10AEE02 BASIC CIVIL & MECHANICAL ENGINEERING A CIVIL ENGINEERING (For circuit branch !

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&NI$ I S&RVE'ING AN( CIVIL ENGINEERING MA$ERIALS Surveying) Objects - types classification principles measurements of distances angles leveling determination of areas illustrative examples Civil Engineering Materials: Bric s stones sand cement concrete- steel Sections 12 &NI$ II B&IL(ING C*M%*NEN$S AN( S$R&C$&RES !oundations: "ypes# Bearing capacity $e%uirement of good foundations Superstructure: Bric masonry stone masonry beams columns lintels roofing flooring plastering Mec&anics 'nternal and external forces stress strain elasticity types of Bridges and (ams Basics of 'nterior (esign and )andscaping 12 B MECHANICAL ENGINEERING &NI$ III %*+ER %LAN$ ENGINEERING 'ntroduction# Classification of *o+er *lants ,or ing principle of steam# -as# (iesel# .ydro-electric and /uclear po+er *lants Merits and (emerits *umps and turbines +or ing principle of $eciprocating pumps 0single acting and double acting1 Centrifugal *ump 12 &NI$ IV I C ENGINES 'nternal combustion engines as automobile po+er plant ,or ing principle of *etrol and (iesel Engines !our stro e and t+o stro e cycles Comparison of four stro e and t+o stro e engines Boiler as po+er plant 12 &NI$ VREFRIGERA$I*N AN( AIR C*N(I$I*NING S'S$EMS "erminology of $efrigeration and 2ir Conditioning# *rinciple of vapor compression and absorption system )ayout of typical domestic refrigerator ,indo+ and Split type room 2ir conditioner3 12 $E,$ B**-S) 43 5Basic Mec&anical Engineering6# 7enugopal 8 and *ra&u $aja 7# 2nurad&a *ublis&ers# 8umba onam# 09:::13 93 5Basic Civil and Mec&anical Engineering6# S&anmugam - and *alanic&amy M S# "ata Mc-ra+ .ill *ublis&ing Co3# /e+ (el&i# 04;;<13 REFERENCES) 43 5Basic Civil Engineering6# $amamrut&am3 S# (&anpat $ai *ublis&ing Co3 0*1 )td3 04;;;13 93 5Basic Civil Engineering6# Seet&araman S3 2nurad&a 2gencies# 09::=13 >3 5Basic Mec&anical Engineering6# S&ant&a 8umar S $ ?3# .i-tec& *ublications# Mayiladut&urai# 09:::1

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING

Unit I
Surveying:
@ It is defined as the process of measuring horizontal distances, vertical distances and included angles to determine the location of points on, above or below the earth surfaces. @ The term surveying is the representation of surface features in a horizontal plane. @ The process of determining the relative heights in the vertical plane is referred as levelling.

Objectives of Surveying:
@ The data obtained by surveying are used to prepare the plan or map showing the ground features. @ When the area surveyed is small and the scale to which its result plotted is large, then it is known as lan @ When the area surveyed is large and the scale to which its result plotted is small, then it is called as a !ap @ Setting out of any engineering work like buildings, roads, railway tracks, bridges and dams involves surveying

!ain divisions of surveying: "ypes of Surveying

@ Plane surveying @ Geodetic surveying

#oncept:
@ Since the shape of the earth is spheroidal, the line connecting any two points on the earth surface is not a straight line, but a curve. @ hen the surveys e!tend over a large areas or when the accuracy re"uired is great, the curvature of earth has also to be taken into account.

#or small distances the difference and the subtended

lane Surveying: chord

@ The surveying where the effect of curvature of earth is neglected and earth$s surface is treated as plane, is called surveying. @ The degree of accuracy in this type of surveying is comparatively low. @ Generally when the surveying is conducted over the area less than %&' S".(m., they are treated as plane surveying. @ Plane surveying is conducted for the purpose of engineering pro)ects.

$eodetic Surveying:

@ The effect of curvature is taken into account. @ It is also known as *Trigonometrical Surveying+. @ It is a special branch of surveying in which measurements are taken with high precision instruments. @ ,alculations are also made with help of spherical trigonometry. @ It is generally adopted by the Great Trigonometrical Survey -epartment of India+. .GTS/.

#lassification of surveying:
@ 0and Surveying @ 1arine or 2avigation or 3ydrographic Surveying @ 4stronomical Survey. %and Surveying: 0and survey is a one, in which the relative points or ob)ects on the earth$s surface is determined. !arine or &avigational or 'ydrographic Survey: 1arine surveying is one in which in which the relative position of ob)ects under water is determined. (stronomical Surveying: It is one in which observations are made to locate the heavenly bodies such as sun, moon and stars.

#lassification of %and surveying:

Topographical Survey5 @ It is used for determining the natural and artificial features of the country such as rivers, Survey5 lakes, hills and canals. ,adastral @ It is used to locate additional details such as boundaries of fields of fields, houses and other properties. ,ity Survey5 @ It is used for town planning schemes such as laying out plots, constructing streets, laying water supply and sewer lines. @ 6ngineering Survey 5 It is used to collect data for design and construction of 6ngineering works such as roads, railways, bridges dams etc.,

rinciples of Surveying: rinciple ):

@ 4 number of control points are fi!ed in the area concerned by adopting very accurate and precise methods. @ The lines )oining these control points will be control lines. @ 7ther measurements are made to locate points inside these control lines. @ Thus, main triangles and traverses are formed first.

#hain Surveying , rinciple:

@ The main triangles and traverses are divided into smaller ones by using less rigorous methods. @ 8y doing so, accumulation of errors is avoided and any local error can be easily identified. @ If survey work is started from a part .smaller triangle or traverse/ and proceeded to whole there are chances of errors getting multiplied at every stage. @ 'ence any survey work should be from whole to part and not from part to whole* @ 2ew points should be fi!ed by atleast two independent measurements.

rinciple +:

rinciple +:
@ 4s per the Principle %, the location of a new point involves one of the following. .a/ !easurement of two distances* .b/ !easurement of two angles .c/ !easurement one angle and one distance

#ig 95 It shows the method of locating : with reference to known length P; by using the known distances of P: .l9/ and ;: .l%/ #ig %5 It shows the method of locating : with reference to the length P; by using the known angles ;P: .<9/ and P;: .<%/ #ig =5 It shows the method of locating : with reference to known length P; by using the known distance of P: .l9/ and known angle ;P: .<9/

@ In chain surveying only linear distances on the field are measured. @ These distances are used to define the boundary of field and mark simple details. rinciple : @ It is to form a network of triangles by using the distances measured. @ 8etter accuracy will be obtained if the triangles thus formed are nearly e"uilateral in shape.

#lassification of surveying:
@ ,hain Surveying @ ,ompass Surveying @ Theodolite surveying @ Plane Surveying @ Techeometric Surveying

(ccessories used in #hain Surveying:

The different accessories used in chain surveying are .a/ 1etre ,hain .b/ ,hain Pins .arrows/ .c/ 1easuring Tape .d/ :anging rod>7ffset rod.

!etric surveying chain:

@ 4 surveying chain is a device used to measure distance between two points on the ground. @ 1etric chains are available in lengths of ? m, 9'm, %'m and =' m. @ %'m @ =' m chain is normally used for the field of surveying. @ 4 surveying chain contains brass handles with brass eyebolt and collar, galvanized mild steel links and wire rings. @ In the case of %' m and =' m chains, brass tallies are provided at every ? m length and indicating brass wire rings are attached at every metre length e!cept where tallies are provided.

@ The distance between the outside faces of handles of a fully stretched out chain is the length of the chain. @ The length of the chain, like %'m is engraved on the handles. @ hile measuring the long distance, the chain will have to be used a number of times. @ 4rrows are driven at the end of every chain length. @ #or holding the arrows in position, grooves are cut in the outside face of the handles. @ The radius of the groove is the same as that the arrows. @ #or convenient handling of the chain, the handle )oint is made fle!ible so that it is possible to swivel to handle round the eye bolt.

#hain ins:
@ ,hain pins or arrows are used with the chain for marking each chain length on the ground. @ The arrow is driven into the ground at the end of each chain length is measured. @ ,hain pins the arrow should be made of good "uality hardened and tempered steel wire of minimum tensile strength of A' kg>mm %. @ The overall length is B'' mm and thickness is Bmm. @ The wire should be black enamelled. @ The arrow has a circular eye at the one end is pointed at the other end .

egs:
@ ooden pegs of 9?cm length and = cm s"uare in section are used to establish the station points or the end points of a line on the ground. @ They are tapered one end and are driven into the ground by using a wooden hammer. @ 4bout B cm is left pro)ecting above the ground.

!easuring "ape:
@ There are different types of tapes are used. They are .a/ ,loth or linen type .b/ 1etallic Tape .c/ Steel Tape .d/ Invar Tube. 1etallic tape and steel tapes are most commonly used. @ 1etallic Tape is made of varnished waterproof linen. @ It is reinforced with fine brass copper or bronze wires. @ Tapes are available in lengths of 9', 9?, %', =' or ?' metres. @ In metallic tapes every metre is divided into 9'' divisions .cms/. @ In steel tapes, the centimetre division are also subdivided.

-anging -od:
@ It is also known as ranging pole or picket. @ :anging rod is used for ranging or aligning long lines on the ground in field surveying. @ :anging is a straight line means fi!ing a series of pegs or other marks such that they all lie on a straight line.

@ :anging rods are used marking points on the ground so that the positions of the points are distinctly visible from some distant way. @ The length of ranging rod may be % m and = m and its diameter is =' mm. @ :anging rod made of steel tube has an internal diameter of =% mm. @ The ranging rods are made of well seasoned, straight grained timber of circular cross section. @ :anging rods should be straight and free from warps. @ The deviation in straightness should not e!ceed ?mm in a % m length. @ The ranging rod is painted in red and white in alternate band lengths of %'' mm each. @ The bottom end of the rod is fitted with a pointed, hollow, cast iron shoe or steel shoe of 9? cm length.

Offset -od:
@ It is a ranging rod with two short, narrow, vertical sighting slots passing through the centre of the section. @ 4 hook is fitted of a groove is cut at the top to enable pulling or pushing of the chain through obstruction like hedges. @ 7ffset rods are meant for setting outlines appro!imately at right angles to the main line.

#ross Staff:
@ It is used to set out right angles in chain surveying @ It consists of four metal arms vertical slits mounted on a pole. @ Two opposite slits are positioned along the length of a line .1ain 0ine/ @ 4 line perpendicular to the main line is formed or sighted through the other two slits

lumb .ob:
@ It consists of a solid conical piece and a string attached to it at its centre. @ hen in use, the solid piece is at the bottom. @ It is used to test the verticality of the ranging rods and to transfer the points to the ground. @ Plumb bob is used while doing chain surveying on sloping ground.

Unfolding and folding of chain:

@ 8oth the handles of the chain are held in the left hand and the other portions in the right hand. @ The portion held in the right hand is thrown forwardC @ The person throwing moving backward himself. @ The leader takes one handle of the chain and moves forward himself.

@ The leader takes one handle of the chain and moves forward till the chain is stretched to its full length. @ The chain should be free from any kinks or bends. @ 4fter the completion of the work, the two handles are brought together and the chain is folded started with the middle pair. @ The links are placed obli"uely across each pair. @ The folded chain is securely tied with a rope

-anging a line:
@ It means fi!ing a series of pegs or other marks such that they all lie on a straight line. @ Suppose P and ; are the two ends of a survey line. @ 7ne ranging rod is driven ;. @ The surveyor holds another ranging rod at P and stands at about =' cm behind ranging rod. @ The assistant goes with another ranging rod along the survey line and positions himself appro!imately in line with P; at a distance less than a chain length from P. @ The surveyor at P keeps his eye in line with P; and signals to the assistant by way of ad)usting the position of the ranging rod held by the assistant traversely. @ This ad)ustment is continued till the intermediate ranging rod is truly in line with P and ;.

Outline of #hain surveying:

@ 4 base line which is a chain line is fi!ed. @ The base line is aligned by ranging. @ The length of the line is measured by chaining. @ #or this follower holds the zero end of the chain and the leader drags the chain to an intermediate point on the line @ The leader straightens the chain by )erking till the chain lies e!actly over the line. @ The leader marks the end of the chain by driving the chain pin .arrow/ @ The follower holds the zero end of the chain at the chain pin point again @ Thus the chaining is continued till the entire length is covered. @ #or locating the details, lateral measurements are taken to the ob)ects. @ These lateral measurements are called offsets. @ If the offset is at right angles to the base line, it is called perpendicular offset. @ If it is inclined to the base line, it is called obli"ue offset. @ -epending upon the situation, perpendicular or obli"ue offsets are taken @ The length are measured are entered.

(dvantages and disadvantages of chain surveying: (dvantages:

@ It is simple @ It does not re"uire any costly e"uipment @ It is adopted for preparing plans for small area

/isadvantages:

@ It cannot be used for large areas @ It cannot be used in thick bushy areas with ups and downs. @ ,hain surveying is not always accurate.

#ompass Surveying , rismatic #ompass:

@ henever a number of base lines are to be run for obtaining the details as in traversing, )ust linear measurements made by chain surveying will not be sufficient. @ The angles included between the ad)acent lines should also be measured @ ,ompass is one of the instruments used to measure the angles.

rismatic #ompass: /escription:

@ 4 magnetic needle is balanced over a pivot in a circular bo! of D? mm to 99' mm in diameter. @ 4 graduated aluminium ring is attached to the magnetic needle. @ 4n agate cap keeps the aluminium ring stable. @ The bo! is covered by a glass lid. @ 7b)ect vane and eye vane are provided at diametrically opposite ends. @ 6ye vane caries a reflecting prism which can be raised or lowered as desired. @ 4 vertical horse hair or fine wire is provided at the middle of the ob)ect vane.

@ The graduations in the aluminium ring are made in the clockwise direction starting with 'o at South and 9D'o at 2orth with inverted markings. @ 4 triangular prism fitted below the eye slit enables magnification of readings to suit observer$s eye. @ 8ased on this prism arrangement, the compass is named prismatic compass. @ ,ompass is fi!ed over a tripod with ball and socket arrangement. @ 4 braked pin is provided below the ob)ect vane to damp the oscillations of the magnetic needle while taking readings.

Working rinciple:
@ The magnetic field aligns itself with the magnetic meridian .2ES direction/ @ The line of sight is actually the line )oining the ob)ect vane and eye vane @ The angle between the 2ES direction and the line of sight is observed in the compass @ This angle is actually the angle between 2ES direction and the line on the ground @ This angle made by the line with the 2ES direction is called the bearing of the line. @ ,ompass is used to measure the bearing of the different lines from which the angles included between the ad)acent lines are computed.

'ow to take reading using compass:

@ The compass is centered over the station by dropping a small piece of stone from the centre of the bottom of the compass. @ 4 plumb bob is used for centering. @ The compass is levelled by ad)usting the ball and socket till the top of the bo! is horizontal. @ The graduated ring should move freely after having levelled the instrument. @ Suppose the bearing of a line P; is to be observed. @ The compass is centered over P. @ It is levelled. @ The prism and the ob)ect vane are kept in vertical position. @ The compass is turned slowly till the ranging rod already erected at ; is bisected. @ In this position, the ranging rod, the ob)ect and the eye vane all lie in the same line. @ The focusing prism is raised or lowered till the readings were clear and sharp. @ The reading in the ring cut by the ob)ect hair line is taken after damping the oscillations of the ring by pressing the brake pin.

/efinitions:
!agnetic .earing5
@ @ It is the angle between the magnetic meridian and the line. @ The angle is always measured in the clockwise direction @ It is the direction shown by a freely suspended magnetic needle

@ The magnetic meridian is also called bearing.

"rue .earing5
@ True bearing of a line is the angle between the true meridian and the line. @ The angle is always measured in the anticlockwise direction. @ The true meridian is the line )oining the geographical north and south bearings.

Whole #ircle .earing:

@ The bearing of lines measured from the &orth is called Whole #ircle @ The angle is reckoned in the clockwise direction from 0o coinciding with the .earing* north.

1uadrant .earing:
@ The whole circle is divided into four "uadrants. @ The bearing is e!pressed with 2 or S as prefi! and 6 or suffi!. @ ;uadrant 8earing is also known as -educed .earing* as

2ore .earing and .ack bearing:

@ 6very line has two bearing namely fore bearing and back back bearing @ #ore bearing is the bearing taken in the direction of surveying and 8ack bearing is the bearing taken in the reverse direction. @ "he difference between the fore bearing and the back bearing should be )30 * @ It o means that one or both stations of the line are sub)ected to local attraction . @ Thus, local attraction is the influence caused on the measured bearings of lines due to the presence of materials like railway track, current carrying wires or cables, etc.,

"o find 1. from W#.: Solution : %ine ( lies in )st 4uadrant* 1uadrant .earing bearing of ( 5 & 67o )78 9

Solution :
0ine P8 lies in %nd "uadrant. ;uadrant 8earing bearing of P8 F S ?'o ''$ 6

Solution :

%ine # lies in 6rd 4uadrant* 1uadrant .earing bearing of # 5 S 60o )78 W

Solution : %ine / lies in :th 4uadrant*1uadrant .earing bearing of / 5 & ;< o )78 W

"o find Whole #ircle .earing from 1.: .I/ .ii/ .iii/ .iv/ ,8 F P4 @2 9?o 6 ,8 F P8 @ S %?o B?$ 6 ,8 F P, @ S B?o ='$ ,8 F P- @ 2 9'o

1n: ( , & )7o 9 4ns5 0ine P4 is in the first "uadrant. Its

,8 is 9? o

%evelling:
@ It is a surveying method used to determine the level of points>ob)ects with reference to the selected datum. @ It is also used to set out engineering works.

Uses of %evelling:

@ To determine the difference in levels of points>7b)ects @ To obtain contour map of an area @ To obtain cross section of roads, canals etc., @ To determine the depth cutting and filling in engineering works. @ To establish points or erect machinery or construct a building component at a predetermined level. Important "erms: .ench !ark: It is surveyor$s mark cut on a stone> rock or any reference point used to
indicate a level in a levelling survey.

-educed %evel:
@ :educed level of a point is the level of the point with respect to the level of permanent feature or bench mark. @ It indicates whether the point is above or below the reference point =datum>*

Instruments used in leveling:

Instruments used in levelling are, .i/ 0evelling instrument .ii/ 0evelling staff 0evelling Instrument 5 @ Simplest form of levelling instrument is dumpy level. @ The different parts of levelling instrument are, .a/ Telescope .b/ 6yeEpiece .c/ focussing knob .d/ level tube .e/ cross bubble .f/ foot screws .g/ levelling head .h/ diaphragm .i/ ray shade

/umpy %evel:

%evelling Staff:
@ It is an important accessory used with levelling instrument at the time of conducting levelling survey. @ :eading is taken on the levelling staff held properly at the point concerned by viewing through the telescope of the levelling instrument. @ Gsually B m levelling staff may be used of folding type or telescopic type @ 4luminium levelling staff foldable at every metre length has also came to the market. @ The levelling staff consists of three pieces. @ The topmost one slides into the middle one and the middle portion slides into the bottom one. @ hen the staff is fully pulled, it will read e!actly B' decimeters .Bm/ from the bottom shoe.

$raduation in levelling staff:

@ 6very metre length is divided into %'' divisions. @ The divisions are painted in black and white alternately of thickness ? mm each. @ The graduation figures are marked at every decimeter length. @ The number indicating metre is in red and the decimeter number is in black.

@ Thus, a graduation figure of %B indicates % metres and B decimeters. @ The graduation are made continuously one above the other in the same line. @ The division lines should be parallel to the base of the bottom shoe and perpendicular to the length of the staff. @ The edges of the division lines should be straight sharply defined. @ They should be clear and made distinctly visible by properly contrasting. @ The graduation colour paints used should not crack or blister when e!posed to adverse or atmospheric conditions.

Important "erms in leveling:

@ Station 5 In 0evelling, the term station always refers to the point where the levelling staff is held and not the instrument station. @ 'eight of Instrument the assumed datum.

5 It is the elevation of the line of sight with reference to

@ .ack Sight =.*S/ 5 It is the reading taken on the staff held at a point, the elevation of which is known already. It is useful to know the new height of the instrument. @ 2oresight =2*S/5 It is the reading taken on the staff held at a point of unknown elevation. #rom, #.S., the height of the line of instrument above the point can be obtained. It is useful to find the elevation of the point.

@ #hange oint 5 It is the point at which the fore sight is taken from one
instrument station and back sight is taken from the ne!t instrument station. @ Intermediate station 5 4 point between two change points is known as intermediate station. 7nly one reading is taken on the intermediate station.

!ethods of %evelling:
@ !ethod ) 5 It is done with only one setting of the instrument. @ !ethod +5 hen the two station points are wide apart and the instrument is set up at more than one point and the levelling is carried out.

!ethod ) With only one setting of the instrument:

@ The instrument is set up at a point between P and ; and the temporary ad)ustments carried out. @ The levelling staff is held at P, the elevation of which is known already. @ 4 back sight is taken on the staff held at P. The staff is then held at ; and the foresight is taken.

'eight of the instrument F ?nown elevation of @ the staff reading at F 9''.''H %.9' F )0+*)0 m 9levation of 1 5 'eight of the instrument , the staff reading at 1 F 9'%.9' @ 9.D' F )00*60 m !ethod II When the station points are wide apart, the instrument is setup for at more than one point and levelling is done ='eight of #ollimation !ethod>

@ 4 change point .,.P/ is established in between P and ;. @ 4 back sight is taken at P and a fore sight is taken at the change point. @ The instrument is shifted to another point between the change point and ;. @ 4 back sight is taken at the change point and a fore sight is taken at ;. @ 4ny number of change points are established as re"uired. @ This method is known as 3eight of ,ollimation method.

"he elevation of change point F 9levation of @ .ack sight at , 2ore sight at change point =#* > F 9''.''H9.&'E9.9' F )00*70 m "he second height of the instrument 5 "he elevation of change point@ .ack Sight at change point F 9''.?'H9.%? F )0)*A7 m "he elevation of 1 5 "he second height of instrument , foresight at 1 5 9'9.A? @ 9.D9 F <<*<: m

-ise and 2all !ethod of calculating the level:

@ The staff readings of the points observed from the same setting of the instrument are compared. @ It is found whether a point is above or below the preceding point. @ If the point is above, the staff reading will be less than the preceding point. The difference between the staff readings is called rise* @ If the point is below the preceding point, the staff reading will be greater than that at the preceding point. The difference between the staff readings is termed fall*

"he difference between the staff readings

at and 1 5 +*)0 , )*30 5 0*60 =rise> 'ence, level of 1 5 9levation of @ -ise 5 )00*00@0*60 5 )00*60 m

(rithmetical #heck of -ise and 2all method:

B.S - F.S = Rise - Fall = Last R.L First R.L.

6*;A0 , )*+<0 5 6*+67 , 0*377 5 )0+*630 , )00*00 +*630 5 +*630 5 +*630

2ly %evelling:
@ 4ny number of change points are established as re"uired during levelling. This method is known as fly levelling. @ It is adopted to find the difference in level between two points, when .i/ The two points are too far away .ii/ the difference in level between two points is large .iii/ there are no obstructions in between the two points concerned.

#alculation of (reas:
@ 7ne of the purposes of surveying is to determine the area to be surveyed. @ The area of the land obtained by surveying actually refers to the area as pro)ected on a horizontal plane. @ There are different methods of computing the area of land using the data obtained by surveying.

#alculation of area by "rapeBoidal -ule 5

@ In trapezoidal, a convenient base line is established. @ Perpendicular distances from the base line to the boundary of the land concerned are measured at regular .e"ual/ intervals along the base line. @ These perpendicular distances are called ordinates.

"rapeBoidal rule:

Total Area, A

= d/2 (h

+h

+2(h

+h

.+h

!!

Si"#sons R$le%
@ This r$le is a##li&a'le onl( i) the n$"'er o) ordinates is odd. @

A = d/3

(First *rdinate+ Last *rdinate + 2 (s$" o) odd ordinates!+ +(s$" o) e,en ordinates! (h1+hn+ 2(h3+h-+h.+ ..+hn-2!+ +(h2+h++ .+hn-1!

i. e. A = d/3

@ /) the n$"'er o) ordinates is e,en, the area o) the last tra#e0oid is &al&$lated se#aratel( and added to the res$lt.

1ro'le"s on Si"#snon2s R$le and Tra#e0oidal R$le%

The following perpendicular offsets were taken at 9' m intervals from a survey line to an irregular boundary line5 =.&', %.D', B.?', D.%?, A.D?, &.B?, ?.=?. ,alculate the area enclosed between the survey line and boundary line by trapezoidal rule and Simpson$s rule. %. 4 series of offsets were taken at ? m intervals from a chain line to a curved edge. 9.?', 9.&&, %.%?, %.D', 9.A?, 9.I?, '. ,alculate the area between the chain line and the irregular boundary to the curved edge by the Simpson$s rule and Trapezoidal :ule

&NI$

I (S&RVE'ING AN( CIVIL ENGINEERING MA$ERIALS"

%AR$ A (2 MAR-S" 43 ,&at is surveyingA 93 ,&at is t&e objective of surveyingA >3 ,&at are t&e t+o major types of surveyingA B3 ,&at is meant by observation in geodetic surveyingA =3 (ifferentiate bet+een plane surveying and geodetic surveying3 <3 .o+ t&e surveying is classified based on purposeA C3 (efine bearing of a line3 D3 ,&at are t&e systems of bearingA ;3 (istinguis& bet+een !ore bearing and Bac bearing3 4:3 ,&at is meant by local attraction E state its effectsA 443 (efine leveling and state its objectives3 493 (efine benc&mar and state its effects3 4>3 ,&at are t&e different types of benc& mar sA 4B3 /ame t&e t+o met&ods for calculating $3)3 4=3 ,&at are t&e instruments used for levelingA -ive some notes on t&at3 4<3 (efine contour E contouring3 4C3 ,&at is meant by Contour )evelA 4D3 )ist t&e c&aracteristics of contours3 Mention any t&ree uses of contour maps3 4;3 ,&at is &oriFontal e%uivalentA 9:3 (efine Survey station E "ie station3 943 (efine Base line E C&ec line3 993 ,&at is t&e difference bet+een a plan and a mapA 9>3 ,&at are t&e met&ods used to measure t&e distancesA Explain t&at3 9B3 ,&at are t&e accessories used in c&ain surveyingA 9=3 Clarify t&e suitability of c&ain surveying3 9<3 State any t&ree limitations of c&ain surveying3 9C3 ,&at is metric c&ainA 9D3 /ame t&e t+o +ays for measuring t&e &oriFontal angles and explain t&at3 9;3 ,&at are t&e t+o types of compass used in surveyingA ,rite fe+ lines about t&at3 >:3 ,&at is ,3C3B and $3B in surveyingA >43 ,&at are B3S# '3S# and !3S in )evelingA >93 ,&at are rules adopted for calculating t&e areaA >>3 State t&e accuracy to +&ic& a reading can be ta en on a leveling staff3 >B3 Compare t&e &eig&t of Collimation met&od and rise and fall met&od of determining t&e difference in level bet+een t+o consecutive points3 >=3 State t&e assumptions made in t&e SimpsonGs rule met&od of finding t&e area3 ><3 State t&e SimpsonGs rule3 >C3 State t&e "rapeFoidal $ule of finding t&e area3 >D3 .o+ roc s are classifiedA Explain in detail3 >;3 ,&at is %uarrying E dressing of stones B:3 (iscuss t&e various types of building stones and t&eir uses3 B43 State t&e uses of cement concreteA B93 State t&e properties of cement concrete3 B>3 ,&at is proportioning of concreteA BB3 (efine +or ability of concrete3

B=3 (iscuss t&e various p&ysical and mec&anical properties of building materials3 B<3 Explain t&e various constituents of good bric eart&3 BC3 State and explain t&e various essential %ualities of good bric s3 BD3 Explain t&e features and +or ing principles of .offmanGs continuous iln3 B;3 Compare Clamp burning +it& iln burning3 =:3 (iscuss t&e classification of bric s in detail3 =43 Explain t&e various special types of bric s and t&eir uses3 =93 ,&at are t&e various tests to be conducted on bric s to decide t&e suitabilityA Explain in detail3 =>3 )ist t&e various applications of different types of bric s3 =B3 ,&at are igneous# sedimentary and metamorp&ic roc sA -ive examples3 ==3 (escribe t&e re%uirements or properties of good building stone in details3 =<3 Explain t&e type of test to be conducted for t&e suitability of building stones3 =C3 )ist t&e various tests for sand and explain briefly3 =D3 ,&at are t&e various ingredients of *ortland cementA Explain t&eir functions3 =;3 (iscuss t&e various p&ysical and c&emical properties of *ortland cement in detail3 <:3 Explain t&e process of manufacture of *ortland cement in a rotary iln3 <43 )ists t&e various tests to be conducted to ascertain t&e %uality of *ortland cement3 <93 Explain t&e various inds of cement and t&eir uses3 <>3 Explain t&e different constituents of concrete and t&eir functions3 <B3 (iscuss t&e c&aracteristics of cement concrete as a building material3 <=3 (iscuss t&e process of preparation of cement concrete3 <<3 (escribe t&e classification of concrete based on various factor3 <C3 (iscuss t&e proportions of ingredients# properties and uses of reinforced cement concrete3 <D3 Explain &o+ t&e measurement of +or ability of concrete is done3 (escribe t&e slump test +it& necessary diagrams3 <;3 ,&at are t&e classification of steel# t&eir properties and usesA C:3 (escribe t&e various forms of rolled steel sections meant for structural uses3 %AR$ B (10 MAR-S" 43 Explain prismatic compass and surveyors compass in detail3 2nd give t&e comparison bet+een t&ese3 93 State t&e principles of surveying3 >3 Explain differential leveling +it& a neat s etc&3 B3 Explain +it& neat s etc& of c&ain and principles of c&ain surveying3 =3 Explain +it& suitable s etc&es t&e measurements of &oriFontal angle and vertical angle3 <3 Explain t&e +or ing principle of dumpy level +it& a neat s etc&3 C3 Explain t+o met&ods of computing reduced levels of points3 D3 (istinguis& bet+een simple leveling and differential leveling +it& suitable s etc&es3 ;3 (escribe t&e principle of operation of a transit t&eodolite +it& a neat s etc&3 "&e follo+ing staff readings +ere observed successively +it& level# t&e instrument &ave been s&ifted after second and fift& readings: :3DC:H 43<>=H 934>=H 439D:H 93;D: >349=H :349:H 43D9=H 93C<=H 93:4= first reading +as ta en +it& t&e staff &eld upon a benc& mar of elevation I 4::3::3 Enter t&e readings in level boo and final reduced levels3 2pply t&e usual c&ec s3 !ind also t&e difference in level bet+een t&e first and last points3 4:3 !ollo+ing readings are ta en successively +it& an instrument in leveling +or :

:3>B=# :3C<:# 43BD=# 93>;:# >3C=:# 43D>=# :3C<=# 93>::# 93::=# :3:C=# :3;;=# 43DC:# >3=<=# 43>B: and 934C:3

"&e position of t&e instrument +as c&anged after = t&# ;t& and 4>t& readings3 Ma e t&e entries in t&e level boo and find t&e reduced levels of all t&e points if t&e $3) of first point is 4::3:::m3 2pply t&e usual c&ec 3 Solve t&is problem by using# a13 .eig&t of Collimation met&od b13 $ise and fall met&od 443 "&e follo+ing perpendicular offset +ere ta en at 4: meter intervals from an survey line to an irregular boundary line >34B=m# B3>:m# D39:m# =3<:m#C3<:m# B39m# =3<m# B3>m3 calculate t&e area enclosed bet+een t&e survey lines# t&e irregular boundary line# and first and last offsets by t&e application of a1 2verage ordinate met&od b1 "rapeFoidal rule and c1 SimpsonGs rule 493 ,&at are t&e re%uirements of good building stone E state important varieties of building stones3 4>3 ,&at are t&e different types of cementA Explain t&e properties and uses3 4B3 ,&at are t&e different types of steelA Explain t&e properties and uses3

BASIC CIVIL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT II
Foundation, Superstructure, Simple Stresses and Strains, Dams, Bridges and Interior Design

Su. r !tructur an/ Sub!tructur 2 structure consists of t+o parts3 /amely# 43 Su. r!tructur Abo0 th .1inth 1 0 1 93 Sub Structur 2 B 1o3 th .1inth 1 0 14 't is also no+n as foundation3 "&e soil on +&ic& t&e foundation rests is called 5oun/ation !oi14

Foun/ation) Objectives of found tion! "o distribute t&e total load coming on t&e structure on a larger area "o support t&e structures "o give enoug& stability to t&e structure against various disturbing forces# suc& as +ind and rain3 T"#es of found tion !oundation may be broadly classified# $% S& ''o( )ound tion 24 ( . Foun/ation S& ''o( )ound tion! ,&en t&e dept& of t&e foundation is less t&an or e%ual to its +idt&# it is defined as s& ''o( found tion3

I!o1at / Co1u6n 5ootin7

Dee# found tion ! (eep foundation consists of pile and pier foundation3*ier foundations are rarely used for buildings3"&is consists in carrying do+n t&roug& t&e soil a &uge masonry cylinder +&ic& may be supported on solid roc 3 T"#es of s& ''o( found tion! T"#es of s& ''o( found tion! Iso' ted co'u*n footin+ ! 't is used in framed structures +&ere several columns are to be constructed# isolated buildings can be adopted3 , '' footin+! 't is t&e footing provided t&roug&out t&e lengt& of t&e +all in t&e load bearing +alls# t&en it is called +all footing3 Ste##ed )ootin+! ,&en t&e ground is sloping# stepped footings are provided3 't consists of t+o or more footings of bric or stone masonry and a concrete bed belo+ t&e ground level3 "&e overlap bet+een t+o layers of foundation concrete slab is e%ual to t&e dept& of concrete slab or t+o times t&e &eig&t of t&e step# +&ic&ever is more3 Continuous footin+! 'n t&is type of footing# a single continuous $C slab is provided as foundation for t&ree or more columns in a ro+3 "&is type of footing is more suitable to prevent t&e differential settlement in t&e structure and for t&e safety against t&e

St .. / 5ootin7 eart&%ua e3

Continuous footing

$8. ! o5 / . 5oun/ation

$% -i'e found tion! *ile is an element of construction used as foundation3 't may be driven in t&e ground vertically or +it& some inclination to transfer t&e load safely3 )oads are supported in t+o +ays3 i3e3# eit&er by t&e effect of friction bet+een t&e soil and t&e pile s in or by resting t&e pile on a very &ard stratum3 "&e former is called f.iction #i'e and later one is t&e 'o d be .in+ #i'e% /%Unde. .e *ed #i'e! Structures build on 9.an!i0 !oi1! often crac due to t&e differential movement caused by t&e alternative s+elling and s&rin ing of t&e soil3 Jnder reamed piles provide a satisfactory solution to t&e above problem3 "&e principle of t&is type of foundation is to transfer t&e load to t&e &ard strata +&ic& &as sufficient bearing capacity to ta e t&e load3 Single and double under reamed piles may also be provided for foundation of structures in poor soils overlying firm soil strata3 *ile !oundation

Fai1ur ! o5 5oun/ation) $% Une0u ' sett'e*ent of soi' /% Une0u ' sett'e*ent of * son." 1% ,it&d. ( ' of *oistu.e f.o* sub soi'% Une0u ' sett'e*ent of soi'! Re sons 1. Due to unequal distribution of load 2. Varying bearing capacity of soil . !ccentricity of load. -.evention 1. "#e foundation s#ould rest on roc$ or #ard moorum. 2. C#ec$ t#e allo%able bearing pressure not e&ceeded . Care s#ould be ta$en on t#e eccentricity of t#e load.

Jnder reamed pile foundation

Une0u ' sett'e*ent of * son."! Re sons 43 Mortar joints may s&rin and compress# leading to une%ual settlement of masonry3 -.evention 43 "&e mortar to be used in t&e masonry# s&ould be stiff3 93 "&e masonry s&ould be raised evenly and s&ould be +atered properly3 ,it&d. ( ' of *oistu.e f.o* t&e sub soi'! "&is occurs +&ere t&ere is considerable variation in t&e &eig&t of t&e +ater table3

 "&e precaution needed to avoid t&is type of failure is to drive piles up to t&e &ard roc level3 Su#e.st.uctu.e! Superstructure mainly consists of +alls# doors +indo+s and lintels3 "&e purpose of superstructure is to provide t&e necessary utility of t&e building# structural safety# fire safety# sanitation and ventilation3

MAS*NR' $8. ! o5 6a!onri !) Bric Masonry Stone Masonry B.ic2 M son." 3Bonds in B.ic2 (o.24! St.etc&e. Bond! 2ll t&e bric s are arranged in stretc&er courses3 "&e stretc&er bond is useful for one bric partition as t&ere are no &eaders3 2s t&e internal bond is not proper t&is is not used for +alls of t&ic ness greater t&an one bric 3 He de. Bond 2ll bric s are arranged in &eader courses3 't is used for curved surfaces since t&e lengt& ,ill be less En+'is& Bond! 't is most commonly used type of bond3 't is t&e strongest type of bond3 't is used for all +all t&ic nesses3 Englis& bond consists of &eaders andStretc&ers in alternative courses of elevation3 2 %ueen closer is placed next to t&e %uoin &eader in eac& &eader course to t&e full t&ic ness of +all3 Eac& alternative &eader lies centrally over a stretc&er of t&e stretc&er course3 .eader bond

Stretc&er bond

)'e*is& Bond! .eaders are distributed evenly as s&o+n3 "&e peculiarities of a !lemis& bond are as follo+s3 43 'n every course &eaders and stretc&ers areplaced alternatively3 93 "&e %ueen closer is put next to t&e %ueen &eader in alternate course to develop t&e lap >3 Every &eader is centrally supported over a stretc&er belo+ it3 B3 "&e !lemis& bond may be eit&er a double !lemis& or Single !lemis& bond3

Englis& Bond

!lemis& Bond

Rac:in7 Bon/) It i! u! / 5or thic: 3a11!4 't is subdivided into 43 Diagonal bond 2. 'erringbone bond.

(irection only at certain angle of inclination3

$% Di +on ' bond) Bric s are laid diagonally3 'nternal placing of bric s is made in one /% He..in+bone ) "&e bric s are laid at an angle of B=: from t&e centre in bot& directions3

Ston Ma!onr8 't is a natural c&oice for masonry3 'ts durability &as been demonstrated and massive structures3 Coal tar# paraffin# linseed oil or solution of alum and soap are t&e preservatives used to prevent t&e stone from t&e effects of rain +ater# +ind etc3# Stone masonry is t&e construction carried out using stones +it& mortar3 Because of &ig& cost of transportation# painful and costly +or of dressing and need for experienced labour# stone masonry is presently not popular3 !urt&er stone masonry +alls occupy more space compared bric +or 3

T"#es nd Uses of stones

and sides +it& &ammer blo+s3

T"#es of stone * son." ! (ense stones li e granites and %uartFite !ire resistant stones and sand stones Soft stones li e lime stones# marble and slate used for carvings# arc&es etc3# Uses of stone * son."! !oundation# floor# +alls# lintels# column# roofs# etc3# ,alls# roofs# lintels for temples# monuments etc3# !or facing +or s in bric masonry to give massive appearance3 C' ssific tion of stone * son." Rubb'e M son." $andom rubble masonry Uncou.sed nd cou.sed S%uared rubble masonry Uncou.sed nd cou.sed *olygonal rubble masonry As&' . M son." 2s&lar fine masonry 2s&lar roug& tooled masonry 2s&lar roc or %uarry faced masonry 2s&lar c&amfered masonry 2s&lar facing masonry

R ndo* Rubb'e * son."! $andom rubble masonry# uses stones of 'rregular s&apes3 "&e stones are arranged in a random fas&ion "&e joints are points to ac&ieve a good appearance "&e efficiency of t&is type depends upon t&e +or mans&ip3

S0u .e .ubb'e * son." 'n s%uare rubble masonry# t&e stones are roug&ly s%uared +it& straig&t edges

As&' . M son."! 'n 2s&lar masonry# no irregular stones are used3 "&e entire construction is done using s%uare or rectangular dressed stones3 "&e sides and faces of t&e stones are dressed finely +it& c&isel3

(a6!
A /a6 i! a i6. r0iou! barri r or an ob!truction con!truct / acro!! a natura1 !tr a6 or a ri0 r to ho1/ u. 3at r on on !i/ o5 it u.to a c rtain 1 0 14

St.uctu.e of D *! U##e. st.e * c.est do(nst.e *

-u.#ose of d *s! "&e stored +ater in t&e dam can be continuously used for irrigation3 "&e reservoir forms a very good source for +ater supply for areas +&ere ground +ater is inade%uate 'f sufficient &ead of +ater is stored# t&en t&at can be used for po+er generation3 "&e reservoir forms a good place for breeding of fis&# +&ic& is a considerable +ealt& for a dam

C' ssific tion of d *s!

(ams are broadly classified into# $% Ri+id D *s /% Non .i+id d *s% Ri+id d *s! "&ese dams are constructed using rigid construction materials3 "&e construction materials used are# stone or bric or reinforced cement concrete3 Ri7i/ /a6! ar 5urth r C1a!!i5i / into; $% So'id +. vit" d * /% A.c& D * 1% Butt.ess d * 5% Ti*be. nd stee' d * So'id G. vit" D *! 2 gravity dam is defined as a structure +&ic& is designed in suc& a +ay t&at its o+n +eig&t resists external forces3 't is more durable and &as maximum rigidity3 't re%uires less maintenance compared to ot&er types3 "&is type can be constructed of masonry or concrete3 /o+adays# concrete dams are prevalent3 A.c& D *! 2rc& dams are curved in plan3 "&is structure less Massive +&en compared to gravity dam "&e forced exerted by t&e stored +ater on upstream side +ill be transferred by t&e abutments of t&e arc& dam3 "&is dam is suitable for narro+ valleys but major re%uirements is sound abutments3 2n arc& dam is economical only +&en t&e lengt& of dam is less t&an its &eig&t3 Butt.ess d *! 2 buttress dam &as relatively t&in sections +&en compared to a gravity dam3 't consists of a sloping section buttresses and a base slab3 "&e sloping membrane 0!ace slab1 first ta es t&e +ater load and transfer to t&e buttresses +&ic& are specific intervals3 "&e buttresses in turn transfer t&e load to t&e base slab +&ic& forms t&e foundation part of t&e dam3

Ti*be. nd Stee' D *! "imber and steel dams are not generally used for bigger dam sections3 2 timber dam is generally adopted for temporary re%uirements to enclose certain +or sites or to divert t&e flo+3 2fter t&e main structure is built t&e timber dam +ill be dismantled3 "imber dams are generally made +ater tig&t3 Steel dams are not common in use3 But it is possible to construct t&e dam +it& steel upto a &eig&t of 4=-4D m Non Ri+id D *s! /on rigid dams &ave a trapeFoidal basic profile3 "ypes of /on $igid dams E .t& D *s Roc2 fi'' d *s% Earth (a6) Eart& dams are made of soil +it& minimum processing using primitive e%uipment "&ese are built in areas +&ere t&e foundation is not strong enoug& to bear t&e +eig&t of a gravity dam3 2s t&e construction material of t&e dam is ordinary soil +&ic& is c&eaply available t&e cost of construction of t&is dam is less t&an rigid dam3

Roc2 )i'' D *! $oc fill dams are made of loose roc s and boulders piled in t&e river bed3 2 slab of reinforced concrete is often laid on t&e upstream face to ma e it +ater tig&t3 "&ere are more stable t&an eart&en dams and les stable t&an gravity dams3 "&e dam section generally consists of dry ruble stone masonry on t&e upstream

side and loose roc fill on t&e do+nstream side3

O.din ." f'ood 'eve' 3O)L") 't is t&e flood level +&ic& generally occurs every year3

Bri/7 !
( 5inition: 2 bridge is a structure providing passage over an obstacle suc& as an vale# road# rail+ay# canal# river +it&out closing t&e +ay beneat&3 "&e re%uired passage may be road# rail+ay# canal# pipeline# cycle trac or pedestrians3 Co*#onents of b.id+e! -ie. ! "&ese are provided bet+een t&e t+o extreme supports of t&e bridge 0abutments1 and in t&e bed of t&e river to reduce t&e span and s&are t&e total load acting on t&e bridge3 Abut*ents! "&e end supports of a bridge superstructure are called abutments3 't may be of bric masonry# stone masonry# or $CC3 't serves bot& as a pier and as a retaining +all3 $h .ur.o! o5 abut6 nt! ar ; "o transmit t&e load from t&e bridge superstructure to foundation3 "o give t&e final formation level to t&e bridge superstructure "o retain t&e eart& +or of emban ment of t&e approac&es3 A##.o c&es! "&ese are t&e lengt& of communication route at bot& ends of t&e bridge3 H nd . i's) .and rails are provided on bot& sides of a bridge to prevent any ve&icle from falling into t&e stream3 $ chnica1 $ r6!) S# n ! '" is t&e centre to centre distance bet+een t+o approac&es Cu've.t! 't is a small bridge &aving maximum span of < m Vent ( "! 't is t&e culvert &aving a lengt& of less t&an 4m Hi+& )'ood Leve' 3H)L4! '" is t&e level of &ig&est flood ever recorded3

43*ermanent bridges 93 Bac bridges >3 "&roug& bridges B3 Semi t&roug& bridges =3 Straig&t bridges <3 S e+ bridge 2ccording to type of superstructure: 432rc& Bridge 93 Slab Bridge >3 " beam and slab bridge B3 Bo+ string and girder bridge =3 Steel 2rc& bridge A.c& B.id+e : 2rc& bridges are often Jsed because of t&eir pleasing 2ppearance3 "&e advantages of 2rc& bridges are# 43 "&ere +ill not be bending any ,&ere in t&e arc& 93 7ibrations due to impact forces 2re minimum >3 *leasing appearance3

S' b B.id+e! Simplest type of $CC slab -enerally found to be economical for a span of ;m3 "&e t&ic ness of slab is %uite considerable but uniform3

T be * nd s' b b.id+e! 't consists of " beams supported over piers and abutments3 "&e dec slab is supported over t&e " beams 't is suitable for a span of ; 9: m St 1 arch bri/7 ! are constructed +&ere it is not possible to construct an intermediate pier3 't can be used for a long span upto 4=: m3 St 1 tru!! b a6 't is provided for long rail+ay bridges "&ese bridges are less affected by +ind forces3 't is easy to erect t&e steel truss bridge since t&e component members are lig&t in +eig&t3

Mov b'e b.id+es! Movable bridges are constructed in Order to provide a &ead+ay to or Opening for navigation s&ips3 "&e design of bridge superstructure is done in suc& a +ay t&at it can be moved so as to allo+ necessary +idt& and clearance for t&e passing of s&ips3

$8. ! o5 6o0ab1 bri/7 !

44 V rtica1 Li5t bri/7 24 Ba!cu1 bri/7 <4 S3in7 Bri/7 Cu've.ts! Culvert is a drain or +ater course enclosed and usually carried under a road or rail+ay trac 3 "&e follo+ing are common types of culverts3 $% Bo6 Cu've.t! 't consists of one or more s%uare or rectangular openings made of $CC or masonry3 But $CC box culverts are +idely used3 /% -i#e Cu've.t 't is economical for small drainage crossing3 "&ese culverts are generally constructed for diameter less t&an 43Dm3 "&e pipes may be of Cast 'ron or $CC3 'f t&e soil is lo+ bearing capacity# t&e pipes are to be bedded in a layer of concrete 1% A.c& Cu've.ts! 2rc& culverts are constructed on bric or stone masonry or concrete +alls &aving s&ort spans of 9-> m3 (epending upon loading# span and type of construction# t&e t&ic ness of an arc& may be 9: =: cm3

Roofin+
( 5inition) 2 roof is t&e upper most part of a building +&ic& is supported on structural members and covered +it& roofing materials to give protection to t&e building against rain# +ind# &eat# sno+ etc3#

$8. ! o5 roo5!) $% )' t Roofs a. (CC (oof b. )adras "errace roof /% Inc'ined Roofs a. Single roof b. "russed roof )' t Roofs! RCC Roof! 't is most commonly used3

Conc.ete f'oo.in+ 'n t&is roof concrete +it& steel reinforcement bars is used to form a flat roof 't consists of $CC slab built +it& supporting columns3 "&e slab is reinforced in bot& t&e principal directions3 )oad carried columns are directly supported by columns S'o#in+ Roof! Classification* Single roof (ouble or purling roof "russed roof Sin+'e Roofin+! Sin+'e Roof! 't consists of common rafters# supporting t&e $oofing material3 $afters are supported at t&e +all plates and $igid pieces3 Single roofs are used for spans up to =m# So t&at no intermediate support is re%uired !or rafters3 Doub'e 3Cou#'ed4 .oof! 'n a coupled roof a paid or coupled of $afters slope up+ards from t&e +alls3 "&e rafters are ept at uniform intervals 2long t&e lengt& of t&e roof3 "&e rafters are connected at t&e upper End to a longitudinal beam3 T.ussed .oof! "&e number of straig&t members are connected in t&e s&ape of triangle and forming a frame is no+n as truss3 "russes are +ooden framed structure# provided +&ere t&ere are no inside +alls3 "russes are provided at regular intervals of about > m long along t&e room lengt&3 "&e spacing of trusses depend upon t&e load on t&e roof3

F1oorin7
!loors are &oriFontal elements of a building structure +&ic& divide t&e building into different levels for t&e purpose of creating more accommodation +it&in a limited space

T"#es of f'oo.in+! Mud o. *oo.u* f'oo.in+ B.ic2 f'oo.in+ Stone f'oo.in+

G. no'it&ic f'oo.in+

Te.. 77o f'oo.in+ Mos ic )'oo.in+ M .b'e )'oo.in+ ,ood o. ti*be. f'oo.in+ As#& 't f'oo.in+ G. nite f'oo.in+ Indust.i ' f'oo.int Mud o. *oo.u* f'oo.in+! "&e floor bed s&ould be +ell prepared and a 9=: mm t&ic layer of selected moist eart& is evenly spread is during rammed +ell so as to get a consolidated t&ic ness of 4=: mm /o +ater isand used ramming3 'n order to prevent formation of crac s after drying# c&opped stra+ in small %uantity is mixed +it& t&e moist eart& before ramming3 Jpon t&is bed# a t&in coat of cement# co+dung plaster is applied evenly and +iped clean by &and3

B.ic2 f'oo.in+! "&e sub grade is compacted properly to t&e desired level3 4:-4=cm layer of lean cement concrete or lime concrete is laid over t&e prepared subgrade3 "&is forms t&e base course# over +&ic& bric s are laid in desired on 49 mm t&ic mortar in suc& a +ay t&at all t&e joints are filled +it& mortar3 Bric floors are suitable for +are &ouses# stones and godo+ns or in place places +&ere t&e bric s are available economically3 "&is floor is c&eap Stone f'oo.in+! "&e subgrade is prepared by laying a 4::mm to 4=: mm layer of cement or lime concrete over a bed of +ell consolidated eart& "&e stone slabs may be s%uare or rectangular usually >::x>:: mm to <::x<:: mm siFe3 "&e t&ic ness of stone varies from 9: mm to B: mm3 "&e selected stone s&ould be &ard# durable and uniform t&ic ness3 Ce*ent Conc.ete )'oo.in+! Ba! concr t ) "&e base course is laid over +ell compacted soil# compacted properly and levelled to a roug& surface3 "&e base course consists of C3= cm to 4: cm t&ic cement concrete3 "&e top surface of t&e concrete base is roug&ly finis&ed to develop a good bond bet+een t&e base and topping

+ arin7 !ur5ac )

 2fter t&e base &as &ardened# its surface is brus&ed +it& stiff broom and cleaned t&oroug&ly3 "&e entire surface is divided into a s%uare of rectangular not exceeding 93= cm in lengt&3 Cement concrete is 9=mm to B: mm is t&en laid in alternate panels3 "&e top surface is beaten and made in a uniform line and level and smoot&ened by tro+elling3 Mos ic )'oo.in+! Mosaic flooring is made of small pieces of bro en tiles of glaFed c&ina# cement# or of marble# arranged in different patterns3 "&ese pieces are cut to t&e desired s&apes and siFes3 "&is floor is laid normally a &ard bed of cement concrete3 "&e top surface of concrete base is cleaned and +etted3 On a small portion of t&e floor# a layer of ric& cement# mortar is evenly spread to a t&ic ness of 4cm and mosaic tiles are coloured and sprin led pressed in t&e joints3 "&e process is continued for t&e +&ole is continued for t&e +&ole set# t&e surface is completely polis&ed +it& a mosaic polis&ing mac&ine3 M .b'e )'oo.in+! "&e flooring is laid over t&e prepared subgrade +&ic& is cleaned +etted and mopped properly3 2 layer of cement mortar of 4:B is spread in an average t&ic ness of about 9: mm3 Marble slabs are laid in t&is bedding mortar# pressed and levelled3 "&e marble slabs may be rectangular and s%uare in s&ape and t&eir t&ic ness varies out of t&e 9: mm to B: mm3 "&e joints bet+een t+o slabs must be very t&in3 "&e cement t&at ooFes out of t&e joints are cleaned3 Ti*be. f'oo.in+! "&e timber used for flooring s&ould be +ell seasoned3 't s&ould be free from nots and defects 2 base course of cement concrete of C= mm t&ic ness is prepared3 ,ooden fillet strips of siFe 9: mm x B: mm are embedded in concrete to a dept& about 49 mm along t&e s&ort span3 .ence# t&ey project above t&e level of t&e base course3 On t&ese fillets timber flooring plan s of 9= mm t&ic ness are laid3 Ti'ed )'oo.in+ 8 Te.. 77o f'oo.in+! Ti'ed )'oo.in+! "iled flooring may be used for bot& ground floor and upper floors3 'n tiled flooring tiles made of clay or cement concrete or -laFed tiles# manufactured in different s&apes and siFes are used3 Jsing coloured cement attractive patterns and coloured surface can be used3

Ce*ent Li*e *o.t .! Te.. 77o f'oo.in+! "erraFFo is a special type of cement concrete3 "&is concrete consists of +&ite cement instead of grey cement and marble po+der instead of sand and marble c&ips as coarse aggregate instead of stone aggregates3

-' ste.in+
-' ste.in+ ! *lastering is t&e process of covering t&e roug& surfaces of +alls# beams# columns and ceilings +it& a protective cover3"&is protective layer is plastic material li e cement mortar or lime mortar3 %ur.o! o5 .1a!t rin7) A.. aranc ) *lastering provides smoot&# regular and clean surfaces to +alls# beams# etc3# to improve t&e appearance3 (urabi1it8 ) *lastering improves t&e durability of t&e exposed surfaces of +alls3 Conc a1in7 / 5 ct!) 't conceals t&e defects in t&e +or mans&ip3 '" conceals use of inferior and porous materials in masonry +alls# concrete# beams etc3# E55 ct o5 at6o!.h ric a7 nci ! : *lastering in external surfaces prevents damping of t&e +alls# etc3# due to atmosp&eric agencies li e rain# sun# +ind etc3#

"ypes of mortars used for plastering C 6 nt Mortar Li6 Mortar C 6 nt21i6 6ortar +at r .roo5 6ortar4 Ce*ent Mo.t .! 't is a mixture of ordinary portland cement and coarse sand in predetermined proportions3 "&e proportions of cement and sand depends on t&e nature of plastering +or 3 "&e usual mix for cement mortar for plastering varies from 4:> for t&e surfaces in cntact +it& +ater to 4:B to 4:< for ot&er surfaces3 Li*e *o.t .! E%ual volumes of lime and fine sand are t&oroug&ly mixed3 Eit&er fat lime or poor lime may be used in lime mortar3 "&e mixture is ground in a mortar mill by adding re%uired %uantity of +ater to form a paste of re%uired consistency and +or ability

S. +o.

Cement lime mortar is prepared by first mixing cement and sand in a dry state in t&e 2spects (efects $emediesK*recautions re%uirement proportions3 !at lime is mixed +it& +ater and is added to t&e cement sand mix3 "&e materials are t&oroug&ly mixed till a mortar of t&e desired consistency and +or ability is obtained3 Crac formation .air line crac Superior %uality bric s formation on plastered s&ould be used3 *roper te. #.oof *o.t .! surface curing of plastered s&ould be ,ater proof mortar for plastering is prepared by mixing 4 surface part of cement +it& 9 parts of sand done3 and pulveriFed alum at t&e rate of 49 gKm> of sand3 Soap +ater is added to t&e dry mixture to ma e it +ater proof and to obtain re%uired consistency and +or ability3 !allingK*eeling of *atc& formation on t&e *roper bonding

falling of plaster -' ste.in+ defects nd #.ec utions!

plaster

surface of plaster and

bet+een coats of plaster s&ould be provided

Blistering

Small patc&es s+ell out beyond t&e plane of t&e plastered surface

*roper tro+elling s&ould be done3

,.

Excessive dampness

Excessive dampness at certain areas on t&e surface ma es t&e portion soft

(amp proof course 0(*C1 s&ould be provided in t&e floor roof etc3#

9>3 State t&e special features of Englis& and !lemis& bond3

Lan/ !ca.in7
Definition! 'nterior design process follo+s a systematic and coordinated met&odology# including researc&# analysis and integration of no+ledge into a creative process3 L ndsc #in+! 't is t&e activity of modifying variable visible features of an area of land to give a pleasant appearance3 't includes gardening to create beautiful environment3 Systematic arrangement of plants 't includes beautification of land forms suc& as lilly pond# fountain# trees# la+ns# etc3# 't covers +eat&er and lig&ting arrangements# colouring etc3# &NI$ II (B&IL(ING C*M%*NEN$S AN( S$R&C$&RES" %AR$ A (2 MAR-S" 43 /ame any four important types of buildings3 -ive examples3 93 (efine t&e terms: i13 *lint& area ii13 !loor area iii13 Carpet area >3 Mention any t&ree factors +&ic& affect t&e bearing capacity of soil3 B3 (efine t&e terms: i13 (ead load ii13 )ive load iii13 ,ind load =3 ,&at do you understand by differential settlement of foundationA <3 Mention t&ree precautions to be ta en to prevent une%ual settlement of subsoil3 C3 )ist t&e various types of foundations3 D3 ,&at do you understand by stepped footingA ;3 ,&at do you understand by continuous footing of foundationsA 4:3 /ame any t&ree types of end bearing piles3 443 Suggest any t&ree met&ods by +&ic& t&e frictional resistance of t&e surrounding soil against t&e do+n+ard movement of t&e pile can be increased3 493 /ame any t&ree types of friction piles3 4>3 Mention any t&ree uses of +ell foundation3 4B3 ,&at are t&ree groups of mac&ines re%uiring different types of foundationsA -ive examples to eac&3 4=3 /ame t&e t&ree different types of mac&ine foundations3 4<3 State t&e objectives and re%uirements of good foundationA 4C3 (ifferentiate bet+een s&allo+ foundation and deep foundation3 4D3 (efine bearing capacity of soil3 4;3 .o+ t&e stone masonry is classifiedA 9:3 (efine t&e follo+ing terms3 i1 Corbel ' i1 Cornice iii1 Coping iv1 String course v1 "&roug& stone 943 Compare stone masonry and Bric masonry 993 ,&y bonding in bric +all is essentialA

9B3 (efine beam# column and )intel3

iii13 Safe bearing capacity of a soil 9=3 Classify t&e types of column based on its conditions3 9<3 State t&e purpose of plastering3 9C3 (efine (am# Bridge and classify t&em3 9D3 ,&at are t&e basic components of a bridgeA 9;3 ,&at is t&e purpose of reinforced concreteA >:3 (efine factor of safety3 >43 -ive a list of type of bonds in bric +or 3 >93 State any t&ree important salient features of Englis& bond3 >>3 State any t&ree important salient features of !lemis& bond3 >B3 ,&at are t&e t+o types of stone masonryA >=3 Mention any t&ree types of dressing of stones3 ><3 /ame t&e various types of beams3 >C3 ,&at are t&e different types of loads on a beamA >D3 ,&at is a columnA >;3 State any t&ree important uses of $3C3C columns3 B:3 ,&at is lintelA ,&ere do you provide it in a buildingA B43 /ame t&e different types of lintels3 B93 .o+ do you classify t&e roofsA B>3 /ame t&e types of sloping roofs3 BB3 /ame at least four types of steel roof trusses3 B=3 State any t&ree roof covering materials3 B<3 Mention t&e various re%uirements of good flooring3 BC3 /ame t&e types of mortars used for plastering3 BD3 ,&at is stressA B;3 ,&at is strainA =:3 (efine- elasticity3 =43 State t&e purpose of plastering3 =93 ,&at are t&e important factors to be considered +&ile +or ing +it& t&e interior designA =>3 .o+ t&e lig&ting is classifiedA =B3 .o+ t&e colors are classifiedA ==3 ,&at is landscapingA =<3 State t&e principle of landscaping3 =C3 ,&at are t&e elements of landscapingA =D3 ,&at are t&e factors to be considered +&ile selecting a suitable landscape designA

%AR$ B (10 MAR-S" 43 ,&at are t&e factors to be considered in t&e selection of a suitable siteA 93 (escribe t&e components of a building +it& a neat s etc&3 >3 ,&at are t&e types of !oundationsA (escribe t&e various re%uirements of good foundations3 B3 ,&at are t&e various possible foundation failures# t&eir causes and precautionsA =3 (iscuss any t+o types of spread foundations +it& neat s etc&es3 <3 ,&at is a pile foundationA State its applications3 )ist t&e classification of piles3 C3 (iscuss t&e classification of soils# t&eir constituents and uses3 D3 (efine t&e terms: i13 bearing capacity of a soil ii13 Jltimate bearing capacity of a soil3

iv13 2llo+able soil pressure

;3 )ist t&e six important points to be considered +&ile selecting a site for a3 Construction of (am3 b3 Construction of bridge3 4:3 Explain +it& neat s etc& t&e different types of piles3 443 2 s%uare bar of C= mm side is subjected to an axial pull of 9B: /3 "&e extension of t&e bar is :34D mm over a gauge lengt& of 9:: mm3 "&e c&ange in lateral dimension is :3:4: mm3 Compute t&e LoungGs modules# *oissonGs ratio# $igidity modulus and Bul modulus3 493 2 &ollo+ steel column &as an internal diameter :3< times as t&at of t&e external3 "&e material attains an ultimate stress of B9: /Kmm 93 'f t&e +or ing load is 49=: / and t&e factor of safety allo+ed is B# determine t&e outer 0external1 and internal diameters3 4>3 )ist out t&e different types of bond in bric +all and explain any t&ree in detail3 4B3 (istinguis& bet+een: i13 Englis& bond and !lemis& bond ii13 Bric masonry and stone masonry 4=3 (ra+ a neat s etc& of a reinforced cement concrete column and explain3 4<3 Explain t&e types of floor suitable for residential and commercial building3 4C3 Explain briefly t&e different types of pitc&ed roof coverings3 4D3 ,&at are t&e purposes of plasteringA )ist t&e various re%uirements of a good plaster3 4;3 Explain t&e procedure to be adopted for plastering +or 3

.(SI# #ICI% (&/ !9#'(&I#(% 9&$I&99-I&$

Unit III (Power Plant 6ngineering, Pumps and Turbines/ #lassification of ower lants
Power plants ,onventional Steam -iesel

2on conventional 3ydroelectr Solar

Tidal J wave

Steam is used to drive steam engines and steam turbines due to the followingind 2uclear Geo reasons5 thermal 9. Steam can be raised "uickly from water %. It does not react much with materials. =. It is stable at temperatures re"uired in the plant Layout of Steam Power Plant: The layout of steam power plant has the following circuits5 9. #uel .,oal/ and ash circuit %. 4ir and flue gas circuit =. #eed water and steam flow circuit B. ,ooling water flow circuit.

Steamic ower lant

#oal and (sh #ircuit:

%ayout of Steam power lant #oal and (sh #ircuit:

@ ,oal from mines is delivered by ships, rails or trucks to the power station. @ ,oal received at coal yard.

Water and Steam #ircuit: @ ,oal is sized by crushers, breakers etc., @ The sized coal is stored in coal storage. @ #rom stock yard, the coal is transferred to the boiler furnace by means of conveyors, elevators etc., @ The coal is burnt in the boiler and ash is formed. @ 4sh coming out of the furnace will be too hot, dusty and accompanied by poisonous gases. @ The ash is transferred to the ash storage. @ Generally the ash will be "uenched to reduce the temperature and the dust content.

(ir and 2lue $as #ircuit:

@ 4ir is taken from the atmosphere by the action of #- fan. @ It is passed through an air pre heater @ The air is preheated by the flue gases in the pre heater. @ This preheated air is supplied to the furnace to aid the combustion of fuel. @ -ue to the combustion of fuel the flue gases are formed. @ The flue gases from the furnace pass over the boiler tubes and super heater tubes. @ Then the flue gases pass through economiser to heat the feed water. @ 4fter that it passes through a dust collector. It is then e!hausted to atmosphere through chimney

%ayout of Steam ower lant Water and Steam #ircuit: @ "he water is preheated by the flue gases in the economiser* @ "his preheated water is then supplied to the boiler drum* @ 'eat is transferred to the water by the burning of the coal* @ /ue to this, water is converted into the steam* @ "he steam raised in boiler is passed through a super heater* @ It is superheated by the flue gases* @ "he turbine drives generator to produce electric power* @ "he eDpanded steam is then passed through the condenser* @ In the condenser, steam is condensed into water the re circulated* #ooling Water #ircuit: @ The e!haust steam from the turbine is condensed in the condenser. @ In the condenser, the cold water is circulated to condense the steam into water. @ The steam is condensed by loosing its latent heat to the circulating the cold water. @ 3ence the cold water gets heated. @ This hot water is then taken to a cooling tower. @ In cooling tower the water is sprayed in the form of droplets through nozzles. @ The atmospheric air enters the cooling tower from the openings provided at the bottom of the tower.

@ This cold water is again circulated through the pump, condenser and the cooling @ Some amount of water may be lost during circulation. @ 3ence make up water is added to the pond by means of a pump

%ayout of Steam = "hermal> ower lant

9nergy #onversion rocess: #hemical 9nergy =2uelE#oal> 'eat 9nergy =.oiler> !echanical 9nergy ="urbine> 9lectrical 9nergy = $enerator> (dvantages of Steam ower lant ="hermal plant> @ 0ife of plant is more .%?E=' years / compared to -iesel plant .%E? years/ @ :epair and maintenance cost is low when compared to diesel plant. @ Initial cost is less compared to nuclear plant.

@ Suitable for varying load conditions. @ 2o radio active harmful wastes are produced @ Gnskilled operators can operate the plant. @ The power generation does not depend on the water storage. @ There are no transmission losses, as they are located near load centres. /isadvantages of thermal power plant: @ 0ess efficient than diesel plants. @ Starting up and bringing into service takes more time. @ ,ooling water re"uired is more. @ Space re"uired is more. @ Storage re"uired for the fuel is more. @ 4sh handling is a big problem @ 2ot economical in areas which are remote from coal fields. @ 1anpower re"uired is more. @ #or large units, the capital cost is more. %ist down the factors to be considered for selection of site for thermal power plant: 4vailability of coal5 @ 4 thermal plant of B''1, capacity re"uires nearly &''' tons of coal every day. @ Power plant should be located near coal mines. 4sh -isposal #acilities5 @ 4sh comes out in hot condition and handling is difficult. The ash can be disposed into sea or river. ater 4vailability 5 @ ater consumption is more as feed water into boiler, condenser and for ash disposal. @ ater is re"uired for drinking purpose. @ 3ence plant should be located near water source. Transport #acility 5 @ :ailway lines or other mode of transport for bringing heavy machineries for installation also for bringing coal.

Public Problems5

@ The plant should be far away from residential area to avoid nuisance from smoke, fly ash and noise. 2ature of 0and 5 @ 1any power plants have failed due to weak foundations. @ 0and .soil/ should have good bearing capacity to withstand dead load of plant. "hermal power plants in "amil &adu5 2eyveli Tuticorin 6nnore 1ettur 9Dplain about the pollution caused by "hermal ower lant =Steam ower lant>: @ 1ain pollutants from thermal plants are S7 %, ,7%, ,7 as minute particles such as fly ash. @ S7% causes suffocation, irritation to throat and eyes and respiratory for people. It destroys crop. @ ,7 is a poisonous gas. @ -ust particles cause respiratory troubles like cough, cold, sneezing etc., Thermal Pollution5 @ Thermal plants produce B' millions kK of heat to the environment through condenser water and e!haust gases. @ Thermal pollution of atmosphere can be reduced using the low grade energy e!hausted steam. &oise ollution: @ The sources of noise in a power plant are turbo alternators, fans and power transformers. @ Sound proofing can be done to reduce the noise.

$as ower lant

@ 4 gas power plant uses gas turbine as the prime mover for generating electricity. @ It uses natural gas or kerosene or benzene as fuel. @ Gas plant can produce only limited amount of the electricity. @ 6fficiency of the plant is only =?L @ Generally a gas plant is e!pensive to operate.

@ 3ence it is usually installed with steam power plant in closed combined cycle. @ It is generally used in combination with steam>thermal power plant during peak load @ hen the gas power plant is combined with thermal>steam power plant efficiency of the plant is up to &'L E A'L

%ayout of the $as turbine ower plant:

$as ower lant , Working rinciple:

Combustion and generation of electricity: @ Gas turbine draws clean air into through air filter from atmosphere, with the help of a compressor. @ -uring the compression pressure of the air is increased. @ ,ompressed air is passed through to a combustion chamber along with fuel .2atural gas/. @ The air fuel mi!ture is ignited at high pressure in the combustion chamber.

@ ,ombustion takes place. @ The generated hot gas of compression is passed through the gas turbine. @ 3ot gases e!pand, and the turbine blades are connected to the turbine shaft are rotated. @ The turbine shaft which is coupled to the shaft of the electrical generator at the other end also rotates and drives the electrical generator. @ 4 portion of the energy developed by the hot gases through the gas turbine is used to run the compressor. @ The residual hot gases from gas turbine are passed through a heat e!changer .heat recovery steam generator/ @ The heat e!changer produces steam with high pressure with the help of a steam boiler. @ The steam is allowed to e!pand in the steam turbine. @ when it passes through the turbine blades, the turbine shaft is rotated. The shaft is coupled to the generator, which generates electricity. @ Gas turbine and steam turbine combination enables increased power generation. Transmission and distribution : @ The generated electricity from both gas and steam turbines is fed to the step up transformer where its voltage is increased. @ Then the electricity is conveyed through transmission lines for distribution. !9-I"S: 2atural gas is readily available. @ Setting up cost can be reduced if the plant is installed near the source of natural gas. @ 0ess gas storage cost @ 0ess space occupation. @ ,ompared to steam power plant, smaller in size. @ 0ow operating cost. @ 0ow maintenance cost. @ 2o standby losses. @ ,heaper fuels like natural gas.

/emerits:

@ %>= rd of generated power is used for driving the compressor. @ Gas turbine has low thermal efficiency. @ 3as starting problem. @ 6fficient only in combined cycle configuration. @ Temperature of combustion chamber is too high, which results in shorter life time.

/iesel ower lant

Working of /iesel ower plant:

@ 4ir from atmosphere is drawn into the compressor and is compressed. @ The compressed air is sent to diesel engine through filter. @ In the filter, dust, dirt from air are filtered and only clean air is sent to diesel engine. @ #uel oil from tank is passed through filter where it gets filtered and clean oil is in)ected into the diesel engine through fuel pump and fuel in)ector @ 1i!ture of compressed air and spray of fuel oil are ignited into the engine and combustion takes place. @ The heat energy is utilized for driving the generator, which produces power.

!ain components of a /iesel power plant:

9. 2uel Supply system It consists of fuel tank, fuel filter and fuel pump and in)ector. %. (ir Intake and 9Dhaust system It consists of compressor, filter and pipes for the supply of air and pipes for e!haust gases. In the e!haust system silencer is provided to reduce the noise. 6* #ooling system ,irculates water around the -iesel engines to keep the temp at reasonably low level. :* %ubricating system It includes lubricating oil tank, pump, filters and lubricating oil. ?. Starting system #or initial starting the devices used are compressed air, battery, electric motor or selfEstarter. 'ydro 9lectric ower lant:

#omponents of 'ydro 9lectric ower lant: -eservoir : ater is collected during rainy season

@ It is stored in the reservoir. @ 4 dam is built across the river ade"uate water head.

enstock :

@ It is a passage through which water flows from reservoir to turbine. Surge "ank : @ It is installed along the penstock .between turbine and reservoir/ @ To control or regulate the sudden water over flow and to protect the penstock from bursting. @ It reduces the pressure and avoids damage to the penstock due to the water hammer effect. @ hen the load on the turbine is decreased there will be a back flow, which causes increase or decrease in pressure. It is known as water hammer. @ Power 3ouse 5 @ It is building that houses that water turbine, generator, transformer and control room. @ ater Turbine5

@ ater turbines such as Pelton, (aplan and #rancis are used to convert pressure and kinetic energy of flowing water into mechanical energy. @ -raft Tube5 @ It is connected to the outlet of the turbine. @ Tailrace5 @ It refers to the downstream level of water discharged from turbine. @ Generator 5 @ It is a machine used to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. @ Step up transformer5 @ It converts the 4lternating ,urrent .4,/ into high voltage current suitable for transmission. Working rinciple of 'ydro 9lectric ower lant: @ It uses the potential energy of water of water stored in a reservoir. @ The water from the reservoir through a penstock and then forced through nozzle or nozzles before reaching the turbine. @ The hydraulic turbine converts the kinetic energy of water under pressure into mechanical energy.

@ The shaft of the turbine is coupled to a generator that generates electricity @ The electricity generated is fed to the stepEup transformer to increase its voltage. @ Power is fed to the transmission lines for distribution. @ The output power of 3ydel power plant depends on the head of water stored in the reservoir and the "uantity of water discharged

#lassification of 'ydro 9lectric ower lant:

2actors to be considered for the location of hydro electric ower lant: (vailability of Water: 4de"uate water must be available with good head * #ost and type of %and: 8earing capacity of the land should be good to withstand huge structures and e"uipments. Storage of Water : 4 dam must be constructed to store the large "uantity of water in order to cope with variations of water availability through out the year. @ "ransportation 2acilities : The site should be accessible by rail and road for easy transportation of e"uipments and machinery. @ umped storage facilities : The pumping facilities to reuse the water should be possible. !erits of 'ydro 9lectric ower lant: @ :e"uires no fuels and hence pollution free. @ 0ow operating cost. @ Simple in construction and re"uires less maintenance. @ Mery robust and durable. @ The reservoir and dam can also be used for irrigation. /emerits of 'ydro 9lectric ower lant: @ Mery high capital cost

@ Skilled personnel is re"uired for construction. @ 3igh cost of transmission as plant is normally re"uired far off from hilly areas. @ Period of delay causes the delay in the commissioning of the plant. @ ,onstruction of new hydel plant may need rehabilitation of people and payment compensation for land ac"uisition.

&U#%9(- OW9- %(&" , %(FOU"

2ormally used nuclear fuel is uranium .G %=?/

&uclear ower plant:

@ 2uclear power plant uses nuclear energy from radio active element for generating electrical energy. @ 1ore than 9?L of the world$s electricity is generated from 2uclear power plants. @ It is generally located far away from populated areas. @ In future generation of electricity will be depending on 2uclear Power Plant, as it is economical. @ 9 kg of uranium G E%=? can produce electrical power electrical that can be produced by using =''' EB?'' tonnes of high grade coal or %''' tonnes of oil.

#omponents of &uclear ower lant:

&uclear 2uel :

2uel -ods:

&uclear 2ission
The fuel rods hold nuclear fuel in a nuclear power plant. 2eutron Source5 4 source of neutron is re"uired to initiate the fission for the first time. 4 mi!ture of beryllium with plutonium is commonly used as a source of neutron. -eactor: @ 2uclear fission takes place in the reactor only. @ 2uclear fission produces large "uantity of heat. @ The heat generated in the reactor is carried by coolant circulated through the reactor. #ontrol -ods: @ They are used to control the chain reaction. @ They are absorbers of neutrons. @ The commonly used control rods are made up of cadmium or boron. !oderator: @ 1oderators are used to slow down the fast neutrons. @ It reduces % 1eM to an average velocity of '.'%? eM. @ 7rdinary or heavy water are used as moderators. @ 2uel -ods: @ The fuel rods hold nuclear fuel in a nuclear power plant. @ &eutron -eflectors: @ To prevent the leakage of neutrons to large e!tent. @ In P3 :, the moderator itself acts as reflectors. @ Shielding: @ To protect from harmful radiations the reactor is surrounded b a concrete wall of thickness about % to %.? m.

@ It is a process of splitting up of nucleus of fissionable material like uranium into two or more fragments with release of enormous amount of energy. @ The nucleus of G%=? is bombarded with high energy neutrons G%=?H'n9 8a 9B9H(rI%H%.?'n9H%'' 1eM energy.

@ The neutrons produced are very fast and can be made to fission other nuclei of G %=?, thus setting up a chain reaction. @ 7ut of %.? neutrons released one neutron is used to sustain the chain reaction. 9 eM F 9.&N9'E9I )oule. 9 1eM F 9'& eM Working rinciple of &uclear ower lant: @ The heat generated in the reactor due to the fission of the fuel is taken up by the coolant. @ The hot coolant then leaves the reactor and flows through the steam generator. @ In the steam generator the hot coolant transfers its heat to the feed water which gets converted into steam. @ The steam produced is passed through the turbine, which is coupled with generator. @ 3ence the power is produced during the running of turbine.

@ The e!haust steam from the turbine is condensed in the condenser. @ The condensate then flows to the steam generator through the feed pump. @ The cycle is thus repeated. (dvantages of &uclear ower lant: @ :e"uires less space compared to steam power plant. @ #uel re"uired is negligible compared to coal re"uirement. @ #uel transport cost is less. @ :eliable in operation. @ ,ost of erection is less. @ ater re"uired is very less.

/isadvantages of &uclear ower lant: @ Initial ,ost is higher. @ 2ot suitable for varying load condition. @ :adioactive wastes are hazardous. 3ence these are to be handled with much care. @ 1aintenance cost is higher. @ Trained workers are re"uired to operate the plant. &uclear ower lants in India: @ IG,4:, ?alpakkam in #hennai* @ :ana Pratap Sagar in :a)asthan @ 2arora in Gttar Pradesh @ (akarpur near Surat at Gu)arat (aiga Power Plant at (arnataka

umps
@ 4 pump is a machine which is used to raise or transfer the fluids. @ It is also used to maintain the constant flow rate or constant pressure. @ It is normally driven by a engine or a motor. @ Pumps are rated by the horse power.

@ Important specifications for pump ma!imum discharge flow, ma!imum discharge pressure, inlet size and discharges size. #lassification of pumps: It is classified into positive displacement pumps and roto dynamic pumps. @ In positive displacement pumps, fluid is drawn or forced into a finite space and it is sealed. @ It is then forced out and the cycle is repeated. In roto dynamic pumps, centrifugal force is used to move the fluid into a pipe. -eciprocating umps: @ It is a positive displacement pump @ It uses a piston and cylinder arrangement with suction and delivery valves integrated with the pump. @ It can be single acting and double acting @ There may be single or multi cylinders also. @ It is a positive displacement pump @ It sucks and raises the li"uid by actually displacing it with a piston>plunger that e!ecutes a reciprocating motion in a closely fitting cylinder. Working of single acting -eciprocating ump: -uring suction stroke the piston moves to the left, causing the inlet valve to open. ater is admitted into the cylinder through the inlet valve. -uring the discharge stroke the piston moves to the right closes the suction valve and opens the out let valve. Through the outlet valve the volume of li"uid moved out of the cylinder.

/ouble (cting -eciprocating ump ,

@ 6ach cycle consists of two strokes. Working : @ 8oth the strokes are effective, hence it is known as double acting pump @ 0i"uid is filled at one end and discharged at other end during forward stroke. @ -uring the return stroke, end of cylinder )ust emptied is filled and the end )ust filled is emptied.

#entrifugal umps (ir Cessels

(ir vessel is a closed chamber containing compressed air in the upper part and li"uid being pumped in the lower part.

urpose of using an (ir Cessel:

To get continuous supply of li"uid at a uniform rate. To save the power re"uired to drive the pump .8y using an air vessel the acceleration and friction heads are considerably reduced/ To run the pump at much higher speed without any danger of separation.

(dvantages of reciprocating pump:

@ :elatively compact design @ 3igh viscosity performance @ 4bility to handle high differential pressure.

#omponents of #entrifugal pump:

4 rotating component comprising of an impeller and a shaft. 4 stationery component comprising a volute .casing/, suction and delivery pipe.

Working rinciple of #entrifugal pump:

rinciple: hen a certain mass of fluid is rotated by an e!ternal source, it is thrown away from the central a!is of rotation and a centrifugal head is impressed which enables it to rise to a higher level. orking5 The delivery valve is closed and the pump is primed, so that no air pocket is left. (eeping the delivery valve still closed the electric motor is started to rotate the impeller. The rotation of the impeller is gradually increased till the impeller rotates at its normal speed. 4fter the impeller attains the normal speed the delivery valve is opened when the li"uid is sucked continuously upto the suction pipe. It passes through the eye of the casing and enters the impeller at its centre. The li"uid is impelled out by the rotating vanes and it comes out at the outlet tips of the vanes into the casing. -ue to the impeller action the pressure head as well as the velocity heads are increased. #rom the casing the li"uid passes into the pipe and lifted to the re"uired height.

Colute #asing: In this type of casing the area of flow gradually increases from the impeller outlet to the delivery pipe. hen pump is to be stopped the delivery valve is to be first closed, other wise there may be some backflow of water into the reservoir.

"ypes of casing Colute and CorteD #asing

Colute and /iffuser casing

CorteD #asing:

If a circular chamber is provided between the impeller and volute chamber the casing is known as Morte! ,hamber.

/iffuser # : The impeller is surrounded by a diffuser. The guide vanes are designed in such a way that the water from the impeller enters the guide vanes without shock. It reduces the vibration of the pump.

-iffuser casing, the diffuser and the outer casing are stationery parts. riming of a centrifugal ump:
The operation of filling the suction pipe, casing and a portion of delivery pipe with the li"uid to be raised, before starting the pump is known as Priming It is done to remove any air, gas or vapour from these parts of pump. If a ,entrifugal pump is not primed before starting air pockets inside impeller may give rise to vortices and causes discontinuity of flow

%osses in #entrifugal pump:

'ydraulic %osses: Shock or eddy losses at the entrance to and e!it from the impeller 0osses due to friction in the impeller #riction and eddy losses in the guide vanes>diffuser and casing !echanical %osses: 0osses due to disc friction between the impeller and the li"uid which fills the clearance spaces between the impeller and casing 0osses pertaining to friction of the main bearing and glands. Specific speed of #entrifugal ump: @ It is the speed in revolutions per minute at which a geometrically similar impeller would deliver one cubic meter of li"uid per second against a delivery head of one meter.

S4No4

I6.u1! $urbin

R action $urbin

I! U%S9 "U-.I&9:
@ The steam coming out at a very high velocity through the nozzle impinges on the blades fi!ed on the periphery of rotor. @ The blades change the direction of steam flow without change in pressure. @ The resulting force causes the rotation of the turbine. E.g Pelton wheel.

-9(#"IO& "U-.I&9:
@ The high pressure steam from the boiler is passed through the nozzles. @ hen the steam comes out through these nozzles, the velocity of steam increases relative to the rotating disc. @ The resulting force of steam on nozzle gives the rotating motion to the disc and the shaft. @ The shaft rotates in opposite direction of the steam. E ! "ran#is Turbine$ %a&lan Turbine

#omparision between Impulse and -eaction turbine:

It con!i!t! o5 no==1 ! an/ 6o0in7 b1a/ !

It con!i!t! o5 5i9 / b1a/ ! 3hich act a! no==1 ! an/ 6o0in7 b1a/ !

St a6 i! 9.an/ / co6.1 t 18 in th no==1 4 A11 th .r !!ur n r78 i! con0 rt / into :in tic n r78

St a6 i! .artia118 9.an/ / in th 5i9 / b1a/ !4 So6 a6ount o5 .r !!ur n r78 i! con0 rt / into :in tic n r78

<

%r !!ur o5 !t a6 i! con!tant o0 r th 6o0in7 b1a/ !4

%r !!ur /ro. ta: ! .1ac in th 6o0in7 b1a/ !4

#4

B cau! o5 hi7h .r !!ur /ro. in th no==1 !; b1a/ !. / an/ !t a6 !. / ar hi7h4

B cau! o5 !6a11 .r !!ur /ro.; b1a/ !. / an/ !t a6 !. / ar 1 !!4

>4

Lo3 E55ici nc8

Hi7h E55ici nc8

?4

*ccu.i ! 1 !! !.ac . r unit .o3 r

*ccu.i ! 6or !.ac . r unit .o3 r4

@4

Suitab1 5or !6a11 .o3 r r Auir 6 nt!

Suitab1 5or 6 /iu6 an/ hi7h .o3 r r Auir 6 nt!4

&NI$

III (%*+ER %LAN$ ENGINEERING"

%AR$ A (2 MAR-S" 43 ,&at are t&e types of po+er plantA 93 ,&at are t&e parts of t&ermal po+er plantA >3 ,&at is t&e purpose of Surge tan in &ydro po+er plantA B3 Classify t&e &ydro po+er plant3 =3 ,&at is t&e function of (raft tubeA <3 (efine /uclear !ission3 ,rite c&ain reaction3 C3 ,&at is t&e function of ModeratorA D3 ,rite do+n t&e Merits and (emerits of (iesel engine po+er plant3 ;3 )ist out t&e parts of t&e -as turbine po+er plant3 4:3 (efine *ump and "urbine3 443 (efine Cavitations3 493 (efine *rimiming in Centrifugal *ump3 4>3 ,&at is impulse turbineA -ive example 4B3 ,&at is $eaction turbineA -ive example3 4=3 ,&at does t&e study of po+er plant engineering includeA 4<3 (efine t&e term: *rime mover3 4C3 (efine po+er plant3 4D3 ,&at are t&e different types of po+er plantsA 4;3 -ive t&e function of condenser in steam po+er plant3 9:3 ,&at is t&e function of moderator in a nuclear po+er plantA 943 -ive four important factors to be considered for selecting &ydroelectric po+er plant3 993 Mention t&e reason for preferring steam po+er plant to ot&er po+er plants3 9>3 ,&at is t&e cooling to+erA -ive its uses3 9B3 ,&at are t&e nuclear fuels used in t&e nuclear reactorA 9=3 ,&at is t&e function of penstoc pipeA 9<3 ,&at is meant by nuclear fissionA 9C3 ,&at is t&e function of intercooler in gas turbine po+er plantA 9D3 /ame t&e different components of a gas turbine po+er plant3 9;3 Briefly explain +&at radiation s&ielding meansA >:3 ,&at are t&e different types of &ydro po+er plantsA >43 State t&e disadvantages of steam po+er plant3 >93 Mention t&e applications of gas turbine po+er plant3 >>3 ,&at are t&e different types of +ind millsA >B3 State t&e advantages of tidal po+er plant3 >=3 (efine steam turbine3 ><3 State t&e main parts of a steam turbine3 >C3 .o+ steam turbines are classifiedA >D3 -ive an example for reaction turbine3 >;3 State t&e limitations of impulse turbine3 B:3 ,&at is t&e difference bet+een impulse and reaction turbineA B43 $elative velocity of steam increases in reaction turbine3 -ive reason3 %AR$ B (10 MAR-S" 43 Explain t&e +or ing principle of t&ermal po+er plant +it& neat s etc&3 93 Explain t&e +or ing principle of steam po+er plant +it& neat s etc&3

>3 Explain +or ing principle of /uclear *o+er plant +it& neat s etc&3 B3 a1 Explain +or ing principle of .ydro Electric *o+er plant +it& neat s etc&3 b1 ,rite its advantages and (isadvantages =3 a1 Explain +or ing principle of (iesel Engine *o+er plant +it& neat s etc&3 b1 ,rite its advantages and (isadvantages3 <3 a1 Explain +or ing principle of -as turbine *o+er plant +it& neat s etc&3 b1 ,rite its advantages and (isadvantages3 C3 ,it& t&e &elp of a neat s etc& explain t&e +or ing of $eciprocating *ump D3 a1 ,it& t&e &elp of a neat s etc& explain t&e +or ing of Centrifugal *ump b" ,it& t&e &elp of a neat s etc& explain t&e +or ing of 'mpulse "urbine ;3 ,&at are t&e applications of (iesel po+er plantsA 4:3 State t&e advantages and disadvantages of a gas turbine plant3 443 State t&e advantages and disadvantages of &ydroelectric po+er plant compared to t&ermal and nuclear po+er plants3 493 ,it& t&e aid of a general layout# explain t&e +or ing of different circuits of a t&ermal po+er plant3 4>3 S etc& and describe t&e sc&ematic arrangement of a modern steam po+er station and detail t&e various &eat saving devices used3 4B3 -ive a sc&ematic layout of a storage type &ydro-electric po+er plant and explain t&e function of eac& component of t&e plant3

&nit IV

Int rna1 Co6bu!tion En7in ! Intro/uction)

H at En7in ) @ .eat Engine is a mac&ine +&ic& converts &eat energy supplied to it into mec&anical +or 3 @ .eat energy is supplied to t&e engine by burning t&e fuel3

@ Int rna1 Co6bu!tion En7in ! (IC En7in !" 'n 'C engines# combustion of fuel ta es place inside t&e engine cylinder3Examples: (iesel Engines# *etrol Engines# -as engines3 @ E9t rna1 Co6bu!tion En7in ! (EC En7in !" 'n EC engines# combustion of fuel ta es place outside t&e +or ing cylinder3Examples: Steam Engines and Steam turbines 'C Engines are classified into# 041 C8c1 o5 o. ration (No o5 Stro: ! . r c8c1 " @ "+o Stro e cycle Engines @ !our Stro e Cycle Engines 91 $h r6o/8na6ic C8c1 or M tho/ o5 H at a//ition) @ Otto Cycle Engines 0Combustion at constant volume1 @ (iesel Cycle Engines 0Combustion at constant *ressure1 @ Semi (iesel Engines 0(ual Combustion Engines1 (<" $8. ! o5 Fu 1 &! / ) @ *etrol Engines @ (iesel Engines @ -as Engines (#" I7nition M tho/ ) @ Spar 'gnition 0S'1 Compression 'gnition 0C'1 (>" Coo1in7 S8!t 6) @ 2ir cooled Engines @ ,ater Cooled Engines (?" Va10 ! Location ) @ ) &ead 0Side valve1 engine @ " .ead 0Side valve1 engine @ ' &ead 0over &ead valve1 engine @ ! &ead 0over &ead inlet and side ex&aust1 engine

C1a!!i5ication o5 H at En7in !)

Main Co6.on nt! o5 IC En7in !)

C81in/ r B1oc:) @ 't is t&e main bloc of t&e engine3 @ 't contains cylinders accurately finis&ed to accommodate pistons @ "&e cylinder bloc &ouses cran # cams&aft# piston and ot&er engine parts3

@ 'n +ater cooled engines# t&e cylinder bloc is provided +it& +ater jac ets for t&e circulating cooling +ater3 @ "&e materials used for cylinder are grey cast iron# aluminium alloys etc3# @ 't is usually made of a single casting

Cylinder bloc of motor cycle

Cylinder bloc of car

@ "&e cylinder &ead is bolted to t&e cylinder Bloc by means of studs3 @ "&e +ater jac ets are provided for cooling +ater circulation3 @ "&e materials used for cylinder &ead are cast iron# aluminium alloy etc3# @ "&is is also generally made of single cast iron3

C81in/ r H a/)

C81in/ r Lin r!)

@ "&e liner is a sleeve +&ic& is fitted into t&e cylinder bore3 @ 't provides +ear resisting surface for t&e cylinder bores3 @ 0a1 ,et liner 0b1 (ry liner

Lin r! ar c1a!!i5i / into)

C81in/ r Lin r! + t Lin r ) "&ese liners are surrounded or +etted by cooling +ater3 't provides +ear resisting surface for t&e piston to reciprocate3 2lso it acts as a seal for t&e +ater jac et

(r8 Lin r

(ry liners &ave metal to metal contact +it& t&e cylinder bloc 3 "&ey are not directly in touc& +it& t&e cooling +ater3

c&rome nic el alloy# nic el iron alloy and cast steel3

Lin r Mat ria1!)

@ )iner material s&ould +it&stand abrasive +ear and corrosive3C&romium plated mild teel @ tubes are used as liners3

Cran:ca! ) 't may be cast integral +it& t&e cylinder

bloc 3Some times# it is cast separately and t&en attac&ed to t&e bloc 3 "#ese materials are used for cran$ case are cast iron, aluminium alloys or alloy steels.

*i1 .an or oi1 !u6.! -il sump is t#e bottom part of t#e engine.It contains lubricating
oil.. drain plug is pro/ided t#e oil sump to drain out t#e oil.It is made of t#e pressed s#eet.

"&e piston serves t&e follo+ing purposes @ 't acts as a movable gas tig&t seal to eep t&e gases inside t&e cylinder @ 't transmits t&e force of explosionin t&e cylinder to t&e cran s&aft t&roug& t&e connecting rod3 @ Some of t&e materials used for piston are cast iron# aluminium alloy#

%i!ton !

*iston rings are inserted in t&e grooves provided in t&e piston3 "+o types of piston rings are used in t&e piston3 43 Compression rings 93 Oil rings or oil control rings

-iston .in+s !

Main Co6.on nt! o5 IC En7in ! %i!ton Rin7! (Co6.r !!ion an/ *i1 rin7!"

@ Compression rings provide an effective seal for t&e &ig& pressure gases inside t&e cylinder3 @ "&ey prevent t&e lea age of &ig& pressure gases from t&e combustion c&amber into t&e cran case3 @ Eac& piston is provided +it& at least t+o compression rings3

Co6.r !!ion rin7! )

*i1 rin7! )

@ Oil rings +ipe off t&e excess oil from t&e cylinder +alls3 @ 't also returns excess oil to t&e oil sump# t&roug& t&e slots provided in t&e rings3 "#e materials used for piston rings s#ould be %ear resistant. +ormally piston rings are made of alloy steel iron containing silicon, manganese alloy steels etc.

Conn ctin7 Ro/)

@ 't connects t&e piston and cran s&aft3 @ 't transmits t&e force of explosion during po+er stro e to t&e cran s&aft3 @ "&e connecting rod &as bearings at bot& ends3 @ "&e small end of t&e connecting &as a solid or split eye and contains a bus&3 @ "&is end is connected to t&e piston by means of a gudgeon pin3 @ "&e ot&er end is called as big end of t&e connecting rod3 @ "&e connecting rods must +it&stand &eavy t&rusts3 @ .ence it must &ave strengt& and rigidity3 @ "&ey are usually drop forged ' sections3 @ "&e materials used are plain carbon steel# aluminium alloys# nic el alloy steels etc#

Cran: Sha5t )

@ 't is t&e main rotating s&aft of t&e engine3 @ *o+er is obtained from t&e cran s&aft3 @ $h cran: !ha5t i! co6bination 3ith conn ctin7 ro/ con0 rt! r ci.rocatin7 6otion o5 th .i!ton into rotar8 6otion4 @ "&e cran s&aft is &eld in position by t&e main bearings3 @ "&ere are t+o main bearings to support t&e cran s&aft3 @ "&e materials used for cran s&aft are billet steel# carbon steel# nic el c&rome and ot&er &eat treated alloy steels3

Ca6!ha5t)

@ Cams&aft contains number of cams3 @ 't is used to convert rotary motion into linear or straig&t line motion3 @ 't &as so many cams as t&e number of valves in an engine3 @ 2n additional cam is also provided to drive t&e fuel pump3 @ 2 gear is provided in t&e cam s&aft to drive t&e distributor or oil pump3 @ "&e opening and closing of t&e engine valves are controlled by t&e cams provided on t&e cam s&aft3

C1a!!i5ication o5 % tro1 En7in ! @ $3o Stro: c8c1 % tro1 En7in ! @ Four Stro: c8c1 . tro1 En7in !

% tro1 En7in !

$3o Stro: c8c1 % tro1 En7in !)

$3o Stro: C8c1 % tro1 En7in 2 Con!truction Con!truction )

@ 2 piston reciprocates inside t&e cylinder @ 't is connected to t&e cran s&aft by means of connecting rod and cran @ $h r ar no 0a10 ! in t3o !tro: n7in !# in!t a/ o5 0a10 ! .ort! ar cut on th c81in/ r 3a11!3 @ "&ere are t&ree ports# namely in1 t; 9hau!t and tran!5 r ports3 @ "&e closing and opening of t&e ports are obtained by t&e movement of piston3 "&e cro+n of piston is made in to a s&ape to perform t&is3 @ 2 spar plug is also provided3

0a1 co6.r !!ion) @ "&e piston moves up from Bottom (ead Centre 0B(C1 to "op (ead Centre 0"(C1 @ Bot& transfer and ex&aust ports are covered by t&e piston3 @ 2ir fuel mixture +&ic& is transferred already into t&e engine cylinder is compressed moving piston3 @ "&e pressure and temperature increases at t&e end of compression3

Fir!t Stro: ) (Co6.r !!ion; i7nition an/ in/uctanc " (&.3ar/ !tro: o5 .i!ton"

by

(b" I7nition an/ In/uctanc ) @ *iston almost reac&es t&e top dead centre @ "&e air fuel mixture inside t&e cylinder is ignited by means of an electric spar produced by a spar plug @ 2t t&e same time# t&e inlet port is uncovered by t&e plane3 @ !res& air fuel mixture enters t&e cran case t&roug& t&e inlet port3

Fir!t Stro: ) (Co6.r !!ion; i7nition an/ in/uctanc " (&.3ar/ !tro: o5 .i!ton"

S con/ Stro: ) ((o3n3ar/ Stro: o5 th

(c"E9.an!ion an/ Cran:ca! co6.r !!ion @ "&e burning gases expand in t&e cylinder @ "&e burning gases force t&e piston to move do+n3 "&us useful +or is obtained3 @ ,&en t&e piston moves do+n# t&e air fuel mixture in t&e cran case is partially compressed3 "&is compression is no+n as C. n2 c se co*#.ession%

n7in " )

S con/ Stro: ) ((o3n3ar/ Stro: o5 th

(/" E9hau!t an/ tran!5 r) @ 2t t&e end of expansion# ex&aust port is uncovered3 @ Burnt gases escape to t&e atmosp&ere3 @ "ransfer port is also opened3 "&e partially compressed air fuel mixture enters t&e cylinder t&roug& t&e transfer port3 @ "&e cro+n of t&e piston is made of a deflected s&ape3 So t&e fres& c&arge entering t&e cylinder is deflected up+ards in t&e cylinder3 @ "&us t&e escape of fres& c&arge along +it& t&e ex&aust gases is reduced3

n7in " )

$3o !tro: c8c1 (i ! 1 En7in !2 Con!truction

Con!truction ) @ "+o stro e cycle diesel engines re%uire air supply @ "&is air is used to blo+ out t&e ex&aust gases and to fill t&e cylinder +it& clean air @ "&is air is supplied by a blo+er or air compressor +&ic& is driven by engine itself3 @ "&ese engines may be valve or port type3 @ 2 plate is provided in t&e cran case to admit air into t&e cran case3 @ "ransfer and ex&aust ports are provided in t&e cylinder3 @ "&ese ports are covered and uncovered by t&e moving piston3

0a1 Co6.r !!ion an/ in/uctanc ) @ "&e piston moves up+ards from Bottom (ead Centre 0B(C1 to "op (ead Centre 0"(C13 @ Bot& transfer and ex&aust ports are covered3 @ 2ir +&ic& is transferred already into t&e engine cylinder is compressed by moving piston3 @ "&e pressure and temperature of t&e air increases3 @ 2t t&e same time# fres& air is admitted into t&e cran case t&roug& t&e plate valve 0reed valve1

Fir!t Stro: (&.3ar/ Stro: o5 th .i!ton"

Fir!t Stro: (&.3ar/ Stro: o5 th .i!ton"

(b" I7nition an/ in/uctanc 4 @ *iston almost reac&es t&e top dead centre3 @ "&e fuel is injected into t&e &ot compressed air inside t&e cylinder3 "&e fuel mixed +it& &ot air and burns3 @ "&e admission of fres& air into t&e cran case continues till t&e piston reac&es t&e top centre3

S con/ Stro: ((o3n3ar/ Stro: o5 th .i!ton"

(c" E9.an!ion an/ cran: ca! co6.r !!ion) @ "&e burning gases expand in t&e cylinder3 @ Burning gases force t&e piston to move do+n3 "&us useful +or is obtained3 @ 2t t&e same time# t&e air in t&e cran case is compressed by t&e movement of piston3 @ 2ll t&e ports and t&e plate valve are in closed position

S con/ Stro: ((o3n3ar/ Stro: o5 th .i!ton"

(/" E9hau!t an/ $ran!5 r) @ 2t t&e end of expansion# t&e ex&aust port is uncovered3 @ "&e burnt escape to t&e atmosp&ere t&roug& t&e ex&aust port3 @ "ransfer port is also uncovered s&ortly after t&e ex&aust port is opened3 @ "&e partially compressed air from cran case enters t&e cylinder t&e transfer port3 @ "&is air is deflected up+ards by t&e deflected s&ape of t&e piston3 @ "&us t&e entering air &elps in forcing out t&e combustion products from t&e cylinder @ "&e plate valve remains during t&is period3

Four !tro: c8c1 % tro1 En7in !

Con!truction ) @ 2 piston reciprocates inside t&e cylinder @ "&e piston is connected to t&e cran s&aftby means of a connecting rod and cran 3 @ "&e inlet and ex&aust valves are Mounted on t&e cylinder &ead3 @ 2 spar is provided on t&e cylinder.ead3 @ "&e fuel used is petrol

Four Stro: % tro1 En7in 2 +or:in7

(a" Suction Stro: (Fir!t Stro: o5 th En7in "

@ *iston moves do+n from "(C to B(C @ 'nlet valve is opened and t&e ex&aust valve is closed3 @ *ressure inside t&e cylinder is reduced belo+ t&e atmosp&eric pressure3 @ "&e mixture of air fuel is suc ed into t&e cylinder t&roug& t&e inlet valve3

(b" Co6.r !!ion Stro: ) (S con/ Stro: o5 th .i!ton"

@ *iston moves up from B(C to "(C @ Bot& inlet and ex&aust valves are closed3 @ "&e air fuel mixture in t&e cylinder is compressed3

(c" +or:in7 or %o3 r or E9.an!ion Stro: ) ($hir/ Stro: o5 th En7in " @ "&e burning gases expand rapidly3 "&ey exert an impulse 0t&rust or force1 on t&e piston3 "&e piston is pus&ed from "(C to B(C @ "&is movement of t&e piston is converted into rotary motion of t&e cran s&aft t&roug& connecting rod3 @ Bot& inlet and ex&aust valves are closed3

(/"

@ *iston moves up+ard from B(C @ Ex&aust valve is opened and t&e inlet valve is closed3 @ "&e burnt gases are forced out to t&e atmosp&ere t&roug& t&e ex&aust valve 0Some of t&e burnt gases stay in t&e clearance volume of t&e cylinder1 @ "&e ex&aust valve closes s&ortly after "(C @ "&e inlet valve opens slig&tly before "(C and t&e cylinder is ready to receive fres& c&arge to start a ne+ cycle3

E9hau!t Stro: (Fourth !tro: o5 th .i!ton"

Su66ar8 )

@ Compression ratio varies from = to D

@ "&e pressure at t&e end of compression is about < to 49 bar3 @ "&e temperature at t&e end of t&e compression reac&es 9=: o C to >=:o C

Four Stro: (i ! 1 En7in

Con!truction)

@ 2 piston reciprocates inside t&e cylinder @ "&e piston is connected to t&e cran s&aft by means of a connecting rod and cran 3 @ "&e inlet and ex&aust valves are mounted on t&e cylinder &ead3 @ 2 fuel injector is provided on t&e cylinder &ead @ "&e fuel used is diesel3

0a1 Suction Stro: (Fir!t Stro: o5 th .i!ton"

@ *iston moves from "(C to B(C @ 'nlet valve is opened and t&e ex&aust valve is closed3 @ "&e pressure inside t&e cylinder is reduced belo+ t&e atmosp&eric pressure3 @ !res& air from t&e atmosp&ere is suc ed into t&e engine cylinder t&roug& air cleaner and inlet valve3

(b" Co6.r !!ion !tro: (S con/ !tro: o5 th .i!ton"

@ *iston moves from B(C to "(C @ Bot& inlet and ex&aust valves are closed3 @ "&e air is dra+n during suction stro e is compressed to a &ig& pressure and temperature

(c" +or:in7 or .o3 r or 9.an!ion !tro: ($hir/ !tro: o5 th .i!ton"

@ "&e burning gases 0products of combustion1 expand rapidly3 @ "&e burning gases pus& t&e piston move do+n+ard from "(C to B(C @ "&is movement of piston is converted into rotary motion of t&e cran s&aft t&roug& connecting rod3 @ Bot& inlet and ex&aust valves are closed3

(/" E9hau!t Stro: (Fourth !tro: o5 th .i!ton"

S4No4

@ *iston moves from B(C to "(C S.ar: I7nition En7inis!closed3 (SI" Co6.r !!ion I7nition En7in ! @ Ex&aust valve is opened t&e inlet valve (CI" t&e ex&aust valve3 0some of t&e burnt @ "&e burnt gases are forced out to t&e atmosp&ere t&roug& gases stay in t&e clearance volume of t&e cylinder1 @ "&e ex&aust valve closes s&ortly after "(C 't dra+s air fuel mixture 't dra+s air into t&e fres& air to start a @ "&e inlet valve opens slig&tly before "(C into and t&e cylinder isonly ready to receive t&e cylinder during suction cylinder during suction stro e3 ne+ cycle3 stro e

Sca0 n7in7 )

Sca0 n7in7 *etrol engines operate +it& lo+ (iesel engines operate +it& pressure and temperature &ig& pressure and temperature

>3

@ 't is t&e process of forcing ranges out t&efrom burnt<ex&aust from t&e cylinder for t&e fres& *ressure to 49 gases *ressure ranges from >=admitting to B: c&arge into t&e @ "&is action ta cylinder3 es bar place in t&e t+o stro e cylinder3 "emperature ranges from bar "emperature ranges from 9=:o to >::o C <::o to C::o C

Sca0 n7in7 %roc !! @ "&e c&arge 0air fuel mixture or air1 enters t&e engine cylinder from t&e cran case at a pressure &ig&er t&an t&e ex&aust gases3 @ "&is fres& c&arge forces t&e ex&aust gases to t&e atmosp&ere t&roug& t&e ex&aust port3 @ (uring t&e period bot& t&e transfer and ex&aust ports are ept open for a s&ort period3 @ .ence t&ere is a possibility of t&e fres& c&arge escaping out +it& t&e burnt gases3 @ "&is is over come by designing t&e piston to &ave a deflected s&ape3 @ "&is s&ape of piston deflects t&e fres& c&arge up+ard in t&e engine cylinder3 @ 't also &elps out in forcing out t&e ex&aust gases to atmosp&ere3 @ "&is process is no+n as Sca0 n7in74 Co6.ari!on b t3 n SI an/ CI En7in ! (G n ra1 Co6.ari!on")

't is fitted +it& carburettor and spar plugs "&e burning of fuel ta es place at constant volume 'gnition of air fuel mixture ta es place by an electric spar produced by spar plug *etrol engines are %uality governed engines3 "&e speed of petrol engines are controlled by varying t&e %uantity of air fuel mixture3 *etrol engines are +idely used in automobiles and aeroplanes etc3# S.ar: I7nition En7in ! (SI"

't is fitted +it& fuel injection pump and injectors "&e burning of fuel ta es place at constant pressure 'gnition of air fuel ta es placed by a injection of fuel into t&e &ot compressed air3 (iesel engines are %uantity governed engines3 "&e speed of diesel engines are controlled by varying %uality of air fuel mixture3 0ric& or +ea mixture1 (iesel engines are +idely used in &eavy ve&icles# suc& as buses# lorries# truc s etc3#

<3

S4No4 4

Co6.ari!on b (M rit! an/ (

t3 n SI an/ CI En7in ! M rit!) Otto cycle is 6 rit!") employed in petrol engine3

Otto cycle is more efficient for a given compression ratio3

>3

Operating speed is more3 Speed range is >::: to <::: rpm Starting is easy# since cran ing effort re%uired is less Merits: 'nitial cost and maintenance cost are less

= < B

*roduces less noise3 ,eig&t per unit po+er is less (emerits: "&ermal efficiency is less# since compression ratio is limited3 = D

Co6.r !!ion I7nition En7in ! (CI" ( 6 rit!) (iesel engines +or s on diesel cycle3 (iesel cycle is less efficient t&an Otto cycle for a given compression ratio3 Operating speed is less3 Speed range is B:: to >=:: rpm3 Starting is difficult since more cran ing effort is re%uired3 (emerits: More initial and maintenance costs since t&e construction is &eavy and sturdy3 *roduces more noise3 ,eig&t per unit po+er is more3 Merits: "&ermal efficiency is &ig& since compression ratio is &ig&3 49 to 4D3

= <

Specific fuel consumption is more3 "&e fuel used is petrol3 't is costlier t&an diesel3 't is volatile and fire &aFard is more

Specific fuel consumption is less "&e fuel used is diesel3 't is c&eaper t&an petrol3 't is less volatile and fire &aFard is less3

S4No4 $3o Stro: C8c1 En7in 4 Four Stro: C8c1 En7in

Co6.ari!on b (M rit! an/ (

>

M rit!) One po+er stro e in ( 6 rit!) One po+er stro e in one revolution of t&e t+o revolutions of t&e cran t3 n s&aft Four !tro: c8c1 an/ s&aft t3o !tro: c8c1 n7in cran 6 *o+er rit!")developed for t&e same *o+er developed for t&e same engine speed t&eoretically engine speed is t&eoretically t+ice t&at of a four stro e &alf t&at of t+o stro e engine3 engine Simple design and lig&ter in !or t&e same po+er construction for t&e same complicated design and &eavier po+er in construction M rit!) Jniform tor%ue is ( 6 rit!) /on uniform tor%ue obtained3 .ence a lig&ter fly on t&e cran s&aft3 .ence a +&eel can be used &eavier fly+&eel is re%uired for balancing3 (esign of ports is simpler3 .ence initial cost is less Mec&anical efficiency is &ig&3 /o moving parts li e cam# follo+er# roc er arm valves etc3# M rit!) Starting is easy "&ese engines are generally air cooled (esign valve mec&anism is difficult3 .ence initial cost is more3 Mec&anical efficiency is less3 *o+er is lost due to friction caused by valve mec&anism ( 6 rit!) Starting is not so easy "&ese engines are generally +ater cooled3

<

C D

S4No4

7 M 7s I 7c

$3o Stro: C8c1 En7in

Four Stro: C8c1 En7in

( M rit!) Consumption of lubricating oil is more# because less time is available to remove t&e &eat More +ear and tear of moving parts3 Some of t&e fres& air fuel mixture may escape +it& ex&aust gases3 .ence fuel consumption is more ( M rit!) "&ermal efficiency is less3 't produces more noise due to sudden release of ex&aust gases Scavenging is poor# since ex&aust port is open only for a s&ort time Merits: *oor scavenging leads to mixing of fres& c&arge +it& ex&aust gases3 "&is results in poor performance# slo+ running Jsed in lig&t ve&icles# li e bi es# scooters# mopeds# etc3#

M rit!) Consumption of lubricating oil is less# because more time is allo+ed for removing &eat from t&e cylinder3 )ess +ear and tear of parts is less !uel cannot escape +it& ex&aust gases3 .ence fuel consumption is less3

>

M rit!) "&ermal efficiency is more3 /oise is less is less3 Ex&aust gases are released in separate stro e3 Scavenging is better# since t&ere is a separate ex&aust stro e for t&e removal of ex&aust gases (emerits: Better performance and efficiency is more

= <

Jsed in &eavy ve&icles# li e buses# lorries# truc s etc3#

"&e standard terms used in '3C Engines are 43 Bore: 'nside diameter of t&e cylinder is termed as Bore3 93 "op (ead Center 0"(C1: "&e extreme position reac&ed by t&e piston at t&e top of t&e cylinder in t&e vertical engine is called "op (ead center3 >3 Bottom (ead Center 0B(C1: "&e extreme position reac&ed by t&e piston at t&e Bottom of t&e cylinder in t&e vertical engine is called Bottom (ead center3 #4 Stro: ) "&e nominal distance travelled by t&e piston in t&e cylinder bet+een t&e extreme upper and lo+er positions of t&e piston 0"(C EB(C1 is termed as stro e3 >4 Co6.r !!ion ratio (r") 't is ratio !tro: of Maximum cylinder volume t&e Clearance Co6.ari!on b t3 n t&e Four c8c1 an/ t3o to !tro: c8c1 volume3 n7in ?4 C81in/ r 0o1u6 (0") 't is t&e sum of s+ept volume and t&e Clearance volume3

I4C ENGINE $ERMIN*LG*G'

(M rit! an/ ( 6 rit!")

@4 S3 .t 0o1u6 (V!")

't is t&e volume of space generated by t&e movement of piston from one dead center to anot&er dead center3

B4 C1 aranc Vo1u6 ( Vc") 't is t&e space in t&e cylinder# +&en t&e piston is at "op (ead Center

MaCor .art! o5 an IC n7in 14 C81in/ r

@ 't is a round cylindrical casting in +&ic& a piston slides in and out to ma e stro es3 @ Combustion ta e place inside t&e cylinder3 "&e cylinder is closed by a cylinder &ead3 M te.i '! G.e" c st i.on9 A'u*iniu*

24 C81in/ r h a/

't is fitted to t&e top of t&e cylinder3 't &as inlet and outlet values# spar plug# !uel injector# ,ater jac ets3 M te.i '! C%I9 A'u*iniu* 't is a device +&ic& transmits t&e energy 0or1 force of t&e expanding gas to t&e connecting rod3 't slides up and do+n inside t&e cylinder3 M te.i '! C%I9 A'u*iniu* ''o"9 C st stee' #4 %i!ton rin7!) *iston rings are inserted in t&e grooves of piston3 "&ere are t+o types of rings3 41 Oil ring 0 One ring is used1 91 Compression ring0 "+o ring is used1 >4 Conn ctin7 ro/) 't converts t&e reciprocating motion of t&e piston into rotary motion of cran s&aft3 "&e small end of t&e connecting rod is connected to piston and t&e big end is connected to t&e cran s&aft3 Material: *lain carbon steel# 2luminium alloys ?4 Cran: !ha5t: 't is t&e device used for getting po+er from t&e motion of t&e piston and connecting rod and t&is po+er is applied to t&e fly+&eel3 M te.i '! A''o"s stee'% @4 Ca6!ha5t) 't operates t&e opening and closing of t&e engine values3 't &as number of cams +&ic& are driven by cran s&aft t&roug& timing gears3 "&e function of t&e cam is to convert t&e rotary motion into t&e linear reciprocating motion M te.i '! A''o"s stee' B4 Cran: ca! ) 't is t&e bottom portion of t&e '3C engine and &olds t&e cylinder and t&e cran case3 't also serves as a pump for t&e lubricating oil3 M te.i '! A'u*iniu* ''o"9 C st i.on D4 F183h 1: 't is a big +&eel attac&ed +it& cran s&aft3 't maintains t&e speed of t&e engine3 104 Va10 !: "&e function of t&e value is to admit t&e fres& c&arge in t&e cylinder and to send t&e ex&aust gases out3 "&ere are t+o values namely inlet value and outlet value3 M te.i '! In'et v 'ue! Nic2e' c&.o*e% Out'et v 'ue! Nic2e' c&.o*e9 St in'ess stee' etc 114 +at r Eac: t!) ,ater jac ets are provided in t&e cylinder &ead3 "&e purpose of +ater jac ets is to eep t&e +alls of t&e engine cool3

<4 %i!ton

@ -enerates steam by transferring &eat by burning of fuel to +ater3

St a6 Boi1 r!

@ Energy released by burning fuel 0solid# li%uid or gaseous1 is transferred to t&e +ater in t&e boiler3 C1a!!i5ication o5 boi1 r!) "&e steam boilers are classified as @ Accor/in7 to 51o3 o5 3at r an/ hot 7a! !4 43 !ire "ube Boilers 93 ,ater "ube Boilers @ Accor/in7 to th 6 tho/ o5 5irin74 43 'nternally fired boilers 93 Externally fired boilers @ Accor/in7 to th %r !!ur / 0 1o. / 43 )o+ pressure boilers 93 .ig& pressure boilers 'n fire tube boilers# @ "&e &ot gases pass t&roug& t&e tubes surrounded by +ater3 @ "&e +ater is get &eated up and converted into steam @ "&e ex&aust gases are sent to atmosp&ere t&roug& c&imney3 !.g 0ocomoti/e boiler, 0ancas#ire boiler.

Fir $ub & +at r $ub Boi1 r!

Accor/in7 to 51o3 o5 3at r an/ hot 7a! !)

'n 3at r tub boilers# @ 2 ,ater number is circulated of tubes are t&roug& connected number +it& of boiler tubes and drum t&e t&roug& &ot flue &eaders3 gases flo+ over t&ese tubes3 @ "&e &ot gases flo+ over t&ese tubes many times before escaping t&roug& t&e stac 3 @ "&e +ater is converted into steam and steam occupies steam space3

'n int rna118 5ir /r) boilers# Cochran Boi1 @ "&e furnace grate is provided inside t&e boiler s&ell30E3g )ancas&ire# )ocomotive boilers1 'n 9t rna118 5ir / boilers# @ "&e furnace grate is provided outside or built under t&e boiler s&ell3

Int rna118 Fir / Boi1 r)

E9t rna118 Fir / Boi1 r)

Accor/in7 to th %r !!ur ( 0 1o. /)

'n Lo3 %r !!ur Boi1 r!#Steam is produced at a pressure lo+er t&an D: bar3 0E3g3 Coc&ran# )ancas&ire# )ocomotive1 'n Hi7h %r !!ur Boi1 r!#Steam is produced at a pressure more t&an D: bar3 0E3g3 )amont# 7elox# Benson# )o-effler boiler1

E%+% B bcoc2 8 ,i'co69 sti.'in+9 BHEL boi'e.9 Ve'o69 L *ont9 Lo:eff'e. boi'e.s%

Accor/in7 to th 6 tho/ o5 5irin7)

La6ont Boi1 r)

@ Coal is fed into t&e grate t&roug& t&e fire &ole and burnt3 @ 2s& formed during t&e burning is collected in t&e as& pit provided just belo+ t&e grate3 @ 2s& is t&en removed manually3 @ "&e &ot gases from t&e grate pass t&roug& t&e combustion c&amber to t&e &oriFontal fire tubes and transfer t&e &eat by convection3 @ "&e flue gases coming out of fire tubes pass t&roug& t&e smo e box and escape to t&e atmosp&ere t&roug& t&e c&imney3 @ Smo e box is provided +it& a door for cleaning t&e fire tubes and smo e box3 @ "&e +or ing pressure and steam capacity of coc&ran boiler are <3= bar and >=:: g K&r respectively3

Boi1 r Mountin7!)

@ @ @ @

't is a +ater tube# forced circulation and externally fired &ig& pressure boiler3 "&e capacity of t&e plant is =: tonnesK&r *ressure of t&e steam generated is 4C: bar3 "emperature of t&e steam produced is =:: o C

+or:in7) @ !eed +ater is pumped to t&e boiler by t&e feed pump t&roug& t&e economiser3 @ Economiser pre&eats t&e feed +ater by using &ot gases leaving t&e boiler3 @ "&e circulating pump circulates t&e +ater from t&e drum under &ig& pressure to prevent t&e tubes from being over&eated @ ,ater is evaporated into steam +&en passing t&roug& t&ese tubes3 @ "&e +ater and steam from t&e tube enters t&e boiler drum +&ere t&e steam is separator3 @ "&is steam is passed t&roug& a convection super&eater and t&e steam is super&eated by t&e flue gases3 @ "&is super &eated steam is supplied to t&e prime mover t&roug& steam outlet3 @ "&e +ater level in t&e drum is ept constant by pumping t&e feed +ater into t&e boiler drum3 @ "&e air is pre&eated by t&e flue gases before entering t&e combustion c&amber to aid t&e combustion of t&e fuel3 @ "&is type of boiler &as a +or ing pressure of 4C: bar3 @ "&ey can produce t&e steam at t&e rate of B=::: g per &our3

Boi1 r Mountin7! & Acc !!ori !) Boi1 r Mountin7!)

@ Boiler mountings are primarily int n/ / 5or th !a5 t8 o5 th boi1 r and for complete control of steam generation process3 Boi1 r Acc !!ori ! ) @ Boiler accessories are installed to incr a! th proper +or ing of boiler unit3 55ici nc8 o5 th boi1 r .1ant! to &elp in

S.rin7 Loa/ / Sa5 t8 Va10 )

Boi1 r Mountin7!) @ (ead +eig&t safety valve3 @ Spring loaded safety valve @ !usible plug @ *ressure gauge

( a/ + i7ht Sa5 t8 Va10 )

( a/ + i7ht Sa5 t8 Va10 )

@ ,eig&ts are placed sufficiently in t&e +eig&t carrier3 @ "&e total load on t&e valve includes t&e +eig&t of t&e carrier# t&e +eig&t of t&e cover# t&e +eig&t of t&e discs and t&e +eig&t of t&e valve itself3 @ ,&en t&e steam pressure exceeds t&e normal limit# t&e valve along +it& t&e +eig&t carrier is lifted off its seat3 @ "&us t&e steam escapes t&roug& t&e disc&arge pipe3

@ "&e steam pressure acts belo+ t&e valves3 @ ,&en t&e steam pressure is normal t&e valves are &eld in t&eir seats tig&tly by t&e spring force3 @ ,&en t&e steam pressure in t&e boiler exceeds t&e +or ing pressure# bot& valves are lifted off t&eir seats3 @ "&us t&e steam from t&e boiler escapes t&e boiler and steam pressure is reduced3 @ "&e blo+ off pressure is adjusted by loosening or scre+ing t&e nut3

Fu!ib1 %1u7)

@ Jnder normal +or ing conditions# t&e fusible plug is completely covered +it& +ater3 @ .ence t&e temperature of t&e plug is not increased appreciably during combustion process3 @ ,&en t&e +ater level falls belo+ t&e safe limit t&e fusible plug is uncovered from +ater and exposed to steam3

@ "&e furnace &eat over &eats t&e plug and it melts t&e fusible metal and copper plug falls do+n3 @ (ue to t&is +ater steam mixture rus&es into t&e furnace and t&e fire is extinguis&ed 4

Bour/an $ub %r !!ur Gau7

@ "&e steam pressure is applied to t&e BourdonGs tube3 @ "&e elliptical cross section of t&e tube to straig&ten out slig&tly3 @ "&e closed end of t&e Bourdon tube moves3 @ "&is movement actuates t&e toot&ed sector and pinion rotates3 @ "&e pointer is mounted on t&e pinion3 .ence t&e pointer moves on t&e graduated dial in cloc +ise# to indicate t&e steam pressure3 +at r L 0 1 In/icator

@ "o no+ t&e +ater level in t&e boiler t&e &andles of t&e steam coc and +ater coc are ept in vertical positions3 @ ,ater rus&es t&roug& t&e bottom casting and steam rus&es t&roug& t&e upper casting to t&e gauge glass tube3 @ "&e level of +ater corresponds to t&e +ater level in t&e boiler3

@ Economiser @ 2ir *re&eater @ Super .eater @ Steam Separator @ Steam "rap !eed *ump

Boi1 r Acc !!ori !

Econo6i! r)

@ "&e feed +ater is pumped to t&e bottom &eader and t&is +ater is carried to t&e top &eader number of vertical tubes3 @ .ot flue gases are allo+ed to pass over t&e external surface of t&e tubes3 @ "&e feed +ater +&ic& flo+s up+ard in t&e tubes is &eated by t&e flue gases3 @ "&is pre&eated +ater is supplied to t&e +ater3 @ Scrappers are moved slo+ly moved up and do+n to clean t&e surface of t&e tubes3

@ .ot flue gases pass t&roug& t&e tubes of air pre&eater after leaving t&e boiler or2ir economiser3 @ and flue gases flo+ in opposite directions3 @ Baffles are provided in t&e air pre&eater and t&e air passes number of times over t&e tubes3 @ .eat is absorbed by t&e air from t&e flue gases3 @ "&is pre&eated is supplied to t&e furnace to aid combustion3

Su. r h at r

@ Steam stop valve is opened3 @ "&e steam from t&e evaporator drum is passed t&roug& t&e super &eater tubes3 @ !irst t&e steam passed t&roug& t&e radiant super &eater and t&en to t&e convective super &eater3 @ "&e steam is &eated +&en it passes t&roug& t&ese super &eaters and converted into t&e super &eated steam3 @ "&is super&eated steam is supplied to t&e turbine t&roug& t&e valve3

Air %r h at r)

S14 No4 1

@ "&e steam is allo+ed into t&e separator3 @ "&e steam stri es t&e baffle plates and t&e direction of flo+ is c&anged3 Boi1 r Mountin7! Boi1 do+n r Accto!!ori ! @ 2s a result# &eavier particles in steam falls t&e bottom of t&e separator3 @ "&e separated steam is free from +ater particles3 @ 't is passed to t&e turbine or engine t&roug& t&e outlet pipe3 Mountin7! ar 5itt / Acc !!ori ! ar 5itt / to Str a6 5or th !a5 t8 o5 th incr a! $ra. th 55ici nc8 boi1 r4 $h 8 5or6 int 7ra1 .art! o5 th boi1 r $h 8 ar u!ua118 6ount / on th boi1 r !h 114 A boi1 r !hou1/ not b o. rat / 3ithout 6ountin7! $h 8 ar not int 7ra1 .art o5 th boi1 r4 $h 8 ar u!ua118 in!ta11 / out!i/ th boi1 r !h 114 A boi1 r can b o. rat / 3ithout acc !!ori !4

<

@ "&e condensed +ater enters t&e steam trap by gravity3 @ ,&en t&e +ater level in t&e trap rises &ig& enoug&# t&e ball float is lifted3 @ "&is causes t&e valve to open and t&e +ater is disc&arged t&roug& t&e outlet3 @ 2fter t&e disc&arge of +ater# t&e float moves do+n3 @ "&is causes t&e valve to close again3

(i55 r nc ! b t3 n Boi1 r 6ountin7! an/ Acc !!ori !) St a6 S .arator

&NI$

IV (IN$ERNAL C*MB&S$I*N ENGINES"

%AR$ A (2 MAR-S" 43 ,&at is &eat engineA 93 (efine '3C Engine and E3C3 Engine >3 Classify t&e '3C engine3 B3 )ist out t&e *art of t&e '3C3 Engine =3 (efine t&e terms: "op (ead Center# Bottom (ead Center3 <3 (efine t&e term: Compression $atio3 C3 ,&at do you understand by ScavengingA D3 (efine Boiler3 ;3 Classify Boilers3 4:3 (efine fire tube boiler and +ater tube boiler3 443 )ist out t&e Boiler Mountings and 2ccessories3 493 ,&at is t&e *urpose of a fusible *lugA 4>3 ,&at is an engineA 4B3 ,&at are t&e types of &eat engineA 4=3 ,&at is meant by S3' engineA ,&y is it called soA 4<3 ,&at is meant by C3' engineA ,&y is it called soA 4C3 -ive t&e main components of a petrol engine3 4D3 ,&at is a four stro e engineA 4;3 ,&at is t&e function of a carburettorA 9:3 ,&at is t&e fundamental difference bet+een t+o-stro e and four- stro e engineA 943 ,&y fuel is injected in a C3'3 engineA 993 (efine - Carburettor3 9>3 Mention t&e types of ignition systems used in petrol engine3 9B3 State t&e function of a c&o e in a petrol engine3 9=3 ,&at is t&e function of a spar plugA 9<3 (efine fuel injector3 9C3 ,&at are t&e types of cooling systems used in '3C3 engineA 9D3 Mention t&e types of +ater cooling on '3C3 engineA 9;3 (efine lubrication3 >:3 Mention some engine parts t&at re%uire fre%uent lubrication3 >43 ,&at are t&e types of lubricating an '3C3 engineA >93 .o+ boilers are classifiedA >>3 Mention t&e advantages of &ig& pressure boilers3 >B3 State t&e main function of a boiler3 >=3 .o+ modern boilers differ from olden day boilersA -ive four important points3 ><3 ,&at is t&e use of an economiFer in a &ig& pressure boilerA >C3 ,&at is t&e difference bet+een mountings and accessories in a boilerA >D3 /ame any t+o mountings of a boiler3 >;3 ,&at is a boilerA B:3 State t&e main components of a boiler3 B43 ,&at is t&e use of super &eater in a &ig&-pressure boilerA B93 /ame any t+o steam boiler accessories3 B>3 ,&at do you understand by forced circulation boilerA BB3 State different types of safety valves in a boiler3 B=3 State t&e function of a 2ir pre&eater3 B<3 -ive an example for a +ater tube boiler3

BC3 (efine t&e terms: External Combustion Engine and 'nternal Combustion engine3 BD3 (efine compression ratio of an '3C3 engine3 B;3 ,&at is t&e function of deflector in a t+o stro e engineA =:3 ,&at is t&e function of a c&o e in a carburettorA =43 ,&at is meant by carburetionA =93 ,&at is t&e function of t&e float# float c&amber and needle valve assembly in a single jet carburettorA =>3 State any t+o limitations of a single jet carburettor3 =B3 .o+ do you provide an extra-ric& mixture to t&e petrol engine during starting in cold +eat&erA ==3 /ame t&e t&ree ports provided at t&e cylinder +alls in a t+o stro e engine function3 =<3 ,&y is diesel engine called as compression ignition engineA =C3 .o+ do t&e t&ree ports in a t+o stro e engine functionA =D3 ,&at is t&e function of a spar plugA =;3 State any t+o advantages of )*- as S' engine fuel3 %AR$ B (10 MAR-S" 43 (escribe t&e principal parts and functions of a !our Stro e (iesel engine +it& neat s etc&3 93 ,&at is &eat engineA .o+ do you classify &eat enginesA >3 ,&at do you understand by scavengingA B3 Compare and contrast four stro e engines +it& t+o stro e enginesA =3 (iscuss briefly t&e ignition system of S' engine3 <3 Explain t&e +or ing principle of spar plug +it& a neat diagram3 C3 S etc& and explain t&e +or ing of a (iesel fuel pump3 D3 Explain t&e +or ing principle of (iesel engine po+er plant +it& neat s etc&3 2lso give its advantages and disadvantages3 ;3 (escribe t&e principal parts and functions of a !our Stro e *etrol engine +it& neat s etc&3 4:3 (escribe t&e principal parts and functions of a "+o Stro e (iesel engine +it& neat s etc&3 443 (escribe t&e principal parts and functions of a "+o Stro e *etrol engine +it& neat s etc&3 493 (escribe t&e principal parts and functions of any one &ig& pressure boiler +it& neat s etc&3 4>3 (escribe t&e principal parts and functions of Babcoc ,ilcox boiler +it& neat s etc&3 Explain t&e construction and +or ing principle of Coc&ran Boiler

U&I" C

-92-I$9-("IO& (&/ (I-#O&/I"IO&I&$

-efrigeration:
It is defined as the process of providing and maintaining a temperature well below that of surrounding atmosphere. In other words refrigeration is the process of cooling substance.

-efrigerators and heat pumps:

If the main purpose of the machine is to cool some ob)ect, the machine is named as refrigerator. If the main purpose of machine is to heat a medium warmer than the surroundings, the machine is termed as heat pump.

"erminologies of -efrigeration: -efrigerating 9ffect =&>: It is defined as the "uantity of heat e!tracted from a cold
body or space to be cooled in a given time. 2F 3eat e!tracted from the cold space Time taken

Specific 'eat of water and ice : It is the "uantity of heat re"uired to raise or
lower the temperature of one kg of water .or ice/, through one kelvin or .9 ' c/ in one Specific heat of water, #pw 5 :*)< kGEkg ? second. Specific heat of ice, #pice 5 +*) kGEkg ?*

#apacity of a -efrigeration Unit :

,apacity of a refrigerating machines are e!pressed by their cooling capacity. The standard unit used for e!pressing the capacity of refrigerating machine is ton of refrigeration.

 7ne ton of refrigeration is defined as, *the "uantity of heat abstracted .refrigerating effect/ to freeze one ton of water into one ton of ice in a duration of %B hours at ' o c+. 3eat e!tracted from at oo c F latent heat of ice 0atent heat of ice F ==& kK>kg i.e., ==& kK of heat should be e!tracted one kg of water at ' o , to convert it into ice.

One ton of refrigeration One ton of refrigeration

F ==&!9''' kK>%B hrs. F ==&!9''' kK>min %B!&' F %==.=== kK>min F =.DDDI kK>sec

#o efficient of erformance: It is defined as the ratio of heat e!tracted in a

given time .refrigerating effect/ to the work input. #o efficient of performance F 'eat eDtracted in evaporator Work Input #o efficient of performance F -efrigerating 9ffect Work Input #o efficient of performance F & W T'e C(P is always !reater t'an ) and *nown as t'eoreti#al #oeffi#ient of &erforman#e

(pplications of -efrigeration:
In chemical industries, for separating and li"uefying the gases. In manufacturing and storing ice. #or the preservation of perishable food items in cold storages. #or cooling water. #or controlling humidity of air manufacture and heat treatment of steels. #or chilling the oil to remove wa! in oil refineries. #or the preservation of tablets and medicines in pharmaceutical industries. #or the preservation of blood tissues etc., #or comfort air conditioning the hospitals, theatres, etc.,

roperties of -efrigeration:
4 good refrigerant should have high latent heat of vapourisation. It should have low boiling and low freezing point. It should be non to!ic and should non corrosiveness It should be non flammable and non e!plosive. It should have high thermal conductivity It should be easy to handle It should have low specific volume of vapour. It should have high co efficient of performance

Capour #ompression -efrigeration System:

#onstruction:
This system consists of a compressor, condenser, a receiver tank, an e!pansion valve and an evaporator. #ompressor : :eciprocating compressors generally used. #or very big plants centrifugal compressors directly coupled with high speed rotating engines .gas turbine/ are used. #or very big plants,entrifugal compressors directly coupled with high speed rotating engines .gas turbine/ are used #ondenser : It is a coil of tubes made of copper. -eceiver tank: It is the reservoir of li"uid refrigerant. 9Dpansion Calve: This is a throttle valve. 3igh pressure refrigerant is made to flow at a controlled rate through this valve. 9vaporator : It is the actual cooler and kept in the space to be cooled. The evaporator is a coil of tubes made of copper

Capour (bsorption -efrigeration system:

#onstruction:
The vapour absorption system consists of a condenser, an e!pansion valve and an evaporator. They perform the same as they do in vapour compression method. In addition to these, this system has an absorber, a heat e!changer, an analyser and a rectifier.

Working:
9. -ry ammonia vapour at low pressure passes in to the absorber from the evaporator. %. In the absorber the dry ammonia vapour is dissolved in cold water and strong solution of ammonia is formed. =. 3eat evolved during the absorption of ammonia is removed by circulating cold water through the coils kept in the absorber. B. The highly concentrated ammonia .known as 4"ua 4mmonia/ is then pumped by a pump to generator through a heat e!changer. ?. In the heat e!changer the strong ammonia solution is heated by the hot weak solution returning from the generator to the absorber. &. In the generator the warm solution is further heated by steam coils, gas or electricity and the ammonia vapour is driven out of solution. A. The boiling point of ammonia is less than that of water. D. 3ence the vapours leaving the generator are mainly of ammonia. I. The weak ammonia solution is left in the generator is called weak a"ua.

S*&o*

9'. This weak solution is returned to the absorber through the heat e!changer. Capour Capour (bsorption 99. 4mmonia vapours leaving the generator may contain some water vapour. 9%. If this water vapour is allowed to the condenser and e!pansion valve, it may #ompression System freeze resulting in chocked flow. System 9=. 4nalyser and rectifiers are incorporated in the system before This system has more 7nly moving part in this condenser. 9B. The ammonia vapour from the generator passes through a series of trays in wear and tear and system is an a"ua pump. the analyser and ammonia is separated from water vapour. produces more noise 3ence the "uieter in 9?. The separated water vapour returned to generator. 9&. Then the ammonia vapour passes through a rectifier. 9A. The rectifier resembles a condenser and water vapour still present in ammonia vapour condenses and the condensate is returned to analyser. 9D. The virtually pure ammonia vapour then passes through the condenser. 9I. The latent heat of ammonia vapour is re)ected to the cooling water circulated through the condenser and the ammonia vapour is condensed to li"uid ammonia. %'. The high pressure li"uid ammonia is throttled by an e!pansion valve or throttle valve. %9. This reduces the high temperature of the li"uid ammonia to a low value and li"uid ammonia partly evaporates. %%. Then this is led to the evaporator. %=. In the evaporator the li"uid fully vaporizes. %B. The latent heat of evaporation is obtained from the brine or other body which is being cooled. %?. The low pressure ammonia vapour leaving the evaporator again enters the absorber and the cycle is completed. %&. This cycle is repeated again to provide the refrigerating effect.

(pplications of refrigeration system:

Preservation of food items like vegetables, milk and eggs. Preservation of medicines. Preservation of blood, tissues, etc., Preservation and cooling of cool drinks. Preservation of chemicals .,hemical industries/ ,ooling of water. Industrial and comfort airconditioning. Processing of dairy products.

#omparison between Capour compression H Capour (bsorption refrigeration systems:

due to the moving parts of the compressor. %. =. 6lectric power is needed to drive the system ,apacity of the system drops rapidly with lowered evaporator pressure

operation and less wear and tear aste of e!haust steam may be used. 2o need of electric power ,apacity of the system decreases with the lowered evaporative pressure, by increasing the steam pressure in generator. 4t partial loads performance is not affected. 3eat energy is utilised 6nergy supplied is about one and half times the refrigerating effect ,harging of refrigerant is difficult 0i"uid refrigerant has no bad effect on the system.

B. ?. &. A. D.

4t partial loads performance is poor. 1echanical energy is supplied through compressor 6nergy supplied is O to P of the refrigerating effect ,harging of the refrigerating to the system is easy Preventive measure is needed, since li"uid refrigerant accumulated in the cylinder may damage to the cylinder

(I- #O&/I"IO&I&$:
4ir ,onditioning is the process of conditioning the air according to the human comfort, irrespective of e!ternal conditions.

(pplications of (ir #onditioning

Gsed in offices, hotels, buses, cars.,etc Gsed in industries having tool room machines. Gsed in te!tile industries to control moisture. Gsed in printing press. Gsed in #ood industries, ,hemical plants.

#%(SSI2I#("IO& O2 (I#O&/I"IO&I&$:

4ir conditioning systems are classified as )> (ccording to the purpose

a/ ,omfort 4ir conditioning.

Window "ype (ir #onditioner:

b/ Industrial 4ir conditioning. %> (ccording to Season of the year a/ Summer 4ir conditioning. b/ inter 4ir conditioning. c/ Qear round 4ir conditioning. "ypes of (ir conditioners a/ :oom 4ir conditioners b/ inter 4ir conditioners c/ ,entral 4ir conditioners 2unctions of (ir conditioners a/ ,leaning air. b/ ,ontrolling the temp of air. c/ ,ontrolling the moisture content. d/ ,irculating the air.

.(SI# #O&#9 "S:

9/ -ry air5 The atmospheric air which no water vapour is called dry air. %/ Psychometry5 Psychometry is the study of the properties of atmospheric air. =/ Temperature5 The degree of hotness .or/ ,oldness is called the temperature. B/ 1oisture5 1oisture is the water vapour present in the air. ?/ :elative humidity5 :elative humidity is the ratio of actual mass of water vapour in a given volume to the mass of water vapour. &/ -ry bulb temperature5 The temperature of air measured by the ordinary thermometer is called dry bulb temperature5 A/ et bulb Temperature5 The temperature of air measured by the thermometer when it is covered by the wet cloth is known as wet bulb Temperature. D/ -ew point Temperature5 The temperature at which the water vapour starts condensing is called dew point Temperature

#onstruction:
This is also called room air conditioner.

Split "ype (ir #onditioner I %ayout:

This unit consists of the following. 9. 4 cooling system to cool and dehumidify the air involves a condenser, a compressor and a refrigerant coil. %. 4 filter to any impurities in the air. The filter is made of mesh, glass wool or fibre. =. 4 fan and ad)ustable grills to circulate the air. B. ,ontrols to regulate the e"uipment operation. ?. The low pressure refrigerant vapour is drawn from the evaporator to the hermetic compressor through suction pipe. &. It is compressed from low pressure to the high pressure and supplied to the condenser. A. It is condensed in the condenser by passing the outdoor air over the condenser coil by a fan. D. The li"uid refrigerant is passed through the capillary into the evaporator. I. . In the evaporator the li"uid refrigerant picks up the heat from the refrigerator surface and gets vaporized. 9'. 4 motor driven fan draws air from the room through the air filter and this air is cooled by losing its heat to the low temperature refrigerant and cold air is circulated back into the room. 99. The vapour refrigerant from the evaporator goes to the compressor from evaporator and the cycle is repeated. 9%. Thus the room is air conditioned 9=. . The "uantity of air circulated can be controlled by the dampers. 9B. The moisture in the air passing over the evaporator coil is dehumidified and drips into the trays. 9?. This water evaporator to certain e!tent and thus helps in cooling the compressor and condenser. 9&. The unit automatically stops when the re"uired temperature is reached in the room. This is accomplished by the thermostat and control panel.

!erits and /emerits of Window type air conditioner: !erits :

4 separate temperature control is provided in each room. -ucts are not re"uired for distribution. ,ost is less. Skilled technician is re"uired for installation.

/emerits:
It makes noise. 0arge hole is made in the e!ternal wall or a large opening to be created in the window panel. This leads to insecurity to inmates *

 In split air type air conditioner noise making components like compressor and condenser are mounted outside or away from room. Split type air conditioning system has two main components. .i/ 7utdoor Gnit .ii/ Indoor unit. The outdoor unit consists of compressor and condenser. The indoor unit consists of power cables, refrigerant tube and an evaporator mounted inside the room.

Working:
,ompressor is used to compress the refrigerant. The refrigerant moves between the evaporator and condenser through the circuit of tubing and fins in the coils. The evaporator and condenser are usually made of coil of copper tubes and surrounded by aluminium fins. The li"uid refrigerant coming from the condenser evaporates in the indoor evaporator coil. -uring this process the heat is removed from the indoor unit air and thus, the room is cooled. 4ir return grid takes in the indoor air. ater is dehumidified out of air is drained through the drain pipe.

 The hot refrigerant vapour is passed to the compressor and then to the condenser where it becomes li"uid. Thus the cycle is repeated. 4 thermostat is used to keep the room at a constant, comfortable temperature avoiding the fre"uent turning on off.

!erits and /emerits of Split type air conditioner: !erits :

It is compact Gpto four indoor 43G$s may be connected to one outdoor unit. It is energy and money saving. -uct is not used. 6asier to install. It is noiseless, because rotary air compressor used is, kept outside. It is more efficient and powerful. It has the fle!ibility for zoning.

/e!erits :
Initial cost is higher than window air conditioner Skilled technician is re"uired for installation. 6ach zone or room re"uires thermostat to control the air cooling.

(pplications of air conditioning:

Gsed in houses, hospitals, offices, computer centres, theatres, departmental stores etc., 4irEconditioning of transport media such as buses, cars trains, aeroplanes and ships. ide application in food processing, printing, chemical, pharmaceutical and machine tool, etc.,

&NI$

V (REFRIGERA$I*N AN( AIR C*N(I$I*NING S'S$EM"

%AR$ A (2 MAR-S" 43 (efine $efrigeration3 93 Mention t&e +ays of ac&ieving refrigeration effect3 >3 Mention some of t&e applications of refrigeration B3 (efine t&e term refrigeration effect3 =3 ,&at is t&e meaning of 5one tonne of refrigeration6A <3 .o+ t&e capacity of t&e refrigeration system specifiedA C3 (efine t&e term 5Coefficient of performance6A D3 Classify t&e refrigerating system3 ;3 ,&at is t&e function of compressor in refrigerating systemA 4:3 ,&at is t&e function of condenser in refrigerating systemA 443 ,&at is EvaporatorA 493 Mention any t&ree desirable properties of good refrigerant3 4>3 )ist t&e properties of absorbent3 4B3 ,&at is t&e function of t&e 2bsorber in 7apour 2bsorption refrigeratorA 4=3 Mention t&e advantages of 2bsorption refrigeration system over compression refrigeration system3 4<3 ,&at are primary refrigerantsA 4C3 )ist some important refrigerants3 4D3 ,&y 2mmonia is preferred in absorption systemA 4;3 ,&at is t&e tec&nical name of !reon-49A 9:3 ,&at are t&e properties of !reon-49A 943 ,rite s&ort notes on compressors3 993 ,&at are t&e types of compressorsA 9>3 (efine C3O3*3 9B3 (efine refrigerant3 -ive some examples of refrigerant3 9=3 -ive some properties of good refrigerant3 9<3 Mention t&e types of refrigerators3 9C3 -ive some properties of a good refrigerant3 9D3 State t&e function of a compressor3 9;3 (efine relative &umidity >:3 (efine psyc&rometry3 >43 ,&at is dry airA >93 ,&at is moist airA >>3 (efine t&e term absolute &umidity3 >B3 (efine t&e term (ry bulb temperature3 >=3 (efine t&e term ,et bulb temperature3 ><3 ,&at is called ,et bulb depressionA >C3 (efine t&e term (e+ point temperature3 >D3 ,&at is t&e use of *syc&rometric c&artA >;3 (efine (B" and ,B"3 B:3 (efine &umidity3 B43 (efine air conditioning3 B93 ,&at are t&e control systems used in domestic refrigeratorsA B>3 Mention t&e classification of air conditioning system3 BB3 (efine yearround air conditioning system3 B=3 ,&at is t&e function of t&ermostatA

B<3 ,&at is called defrostingA BC3 Mention t&e loads encountered in air conditioning systems3 BD3 ,&at is +indo+ air conditionerA B;3 ,&at are t&e limitations of ,indo+ air conditionersA =:3 ,&at are t&e re%uirements of comfort air conditioningA %AR$ B (10 MAR-S" 43 Explain t&e principle and +or ing of vapour compression refrigeration system3 93 Explain t&e principle and +or ing of t&e vapour absorption refrigeration system3 >3 -ive t&e comparison of vapour absorption +it& vapour compression refrigeration system3 B3 .o+ do you classify t&e air conditioning systemA =3 Explain t&e summer air-conditioning system for &ot and dry +eat&er3 <3 ,it& t&e neat s etc& explain t&e layout of a +indo+ room air conditioning3 C3 Explain t&e layout of t&e split type air conditioning system3 D3 Mention and explain t&e different types of refrigerant used3 ;3 Explain t&e advantages and disadvantages of t&e +indo+ air conditioning unit3 4:3 State t&e principle of air conditioning3 ,&at are t&e parameters re%uired for t&e &uman comfort in air conditioningA 443 (iscuss t&e advantages and disadvantages of split type room air conditioner3

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43 State t&e principles of surveyingA 93 .o+ are bric s classifiedA3 >3 (efine bering capacity of soil3 B3 (efine stress and strain3 =3 ,&at is t&e use of surge tan in &ydro po+er plantsA <3 -ive t+o examples for positive displacement pumps3 C3 ,&at is t&e function of carburetorA D3 Compare t+o stro e and four stro e engines +it& regard to po+er output and t&ermal efficiency# for t&e same speed and cylinder capacity3 ;3 (efine ton of refrigeration3 4:3 State t&e values of (B" and $. for &uman comfort in 'ndia3 *2$" B-0= O 4<MD:1 443i3 "&e follo+ing perpendicular offsets +ere ta en at 4:m intervals from a survey line to n irregular boundary line: >34=m#B3>:m#D39:m#<3D=m#C3<:m#B39:m#=3<:m#B3>:m3Calculate t&e area enclosed Bet+een t&e survey line #irregular boundary line# first and last offsets by trapeFoidal rule3 (*R" 493 ,&at are t&e different types of cementA Explain t&eir properties properties and uses3 4>3 (escribe +it& neat s etc&esG12ny one of s&allo+ foundation3ii1*ile foundation3 (*R" 4B3(excribe +it& neat s etc&esG13 2rc& culvert3 ii13 "-Beam and Slab bridge3 4=3 (ra+ a neat layout of a typical steam po+er plant and explain t&e various circuits involved3 (*R" 4<3,it& t&e &elp of suitable s etc&es# explain t&e +or ing of a reciprocating pump3 ,&at are t&e

2dvantages of centrifugal pumps over reciprocating pumpsA 4C3 Explain t&e +or ing of a t+o stro e petrol engine3 ,&at are t&e advantages and disadvantages of t+oA Stro e enginesA (*R" 4D3Explain t&e principle of +or ing of a four stro e diesel engine +it& suitable s etc&es3 ,&at are t&e Merits and demerits of four stro e enginesA 4;3,it& t&e &elp of flo+ diagram explain t&e principle of +or ing of a vapour compression refrigeration system3 Compare vapour absorption refrigeration +it& vapour compression refrigeration3 (*R" 9:3,it& a neat s etc&# explain in detail t&e +or ing of a +indo+ type room air conditioner