Physics - Study of everyday phenomena - Study of matter and energy and their relationship - Laws of nature - Most basic

of all sciences - Greek 'physikos' = natural

Defining Units/Fundamental Units Unit - A standard used for measuring a physical quantity System of Units

SCIENCE Applied Science Natural Science Biological Science PHYSICS Classical Modern
- Set of standards used for measuring various physical quantities Physical Quantity Fundamental - Independent Derived - Combination of units See Appendix B (p. 13) Relationships between Physical Quantities (p. 18) 1. Direct Proportion

Social Science

Physical Science

Classical and Modern Physics (p. 5) Appendix A Application of Physics - Motors - Electricity - Telecommunications Process of Measurement Physical Quantities - Numerical representation of a physical phenomenon Measurement - Relative - Most basic form of observation - Simple process of reference - Comparison of a quality of an unknown to the quality of something known - Process of comparing one quantity with another quantity - Describe length, weight, area, volume and time - Quantitative description of a fundamental property or physical phenomenon Unit of Measurement - Certain standard/known quantity

y = kx or y/x = k As A increases, B increases

2. Inverse Proportion

1. Tail-head Method

yx = k As A increases, B decreases 3. Direct Square Proportion

2. Polygon Method

y = kx2 As A increases, B increases faster 4. Inverse Square Proportion

3. Pythagorean Method Rx = Ax + Bx = (+ 3.54 cm) + (- 6. 93 cm) Rx = - 3.39 cm Ry = Ay + By = (- 3.54 cm) + (+ 4.00 cm) Ry = + 0.46 cm R = (Rx)2 + (Ry)2 = (- 3.39 cm)2 + (0.46 cm)2 = 11.7 = 3.42 cm = arc tan Ry/Rx arc - inverse tangent (tan-1(___)) = arc tan 0.46cm 3.39 cm = arc tan 0.1356932153 = 7.73 R = 3.42 cm, 7.73 cw from (-) x-axis 4. Component Method Component of x and y Given: A = 5 cm, 45 cm (+) x-axis B = 8 cm, 30 cw (-) x -axis x = cos y = sin

yx2 = k As A increases, B decreases faster Physical Quantities Scalar - Magnitude Vector - Magnitude and direction Vector Addition (p. 34) - At least 2 vectors Ex. D: 10 cm, 30 cw (-) x-axis

D: 10 cm, 30 ccw (-) x-axis

Ax = A cos

= + 5 cm cos 45 = (+ 5 cm) (0.707) Ax = + 3.54 cm Ay = A sin = - 5 cm sin 45 = (- 5 cm) (0.707) Ay = - 3.54 cm Bx = B cos = - 8 cm cos 30 = (- 8 cm) (0.866) Bx = -6.93 cm By = B sin = + 8 cm sin 30 = (+ 8 cm) (0.5) By = + 4.00 cm

- Object traveling at certain angles Distance vs. Displacement Distance - Total path traversed by an object moving from one location to another is known as distance - Scalar quantity: Magnitude only Displacement - Separation of an object and a reference point - Vector quantity: Magnitude + Direction Motion Graphs Deceleration - Not uniform Object at Rest - Constant displacement (d = constant) - Zero velocity (v = 0) - Zero acceleration (a = 0)

Cartesian Plane

Vector Resultant - Head of the last vector and tail of the first vector Relativity of Motion Kinematics - Description of motion Motion - Movement of an object - Change in position - Motion is relative. - For us to adequately describe motion, we must be able to check where the body is located within a given frame of reference. Reference Frame - Physical entity to which the position and motion of an object is relative Rectilinear Motion - Object traveling in a straight path Curvilinear Motion - Object traveling in a curved path Angular Motion

Uniform Velocity - Increasing/decreasing displacement (d= vt) - Constant velocity (v = d/t) - Constant speed - No change in direction - Zero acceleration (a = 0) Uniform Accelerated Motion - Increasing/decreasing displacement (d = vt + at2/2 or d = (vf2 - vi2) / 2a) - Increasing/decreasing velocity - Constant speed but changing direction - Constant acceleration (a = (vf - vi) / t) Position vs Time Constant Velocity

Positive UAM

Negative UAM Velocity vs Time

At rest

Constant (+) Acceleration

At rest

Projectile Motion Projectile - An object thrown with an initial horizontal velocity and acted upon by the earth's pull of gravity Trajectory - Curved path the projectile travels Projectile Motion Equations Case 1: Horizontal Horizontal Velocity Horizontal Displacement Height Magnitude of Velocity Direction of Velocity

Constant (-) Acceleration

UAM

Vx = x/t R = Vxt d = 1/2 gt2 v = Rx2 + Ry2 = tan-1 (Vy/Vx) Vy = Vi sin Vx = Vi cos Viy = - gt y = 1/2 viyt y = viyt + 1/2 gt2 viy2 = -2gy

Velocity (+), Acceleration (-)

Case 2: Projected Diagonally UAM Equations - v1 = v2 + at - d = vit + at2 2 - d = (v1 + v2) t 2 2 2 - v2 = v1 + 2ad Freefall Equations Case 1: Dropping

Range

Max. Height

v = gt h = 1/2 gt2 h = (v/2) t v2 = 2gh

Total Time

Going Down

Case 2: Throwing Downwards and Case 3: Throwing upwards (*Velocity at topmost position = 0)

Vx = x/t Vy = gt h = (1/2) gt2 h = (Vy/2) t vy2 = 2gh

v2 = vi + gt h = vit + 1/2 gt2 h = (v1 + v2)/2 t v22 = v12 + 2gh v = gt

Uniform Circular Motion - Acceleration is perpendicular to the velocity - Acceleration always points to the center - Constant speed on a circular path - Constant centripetal acceleration

- Tangential (orbit) and Radial (CW/CCW) Acceleration - No net force acting on the object in its direction of motion - Velocity is tangent to the path of the object - Direction of the acceleration = Direction of the force - Direction of the vector is not constant - Change of direction = Acceleration - (Object's tangential) Velocity is constant, but direction is always changing

Centripetal - Center force - Acts as a right angle to the tangential velocity and produces constant acceleration towards the center of curvature - Balanced - Uniform Centrifugal - Force --> Outside UCM Equations Centripetal Force Centripetal /Radial Acceleration Total Acceleration Velocity

Fc = mac Ac = v2/r Tangential + Radial V = 2r/T F = mac = m (v2/r)

Dynamics - Way in which force produces motion Force - Push/pull - Represents an object's interaction with its environment - Requires pressure - If force is exerted and the object doesn't move: 1. Force exerted is perpendicular 2. Force exerted is not enough Newton - 1N = 1 kgm/s2 - 1 dyne = 1 gcm/s2 - 1N = 1000 dynes Net Force - Vector sum of all the forces acting on a body - Causes an object at rest to start moving - Causes a moving object to stop - Causes a moving object to change its direction - Physical quantity that is capable of changing an objects state of motion Contact Force - Interaction - External Force 1. Frictional - Scratching, opposing forces 2. Tension - Hanging, no motion 3. Normal - Force acting on a body, upward/vertical 4. Air Resistance - Force on objects that travel through air, often opposes the motion of the object 5. Applied 6. Spring Non-contact Force - Not in physical contact - Physical separation 1. Gravitational 2. Electrical 3. Magnetic

Force

Inertia and Mass

Inertia - Natural tendency of an object to maintain a state of rest or to remain in uniform motion in a straight line (constant velocity) Mass - Measure of inertia AN OBJECT MORE MASSIVE HAS MORE INERTIA OR HAS MORE RESISTANCE TO CHANGE IN MOTION THAN A LESS MASSIVE OBJECT DOES Laws of Motion Law of Inertia - A body at rest remains at rest, and a body already in motion remains in motion with a constant velocity (constant speed and direction), in the absence of an unbalanced applied force - Basis of designing safety devices such as headrests and seatbelts - Imagine you are standing still in a stationary train, then suddenly it moves forward. Your body has inertia, so force is needed to change its velocity. The train floor accelerates your feet but your body falls backward. On the other hand, when the train suddenly stops, your body will continue to be in motion and so it moves forward until something stops it. Law of Acceleration - The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on the object and inversely proportional to the mass of the object - If no net force acts on an object, the velocity of the object does not change - F = ma (net external force = mass x acceleration) - Basis of structural design of race cars Race cars are designed such that their mass is reduced which is directly proportional to the net force but inversely proportional to the acceleration of the car

- When an object exerts a force on another object, the second object exerts on the first a force of the same magnitude but in the opposite direction - For every force (action) there is an equal and opposite force (reaction - Basis of operation of rocket engines: The action force is provided by the burned fuel ejected from the combustion chamber. The downward force or thrust produces an equal but opposite upward force. If the force is strong enough to overcome the force of gravity, the rocket is accelerated upward. Defining Mechanical Energy, Kinetic and Potential Energy, Work and Power Work 1. There must be a force acting on the object. 2. The object has to move a certain distance called displacement. 3. There must be a component of the force in the direction of the motion. - Force and displacement must be parallel for work to be done - Work is the product of the magnitude of the displacement multiplied by the component of the force which is parallel to the displacement - Newton-meters (N-m) or - Joule (J) = kgm2/s2 W = (F cos )d W - Work F - Force parallel to the displacement - The angle between the force and the displacement d - displacement Kinetic Energy - Energy possessed by bodies in motion - Depends on the mass and speed of the body - The change in KE of an object is equal to the work done on an object Equations: - F d = 1/2 mvf2 - 1/2 mvi2 - Work-Energy Theorem:

Law of Interaction

F d = W = KEf - KEi - W = KE = 1/2 mv2 This means that if the speed of an object is doubled, its kinetic energy is increased by a factor of four which also means that it takes four times the work to double the speed. Similarly, it takes four times the work to stop an object moving twice as fast. Potential Energy - Stored energy - Associated with forces that depend on the position/configuration of a body and its surroundings - The higher the object, the more gravitational energy it possesses - Work done in lifting is equal to the change in its gravitational potential energy 1. Gravitational Potential Energy - Energy acquired by an object when work is done on it against the force of gravity PE = W = F d = mgh - Height lifted against gravity matters, not distance moved - Relative quantity 2. Elastic Potential Energy - Energy acquired by an object when work is done by it so that it is displaced from the equilibrium position KE HAS EQUAL VALUE WITH PE, NONE IS GREATER Mechanical Energy - Sum of KE and PE of a system - In a conservative system, the total ME is constant Law of Conservation of Mechanical Energy - The sum of the KE and PE in a conservative system is constant and equal to the total ME of the system in the absence of dissipative forces (e.g. friction, air resistance) TME = KE + PE - In an isolated system where there are no ME losses due to friction

KE = -PE Therefore: (before) KE + PE = (after) KE + PE 1 /2 mvi2 + mghi = 1/2 mvf2 + mghf Principle of Conservation of ME: If only conservative forces are doing the work, the total ME of a system neither increases nor decreases in any process. It stays constant/conserved. Power - Rate of doing work - P = work done (W)/time (t) - Joules per second (J/s) Watts (W) 1 J/s = 1 W 1000 W = 1kW 1 hp = 746 W - When a constant force performs work on an object, and moves it at a constant rate, the power developed is equal to force and velocity d /t = v Fd P= / t or P = Fv This equation reveals that a powerful machine is both strong (big force) and fast (big velocity). Powerful machine: Apply a large amount of force to cause a large displacement in a short period of time Law of Conservation of Energy - Energy changes into different forms but the total amount of energy stays the same - Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it can only be transformed from one form to another Applications of Mechanical Energy 1. Graphical representation of Pendulum (p. 143)

Momentum and Impulse Momentum

- Quantity of motion that an object has - Mass in motion - If an object is moving, it has momentum - Product of mass and velocity p = mv - Total Linear Momentum: p = p1 + p2 + p3... - kg m/s - Vector quantity: dir. of M = dir. of V = dir. of motion - Objects with same mass will have different momentum if they have different velocities Impulse - Change in momentum - Momentum of an object changes if its velocity/mass changes - Vector quantity - Directly proportional to the change in momentum - Explains why follow-through is important in sports, (baseball) keeps the object in contact for a longer time so the ball experiences a greater change in momentum Fnett = p Fnett = m(Vf - Vi) Fnet = mv/t I = Fnett I = p I = mv Law of Conservation of Momentum - The total momentum of a system does not change if there are no net external forces acting on it - Two people push each other from rest will have equal but opposite momentum so the momentum also becomes 0 Elastic and Inelastic Collisions Collision - Interactions between two bodies in which they exert mutual influence on each other - All collisions conserve momentum, not all of them conserve kinetic energy 1. Elastic - KE is conserved

2. Inelastic - Some KE is lost 3. Perfectly inelastic - Max. KE is lost REFER TO PG. 82 Density and Pressure of Solids Density - Ratio of the mass of the substance to its volume - Independent of the amount of matter present in a substance p = m/V 3 - kg/m Pressure - Force per unit area - Pressure increases with depth - Pressure does not depend on the shape of the container - It does not depend on the amount of liquid - It is the same at any particular depth in liquids contained in different-sizedcontainers - (Water Pressure) It depends on three factors: density, depth and gravity P = F/A 2 - Pa or N/m Pascal's Principle - Any change in pressure applied at any given point on a confined fluid is transmitted undiminished throughout the fluid Buoyant Force - Upward force resulting from an object being wholly or partially immersed in fluid is called - BF = Weight of object --> Object will remain anywhere in the fluid - BF > Weight of object --> Float - BF < Weight of object --> Sink - BF is greater in a denser liquid than in a less dense one

Archimedes' Principle - A body partly or entirely submerged in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal in

magnitude to the weight of the displaced fluid and directed upward along a line through the center of gravity of the displaced fluid Heat Transfer Radiation - Heat energy travels as EM waves in the same manner as speed and light - Can transfer heat from a source to another object even if there is a vacuum between them - Ex. sun and bonfire Conduction - Heat energy travels when two objects at different temperatures are in direct contact with each other - Mainly occurs in solid objects Convection - Heat in fluids is transferred to cooler regions by currents Amount of Heat Transfer Q = mCT Q - amount of heat transferred m - mass C - specific heat T = change in temperature - The heat lost by one object equals the heat gained by another object (mCT lost = mCT gained) Thermodynamic Laws 1. Zeroth Law - If two objects are in thermal equilibrium with a third, then they are in thermal equilibrium which each other. - Used in thermometers 2. First Law - The change in internal energy of a system equals the difference between the heat taken in or given out by the system and the work done by or on the system.

W - net work done on the system U - change in internal energy - Basis is the principle of conservation of energy (neither created nor destroyed) - Added heat is contained in the system (U) while some leaves for work to be done 3. Second Law Natural processes go in a direction that maintains or increases the total entropy of the universe or When all systems taking part in a process are included, the total entropy either remains constant if the process is reversible or increases if the process is irreversible 4. Kelvin Statement It is impossible to remove thermal energy from a system at a single temperature and convert it to mechanical work without changing the system or surroundings in some other way. 5. Clausius Statement There can be no process whose only final result is to transfer thermal energy from a cooler object to a hotter one. 6. Carnot Statement No engine is more efficient than the Carnot Engine. 7. Kelvin-Planck Statement It is impossible to completely convert heat to work. Heat Transfer, Heat Engines and Heat Pumps Heat Transfer - Increase in thermal energy means heat is transferred.

U = Q - W Q - added amount of heat

- Phase Change Sometimes heat is gained or lost but there is not temperature change.

Endothermic

GAS

LIQUID

SOLID
Exothermic

GAS

LIQUID

SOLID
- Conduction, Convection, Radiation - Effects of heat to a system: 1. It increases the internal energy of the system, if it remains the same 2. It does work on things external to the system, if it leaves the system - Heat added to a system = increase in the internal energy + external work done by the system - Heat naturally flows from heat to cold objects. Reversing this flow requires work. Heat Engines - Heat engine - any device that converts heat energy into work 1. Intake stroke - Air and gas vapor mixture is added to the cylinder and the piston moves downward. 2. Compression stroke - The piston moves upward and compresses the air. 3. Ignition - The mixture is ignited using the spark plug. 4. Power Stroke - The piston moves downward. 5. Exhaust Stroke - The piston moves upward and the valve is opened to release the air. - There is a certain amount of heat that is not converted into work and this is called waste heat. - All heat engines produce waste heat.

Heat Pumps - Heat pump - a device that transfers heat energy from a low-temperature reservoir to a high-temperature reservoir 1. Hot gas goes to condenser 2. Condenser - cools gas to near room temperature and then undergoes condensation 3. Liquid goes to the evaporator 4. Liquid evaporates and absorbs heat from the refrigerator 5. Gas with absorbed heat goes back to the compressor 6. Condenser - gas transfers heat absorbed to the air inside the room while it is being cooled again to repeat the cycle Electrical Charges - Atoms have electrical charges inside them - Center of atom: nucleus - Nucleus: protons and neutrons - Atom: orbiting electrons - Normally, atoms have zero net charge. They are electrically neutral because they have an equal number of electrons and protons. But electrons do not always stay in the atoms. They can be removed by rubbing. - Two types of charges in all materials/matter: positive and negative - Imbalance in number of electrons and protons causes an atom to be electrically charged - Underlie all electrical phenomena - Scalar quantity - Electrons are identical (same mass and quantity. Protons are also identical. Law of Electric Charges - Like charges repel and unlike charges attract

Charging Processes Friction - Electrons are transferred

- Charge is created by influence of a charged object Conduction - Transfer of electrons from a charged object to another object by direct contact - Body with a charge produces same charge on a conductor Induction - Movement of electrons to one part of an object by the electric field of another object - Opposite type of charge is induced Polarization - Electric charges shift slightly to one side when there is a charge nearby Coulomb's Law F (electric force) = k Q1Q2 R2 F - electric force (Newton) k - constant (9 x 109 Nm2/C2) Q - charges (Coulomb) R - distance (Meter) - For two charged objects (that are much smaller than the distance between them), the force between the two objects Electric Field - Whenever you have a charge Q placed anywhere in space, it will be surrounded by a region such that if you will put any other charge q at any point P in this region, the charge q will be acted upon by an electric force Fe. We call this region around Q the electric field E of Q. The strength of this electric field is operationally defined as the ratio of the Fe to the charge q placed at that point in the field. E (electric field strength) = Fe q - Vector quantity - Test charges are always small and positive - The electric field direction follows the direction of this electric force Fe acting on the test charge.

- If the test charge q is positive, the direction will be away from the positive Q center - If the test charge q is positive, the direction will be towards the negative Q center - The direction of the electric field at point P would then follow the direction of the net electric force acting on a test charge at the same point - While Q is repelling q with a force Fe, q is also repelling Q with a force equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to Fe. Conductors and Insulators Conductors - Materials whose electric charges are free to move within - Ex. Cu, Al, Ag, Fe, C, H2O Insulators - Materials whose electric charges are not free to move within - Ex. Glass, rubber, silk and plastic Semiconductors - Between insulators and conductors - Ex. Si, Ge Superconductors - Become perfect conductors at very low temperatures - Ex. Ceramic copper oxide Current (I) - Movement of charged particles in a specific direction - Charged particles = current carriers - How much charge is passed through a given point in a conductor per given amount of time - Coulomb per second (C/s) - Ampere (A) current (I) = charge (q) time (t)

Voltage (V) - Electromotive force (emf)

- Potential difference (pd) - potential energy divided by charge Potential energy - work needed to move a charged body against the electric force - Electric pressure that causes current to flow - Work is needed to move like charges together and apart - Voltage is not a force - Joule per coulomb (J/c) - Volt (V) Voltage (V) = energy (W) charge (q) - Producing voltage: unbalanced number of electrons, current through a resistor, devices (electric generator, solar cells...) Resistance (R) - Opposition a material offers to current - Ohm () - Resistance depends on the ff: Factor Length Crosssectional Area Type of material Less Resistance Short Greater Resistance Longer

How much does it cost to operate a 20" desk fan for 12 hours if electrical energy costs P4.10/kWh? W = Pt = (0.079kW) (12h) W = 0.948 kWh Cost = (0.948 kWh) (P4.10/kWh) Cost = P3.89 Series and Parallel Quantity Current Voltage Resistance Series I = I1 = In VT = V 1 + V n RT = R1 + Rn Parallel I = I1 + ... 1n VT = V 1 = V n
1

/Rt = 1/R1 + 1 /Rn

Applications of Magnetism EM and Mechanical Waves Mechanical - Require a medium EM Waves - Does not require medium Transverse and Longitudinal Transverse - Vibrations are perpendicular - Crests and troughs Longitudinal - Vibrations are along the direction of the wave - Compressions and rarefactions Sound Waves Nature - Longitudinal wave - Follow a coherence of motion - Begin either from simple harmonic motions (SHMs) or from complicated motions - Carry energy - Source of sound must supply energy - Small percentage of energy output is converted into sound energy - Large compression = High energy - Small compression = Low energy Propagation - Require medium

Bigger/wider Smaller

Copper

Aluminum

Temperature Low High temperature temperature Power (P) - Rate of energy transfer P = IV - Watt (W) = V/A Ohm's Law - Current is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance I=V R

Energy Consumption Cost W (kWh) = Pt

- Cannot travel through vacuum - Sound waves spread in all directions Perception 1. Sound waves enter ear 2. Eardrums vibrate 3. Vibrations pass through 3 tiny ear bones/ear ossicles: hammer, anvil, stirrup 4. Go to cochlea 5. Detected by tiny hair cells 6. Brain Computation of Sound Waves In the middle of a thunderstorm, a lightning bolt flashes. It takes Roberto 5 seconds to hear the thunder afterwards. How far is the source of lightning from Roberto? The temperature is 22C. Given: Speed of sound = 344 m/s Increase in speed = 0.6 m/s Time lag = 5 s Find: distance Solution: 1. Find speed of sound at 22C = 344m/s + 2(0.6 m/s) = 345.2 m/s 2. Distance d = vt = (345.2 m/s) (5 s) d = 1726 m Speed of Sound (p. 209) Factor Density Elasticity Temperature Preference Dense/r Elastic Warm air

- Threshold of pain: 120 dB (ex. Concert, Jet, Thunder) - Only perceive if there is a change min. of 1 dB Timbre - Tone color/tone quality - Used to distinguish between two different sounds that have the same pitch and loudness - Depends on the waveform of the sound wave - Simplest waveform: pure tone Properties of EM waves 1. Exhibit reflection, refraction, diffraction and interference 2. Travel at the speed of light (3 x 108 m/s) 3. Obey the wave relation (v = f) - Each type of wave occupies a band 7 EM Waves (p. 314 - 316) Use of Radio Waves (p. 317 - 319) Dual Nature of Light Phenomenon As a Wave Reflection Refraction Interference Diffraction Polarization Photoelectric Effect YES YES YES YES YES NO As Particles YES YES NO NO NO YES

- Gases < Liquids < Solids Properties of Sound Loudness - Amplitude - Greater amplitude = louder - Sound level intensity - Decibel (dB) - Normally exposed to 0 dB to 120 dB - Threshold of hearing: 0 dB

- Einstein theorized they were made of photons - Photoelectric Effect: photons of x-rays decreased in energy when colliding with electrons What is light made of - Made of photons - Energy in the wave - quanta - The higher the frequency the more energy per photon Nuclear Physics (p. 371-378) Effects of Radiation (See PPT)