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Anatomy and Physiology of the Cardiovascular System

The cardiovascular system can be thought of as the transport system of the body. This system has three main components: the heart, the blood vessel and the blood itself. The heart is the systems pump and the blood vessels are like the delivery routes. Blood can be thought of as a fluid which contains the oxygen and nutrients the body needs and carries the wastes which need to be removed. Function and Location of the Heart The hearts job is to pump blood around the body. The heart is located in between the two lungs. It lies left of the middle of the chest. Structure of the Heart The heart is a muscle about the size of a fist, and is roughly cone-shaped. It is about 12cm long, 9cm across the broadest point and about 6cm thick. The pericardium is a fibrous covering which wraps around the whole heart. It holds the heart in place but allows it to move as it beats. The wall of the heart itself is made up of a special type of muscle called cardiac muscle. Chambers of the Heart The heart has two sides, the right side and the left side. The heart has four chambers. The left and right side each have two chambers, a top chamber and a bottom chamber. The two top chambers are known as the left and right atria (singular: atrium). The atria receive blood from different sources. The left atrium receives blood from the lungs and the right atrium receives blood from the rest of the body. The bottom two chambers are known as the left and right ventricles. The ventricles pump blood out to different parts of the body. The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs while the left ventricle pumps out blood to the rest of the body. The ventricles have much

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thicker walls than the atria which allows them to perform more work by pumping out blood to the whole body. Blood Vessels Blood Vessel are tubes which carry blood. Veins are blood vessels which carry blood from the body back to the heart. Arteries are blood vessels which carry blood from the heart to the body. There are also microscopic blood vessels which connect arteries and veins together called capillaries. There are a few main blood vessels which connect to different chambers of the heart. The aorta is the largest artery in our body. The left ventricle pumps blood into the aorta which then carries it to the rest of the body through smaller arteries. The pulmonary trunk is the large artery which the right ventricle pumps into. It splits into pulmonary arteries which take the blood to the lungs. The pulmonary veins take blood from the lungs to the left atrium. All the other veins in our body drain into the inferior vena cava (IVC) or the superior vena cava (SVC). These two large veins then take the blood from the rest of the body into the right atrium. Valves Valves are fibrous flaps of tissue found between the heart chambers and in the blood vessels. They are rather like gates which prevent blood from flowing in the wrong direction. They are found in a number of places. Valves between the atria and ventricles are known as the right and left atrioventricular valves, otherwise known as the tricuspid and mitral valves respectively. Valves between the ventricles and the great arteries are known as the semilunar valves. The aortic valve is found at the base of the aorta, while the pulmonary valve is found the base of the pulmonary trunk. There are also many valves found in veins throughout the body. However, there are no valves found in any of the other arteries besides the aorta and pulmonary trunk.

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Anatomy and Physiology of the Musculoskeletal System

The skeletal system includes the bones of the skeleton and the cartilages, ligaments, and other connective tissue that stabilize or connect the bones. In addition to supporting the weight of the body, bones work together with muscles to maintain body position and to produce controlled, precise movements. Without the skeleton to pull against, contracting muscle fibers could not make us sit, stand, walk, or run.

Bones
There are 206 bones in the adult body. The bones of the body perform five main functions.

Provide support for the body The skeletal system provides structural support for the entire body. Individual bones or groups of bones provide a framework for the attachment of soft tissues and organs. Store minerals and lipids Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body. (Ninety-nine percent of the body's calcium is found in the skeleton.) The calcium salts of bone are a valuable mineral reserve that maintains normal concentrations of calcium and phosphate ions in body fluids. The bones of the skeleton also store energy reserves as lipids in areas filled with yellow marrow. Produce blood cells Red blood cells, white blood cells, and other blood elements are produced in the red marrow, which fills the internal cavities of many bones. Protect body organs Many soft tissues and organs are surrounded by skeletal elements. For example, the rib cage protects the heart and lungs, the skull protects the brain, the vertebrae protect the spinal cord, and the pelvis protects the delicate reproductive organs. Provide leverage and movement Many bones function as levers that can change the magnitude and direction of the forces generated by muscles.

Bone structure
Each bone in the skeleton contains two forms of tissue: compact (dense) bone that is relatively solid and spongy (cancellous) bone that forms an open network of struts and plates. Compact bone is found on the external surface of the bone. Spongy bone is located inside the bone. The proportion of compact and spongy bone varies with the shape of the bone. Compact bone is thickest where stresses arrive from a limited range of directions. Spongy bone is located where bones are not heavily stressed or where stresses arrive from many directions. Spongy bone is much lighter than compact bone, which helps reduce the weight of the skeleton and makes it easier for muscles to move the bones.

Bone development and growth

The growth of the skeleton determines the size and proportions of the body. Bones begin to form in a mother's womb about six weeks after fertilization, and portions of the skeleton do not stop growing until about the age of 25. Most bones originate as hyaline cartilage. The cartilage is

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gradually converted to bone through a process called ossification. Bone growth begins at the center of the cartilage. As bones enlarge, bone growth activity shifts to the ends of the bones (an area commonly called the growth plate), which results in an increase in bone length.

Bone growth "factoids"

Twenty percent of the adult skeleton is replaced each year. Moderate amounts of physical activity and weight-bearing activities are essential to stimulate bone maintenance and to maintain adequate bone strength.

Other elements of the musculoskeletal system

Joints These are where two bones interconnect. Each joint reflects a compromise between stability and range of motion. For example, the bones of the skull are very stable but with little motion, whereas the shoulder joint allows for a full range of motion but is a relatively unstable joint. Tendons These attach muscle to bone. Ligaments These attach bone to bone. Skeletal muscles These muscles contract to pull on tendons and move the bones of the skeleton. In addition to producing skeletal movement, muscles also maintain posture and body position, support soft tissues, guard entrances and exits to the digestive and urinary tracts, and maintain body temperature. Nerves Nerves control the contraction of skeletal muscles, interpret sensory information, and coordinate the activities of the body's organ systems. Cartilage This is a type of connective tissue. It is a firm gel-like substance. The body contains three major types of cartilage: hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, and fibrocartilage. Hyaline cartilage is the most common type of cartilage. This type of cartilage provides stiff but somewhat flexible support. Examples in adults include the tips of ribs (where they meet the sternum) and part of the nasal septum. Another example is articular cartilage, which is cartilage that covers the ends of bones within a joint. The surfaces of articular cartilage are slick and smooth, which reduces friction during joint movement. Elastic cartilage provides support but can tolerate distortion without damage and return to its original shape. The external flap of the ear is one place where elastic cartilage can be found.

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Fibrocartilage resists compression, prevents bone-to-bone contact, and limits relative movement. Fibrocartilage can be found within the knee joint, between the pubic bones of the pelvis, and between the spinal vertebrae.

Cartilage heals poorly, and damaged fibrocartilage in joints such as the knee can interfere with normal movements. The knee contains both hyaline cartilage and fibrocartilage. The hyaline cartilage covers bony surfaces and fibrocartilage pads in the joint prevent contact between bones during movement. Injuries to the joints can produce tears in the fibrocartilage pads, and the tears do not heal. Eventually, joint mobility is severely reduced.

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Anatomy and Physiology of the Immune System

The immune system is a complex system of cells and responses that recognises something as foreign and acts to remove it. For example micro-organisms, foreign tissue, body cells cancer. Structure of the immune system Immunity is best understood as lines of defence against invaders. First line of defense 1. Mechanical barriers, for example, intact skin and mucous membrane. 2. Chemical barriers. For example, saliva, tears. 3. Reflexes, for example, coughing, sneezing, and vomiting. Second line of defense 1. 2. 3. 4. Inflammation and fever. .Protective proteins that are produced in response to viruses and bacteria Natural killer cells (lymphocytes). Phagocytes (special white cells that eat pathogens)

Third line of defense Lymphocytes: T cells, B cells that fight specific invaders. Immunity can be either natural or active. Natural immunity is an individuals ability to ward off pathogens and is influenced by the persons state of health, their nutritional status and their emotional response to stress. Active immunity occurs as the body builds up a resistance to pathogens that have been introduced through exposure or by immunisation.

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Function of the Bone Marrow The main function of the bone marrow in the body is to produce various blood cells that make up a healthy blood count. The marrow is found within the central cavities of axial and long bones and consists of hematopoietic tissue islands and adipose cells. The bone marrow accounts for approximately 5% of the body weight in humans and -2% in dogs. Bone marrow is the flexible tissue in the interior of bones. In humans, red blood cells are produced by cores of bone marrow in the heads of long bones in a process known as hematopoiesis. On average, bone marrow constitutes 4% of the total body mass of humans; in an adult weighing 65 kilograms (143 lb), bone marrow typically accounts for approximately 2.6 kilograms (5.7 lb). The hematopoietic component of bone marrow produces approximately 500 billion blood cells per day, which use the bone marrow vasculature as a conduit to the body's systemic circulation.[1] Bone marrow is also a key component of the lymphatic system, producing the lymphocytes that support the body's immune system.

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