Electricity and magnetism

Lecture 3. Electric Potential and Energy

Outline
Understand the conservative force,
Relationship between work, potential energy, and potential,
Calculate potential of point charges and other symmetric
charge sources
Gauss Law states that the electric flux through any closed surface is
equal to the net charge inside the surface divided by
o
2


q
2
q
3
1
Review
Gausss Law can be used to calculate electric fields of highly symmetric
distributions of charge.
Work ~ Energy Relationship
Work done by a constant force:


Work done by a conservative force is equal to the negative of the
change in potential energy



Both electrostatic force and gravitational force are conservative
force
) ( ) (
total
i i f f nc
c nc
PE KE PE KE PE KE W
KE W W W
+ + = A + A =
A = + =
x F W

A =
) (
constant i f c
x x F PE W = A =
}
= x d F W

Energy conservation law (general):

3
or
i: initial
f: final
Change in Kinetic energy
Change in total energy
Compare electric potential energy and
gravitational potential energy
The behavior of a point charge in a uniform electric field is analogous to the
motion of a baseball in a uniform gravitational field.
4
Change in potential energy: Definition
Lets first consider a uniform
field between the two plates
As the charge moves from A to
B, work is done on it
Work done by electric force
W = F x = q E
x
(x
f
x
i
)

Change in potential energy
PE = W = q E
x
Ax
This is only for a uniform field.
In more general case, we do the following for the work
done by electric force
}
=
f
i
x
x
x
dx qE W
5
Charge Movements and the Energy Change
When the electric field is directed downward,
point B is at a lower potential than point A
A positive test charge that moves from A to B
loses electric potential energy. It will gain the
same amount of kinetic energy as it loses in
potential energy.
If a negative charge moves from point A to B,
it gains potential energy, so positive external
work W must be done to overcome the .

For negative charge
0 W
) (
ext
ext
> + A =
= A = A + A
Ed q KE
W Ed q KE PE KE
Electric potential energy is characteristic of the charge-field system
Due to an interaction between the field and the charge placed in the field
6
qEd KE W
W qEd KE PE KE
A =
= A = A + A
ext
ext
For positive charge
can be 0
Charge Movements and the Energy Change
When a positive charge is in an electric field,
It spontaneously moves along the direction of the field, namely, from higher potential to
lower potential, and its electrical potential energy decreases (case in Figure a below)
If it moves opposite to the electric field direction, namely, from lower potential to
higher potential, its electrical potential energy increases (case in Figure b below). To
make this movement, external work is needed
7
Question: What happens to the kinetic energy if the charge moves from rest?
Charge Movements and the Energy Change
8
When a negative charge is in an electric field,
It spontaneously moves opposite to the direction of the field, namely, from lower
potential to higher potential, and its electrical potential energy decreases (case in
Figure b below)
If it moves along the electric field direction, namely, from higher potential to lower
potential, its electrical potential energy increases (case in Figure a below). To make
this movement, external work W is needed
Quick quiz
If a negatively charged particle is placed at
point B and given a very small kick to the
right, what will its subsequent motion be?
1 2 3 4
0% 0% 0% 0%
1. It will go to the right and never return
2. It will go to the left
3. It will remain at point B
4. It will oscillate around point B
What if it is a positively charged particle?
Countdown
20
Electric Potential Energy is Path Independent
Because electric force is conservative force, the electric potential difference
is path independent
The electric potential is the same whether q
0
moves in a radial line (left
figure) or along an arbitrary path (right figure).
10
Definition of Electric Potential
The potential difference between points A and B is defined as the change in the
potential energy (final value minus initial value) of a charge q moved from A to B
divided by the size of the charge


Potential difference is not the same as potential energy. They have different units!
The electric potential is independent of the path between points A and B
When we talk about potential, it is actually always relative!
It is customary to choose a reference potential: at r = , V = 0 and PE =0. Then
the potential at some point r away from a point source charge q can be
reformulated as
q
PE
V V V = =

11
(Unit: J/C or V)
q
PE
V V V
A B
A
= = A
A potential (and field) exists at some point in space, no matte whether there
is a test charge
Both electric potential energy and potential difference are scalar quantities
Finding Electric Potential from Electric Field
12
}
=
b
a
B A
l d E V V

For a point charge q, the electric field is
r
r
q k
E

2
e
=
set V

= 0, so the potential at any point

with distance r is:
r
q k
r d
r
q k
r d E V V
r r
e
2
e
= = =
} }

General formula:
Electric potential can be calculated from electric field by integration.
Question: What about sign of V?
For a uniform-charged
conducting sphere
Finding Electric Potential from Electric Field
Outside the sphere, the electric
field and potential are similar to
the case of point charge

Electric field inside the sphere is
zero, so potential difference is zero
constant potential from inside
up to the surface (we will see this
again later)
13
Electric Field and Electric Potential
Depend on Distance
For a point source charge q =
1.11 x 10
-10
C
The electric field is
proportional to 1/r
2

The electric potential is
proportional to 1/r

Both are intrinsic property of
the source charge q,
independent of whether or
not there is test charge
14
Relationship Chart (for point charge)
Electric charge
Electric charge
x displacement
x displacement
2
1
r
q q
k F
e e
=
r
q q
k PE
e
1
=
2
1
r
q
k
q
F
E
e
e
= =
r
q
k
q
PE
V
e
1
= =
15
Electrical Potential Energy (Two point charges)
V
1
is the electric potential due to q
1
at
some point P
The work required to bring q
2
from
infinity to P without acceleration is q
2
V
1

This work is equal to the potential
energy of the two particle system

r
q q
k V q PE
e
2 1
1 2
= =
16
If the charges have the same sign, PE is positive
Positive external work must be done to force the two charges near one
another
If the charges have opposite signs, PE is negative
Negative external work must be done to hold back the unlike charges
from accelerating as they are brought close together
Electrical potential energy (multiple point charges)
The total electric potential at some point a due to
several point charges is the algebraic sum of the
electric potentials due to the individual charges
The algebraic sum is used because potentials are
scalar quantities
The potential at point a is associated to the energy
cost by moving q
0
from infinity to point a (and then
divided by q
0
)
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + = =
3
3
2
2
1
1
0
0
r
q
r
q
r
q
k
q
PE
V
e
q
Question: What is the total kinetic energy of the 3 charges after a long time if
they are released and free to move?
17
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
23
3 2
13
3 1
12
2 1
total
r
q q
r
q q
r
q q
k PE
e
But this is NOT the total electric potential of the original three charges. The
energy cost by moving the three charges together from infinity is
Quick quiz
q
1
= 5.00 C
q
2
= -2.00 C

If the electric potential is taken to be zero at infinity,
find the total electric potential due to these chares at
point P.
How much work is required to bring a third point
charge of 4.00 C from infinity to P?
V 10 6 . 7 V
V 10 360 . 0
V 10 12 . 1
3
2 1 tot
4
2
2
2
4
1
1
1

= + = =
= =
= =
V V V
r
q
k V
r
q
k V
e
e
J 10 0 . 3
) (
2
3
3 3

= =
= = =
P
P
V q
V V q V q PE W A A
18
Quick quiz
Suppose three protons lie on the x-axis, at rest relative to one another at a
given instant of time. If proton q
3
on the right is released while the others are
held fixed in place, find a symbolic expression for the protons speed at
infinity.
0
2
0
2
12
2 1
0
2
23
3 2
13
3 1
12
2 1
2
3
2
5
r
q k
PE
r
q k
r
q q k
PE
r
q k
r
q q k
r
q q k
r
q q k
PE
e
e e
f
e e e e
i
=
= =
= + + =
A
0
2
0
2
2
3
2
3
2
1
0
mr
e k
v
r
q k
mv
PE KE
e
e
=
=
= + A A
19
0
2
0
2
23
3 2
13
3 1
2
3
0
2
3
r
q k
PE
PE
r
q k
r
q q k
r
q q k
PE
e
f
e e e
i
=
=
= + =
A
Alternatively, we can take q
3
as a test charge,
The Electron Volt
It is an energy unit.
The electron volt (eV) is defined as the energy
that an electron gains when accelerated through a
potential difference of 1 V
1 eV = 1.6 x 10
-19
C (J/C) = 1.6 x 10
-19
J

Electrons in normal atoms have energies of 10s of eV
Excited electrons have energies of 1000s of eV
High energy gamma rays have energies of millions of
eV
20
Equipotential Surfaces
Since W = -q(V
B
V
A
), net work is zero when moving a charge
between two points that are at the same electric potential,
namely,
W = 0 when V
A
= V
B
A charge can be moved between any two points at the same
electric potential without doing any work
21
An equipotential surface is a surface on which all points are at
the same potential
No work is required to move a charge at a constant speed on an
equipotential surface
The electric field at every point on an equipotential surface is
perpendicular to the surface
Equipotential surfaces and field lines
Equipotential surfaces can be schematic drawn together with field lines
Electric field lines and equipotential surfaces are always mutually
perpendicular.
22
Question: What happens if a charged particle moves along the equipotential surface?
Conductors in Equilibrium
The conductor has an excess of positive
charge
All of the charge resides at the surface
E = 0 inside the conductor
The electric field just outside the conductor
is perpendicular to the surface
All points on the surface of a charged
conductor in electrostatic equilibrium are at
the same potential
The potential everywhere inside the
conductor is constant and equal to its value
at the surface
The whole conductor in equilibrium is
equipotential
( ) 0 90 cos = = = =
} } }
B
A
B
A
B
A
AB
ds qE s d E q s d F W

23
Equipotentials and conductors
When all charges are at rest:
the surface of a conductor is always an equipotential surface.
the electric field just outside a conductor is always perpendicular
to the surface (see figures below).
the entire solid volume of a conductor is at the same potential.
24
If the electric field just outside a
conductor had a tangential
component E
||
, a charge could move
in a loop with net work done.
A Cavity within a Conductor
Because V
B
V
A
= 0, the integral of E.ds must be zero for all paths
between any two points A and B on the conductor. A cavity surrounded
by conducting walls is a field free region as long as no charges are inside
the cavity.
B
B A
A
V V d =
}
E s
Consider a conductor of arbitrary shape
as shown. The electric field inside the
cavity must be zero regardless of the
charge distribution on the outside
surface of the conductor.
Potential gradient
26
We can also write the vector form of the definition for two points in 3-D space

= . =

( +

Conversely, given the potential V(x, y, z), we can obtain the components of the
electric field

; =

Here,

denotes a partial derivative differentiating w.r.t. x and treating variables y

and z in V as constants. It applies similarly to

and

. If the electric field only

varies in the radial direction with r, then

.

The negative sign is associated with the fact that the electric field is always pointing
from higher potential to lower potential. We note that another unit for the electric
field is volts per metre (V/m).
(a) Find an expression for the electric potential
at point P located on the perpendicular
central axis of a uniformly charged ring of
radius a and total charge Q.
(b) Find an expression for the magnitude of the
electric field at point P.
Example: Electric Potential Due to a Uniformly Charged Ring
(a) Charge element dq at a distance from point P.
2 2
x a +
2 2 2 2
2 2
dq dq k
V k k dq
r
x a x a
kQ
V
x a
= = =
+ +
=
+
} } }
Since each element dq is at
the same distance from P
(b) Use E
x
= dV/dx
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
1
2 2 2
3
2 2 2
3
2 2 2
1
2
2
x
x
dV d
E kQ x a
dx dx
kQ x a x
kQx
E
x a

= = +
= +
=
+
What about E
y
and E
z
?
What is the electric potential at the center of the ring?
What is the electric field at the center of the ring?
Question:
Summary
Potential Difference and Electric Potential
- The change in the electric potential energy of a system is given by (1D):


- The difference in electric potential between two points A and B is



where PE is the change in electrical potential energy as a charge q moves
between A and B. The units of potential difference are joules per coulomb, or
volts; 1 J/C = 1 V.

29
x qE W PE A = = A
x AB
q
PE
V V V
A
= A
A B
Two ways to find electric potential:
}
=
b
a
B A
l d E V V

Sum up potential from continuous
point charges (see next slide):
From electric field, then times
displacement:
r
dq
k V
e
}
=
Summary
Electric Potential and Potential Energy by Point Charges

- The electric potential of a point charge q at distance r is



If more than one charges, then sum up algebraically. this gives another way to
find out potential
- The electric potential energy of a pair of point charges separated by
distance r is:
30
r
q
k V
e
=
r
q q
k PE
e
2 1
=
Equipotential Surfaces
Any surface on which the potential is the same at every point is called
an equipotential surface. The electric field is always oriented
perpendicular to an equipotential surface.