SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes Chemical Bonds (Part 1) Chemical bond is the reason why substances other than

n chemical elements exists. It is an attraction between at least two atoms which then forms chemical substances. Hence this is the reason why there are more chemical substances in this planet than they are elements. This is a relatively easy subject but is very fundamental to chemistry that you need to fully understand it, or else hard time follows in the next couple of years leading to SPM. For Part 1, youll be learning about the formation of compounds, stability of noble gases, the types of chemical bonds and how they can form bonds. Make sure you fully understand this Part before moving on to other topics in Chemistry or even other parts in this series of notes. [Tips: Although chemical bonds are drawn typically with two spheres and a rod connecting them (as shown in the figure below), it is important to understand now rather than later that, the rod (or chemical bond) is not a physical object, but rather more like an 'effect' to allow atoms to come together to form substances. The formed substances each will have its own physico-chemical properties due to the type of atoms and bond types involved.] SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes Chemical Bonds (Part 1) Formation of Compounds

Compounds different elements that chemically bonded together Octet electron arrangement electron arrangement of an atom where the outermost occupied shell is filled with eight valence electrons Duplet electron arrangement electron arrangement of an atom where a single shell filled with two valence electrons

Example: Compound water is hydrogen and oxygen atoms are chemically bonded together. Stability of Noble Gases

Atom of noble gas does not gain, lose nor share electrons with other atoms. Noble gas atoms do not combine with atoms of other elements to form compounds or with each other to form molecules. Noble gases are chemically unreactive. Noble gases exist as monoatomic.

Chemical Bonds Types of chemical bonds:

ionic bonds (metal + non-metal) covalent bonds (non-metal + non-metal)

Atoms of other elements can achieve the stable octet electron arrangement by

transfer of electrons sharing of electrons

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes Chemical Bonds (Part 2) Ionic Bond is one of the two main chemical bonds that Berry Readers will learn as a chemistry SPM student. Ionic bond is simply a bond formed when there are electrostatic attraction between two oppositely charged ions. Typically, ionic bonds are formed between a metal (cation) and non-metal (anion). Bonds with greater difference in the electronegativity between the involved atoms will be more ionic. If it is starting to sound confusing for you, fret not! That was just a teaser from Berry Berry Easy on ionic bonds, and this post is the Part 2 of SPM Chemistry Form 4 notes on Chemical Bonds. In this part, youll learn about the basics of ionic bonds (definition),metals and non-metals (and how they form ionic bonds), structure of ionic compoundand predicting the formula of an ionic compound. [Tips: Learn to at least recognise that ionic bonds must consist of a metal and non-metal. Try and memorise common pairs of ionic compounds after you understand how they are formed. Draw many many many diagrams of ionic compounds. With these, you should easily master the basics of ionic bonds.] Ionic Bonds

It is a chemical bond formed from the transfer of electrons from metal atoms to non-metal atoms Metal atoms donate valence electrons to form positive ions (cations, Mb+) and achieve the stable duplet or octet electron arrangement of the noble gases Non-metal atoms receive electrons to form negative ions (anions, Xa-) and achieve the stable duplet or octet electron arrangement of the noble gases Cations and anions are attracted to each other by strong electrostatic force of attraction

Example: Metal Sodium Calcium Lithium Aluminium + + + + + Non-metal bromine chlorine oxygen nitrogen > > > > > Ionic compound Sodium bromide Calcium chloride Lithium oxide Aluminium nitride

Metals Group 1

A lithium atom with an electron arrangement of 2.1 achieves stability after it donates one valence electron to form a lithium ion, Li+. The electron arrangement of the lithium ion, Li+, is 2 with stable duplet electron arrangement. A sodium atom with an electron arrangement of 2.8.1 achieves stability after it donates one valence electron to form a sodium ion, Na+. The electron arrangement of the sodium ion, Na+, is 2.8 with stable octet electron arrangement. A potassium atom with an electron arrangement of 2.8.8.1 achieves stability after it donates one valence electron to form a potassium ion, K+. The electron arrangement of the potassium ion, K+, is 2.8.8 with stable octet electron arrangement.

Group 2

A magnesium atom with an electron arrangement of 2.8.2 achieves stability after it donates two valence electrons to form a magnesium ion, Mg2+. The electron arrangement of the magnesium ion, Mg2+, is 2.8 with stable octet electron arrangement. A calcium atom with an electron arrangement of 2.8.8.2 achieves stability after it donates two valence electrons to form a calcium ion, Ca2+. The electron arrangement of the calcium ion, Ca2+, is 2.8.8 with stable octet electron arrangement.

Group 13

An aluminium atom with an electron arrangement of 2.8.8.3 achieves stability after itdonates three valence electrons to form an alumium ion, Al3+. The electron arrangement of the aluminium ion, Al3+, is 2.8.8 with stable octet electron arrangement.

Non-metal Group 15

A nitrogen atom with an electron arrangement of 2.5 achieves stability after it accepts three valence electrons to form a nitride ion, N3-. The electron arrangement of the nitride ion, N3-, is 2.8 with stable octet electron arrangement. A phosphorus atom with an electron arrangement of 2.8.5 achieves stability after it accepts three valence electrons to form a phosphoride ion, P3-. The electron arrangement of the phosphoride ion, P3-, is 2.8.8 with stable octet electron arrangement.

Group 16

An oxygen atom with an electron arrangement of 2.6 achieves stability after it accepts two valence electrons to form a oxide ion, O2-. The electron arrangement of the oxide ion, O2-, is 2.8 with stable octet electron arrangement. A sulphur atom with an electron arrangement of 2.8.6 achieves stability after it accepts two valence electrons to form a sulphide ion, S2-. The electron arrangement of the sulphide ion, S2-, is 2.8.8 with stable octet electron arrangement.

Group 17

A fluorine atom with an electron arrangement of 2.7 achieves stability after it accepts one valence electron to form a fluoride ion, F -. The electron arrangement of the fluoride ion, F -, is 2.8 with stable octet electron arrangement. A chlorine atom with an electron arrangement of 2.8.7 achieves stability after it accepts one valence electron to form a chloride ion, Cl -. The electron arrangement of the chloride ion, Cl-, is 2.8.8 with stable octet electron arrangement.

Predict the Formula of an Ionic Compound

Cation Mb+ Anion XaFormula of an ionic compound formed, MaXb

Formulae for ionic compound Metal atom, M Group 1 Group 1 Group 1 Group 2 Group 2 Group 2 Group 13 Group 13 Group 13 Non-metal atom, X Group 15 Group 16 Group 17 Group 15 Group 16 Group 17 Group 15 Group 16 Group 17 Ionic Compound M3X M2X MX M3X2 MX MX2 MX M2X3 MX3

Some common ionic compound

Sodium chloride (NaCl) Magnesium oxide (MgO) Calcium sulphide (CaS) Potassium oxide (K2O) Magnesium fluoride (MgF2)

Structure of ionic compounds

The oppositely-charged ions, Mb+ and Xa- are attracted to each other by a strong electrostatic force. It form a rigid 3-dimensional lattice structure Formed crystal. Giant ionic lattice.

Berry Important Notes: In the diagram of ionic compound, always shows

The outermost shells of all ions must achieve a stable duplet or octet electron arrangement. The charge of each ion must be placed outside the bracket. Label the ions.

In the next part (Part 3) of Berry Berry Easy notes on Chemical Bonds for SPM Form 4 chemistry students, Berry Readers will learn covalent bonds and the non-metals needed to form the bonds, the different types of covalent bonds, examples and structure of covalent compounds. [Extra: Pure ionic bonds cannot actually be formed as all ionic compounds have some levels of covalent bonding. However, this is not covered in the syllabus, hence it'll only be for your own reference, in case you do extra reading online and get confused. Hence, the traditional ionic bond only exist when ionic character > covalent character]

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes Chemical Bonds (Part 3) Covalent bond is the second type of chemical bonds that Berry Readers learn in SPM Form 4 Chemistry. Covalent bonds occurs when electrons are shared between atoms, rather than a complete transfer of electrons in ionic bonding. Typically, covalent bonds occur for non-metals when they bind together due to similar tendency for electrons (usually to gain electrons in the syllabus). When non-metals gain electrons, they will share electrons in order to fill up their valence shell, with one of the simplest example being the abundant hydrogen gas. Now that you know that covalent bonding is usually with non-metals and it is different from ionic bonding, theBerry Berry Easy notes of Part 3 of Chemical Bonding for SPM Chemistry Form 4begins. This Part 3 focuses on covalent bonds (definition), non-metals (and how they can form covalent bonds), covalent compound formula prediction, structure of covalent compoundsand some tips on covalent bonding. So take note of the notes from Part 2 (Ionic bonding) and try to find parallels from it. This way youll better learn the two tips of bonds. [Tips: In event that you forget how covalent bond works, think of the humble and simplest hydrogen gas. Why is it a good example, because it is easy to remember. As hydrogen atom (H) each has one valence electron in their first electron shell, they will 'prefer' to have a second electron to fill up the first electron shell. If you remember, the first electron shell has a capacity of 2 electrons. When the first H atom wants a second electron, another H atom also wants the same thing. As such, both hydrogen atoms will come together (or in chemistry, we call it 'react') to form H2, a gas compound. Thus, both atoms now 'enjoy' the stability afforded by full valence shell. So take out your pencil and draw the concept of covalent bonding a few times with the hydrogen atoms.] Covalent Bonds

It is a chemical bond formed from the sharing of valence electrons between non-metal atoms to achieve the stable duplet of octet electron arrangement. Each shared pair of electrons is as one covalent bond. It produces molecules. Usually the covalent bonds form between non-metal atoms from Group 15, 16 and 17 and sometimes can be formed from Group 14 (carbon and silicon) and hydrogen. Covalent bond can be formed from atoms of the same element and atoms of different elements.

Example: Non-metal Bromine Nitrogen Carbon + + + + Non-metal bromine nitrogen chlorine > > > > Covalent compound Bromine (Br2) Nitrogen (N2) Tetrachloromethane (CCl4) Water (H2O) Ammonia (NH3)

Hydrogen Hydrogen

+ +

oxygen nitrogen

> >

Types of covalent bond formed:

Single bond = one pair of electrons shared between two atoms. Double bond = two pair of electrons shared between two atoms. Triple bond = three pair of electrons shared between two atoms.

Non-metal Group 15

A nitrogen atom with an electron arrangement of 2.5 needs three more electrons to achievestable octet electron arrangement after it contribute (through sharing) three valence electrons to another atom (can be from Group 14, 15, 16, 17). A phosphorus atom with an electron arrangement of 2.8.5 need three more electrons to achieve stable octet electron arrangement after it contribute (through sharing) three valence electrons to another atom (can be from Group 14, 15, 16, 17).

Group 16

An oxygen atom with an electron arrangement of 2.6 needs two more electrons to achievestable octet electron arrangement after it contribute (through sharing) two valence electronsto another atom (can be from Group 14, 15, 16, 17). A sulphur atom with an electron arrangement of 2.8.6 need two more electrons to achievestable octet electron arrangement after it contribute (through sharing) two valence electronsto another atom (can be from Group 14, 15, 16, 17).

Group 17

A fluorine atom with an electron arrangement of 2.7 needs one more electron to achievestable octet electron arrangement after it contribute (through sharing) one valence electronto another atom (can be from Group 14, 15, 16, 17). A chlorine atom with an electron arrangement of 2.8.7 need one more electron to achievestable octet electron arrangement after it contribute (through sharing) one valence electronto another atom (can be from Group 14, 15, 16, 17).

Predict the Formula of a Covalent Compound

Non-metal X atom (valence electron is a) Combine with another non-metal Y atom (valence electron is b) b = simplest ratio (n) and a = simplest ratio (m) Formula of a covalent compound formed, XnYm

Example: The electron arrangement of atom X is 2.8.6 and atom Y has four valence electrons. Which of the following is the formula of the compound formed between X and Y? (A) Y4X (B) Y2X (C) YX (D) YX2 Solution:

X has 6 valence electrons, it needs to share 2 electrons to achieve the stable octet electron arrangement. Y has 4 valence electrons, it needs to share 4 electrons to achieve the stable octet electron arrangement. Therefore, the formula of the covalent compound is X4Y2 = Y2X4 = simplest ratio YX2.

Answer: D

Some common covalent compound

Hydrogen molecule, H2 (single bond) Chlorine molecule, Cl2 (single bond) Bromine molecule, Br2 (single bond) Fluorine molecule, F2 (single bond) Water molecule, H2O (single bond) Nitrogen trifluoride molecule, NF3 (single bond) Tetrachoromethane / carbon tetrachloride, CCl4 (single bond) Ammonia molecule, NH3 (single bond) Oxygen molecule, O2 (double bond) Carbon dioxide molecule, CO2 (double bond) Nitrogen molecule, N2 (triple bond) Ethyne molecule, C2H2 (triple bond)

Structure of covalent compounds

Can be simple molecular structure or giant molecular structure. The atoms in the molecule are joined together by strong covalent bond but intermolecular forces are weak by weak van der Waals forces.

Berry Important Notes: In the diagram of ionic compound, always shows

The outermost shells of all atoms must achieve a stable duplet or octet electron arrangement through sharing. The outermost shells of each atom must overlap. Label all atoms clearly.

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes Chemical Bonds (Part 4 Final) Difference between Ionic Compound and Covalent Compound. This is one of the most common questions in tests for SPM Form 4 Chemistry students. (Then again, this is nothing unusual as comparison based questions are popular in most exams across all subjects.) Youll read all about the differences in terms of particles, electrons, forces, state, melting point, volatility,solubility (in water and organic solvent) and electricity conductor. Also in this post, youll be given example of common covalent compounds which can be used as solvent. [Tips: Try your best to understand the differences between ionic compound and covalent compound through this table shown below. After understanding it, you should write it in table form as shown at least 3 times to fully memorise it by heart. The knowledge in this chapter forms the basis upon which you will learn chemistry later on in your student life. Learn by heart also the common covalent compounds used as solvent, especially their names and application. This always appears in objective questions in exams.] SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes Chemical Bonds (Part 4 Final) Properties of Ionic and Covalent Compounds Ionic Compound Ionic Compound ionic bonding is strong electrostatics forces between the oppositely-charged ions Covalent Compound Covalent Compound covalent bonding is strong bonding between the atoms in the molecule Ionic Compound Ions Lost or gained Differences Particles Electron Covalent Compound Molecules Shared Strong (Covalent bond) between the atoms in the molecule. Weak forces of attraction between the molecules (van der Waals forces) Gases or volatile liquids Low (Simple molecules) High (Giant molecules)

Strong electrostatics forces (Ionic Forces bond) between the oppositelycharged ions arranged in a 3-D giant crystal lattice Solid High State Melting point

High

Boiling point

Low (Simple molecules) High (Giant molecules)

Non-volatile

Volatility

Very volatile (Simple molecules) Non-volatile (Giant molecules)

Dissolve in water and polar solvents Solubility in water

Do not dissolve in water

Do not dissolve in organic solvent

Solubility in organic solvent

Dissolve in organic solvent (ether, alcohol, benzene, tetrachloromethane and propanone)

Conduct electricity in liquid and aqueous solution (positive and negative ions can move freely). Cannot conduct electricity in solid state (fixed position and cannot move freely).

Electricity conductor

Cannot conduct electricity in any state (no free mobile ions)

Uses of covalent compounds as solvent

Ether solvents in the extraction of chemicals from aqueous solution Alcohol solvents used to make ink and dye because these solvent are volatile Turpentine dissolved paint CFC (chlorofluocarbons) solvents to clean computer circuits board Propanone remove nail varnish