' "lTCssfully undertaken by the Russians. In 1733 l'l1e Russian army was str icken
i,, nostalgia j ust as it ventured into Germany, the situati on becoming dire enough
1 k it the general was compell ed to come up with a radical treatment of tJ1c nos-
1.il!.! ic drus. He threatened t11at "the first to fall sick wi ll be buried ali \'e."This was
.i kind of literalizat ion of a metaphor, as life in a fo reign country seemed like
,l,,1th. This punishment was reported to be carried out on two or three occasions,
11 hi ch happily cured the Russian army of complaint s of nostalgia.
7
(No wonder
l<>nging became such an impor tant par t of the Russian national identity.) Russian
11il pro,ed to be a fertile ground for bot h nati,c and for eign nostalgia. The au-
lnpsics perfor med on the French soldier s who peri shed in the proverbial Russian
, 11m\ during the miser able retreat of the Napoleonic Army fro m Moscow re-
' 1 <1lcd that many of them had brain infl ammat ion character isti c of nostalgia.
I 111 I ti I II H I Il l N 4 , , I\ I 1. 1 '
While l:urnpl',lll S (\\ itl1 tlw l'X\' qlli o11 ol ' tl w llr111 sl1 ) n 1Hirhd f'rnlLIL' lll L'pi -
dcmics of' nostalgia stJrting l'rom the se\'t' llll'l'nth n ntury, A11wrican doctor s
proudly dec:lared that the young nation remained heal thy and didn ' t succumb to
t he nostalgic vi ce until the Ameri can Civil War. " !{'the Swiss doctor Hofer be-
li eved that homesickness expressed love for freedom and one's nati ve land, two
centuri es later the American military doct or Theodore Calhoun conceived of
nostalgia as a shameful disease that r evealed a lack of manliness and unprogrcs-
sivc attitudes. He suggested that this was a disease of the mind and of a weak will
(the concept of an "affl icted imagination" would be profoundly ali en to him). In
nineteenth-century Ameri ca it was believed that the main reasons for homesick-
ness were idleness and a slow and ineffi cient use of time conducive to day-
dreaming, crotomania and onanism. "Any influence that will tend to render the
patient more manly will exer cise a curati ve power. Jn boarding schools, as per-
haps many of us remember, ridicul e is wholly relied upon .... [The nostalgic]
patient can often be laughed out of' it by his comrades, or reasoned out of it by
appeals to his manhood; but of all potent agents, an active campaign, with at-
t endant marches and more parti cularly its battles is the best curativc.'
19
Dr. Cal-
houn proposed as treatment publi c ridicul e and bullying by fellow soldi ers, an
increased number of manly marches and battles and improvement in per sonal
hygiene that would make soldi er s' living conditions more modern. ( He also was
in favor of an occasional fur lough that would al low soldi er s to go home for a
brief period of time.)
For Calhoun, nostalgia was not conditi oned entirely by indiddual s' healtl1, but
also by their strcngtl1 of' character and social background. Among the Americans
the most susceptibl e to nostalgia were soldiers from the rural dist ri cts, particu-
larly farmers, while merchants, mechanics, boatmen and tr-ain conductors from
the same area or from the city were more like ly to resist the sickness. "The sol-
di er from the city cares not where he is or where he cats, while his country
cousin pines for tlie old homestead and his father 's groani ng board," wrote Cal-
houn.
10
In such cases, the only hope was that the advent of progress would some-
how alleviate nostalgia and the effi cient use of time would eliminate idleness,
melancholy, procrastinati on and lovcsickness.
As a ublic c idemic, nostal ia was based on a sense of loss not limited to per-
sonal history. Such a sense of loss docs not necessarily suggest that what is lost is
properly remembered and that one still knows where to look for it . Nostalgia be-
came less and less curable. By the end of the eighteenth century, doctors discov-
ered that a return home did not always treat the symptoms. The obj ect of longing
occasionally migrated to faraway lands beyond the confines of the motherland.
Just as geneti c researcher s today hope to identify a gene not only for medical con-
I H 4 I , , l ' I H I I ' I 1 11 I I H ' I ' I I N l t I It ' u I I HI I" \ N I It \:
.1
1
1
11111
s but so(' i,d l>vh.11 ior .rnd t'l'<'ll stxu.d or i .. 11t.1l1t111 , ' n till' dnvlors in lhv l'igh
1
, ,.
11
1h and ni nl'll'l'nth c\' nturi l's lookt d for <l singk t',lUSl' ol' tlw er roneous repre-
,,
11
1.i tions, onl' so-called pu1holo9ical hone. Yet the physicians fa iled t o find the locus
, ,1
11
ostalgia in their pati ent 's mind or body. One <loctor claimed that nostalgia was
,, "hypochondria of the heart" that thr ives on its symptoms. To my knowledge, the
11
1l'di cal diagnosis of nostalgia sur vived in tlic t wentieth century in one country
,,
1
dv Israel. (It is uncl ear whether t his rcOccts a persist ent yearning for t he
1
,
111111
iscd land or for the diasporic homelands left behind.) Everywhere else in the
", 1rlcl nostalgia turned from a treatable sickness into an incurable disease. How
.l id it happen that a pro\' incial ai lment, maladie du pays, became a disease of t11e
111ndn n age, ma/ du siec/e?
In my view, the spread of nostalgia had to do not only with dislocation in space
I 1
11
1 also v:ith the changing concept ion of time. Nostalgia was a hi storical cmo-
1 ",
11
, and we would do well to pursue its historical rather than psychological gen-
' ,
1
,. There had been plenty of longing before the seventeenth century, not only in
illl' European tradi tion but also in Chinese and Arabic poetry, where longing is a
I" >l'lic commonplace. Yet the early modern concepti on embodied in the specific
"
11
rcl came to the fore at a particular histori cal moment. "Emotion is not a word,
1.
11
1 it can only be spread abroad through words," writes Jean Starobinski , using
ilit metaphor of border crossing and immigration to describe the discourse on
1111
, talgia. " Nostalgia was diagnosed at a time when art and science had not yet f
,
11
1 ircly severed their umbilical ti es and when the mind and body- internal and
, , 1trnal well -being were treated together. This was a diagnosis of a poetic sci -
'
11
vL' and we should not smil e condescendi ngly on the dil igent Swiss doctors.
1 >ur progeny wel l might poeti cizc depression and sec it as a metaphor for a global
11mospheric condition, immune to treatment with Prozac.
What distinguishes modern nostalgia from the myth of the return home .
" not merely its peculiar mcdicalization. The n.ostos, the homc
1
and l
illl' song of the return home, was part of a mythical rrtual. As Gregor)' Nag) has
.i .. monstratcd, Greek nostos is connect ed to the Indo-Europcan root ncs, meaning
1 l'lurn t o light and life.
There arc in fact two aspects of nostos in The Odyssey; one is of course, the
hero's return from Troy, and the other, just as important , is hi s return frnrn
I lades. Moreover, the theme of Od)'sseus's descent and subsequent nostos (re-
turn) from Hades converges with the solar dynamics of sunset and sunrise. The
movement is from dark to light, from unconsciousness to consciousness. In fact
the hero is asleep as he floats in darkness to his homeland and sunrise comes
precisely when his boat reaches the shores of Ithaca.
12
J
I 111 I II I 111( I ,,, N ,,, I I I'' I
l'crwlopl'\ l,ll ior of'lml' and l'11dur.11H1 tlw doth th.1t ..,lw hy day and un-
ravels by night represents a mythical time of' everyday loss and r enewal.
Odysseus's is not a story of indi1idual sentimental longing and subsequent return
home to family values; rather, this is a fable about human fate.
. all , Odysseus's homecomi ng is about nonrecogni tion. Ithaca is plunged
into mist and the royal wanderer arrives in disguise. The hero recognizes neitlier
his homeland divine protcctrcss. Even his faitlifu l and long-suffering wife
docs not sec lum for who he is. Only his childhood nurse notices the scar on t he
hero's foot- the tentative marker of physical identity. Odysseus has to prove his
ide1.1t ity in acti o.n. He shoots the bow that belongs to him, at that moment trig-
gering recoll ccuons and gaining recogniti on. Such ritual actions help to erase the
wrinkl es on the faces and the imprints of' age. Odysseus's is a representative
homecoming, a ritual event that neither begins nor ends witJ
1
him.
The seduction of non- return home- the allure of Circe and the sirens- plays
a more .important role in some ancient versions of Odysseus's cycle, where the
story of homecoming is not at all clearly crystallized. The archaic tales around the
myth, not recorded in the Homeric rendering of' the story, suggest that the
prophecy will come true and Odysseus will be ki ll ed by his son-not
by the son he bore with Circe who would later end up marry-
mg. Odysseus s. wife, Penelope. Thus in the potential world of' mythi cal story-
tcllmg t here might be an incestuous connection between the faithful wife and the
enchantress t11at de lays the hero's homecoming. After all , Circe's island is an ulti-
mate utopia of regressive pleasure and di vine bestial ity. One has to leave it to be-
come human again. Ci rce's treacherous lull abies arc echoed in the melodi cs of
home. So if we expl ore the potential talcs of Odysseus's homecoming, we risk
turning an ach-cnture story with a happy ending into a Greek tragedy. Hence even
the most classical Western tale of homecoming is far from circular; it is riddled
with contradictions and zigzags, fa lse homecomings, misrccognitions.
Modern nostalgia is a mourning for the impossibility of mythical return, for
the loss of an enchanted world with clear borders and ,alucs; it could be a secu-
lar expression of a spiritual longing, a nostalgia for an absolute, a home that is
ph!sical and spi ritual , the edcni c uni ty of time and space before entry into
history. fhc nostalgic is looking for a spi ritual addressee. Encountering silence, he
looks for memorabl e signs, desperately mi sreading them.
- The diagnosi s of the disease of nostalgia in the late seventeenth century took
place roughly at the historical moment when the conception of time and history
were undergoi ng radical change. The religious vvars in Europe came to an end but
t he much prophesied end of the world and doomsday did not occur. "It was only
I I("" (' 111\ I II .., " I '" I I(' I " I 1-1 ' II II I II I I \ N 111 '
.,
11 11111 l '111 ('Sd1<1tology shl'd it s consl,rnt l' 'lh' < ol' Ll1 v immanent arril'al
.. 1 d11rnnsclay that a tl'mporality could han hnn rnt,1ln l that would be open to the
'" 11 .111d without limi t."" It is customary to perceil'c "linear" Judeo-Christian time
111 to the "cycl ical" pagan time of eternal return and discuss both with
ii" '11lp of spatial metaphors.
14
What this opposition obscures is the temporal and
111 .1orical development of the perception of time tliat since Renaissance on has be-
'"""' more and more secularized, severed from cosmological vision.
11.-l'orc the imention of mechanical clocks in the thirteenth century the ques-
111111, What time is it? was not very urgent. Certainly there were plenty of calami-
111 ' hut t11c shortage of ti me wasn't one of them; therefore people could exist "in
'" .1l l itude of temporal case. Neither t ime nor change appeared to be cri tical and
111 1111 there was no great worry about control li ng the futu re."'
5
ln late Renais-
1111 , . culture, Time was embodi ed in the images of Divine ProYidence and capri-
, "'"' 1:atc, independent of human insight or blindness. The division of time in!Q_
1 , 1, Present and Future was not so relcv as perceived as a "teacher
.. 1 l1k" (a in Cicero's famous dictum, historia ma9is1ra 1
1
iwe}Jand the repertoi1c of
, ,,1111plcs and role models for the futu ternativcly, in Leibniz's formulation,
1 lw "hole of the coming world is present and prefigured in t11at of the present."'"
1 lw r:rcnch Revolution marked another major shift in European mentali ty.
II. I' wide had happened before, but not the transformation of the entire social or-
,i, , l'he biography of Napoleon became exemplary for an entire generation of
"' 11 rnclhidualists, little Napoleons who dreamed of reinventi ng and revolution-
' '"I' their own lives. The "Revolution," at f-irst deri ved from natural movement of
i111 , I.H' S and thus introduced into the natural rhythm or hi story as a cycl ical
'"' 1.1phor, henceforth attained an irreversible direction: it appeared to unchain a
, 11 111cl -for future.
17
Thc idea of progress through revol ution or industrial devel-
"l '"wnt became central to the nineteenth-cent ury culture. From the seventeenth
'" 1I1 (' nineteenth century, t he representati on of time itself changed; it moved
' " .11 l'rom allegorical human figures- an old man, a blind youth holding an hour-
l 1 ' ,1 woman with bared breasts representing Fate to the impersonal languaJ?:
.. 1 1111111hers: rai lroad schedules, the bottom line of industrial progress_ Time was
'" , 1, 11ge r shifting sand; time was money. Yet the modern era also allowed for mu I-
''I '' ' , onceptions of time and made the experi ence of time more individual and
11 . 1ll\c.' .
I .111t thought that space was the form of our outer experience, and time the
1,, , 111 111' inner exper ience. To understand t he human anthropol ogical dimension
.. 1 tlw new tcmporali ty and the ways of internalizing past and fut ure, Reinhart
I " , lkl'k suggested two categories: space ef experience and horizon ef expectation;
I<>
. , II I I II I 11ll1 Ill N11 \ I I I 1.1 I
ho th pt1s1>11, d .111cl i11t vrp<T,011,d . 1 lw ' ll.1l'l' o l v:o- 1H1iv11n all ows one to ac-
count for tlw .1ssi milJtio n o r the 1>Jsl into Lil('' 1Jr('S"Jlt "L . .
. " . cxpl'ricnce 1s present
past , whose events ha1-c been incorporated and could be remembered." Hori-
zon of e xpectation reveals the way o r thinking about the future. Expectation "is
t he futu re pr esent; it directs itself to the not-yet to the non-expe ri e nced,
to whic h .1s to be re1ealed."" In the early mode rn era nevi possibiliti es of
md1v1dual self- fashioning and t he quest for per sonal freedom d
. opene a space
experimentation with time that \\'as not al\\'ays linear and o ne-
f
d1rect1onal. The idea of prog r ess, once it mmcd from the realm of arts and sei-
a nc\\' theology of "ob-
JCc tne time. I .1 is t he fir st genumcly historical conce pt which reduced

between ex!Jerience and expectati o n to a sing le con-

ept. What the idea o f progress was improve ment in the future,
reOect io n o n the pasLJmme<liatc ly, many writers and thinkers at the time
ra.ised the quest'.on of \\'hcther p rogress can el'er be simultaneous in all sphe res
ol human Schlegel wrote: 'The real problem of histor y is
the mec1ual1ty o f progress Ill the 1ar ious cle me nts of human developmen t, in
part icular t he g rea t dive rge nce in th e degree of intellectua l and ethical d eve l-
0 t "'" WJ I I
pmen 1ct 1er t 1erc was indeed an im1Jrovement
111
tli I cl
e 1uman1t1cs an
ar ts, and in the human conditi on in general, remained an o pen question . Yet
a nc\\' g lobal narrati1c as a secular counterpart to the uniicr-
sal aspirations of the Chri stian eschato logy. In the past two centuries the idea of
Progress applied to c1e rything- from time to space, from the nation to the in-
cl i1idual .
as a historical e motion, is a long ing for that shrinking "space of
ex pci.ience no fits the ncll' horizon of expectations. Nostalg ic mani -
are side effects of the teleology of progress. Progress was not only a
nar rative of temporal progression but also of spatial expansio n. Traiclers since
the late eighteenlh century wrote about other places, first to the south and then
the east of Europe as "semi-civilized" or outr ight "barbarous." Instead
ol coevalness of d ifferent conceptions of' time, each local culture the refore was
c1'.aluated th regard to the central nar rati ve of prog ress. Progress was a marker
of global time; any alternati1e to t hi s idea was pc rcei1ed as a local eccentrici t
p cl y
_ r em.o space
1
uscd to measured by parts of the human body: \\'e could
keep thmgs at arms length, apply the "rule of thumb " count the numbe r o f
"U d I '
e.et . . n nea rness and distance had a lot to do with kinship struc-
tu1 cs m a g '. ven society and treat ment of domestic and wi ld animals. 11 Zygmunt
Bauman wntcs, somewhat nostalgically,
I u II " ( ti H I H I I I II II I f I I "' I 11 I I \Ill I H 41 " \ I\: I I ' '
I Ii.it ,. 11 li11 l1 111 ,Ill' 11<111 111111111'11I" 1.dl ''c 1l1111 l1ll" .111d lo 111v.t, lllT Ii)
11111111,lrinu 11111tli tlw length ol thl' 1q11.1lrn, r,1tl1n th,111 11 itli tlw si;c of' human
b
l)()dily parts, torpor.11 dl'xlcr it y or sympat hil's/ ,rnl ipathies or its inhabitants,
used to be measured by human bodies and human relationships long before the
111ctal rod called the meter, that impersonality and disembodiment incarnate,
11 as deposited at Sevres for everyone to respect and obey. '
1
11
\ lrnlern objcctidty is conceived ll'ith t he development of Re naissance perspec-
1111 and the need for mapping the ne\\'ly discovered worlds. The early modern
1.1te relied on a certain "legibi lity" of space and its transparency in order to col-
11 1 l taxes, recruit soldiers, and colonize new ter ritories. Therefore the thicket of
11" omprehens1 c oca cu. e ra e and misleading to outsiders, were
I 11 ouvht to a common denominator, a common map. Thus modernization meant
b
11 1.1king the populated world hospitable to supracommunal, state-ruled adminis-
1 I .il ion bureaucracy and mo1ing from a bewild ering di1e rsity Of maps tO a Uni -
11 shared world. With the development of la te capitali sm and d ig ital
1<, hnology, the univer sal civilization becomes "global culture" and the local space
1, not merely transcended but made virtual. It would be dangerous, howe1e r, to
I ill into nostalg ic idealization of prc modern conceptio ns o r space with a rnrie t y of
1. ,, .11 customs; after all, they had their own local tradition o r cruelty; the "supra-
' 11111111unal language" was not only that or bureaucracy but also of human rights,
, .i democracy and liberation. What is crncial is that nostalgia was not merely an J
' \ prcssion of local longing, but a result or a new under standing or time and space
il1.1t made the division into "local" and "unin:- r sal" possible. The nostalgic creature
11." internal ized this division, but instead or aspiring for the universal and the pro-
11ssi1e he looks backward and yearns for the particula1-.
111 the nineteenth century, optimisti c doctor s believed thal nostalgia would be
, 11 1l' d 11it.h uni ver sal progress and the improveme nt of medicine. Indeed, in some
, "''s it did happen, since some symptom of nostalgia were confused with t uber-
, 1dosis. While tuberculosis eventually became treatable, nostalgia did not; since
1 I"' l'ightee nth century, the impossible task of exploring nostalgia passed lrom
, J, 11 tors to poets and philosophers. The symptom of sic kness came to be regarded
1 .. 1 ,ign of sensi bi lity or an expression of ne\\' patriotic feeling. The epidemic of
1111,t,1lg ia was no longer to be cured hut to be spread as ll'idely as possible.
1 is treated in a new genre, not as a talc of putative comalescencc but as a ro-
111.111t'e with the past. The new scenario of nostalgia was neithe r battlefield no r
''' " l1ital ward but mist y vistas with reflective ponds, passing clouds and ruins of
11 11' Middle Ages or ant iquity. Where native ruins were not availabl e artificial ru -
I I
I 11 I I 11 I I"' I " I N II \I I I (, I \
ins ll<Tv h11ilt, .il1t'.1dy Ii.ill 1111h u(111os( J>rt\'ision, \'om111cn10rat ina the
b
rL'al and imagi nary p.1s t ol' tlw 1w1' J: uroptJn nati ons.
In response lo the Enlightenment, with its emphasis on t11 e universality of rea-
son, romantics began to cclehratc the particulari sm of the sentiment. Longing for
home became a central trope of romantic nationalism. The romantics looked for
"memorative signs" and correspondences between their inner landscape and the
shape of the world. They charted an affective geography of the native land that of-
ten mirrored the melancholic landscape of' their own psyches. The primiti1e song
turned into a lesson in philosophy. Johann Gottfried 1on Herder wrote in J 773
that the songs of Latvian peasants possessed a "living presence that nothing writ-
ten on paper can ever have." It is this li ving presence, outside the vagaries of mod-
ern history, that becomes the object of nostalgic longing. "All unpolished people
sing and act; they sing about what they do and thus sing histories. Their songs are
a1-cl1ives of their people, the treasury of their science and re ligion .... Here
everyone portrays himself and appears as he is."21
It is not surpri sing that national awareness comes from outside the community
rather than from within. It is the romanti c traveler who sees from a distance the
wholeness of the vanishing world. The journey gi1es him perspective. The vantage
!
I point of a stranger in forms the nati l'C idy JI H The nostalgic is never a native but a
I displaced person who mediates between the local and the univc1sal. Many na-
tional languages, thanks to Herclci-'s passionate rehabilitation, discover ed the ir
own particular expression for patrioti c longing. Curiously, intellectuals and poets
from different national traditions began to claim that they had a special word for
homesickness that was radi cally untranslatabl e. While German heimweh, French
maladie du pays, Spanish ma/ de corazon ha1e become a part of nostalgic esperanto,
the emerging nations began to insist on their cultural uni9ueness. Czechs had the
word litost, which meant at once sympathy, g rief, remorse and undefinable long-
ing. According to Mi lan Kundera, lilost suggested a "feeling as infinite as an open
accordion" where the "first syllabic when long and stressed sounds like the wai l of
an abandoned dog."
21
The whispering sibilants of the Russian toska, made famous
in the literature of exiles, eYokc a claustrophobic intimacy of the c1-ammed space
from where one pines for the infinite. Toska suggests, literally, a stifling, almost
asthmatic sensation of incredible depri vation that is found also in the shimmering
sounds of the Polish tesknota. Usually opposed to the Russian toska (el'en though
they came from the same root), tesknota gives a simil ar sense of confining and
overwhelming yearning vvith a touch of moody artistry unknown to the Russians,
enamored by the gigantic and the absolute. Eva Hoffman describes tesknota as a
phantom pregnancy, a "wel ling up of absence," of al l that had been lost.
16
The Por-
I I
111 1,\H'M' and Br,izili,ins h.wl tlwir ,,111dudc, ,1 1 .. 11111'1 so1-ro'' li rn'')' .rnd lTotic, 11ol
I'. :mlodramali c as its Slal'ic counlL'rparl , yl'l no less prol'ound and haunting. Ro-
11 1,1n ians claim that the word dor, sonorous and sharp li ke a dagger, is unknown to
ri ll' other nations and speaks of a specifi cally Romanian dolorous ache. 27 While
, "' h term preser ves the specific rhythms of the language, one is struck by the
11 1.11 all these untranslatable words ar c in fact synonyms; and all share the
1111 untranslatabi lity, the longing for unigueness. While the details and dif-
11 grammar of romantic nostalgias all over the world is 9uite similar.
28
"I long
il1nd 'ore I am" became the romantic motto.
!
Nostalgia, like progress, is dependent on the modern conception of
.Id.- and irreversible time. The romantic nostalgic insisted the otherness. of rus
111,
1
t'l'l of nostalgia from his present life and kept 1t at a safe distance. The obi ect of
111111 ,mtic nostalgia must be beyond the present space of experience,
11 1 ihe twilight of the past or on the island of utopia where t ime .happily
1, Jiped, as on an anti
9
ue clock. At the same time, romantic is not}.
1114.1 l . an tithesis to progress; it undermines both a linear conception of progress
dialectical teleology. The nostalgic directs his gaze not only back-
11, 11 d butsideways, and expresses himself in elegiac poems and ironic
11111 in philosophical or scientific treatises. Nostalgia remains unsystematic and un-
1 111 hesizable; it seduces rather than convinces.
Jn romanti c texts nostalgia became erotic. Particularism in language and nature
",1, .iki n to the individual love. A young and beautiful girl was buried somewhere
111 llil' native soil; blond and meek or dark and wild, she was the personifi cat ion of
11,11 ure: Sylvie for the sylvan imagination, Undine for the maritime one, Lucy for
1111 1.ike region and a poor Liza for the Russian countryside. (Male. heroe.s tended
111111." toward bestial representations than pastoral, ranging from L1thuan1an bear-
,, ,1111 ts in Prosper Merimee's novellas to Ukrai ni an and Transylvanian
11 11' romance became a foundati onal fiction for new national revivals m Lat111
\ 111.. rica where countless novels bear women's names.
Yd song of national liberation was not the only melody ch.osen in. the nine-
1, , . 11 th century. Many poets and phi losophers explored nostalgic for its
"" 11 sake rather than using it as a vehicle to a promised land or a nat10n-state.
I 1111 saw in the combination o f melancholy, nostalgia and self-awareness
1
a]
111 11 ,
1
uc aesthetic sense that did not objectify t he past but rather heightened ones
, 11 , iLi1ity to the dil emmas of life and moral freedorn .
29
Kant, phi losopQ.x.
, " as a nostalgia for a better world. Nostalgia is what humans. sha1:e, not
, 1111 should divide them. Like Eros in the Platonic conception, longmg for the
, ., 111 ,111 tic phi losophers and poets became a driving force of the human condition.
I I
0
1111 Il l I II HI i ,, N , I\ I l . f \
hw N0\,1li.-. " l' hilosophv is n .. 111 ) ,1 ho11w"1 k11"": 11 is .111 111 g1 to he al home
everywhen:.""'
Like the doctors before them, ) Ocls_ and Jhilosophers fa iled to find a precise lo-
cation for nostalgia. They focused on the quest itself.\'\ poetic language and a
metaphori cal journey seemed like a 10meopa ic treatment for human longing,
acting through sympathy and similarity, t ogether with the aching body, yet not
promi sing a hallucinatory total recall. Heinri ch Heine's poem of prototypi cal
longing is about sympatheti c mirroring of nostalgia.
A spruce is standing lonely
in the North on a barren height.
He drowses; ice and snowflakes
wrap him in a blanket or white.
He dreams about a palm tree
in a distant, eastern land,
that languishes lonely and sil ent
upon tJ1e scorching sand."
The solitary northern spruce dreams about his nostalgic soulmate and an-
tipode- the southern palm. This is not a comforting national lo\'C affair. The two
rathe r anthropomor ph.i c t rees share soli tude and dreams, not roots. Longing for
a fell ow nostalgic, rather t11an for the landscape of the homeland, thi s poem is a
long-distance romance between two "internal immigr ants," displaced in their own
native soil.
The first generation of romantics were not politicians; their nostalgic world
view was weltanschauimg, not realpolitik. When nostalgia turns political
is connected to nation building_anclru1J ive songs arc p11rificd The offi cial memory
of t11c nation-state does not tolerate useless nostalgia, nostalgia for its m.vn sake.
Some Alpine melodies appeared too fri"ol ous and ideologically incorrect.
Whose nostalgia was it ? What used to be an individual emotion expressed by
sick soldiers and later romantic poets and philosophers turned into an institu-
tional or state policy. With the development of Swiss nati onalism (that coincided
with t he cr eation of a federal state in the nineteenth century), nati,e songs were
rewritten by schoolteachers who found peasant melodics vulgar and not suffi -
ciently patriotic. They wrote for the choral repertoire and tri<:'d to embrace pa-
triotism and progress. The word nation was one of the new words introduced into
the native songs.
I HI I /\l l 11 H I I t I I I I I H " I I ' I N l t I I I \ II I I H c t \t \ N I I t '
I\
I
'" lo ri> r!!,l't .rnd 1\\rnild 11. 111 mv s.l) 111 gl' t 0111'\ l11, 1ory "rong, ,lrl' cssl'nlial l
1.u I ors in 111,1king or ,1 11Jlion; Jnd thu: tlw .Hkrnn or Slu:ly is a
1
,,
1 10
iwtionality," "roll' Ernest ll cnan . ' Thl' French had to !orget the massac1 es
, .i :-- t . Bartholome'' 's night and massacres or the Cathars in the south in the thir-
1, .- nth century. The nostos of a nat ion is not merely a lost Eden but a pl ace of sac-
1 ilwl' an<l glory, of past suffer ing. Thi s is a k.ind of inversion of the initial "Swiss
o1
1
,
1
.asc": in the nati onal ideology, individual longing is transformed into a coll ec-
'" I' ht longing that relics on past sufferings that transcend individual
I >.-feats in the past figure as prominently as victories in uniting the nation. The
11
,
11
ion-slate at best is based on the social contract that is also an emotional con-
- .
11 .Ht, stamped by the chari sma of the past .
In the mid-nineteenth century, nostalgia hecanw institutionalized in national
111
.i proYincial museums and urban memorials. The past was no longer unknown
, ,
1
unknowable The ast became "heritaoe.' In the nineteenth century, for the first
111111
. in history, old monuments were rest ored in their original image. " Through-
, ,
111
Italy churches were stripped of their baroque layers and eclecti c additions and
, , , reated in the Renaissance image, something that no Renaissance architect
", iuld e\er imagine doing to a work of antiquity. '.J1c sense of histori city and .dis-
'
1
, l\ness of the past is a new nineteenth-century scnsibilitY:. By the encl ot the

century there is a debate between the defenders of compl ete restora-
1,,.11 that proposes to remake historical and ar tistic monuments of past in
1111 11
,. and wholeness, and the lovers of unintentional memorials of the past: rums,
, , lnti c constructions, fragments that carry "age ,aluc." Unlike total reconstruc-
they all owed one tc; experi ence histori city affectively, as an atmosphere, a
I'" 1 for refl ection on the passage of time. _
11
1
the late ninet eenth century nostalgia acquired publi c style and space. 1 he
11
, hiH'" of traditions that Herder found in folk songs was no longer to be left lo
, 1
1
.
1111
T . The cvasi\'e locus of nostalgia, the nomadic hearth of t he
1
,, lw for the sake of preservation . Memorat ivc signs of the nation were to
1 .. lound in card catalogues. The elusive t cmporality or longing was encased and
, l.i .sili ed in a of' archival drawers, display cases and curio cabinets. Pri -
11,. n>l lections allow one to imagine other times and places and plunge into
.1
1111
wsti c daydreaming and armchai r nostalgia. T he bourgeois home in nine-
1,,
111
h century Paris is described by Walter Benjamin as a miniature theater and
""'" um that privatizes nostalgia while at the sa me time replicating its publi c
1111
, iure, the national and pri\'ate homes thus becoming intertwined. Publ ic nos-
1 .i ,,
1
,
1
,u:quires distinct styles, from the empire style favored by Napoleon to the
,,,
I 111 I II I 11 1< I Ill N , , , I\ I I\
new histori c.ii styll' s mo Cothic, Ill'<> Hr1.11ll11H', .111cl so on as the cycles of'
revoluti onary change arc accompanied by restor,1 ti o11s that end up with a recov-
ery of a grand style.
Nostalgia as a hjstori cal emotion came of age at the time of Romanticism and
is coeval with t he birth of mass culture. It began with the early-nineteenth-
century memory boom t hat turned the salon culture of educated urban dwellers
and landowner s into a ritual commemoration of lost youth, lost springs, lost
dances, lost chances. With the perfection of album art, the practice of writing
poems, drawi ng pictures and leaving dried Aowers and plants in a lady's album,
every Airtation was on t he verge of becoming a memento mori. Yet this souveni -
rization of the salon culture was la ful, d nami c and interactive; it was part of a
social theatricality that turned everyday life into art, even if it wasn' t a master-
P-iece. Artificial nat ure begins to play an in the European imagina-
t ion since the epoch of baroque- the word itself signifies a rare shell. In the
middl e of' the ni neteenth century a fondness for hc rbari ums , greenhouses and
aquariums became a di stinctive feature of the bourgeois home; it was a piece of
[
nature transplanted into the urban home , framed and domesticated. 14 What was
cherished was the incompleteness, the fossil , the ruin, the miniature, tJ
1
e sou-
veni r, the total recreation of a past paradise or hell. As Celeste Olalquiaga ob-
served for the nineteenth-century imaginati on, Atlantis was not a "golden age" to
be reconst ructed but a "lost civi lization" to engage with through ruins , traces and
fragments. The melancholic sense of loss turned into a style, a late ninetecnth-
century fashion.
Despite the fact that by the encl of the ninet eenth century nostalgia was per-
vading both the publi c and private spheres, the word itself was acquiring negative
connotations. Apparently there was littl e space for a syncretic concept of nostal-
gia during a time in which spheres of exist ence and di vision of labor were under -
going further compartme ntali zation. The word appeared outmoded and
unscientific. Public discourse was about progress , community and her itage, but
configured di fferently than it had been earlier. Private discourse was about psy-
chology, where doctors focus on hysteria, neurosis and paranoia.
The rapid pace of industrial ization and modernization increased the intensity of
people's longing for the slower rhythms of the past, for continuity, social cohe-
sion and tradition. Yet this new obsession with the past reveals an abyss of forget-
ting and takes place in inverse proportion to its actual preservation. As Pierre
[
- Nora has suggested , memorial sites, or "lieux de memoire," are established insti-
tutionally at t he t ime when the environments of memory, tJ1e milieux de memoire,
fade.
15
It is as if the ritual of commemorat ion could help to patch up the irrc-
I l l ( 11 l l 1 I \ 1 1, 1 1 11 " 1 1 1 I r-J 1 11 It \ 111 I I{
1
' ' \ N 1 1 t '
I/
' I .d>d1t y or tinw. ()I ll' ('Oll icl :irgul' th.11 Nrn-.1's O\\ll \ll'\\ ru11d,11mnL.:ill y nos-
1 ,J
1
,
11
l rn: the Lime\\ lwn l' 11\'ironmcnts or lll l' ll1<>ry Wl'l'l' J par t or lire and no offi-
1 ii
11
.
1
t ion.:il traditions were necessary. Yet this points to a paradox of
11 111111
ion.:i li zcd nostalgia: the stronger the loss, the more it is overcompensated
11
1
1
, ommemorations: the starker the di stance from the past, and the more it is
1
,, , ., ,.. lo idealizations.
( 'Jo, t.d ia was erceivcd as a Euro can disease. Hence nations that came of
I .t ,
111
d wished to di st inguish themselves from aging Europe developed their
1
.j,
11 111 1
on an antinostalgic premise; for better or worse they claimed to have
11111
,,
11
:lI Lo escape the burden of historical time. "We, Russians, like ii.legitimate
1, i1 .1
1
,.
11
, come to this world without patr imony, without any links with people
J, ,. li"d on the earth before us. Our memories go no further back than yester-
1, "".ire as it were strangers to oursel ves," wrote Petr Chaadacv in the first half
I
1
1i, nineteenth century.
16
Not accidentally, this self-critical statement could
, II lj>pl y to the young American nati on too, only with a tone that
,,
11
1,i -; upplant Russian eternal fatalism with Ameri can eternal opt1m1sm. Ignor-
111 ,. 1
1
,
1
,
1
moment the massive political differences between an absolute monarchy
11
.i .
1 11
,.
11
. democracy, we can obser ve a similar resistance to rustori cal memory
'ill11 t i \\' ith a different accent). Americ.ans perceived 1
iJ
1
,
11
,_,. hl's as "Nature's Nation," something t hat li ves 111 the present and has no
11
, , .i 1.,
1
. the past- what Jefferson called the "blind ,eneration of antiquit)', for
1 1
, ,
111
, .:i nd names to overrule the suggesti ons of our own good sensc."
11
The lack
,1
1
,,
111
irnony, legitimacy and memory that Chaadaev laments in state of the
t
11
. 1.
111
consciousness is celebrated in the Ameri can case as the spirit of the ne1..v,
,
1
, ,,
11
,. naLural and progressi1c. Intellectuals of both new nations share an inferi -
'
11
, ,
11
periority compl ex vis-a-vis old Europe and its cultural heritage-_ Both arc
1111
,i
11
,
10
ri cal in their self-definition, only Russians lag behind and Ameri cans run
.i,. id
11
r it. Chaaclaev, di scoverer of' the nomadic Russian spirit , was declared a
., , "1
111
.
111
upon his return f'rom abroad and became an internal immigrant in his
111
.11
11 1
l.rnd. SlaYophilcs appropriated Chaadae1"s critique of the Russian mental-
111
111
.j turned spiritual longing (roska) and the lack of histori cal consciousness
1
11 1
,, 1
1
.itures of the Russian soul and a birthmark of the chosen nation.
' "", j, ,
111
case t his youthful forgetfulness allowed for the nationalizat ion
I",, ",., , ,rnd the creation of another uasi-metaphysical entity called the
"' "" or li fe. On the surface, little could be more c i erent than t e celebration
.i 1(
11
"
1
,
111
spiritual longing and the American dream. What they share, howeYer,
1
11,, drlam of transcending history and the Russian nineteenth-
,
111
,
11
,
1
r,u lition it is the writer and peasant who become carriers of the natwnal
1M
clrca1n, 11 hil 1 i11 tlw I\ .. . . . I
. -. .- 11 . n11 11( ,111 ( .1sv l H' <' lllrvpn 1wt11 ,111 d n>\\' hO)' Jrc the ulti mal
J I t1sts Ill 1 l' Unlik , ti .. I{ '
. l ll' ll uss1,1n countcrpJ rts thl')' arc stro I 1
not too ood wi h . . . . . ' ng anc s1 ent types
g t " o1 ds. Whcrcrn rn Russia classical literature of th .
centu d h h e nmetcent
I
. I y 'ie\\'C t roug the prism of centralized school programs bee c
( at1on of the nat i , ame a ioun
. . . on s canon and repository of nostalg ic m ths in the Unit
Stlatcs it is popular culture that helped to spread the wa'y of life So e
v 1l-re on the fronti er tJ h f me
. , ie g ost o Dostoevsky meets the ghost of Micke M
Like the characters from The Possessed, they exchange wry smiles. y ouse
2
THE ANGEL OF HISTORY:
NOSTALGIA AND MODERNITY
11.,w to begin again? I low to be happy, to invent ourse lves, shedding the inertia of
11 ... 1rnst? lj_ow to experience life and li fe alone, "that dark, driving, insatiabl!:;
l""H' r that after itself?"' These were the questi ons that bothered the mod-
1 1 m. I lappiness, and not merely a longing for it , meant forgetfulness and a new ]
I" 1nption of time.
J"he modern opposition between traditi on and re\'olution is treacherous. Tradi -
111111 means both deli ver y- handing down or passing on a doctr ine- and surr en-
.i. 1 or betrayal. Traduttore, uaditore, t ranslator, traitor. The wonl revolution,
1111 rl arly, means both cycli cal repetiti on and the radical break. Hence tradition
111d revolution incorporate each other and rely on their opposition. Preoccupa-
1111 11 wi th tradi tion and inte rpretation of traditi on as an age-o ld ritual is a dis-
1111 1 tl y modern pheno menon , born out o f' anxiety about the vanishing past .
2
111 11110 Latour points out that "the modern t ime of progress and the anti-modern
111111 of' tradition' arc twins who failed to recognize one another: The idea of an
11 11 11 tical repetition of the past and that of a radical rupture with any past arc two
1111rnct rical results of a single conception of time."' Thus there is a codependency
1 .. l 11 t' Cn the modern ideas of progress and newness and anti modern claims of re-
l 1111-ry of' national community and the stable past , which becomes particularly
11 .1r at the end of tlie t'vventi eth century in light of its painful hi story.
I he word modernic_y was first explored by the poets, not political scientist s;
1 l1.1rlcs Baudelaire elaborated t his term in his essay "The Painter of Modern
I iii "( 1859- 60).4 Baudelaire gives a dual image of modern beauty and the cxperi -
1 "' .. of modernity: "Modernity is the hansitory, the fugitive, the contingent, the
I 1.ill ol" art of which the other half is eternal and the immutable." Baudelaire's pro-
1. 1 1 is to "represent the present," to capture the transience, the excitement, the
I" 11t1 ,rn qual ities of the modern experience. Modernity is impersonated by an un-
19
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