Sounds of music study guide

Sound is a mechanical wave that results from the back and forth vibration of the particles of the medium through which the sound wave is moving. If a sound wave is moving from left to right through air, then particles of air will be displaced both rightward and leftward as the energy of the sound wave passes through it. The motion of the particles is parallel (and anti-parallel) to the direction of the energy transport. This is what characterizes sound waves in air as longitudinal waves. A vibrating tuning fork is capable of creating such a longitudinal wave. As the tines of the fork vibrate back and forth, they push on neighboring air particles. The forward motion of a tine pushes air molecules horizontally to the right and the backward retraction of the tine creates a low-pressure area allowing the air particles to move back to the left.

Because of the longitudinal motion of the air particles, there are regions in the air where the air particles are compressed together and other regions where the air particles are spread apart. These regions are known as compressions and rarefactionsrespectively. The compressions are regions of high air pressure while the rarefactions are regions of low air pressure. The diagram below depicts a sound wave created by a tuning fork and propagated through the air in an open tube. The compressions and rarefactions are labeled.

The wavelength of a wave is merely the distance that a disturbance travels along the medium in one complete wave cycle. Since a wave repeats its pattern once every wave cycle, the wavelength is sometimes referred to as the length of the repeating patterns the length of one complete wave. For a transverse wave, this length is commonly measured from one wave crest to the next adjacent wave crest or from one wave trough to the next adjacent wave trough. Since a longitudinal wave does not contain crests and troughs, its wavelength must be measured differently. A longitudinal wave consists of a repeating pattern of compressions and rarefactions. Thus, the wavelength is commonly measured as the distance from one compression to the next adjacent compression or the distance from one rarefaction to the next adjacent rarefaction.

Since a sound wave consists of a repeating pattern of high-pressure and low-pressure regions moving through a medium, it is sometimes referred to as a pressure wave. If a detector, whether it is the human ear or a man-made instrument, were used to detect a sound wave, it would detect fluctuations in pressure as the sound wave impinges upon the detecting device. At one instant in time, the detector would detect a high pressure; this would correspond to the arrival of a compression at the detector site. At the next instant in time, the detector might detect normal pressure. And then finally a low pressure would be detected, corresponding to the arrival of a rarefaction at the detector site. The fluctuations in pressure as detected by the detector occur at periodic and regular time intervals. In fact, a plot of pressure versus time would appear as a sine curve. The peak points of the sine curve correspond to compressions; the low points correspond to rarefactions; and the "zero points" correspond to the pressure that the air would have if there were no disturbance moving through it. The diagram below depicts the correspondence between the longitudinal nature of a sound wave in air and the pressure-time fluctuations that it creates at a fixed detector location.

The above diagram can be somewhat misleading if you are not careful. The representation of sound by a sine wave is merely an attempt to illustrate the sinusoidal nature of the pressure-time fluctuations. Do not conclude that sound is a transverse wave that has crests and troughs. Sound waves traveling through air are indeed longitudinal waves with compressions and rarefactions. As sound passes through air (or any fluid medium), the particles of air do not vibrate in a transverse manner. Do not be misled - sound waves traveling through air are longitudinal waves. A transverse wave is a wave in which the particles of the medium are displaced in a direction perpendicular to the direction of energy transport. A transverse wave can be created in a rope if the rope is stretched out horizontally and the end is vibrated backand-forth in a vertical direction. If a snapshot of such a transverse wave could be taken so as to freeze the shape of the rope in time, then it would look like the following diagram.

The dashed line drawn through the center of the diagram represents the equilibrium or rest position of the string. This is the position that the string would assume if there were no disturbance moving through it. Once a disturbance is introduced into the string, the particles of the string begin to vibrate upwards and downwards. At any given moment in time, a particle on the medium could be above or below the rest position. Points A, E and H on the diagram represent the crests of this wave. The crest of a wave is the point on the medium that exhibits the maximum amount of positive or upward displacement from the rest position. Points C and J on the diagram represent the troughs of this wave. Thetrough of a wave is the point on the medium that exhibits the maximum amount of negative or downward displacement from the rest position. The wave shown above can be described by a variety of properties. One such property is amplitude. The amplitude of a wave refers to the maximum amount of displacement of a particle on the medium from its rest position. In a sense, the amplitude is the distancefrom rest to crest. Similarly, the amplitude can be measured from the rest position to the trough position. In the diagram above, the amplitude could be measured as the distance of a line segment that is perpendicular to the rest position and extends vertically upward from the rest position to point A. The wavelength is another property of a wave that is portrayed in the diagram above. The wavelength of a wave is simply the length of one complete wave cycle. If you were to trace your finger across the wave in the diagram above, you would notice that your finger repeats its path. A wave is a repeating pattern. It repeats itself in a periodic and regular fashion over both time and space. And the length of one such spatial repetition (known as a wave cycle) is the wavelength. The wavelength can be measured as the distance from crest to crest or from trough to trough. In fact, the wavelength of a wave can be measured as the distance from a point on a wave to the corresponding point on the next cycle of the wave. In the diagram above, the wavelength is the horizontal distance from A to E, or the horizontal distance from B to F, or the horizontal distance from D to G, or the horizontal distance from E to H. Any one of these distance measurements would suffice in determining the wavelength of this wave.

A longitudinal wave is a wave in which the particles of the medium are displaced in a direction parallel to the direction of energy transport. A longitudinal wave can be created in a slinky if the slinky is stretched out horizontally and the end coil is vibrated back-and-forth in a horizontal direction. If a snapshot of such a longitudinal wave could be taken so as to freeze the shape of the slinky in time, then it would look like the following diagram.

Because the coils of the slinky are vibrating longitudinally, there are regions where they become pressed together and other regions where they are spread apart. A region where the coils are pressed together in a small amount of space is known as a compression. Acompression is a point on a medium through which a longitudinal wave is traveling that has the maximum density. A region where the coils are spread apart, thus maximizing the distance between coils, is known as a rarefaction. A rarefaction is a point on a medium through which a longitudinal wave is traveling that has the minimum density. Points A, C and E on the diagram above represent compressions and points B, D, and F represent rarefactions. While a transverse wave has an alternating pattern of crests and troughs, a longitudinal wave has an alternating pattern of compressions and rarefactions. As discussed above, the wavelength of a wave is the length of one complete cycle of a wave. For a transverse wave, the wavelength is determined by measuring from crest to crest. A longitudinal wave does not have crest; so how can its wavelength be determined? The wavelength can always be determined by measuring the distance between any two corresponding points on adjacent waves. In the case of a longitudinal wave, a wavelength measurement is made by measuring the distance from a compression to the next compression or from a rarefaction to the next rarefaction. On the diagram above, the distance from point A to point C or from point B to point D would be representative of the wavelength. A sound wave, like any other wave, is introduced into a medium by a vibrating object. The vibrating object is the source of the disturbance that moves through the medium. The vibrating object that creates the disturbance could be the vocal cords of a person, the vibrating string and sound board of a guitar or violin, the vibrating tines of a tuning fork, or the vibrating diaphragm of a radio speaker. Regardless of what vibrating object is creating the sound wave, the particles of the medium through which the sound moves is vibrating in a back and forth motion at a given frequency.

Thefrequency of a wave refers to how often the particles of the medium vibrate when a wave passes through the medium. The frequency of a wave is measured as the number of complete back-and-forth vibrations of a particle of the medium per unit of time. If a particle of air undergoes 1000 longitudinal vibrations in 2 seconds, then the frequency of the wave would be 500 vibrations per second. A commonly used unit for frequency is the Hertz (abbreviated Hz), where 1 Hertz = 1 vibration/second As a sound wave moves through a medium, each particle of the medium vibrates at the same frequency. This is sensible since each particle vibrates due to the motion of its nearest neighbor. The first particle of the medium begins vibrating, at say 500 Hz, and begins to set the second particle into vibrational motion at the same frequency of 500 Hz. The second particle begins vibrating at 500 Hz and thus sets the third particle of the medium into vibrational motion at 500 Hz. The process continues throughout the medium; each particle vibrates at the same frequency. And of course the frequency at which each particle vibrates is the same as the frequency of the original source of the sound wave. Subsequently, a guitar string vibrating at 500 Hz will set the air particles in the room vibrating at the same frequency of 500 Hz, which carries a sound signal to the ear of a listener, which is detected as a 500 Hz sound wave. The back-and-forth vibrational motion of the particles of the medium would not be the only observable phenomenon occurring at a given frequency. Since a sound wave is apressure wave, a detector could be used to detect oscillations in pressure from a high pressure to a low pressure and back to a high pressure. As the compressions (high pressure) and rarefactions (low pressure) move through the medium, they would reach the detector at a given frequency. For example, a compression would reach the detector 500 times per second if the frequency of the wave were 500 Hz. Similarly, a rarefaction would reach the detector 500 times per second if the frequency of the wave were 500 Hz. The frequency of a sound wave not only refers to the number of backand-forth vibrations of the particles per unit of time, but also refers to the number of compressions or rarefactions that pass a given point per unit of time. A detector could be used to detect the frequency of these pressure oscillations over a given period of time. The typical output provided by such a detector is a pressure-time plot as shown below.

Since a pressure-time plot shows the fluctuations in pressure over time, the period of the sound wave can be found by measuring the time between successive high pressure points (corresponding to the compressions) or the time between successive low pressure points (corresponding to the rarefactions). As discussed in an earlier unit, the frequency is simply the reciprocal of the period. For this reason, a sound wave with a high frequency would correspond to a pressure time plot with a small period - that is, a plot corresponding to a small amount of time between successive high pressure points. Conversely, a sound wave with a low frequency would correspond to a pressure time plot with a large period - that is, a plot corresponding to a large amount of time between successive high pressure points. The diagram below shows two pressure-time plots, one corresponding to a high frequency and the other to a low frequency.

The ears of a human (and other animals) are sensitive detectors capable of detecting the fluctuations in air pressure that impinge upon the eardrum. The mechanics of the ear's detection ability will be discussed later in this lesson. For now, it is sufficient to say that the human ear is capable of detecting sound waves with a wide range of frequencies, ranging between approximately 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz. Any sound with a frequency below the audible range of hearing (i.e., less than 20 Hz) is known as an infrasound and any sound with a frequency above the audible range of hearing (i.e., more than 20 000 Hz) is known as an ultrasound. Humans are not alone in their ability to detect a wide range of frequencies. Dogs can detect frequencies as low as approximately 50 Hz and as high as 45 000 Hz. Cats can detect frequencies as low as approximately 45 Hz and as high as 85 000 Hz. Bats, being nocturnal creature, must rely on sound echolocation for navigation and hunting. Bats can detect frequencies as high as 120 000 Hz. Dolphins can detect frequencies as high as 200 000 Hz. While dogs, cats, bats, and dolphins have an unusual ability to detect ultrasound, an elephant possesses the unusual ability to detect infrasound, having an audible range from approximately 5 Hz to approximately 10 000 Hz. The sensation of a frequency is commonly referred to as the pitch of a sound. A high pitch sound corresponds to a high frequency sound wave and a low pitch sound

corresponds to a low frequency sound wave. Amazingly, many people, especially those who have been musically trained, are capable of detecting a difference in frequency between two separate sounds that is as little as 2 Hz. When two sounds with a frequency difference of greater than 7 Hz are played simultaneously, most people are capable of detecting the presence of a complex wave pattern resulting from the interference andsuperposition of the two sound waves. Certain sound waves when played (and heard) simultaneously will produce a particularly pleasant sensation when heard, are said to beconsonant. Such sound waves form the basis of intervals in music. For example, any two sounds whose frequencies make a 2:1 ratio are said to be separated by an octaveand result in a particularly pleasing sensation when heard. That is, two sound waves sound good when played together if one sound has twice the frequency of the other. Similarly two sounds with a frequency ratio of 5:4 are said to be separated by an interval of a third; such sound waves also sound good when played together. Examples of other sound wave intervals and their respective frequency ratios are listed in the table below. Interval Octave Third Fourth Fifth Frequency Ratio 2:1 5:4 4:3 3:2 Examples 512 Hz and 256 Hz 320 Hz and 256 Hz 342 Hz and 256 Hz 384 Hz and 256 Hz

The ability of humans to perceive pitch is associated with the frequency of the sound wave that impinges upon the ear. Because sound waves traveling through air are longitudinal waves that produce high- and low-pressure disturbances of the particles of the air at a given frequency, the ear has an ability to detect such frequencies and associate them with the pitch of the sound. But pitch is not the only property of a sound wave detectable by the human ear. Sound waves are introduced into a medium by the vibration of an object. For example, a vibrating guitar string forces surrounding air molecules to be compressed and expanded, creating a pressure disturbance consisting of an alternating pattern of compressions and rarefactions. The disturbance then travels from particle to particle through the medium, transporting energy as it moves. The energy that is carried by the disturbance was originally imparted to the medium by the vibrating string. The amount of energy that is transferred to the medium is dependent upon the amplitude of vibrations of the guitar string. If more energy is put into the plucking of the string (that is, morework is done to displace the string a greater amount from its rest position), then the string vibrates with a greater amplitude. The greater amplitude of vibration of the

guitar string thus imparts more energy to the medium, causing air particles to be displaced a greater distance from their rest position. Subsequently, the amplitude of vibration of the particles of the medium is increased, corresponding to an increased amount of energy being carried by the particles. This relationship between energy and amplitude was discussed in more detail in a previous unit.

Sound Intensity and Distance

The amount of energy that is transported past a given area of the medium per unit of time is known as the intensity of the sound wave. The greater the amplitude of vibrations of the particles of the medium, the greater the rate at which energy is transported through it, and the more intense that the sound wave is. Intensity is the energy/time/area; and since the energy/time ratio is equivalent to the quantity power, intensity is simply the power/area.

Typical units for expressing the intensity of a sound wave are Watts/meter2. As a sound wave carries its energy through a two-dimensional or three-dimensional medium, the intensity of the sound wave decreases with increasing distance from the source. The decrease in intensity with increasing distance is explained by the fact that the wave is spreading out over a circular (2 dimensions) or spherical (3 dimensions) surface and thus the energy of the sound wave is being distributed over a greater surface area. The diagram at the right shows that the sound wave in a 2-dimensional medium is spreading out in space over a circular pattern. Since energy is conserved and the area through which this energy is transported is increasing, the power (being a quantity that is measured on a per area basis) must decrease. The mathematical relationship between intensity and distance is sometimes referred to as an inverse square relationship. The intensity varies inversely with the square of the distance from the source. So if the distance from the source is doubled (increased by a factor of 2), then the intensity is quartered (decreased by a factor of 4). Similarly, if the distance from the source is quadrupled, then the intensity is decreased by a factor of 16. Applied to the diagram at the right, the intensity at point B is one-fourth the intensity as point A and the intensity at point C is one-sixteenth the intensity at point A. Since the intensity-distance relationship is an inverse relationship, an increase in one quantity corresponds to a decrease in the other quantity. And since the intensitydistance relationship is an inverse square relationship, whatever factor by which the

distance is increased, the intensity is decreased by a factor equal to the square of the distance change factor. The sample data in the table below illustrate the inverse square relationship between power and distance. Distance 1m 2m 3m 4m Intensity 160 units 40 units 17.8 units 10 units

The Threshold of Hearing and the Decibel Scale

Humans are equipped with very sensitive ears capable of detecting sound waves of extremely low intensity. The faintest sound that the typical human ear can detect has an intensity of 1*10-12 W/m2. This intensity corresponds to a pressure wave in which a compression of the particles of the medium increases the air pressure in that compressional region by a mere 0.3 billionth of an atmosphere. A sound with an intensity of 1*10-12 W/m2 corresponds to a sound that will displace particles of air by a mere one-billionth of a centimeter. The human ear can detect such a sound. WOW! This faintest sound that a human ear can detect is known as the threshold of hearing. The most intense sound that the ear can safely detect without suffering any physical damage is more than one billion times more intense than the threshold of hearing. Since the range of intensities that the human ear can detect is so large, the scale that is frequently used by physicists to measure intensity is a scale based on powers of 10. This type of scale is sometimes referred to as a logarithmic scale. The scale for measuring intensity is the decibel scale. The threshold of hearing is assigned a sound level of 0 decibels (abbreviated 0 dB); this sound corresponds to an intensity of 1*10 12 W/m2. A sound that is 10 times more intense ( 1*10-11 W/m2) is assigned a sound level of 10 dB. A sound that is 10*10 or 100 times more intense (1*10-10 W/m2) is assigned a sound level of 20 db. A sound that is 10*10*10 or 1000 times more intense (1*10 9 W/m2) is assigned a sound level of 30 db. A sound that is 10*10*10*10 or 10000 times more intense (1*10-8W/m2) is assigned a sound level of 40 db. Observe that this scale is based on powers of 10. If one sound is 10x times more intense than another sound, then it has a sound level that is 10*x more decibels than the less intense sound. The table below lists some common sounds with an estimate of their intensity and decibel level. Source Threshold of Hearing (TOH) Intensity 1*10-12 W/m2 Intensity Level 0 dB # of Times Greater Than TOH 100

Rustling Leaves Whisper Normal Conversation Busy Street Traffic Vacuum Cleaner Large Orchestra Walkman at Maximum Level Front Rows of Rock Concert Threshold of Pain Military Jet Takeoff Instant Perforation of Eardrum

1*10-11 W/m2 1*10-10 W/m2 1*10-6 W/m2 1*10-5 W/m2 1*10-4 W/m2 6.3*10-3 W/m2 1*10-2 W/m2 1*10-1 W/m2 1*101 W/m2 1*102 W/m2 1*104 W/m2

10 dB 20 dB 60 dB 70 dB 80 dB 98 dB 100 dB 110 dB 130 dB 140 dB 160 dB

101 102 106 107 108 109.8 1010 1011 1013 1014 1016

A sound wave is a pressure disturbance that travels through a medium by means of particle-to-particle interaction. As one particle becomes disturbed, it exerts a force on the next adjacent particle, thus disturbing that particle from rest and transporting the energy through the medium. Like any wave, the speed of a sound wave refers to how fast the disturbance is passed from particle to particle. Whilefrequency refers to the number of vibrations that an individual particle makes per unit of time, speed refers to the distance that the disturbance travels per unit of time. Always be cautious to distinguish between the two often-confused quantities of speed (how fast...) and frequency (how often...). Since the speed of a wave is defined as the distance that a point on a wave (such as a compression or a rarefaction) travels per unit of time, it is often expressed in units of meters/second (abbreviated m/s). In equation form, this is

speed = distance/time The faster a sound wave travels, the more distance it will cover in the same period of time. If a sound wave were observed to travel a distance of 700 meters in 2 seconds, then the speed of the wave would be 350 m/s. A slower wave would cover less distance - perhaps 660 meters - in the same time period of 2 seconds and thus have a speed of 330 m/s. Faster waves cover more distance in the same period of time.

Factors Affecting Wave Speed The speed of any wave depends upon the properties of the medium through which the wave is traveling. Typically there are two essential types of properties that effect wave speed - inertial properties and elastic properties. Elastic properties are those properties related to the tendency of a material to maintain its shape and not deform whenever a force or stress is applied to it. A material such as steel will experience a

very small deformation of shape (and dimension) when a stress is applied to it. Steel is a rigid material with a high elasticity. On the other hand, a material such as a rubber band is highly flexible; when a force is applied to stretch the rubber band, it deforms or changes its shape readily. A small stress on the rubber band causes a large deformation. Steel is considered to be a stiff or rigid material, whereas a rubber band is considered a flexible material. At the particle level, a stiff or rigid material is characterized by atoms and/or molecules with strong attractions for each other. When a force is applied in an attempt to stretch or deform the material, its strong particle interactions prevent this deformation and help the material maintain its shape. Rigid materials such as steel are considered to have a high elasticity. (Elastic modulus is the technical term). The phase of matter has a tremendous impact upon the elastic properties of the medium. In general, solids have the strongest interactions between particles, followed by liquids and then gases. For this reason, longitudinal sound waves travel faster in solids than they do in liquids than they do in gases. Even though the inertial factor may favor gases, the elastic factor has a greater influence on the speed (v) of a wave, thus yielding this general pattern: vsolids > vliquids > vgases Inertial properties are those properties related to the material's tendency to be sluggish to changes in its state of motion. The density of a medium is an example of an inertial property. The greater the inertia (i.e., mass density) of individual particles of the medium, the less responsive they will be to the interactions between neighboring particles and the slower that the wave will be. As stated above, sound waves travel faster in solids than they do in liquids than they do in gases. However, within a single phase of matter, the inertial property of density tends to be the property that has a greatest impact upon the speed of sound. A sound wave will travel faster in a less dense material than a more dense material. Thus, a sound wave will travel nearly three times faster in Helium than it will in air. This is mostly due to the lower mass of Helium particles as compared to air particles. The speed of a sound wave in air depends upon the properties of the air, mostly the temperature, and to a lesser degree, the humidity. Humidity is the result of water vapor being present in air. Like any liquid, water has a tendency to evaporate. As it does, particles of gaseous water become mixed in the air. This additional matter will affect the mass density of the air (an inertial property). The temperature will affect the strength of the particle interactions (an elastic property). At normal atmospheric pressure, the temperature dependence of the speed of a sound wave through dry air is approximated by the following equation:

v = 331 m/s + (0.6 m/s/C)T

where T is the temperature of the air in degrees Celsius. Using this equation to determine the speed of a sound wave in air at a temperature of 20 degrees Celsius yields the following solution. v = 331 m/s + (0.6 m/s/C)T v = 331 m/s + (0.6 m/s/C)(20 C) v = 331 m/s + 12 m/s v = 343 m/s (The above equation relating the speed of a sound wave in air to the temperature provides reasonably accurate speed values for temperatures between 0 and 100 Celsius. The equation itself does not have any theoretical basis; it is simply the result of inspecting temperature-speed data for this temperature range. Other equations do exist that are based upon theoretical reasoning and provide accurate data for all temperatures. Nonetheless, the equation above will be sufficient for our use as introductory Physics students.)
Human hearing relies on the ability of the ear and the neural system to sense and process variations in sound pressure. Accordingly, the act of hearing has both subconscious and conscious effects. Subconscious effects, such as hearing loss, are due to prolonged exposure to high sound pressure levels. Conscious effects are a direct result of the ears' acute response to a sound and how the cognitive part of the brain evaluates the sound. An example of an acute response to a sound is the pain and resultant ringing felt in the ear when a whistle is blown close to the ear in an enclosed environment. An example of utilizing conscious response is using sound to convey information to consumers, such as designing a product to emit sounds that indicate operation and/or status. Psychoacoustics is the field of study that seeks to better understand our perception of sound by investigating its conscious effects. For speech and music, the verbal content conveys much of the information. Furthermore, for speech, music, and many other sounds, the physical characteristics of the sound produce hearing sensations in the listener. The table below lists three primary physical characteristics of sound and their corresponding hearing sensations. Physical Characteristic Hearing Sensation Sound Pressure Level Frequency Duration Loudness Pitch Subjective Duration

These three hearing sensations directly correlate with their corresponding physical characteristic. However, human hearing is a complex system and many sensations do not correlate directly to one physical characteristic. For example, in the table above, the sensation of pitch is also dependent on the sound pressure level. Much of the challenge in the field of psychoacoustics stems from the fact that different listeners perceive identical sounds differently. Differences in age, gender, nationality, and many other factors affect human perception. In addition to this challenge of a heterogeneous population, consumer expectations are different for different types of products they purchase. For example, a customer expects different sound characteristics from motorcycles, dishwashers, and personal computers. Therefore, sound quality evaluations are usually specific to the type of product and the target consumer. Because hearing is one of the integral processes through which humans receive information and because the sound of a product carries so much information, there is significant, ongoing research to classify hearing sensations and correlate these sensations to physical characteristics of the signal. Through ongoing investigation, researchers continue to identify physical characteristics of interest and propose improved objective sound quality metrics that correlate better to human perception. Physiology of Human Hearing The ear is an organ that receives audible information and transmits that sound to the neural system, which results in auditory sensations. However, the body of the listener distorts the sound field. Researchers can measure the resultant change in the sound field by calculating the difference between the sound pressure level in the free field and the sound pressure level in the ear canal of the listener. The body of the listener changes the sound field the most for frequencies below 1.5 kHz. Scientists typically divide the human ear into three main regions: the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. The following figure shows a diagram of the human ear.

The outer ear canal, because of its shape and length, is responsible for the high sensitivity to sounds with frequency components around 4 kHz. The middle ear transfers sound energy from the oscillations of air particles in the outer ear to oscillations in the fluids within the inner ear. The middle ear system acts like a transformer, matching the acoustic impedance between the air and the fluids at frequencies centered at 1 kHz. The inner ear transmits the fluid oscillations to the corti on the basilar membrane, where sensory cells convert the fluid oscillations to signals that the nervous system can process. The inner ear also can separate frequencies, because different frequencies produce maximum oscillations at different positions along the basilar membrane. Limits of Hearing The ear is a very sophisticated auditory organ and can be thought of as a complex instrument for auditory signals. Human hearing can detect small variations in air pressure, ranging from 10 Pa up to 100 Pa. The detection of these small variations occurs in the presence of atmospheric pressure, where 1 atm = 101.3 kPa. Furthermore, humans perceive loudness on a logarithmic scale. The international standard reference for sound pressure level measurements is 20 Pa (0 dB), which is the threshold of quiet. This is considered the nominal threshold of hearing, although approximately half of the general population can sense sounds at even lower levels. On the opposite end of sound pressure level measurements, humans experience discomfort and pain from sounds with sound pressure levels greater than 100 Pa (134 dB). Within this range in level, humans can typically discern changes as small as 1 dB. Human hearing can detect frequencies between 20 Hz and 20 kHz. Frequency components outside this range are not generally considered to impact the human perception of sound, regardless of the sound pressure level. As explained in the previous section, there are physical reasons why human hearing is most sensitive to frequency components around 1 kHz and 4 kHz. Many studies have

demonstrated the sensitivity of the ear as a function of frequency, which is typically plotted in equal loudness curves as in the following figure.1

Besides the sound pressure level-dependent sensitivity of hearing, humans also can differentiate very fine changes in frequency. Below frequencies of 500 Hz, the ear can differentiate tone bursts with a frequency difference of approximately 1 Hz. Above 500 Hz, the barely-noticeable difference is proportional to the frequency (0.002 x f ). Masking Masking describes the phenomenon in which a sound becomes imperceptible due to the presence of another sound. An example of this phenomenon is when loud music masks the sound of emergency sirens, or when a background noise partially masks conversational speech. The transition between an unmasked tone and a completely masked tone is continuous. The masked threshold is the sound pressure level of a barely-audible test tone in the presence of a masking sound. Time Masking Simultaneous masking describes the effect when the masked signal and the masking signal occur at the same time. Human hearing is sensitive to the temporal structure of sound, and masking also can occur between sounds that are not present simultaneously. Pre-masking is when the test tone occurs before the masking sound. Post-masking is when the test tone occurs after the masking sound. The following figure shows the time regions of pre-masking, simultaneous masking, and post-masking in relation to the masking signal.

Post-masking is a pronounced phenomenon that corresponds to decay in the effect of the masking signal. Pre-masking is a more subtle effect caused by the fact that hearing does not occur instantaneously because sounds require some time to sense. As indicated in the figure above, researchers typically can measure pre-masking for only about 20 ms. Post-masking is the more dominant temporal effect and can be measured for 100 ms following the cessation of the masking sound. Both the threshold in quiet and the masked threshold depend on the duration of the test tone. Researchers must know these dependencies when investigating pre- and post-masking because they use short-duration test signals to perform these measurements. Frequency Masking Broadband white noise can mask test tones. White noise has a spectral density that is independent of frequency. Other types of noise and signals, such as pink noise, narrow-band noise, pure tones, and complex tones, also can mask a test signal. When narrow-band noise is the masking signal, masked thresholds show a very steep rise greater than 100 dB per decade as the test tone increases in frequency up to the center frequency of the narrow-band noise. This test tone increase is independent of the level of the masking noise. For frequencies greater than the center frequency of the noise, the masked threshold decreases quickly for low levels of masking noise but more slowly for high levels of masking noise. When pure tones are the masking signal, the signal needs additional filters to remove measurement artifacts such as audible beating and difference tones. The following figure shows the masked threshold for a masking signal at a frequency of 1 kHz.

Guitar a stringed instrument usually having six strings Octave a set of 8 notes Fifth a set of 5 notes Fourth a set of 4 notes

Third a set of 3 notes Second a set of 2 notes Sixth a set of 6 notes Seventh a set of 7 notes Node a place where no sound waves are generated Theme Movement #2 New World Symphony the required piece for 2013 Science Olympiad Sound Wave a wave that transmits sound Standing wave a wave (as a sound wave in a chamber or an electromagnetic wave in a transmission line) in which the ratio of its instantaneous amplitude at one point to that at any other point does not vary with time Hertz The unit of frequency Percussion Instrument An instrument that you pound on a piece to make it generate sound waves. Wind Instrument An instrument that you blow into to make sound Brass Instrument An wind instrument made of brass

String Instrument An instrument that uses string vibrations to create sound waves. Pitch the property of sound that varies with variation in the frequency of vibration Speed of Sound The speed at which a sound wave travels (340.29 meters per second at sea level) Timbre the distinctive property of a complex sound Wave interference is the phenomenon that occurs when two waves meet while traveling along the same medium. The interference of waves causes the medium to take on a shape that results from the net effect of the two individual waves upon the particles of the medium. As mentioned in a previous unit of The Physics Classroom Tutorial, if two upward displaced pulses having the same shape meet up with one another while traveling in opposite directions along a medium, the medium will take on the shape of an upward displaced pulse with twice the amplitude of the two interfering pulses. This type of interference is known as constructive interference. If an upward displaced pulse and a downward displaced pulse having the same shape meet up with one another while traveling in opposite directions along a medium, the two pulses will cancel each other's effect upon the displacement of the medium and the medium will assume the equilibrium position. This type of interference is known as destructive interference. The diagrams below show two waves - one is blue and the other is red interfering in such a way to produce a resultant shape in a medium; the resultant is shown in green. In two cases (on the left and in the middle), constructive interference occurs and in the third case (on the far right, destructive interference occurs.

But how can sound waves that do not possess upward and downward displacements interfere constructively and destructively? Sound is a pressure wave that consists ofcompressions and rarefactions. As a compression passes through a section of a

medium, it tends to pull particles together into a small region of space, thus creating a high-pressure region. And as a rarefaction passes through a section of a medium, it tends to push particles apart, thus creating a low-pressure region. The interference of sound waves causes the particles of the medium to behave in a manner that reflects the net effect of the two individual waves upon the particles. For example, if a compression (high pressure) of one wave meets up with a compression (high pressure) of a second wave at the same location in the medium, then the net effect is that that particular location will experience an even greater pressure. This is a form of constructive interference. If two rarefactions (two low-pressure disturbances) from two different sound waves meet up at the same location, then the net effect is that that particular location will experience an even lower pressure. This is also an example of constructive interference. Now if a particular location along the medium repeatedly experiences the interference of two compressions followed up by the interference of two rarefactions, then the two sound waves will continually reinforce each other and produce a very loud sound. The loudness of the sound is the result of the particles at that location of the medium undergoing oscillations from very high to very low pressures. As mentioned in a previous unit, locations along the medium where constructive interference continually occurs are known as anti-nodes. The animation below shows two sound waves interfering constructively in order to produce very large oscillations in pressure at a variety of anti-nodal locations. Note that compressions are labeled with a C and rarefactions are labeled with an R.

Now if two sound waves interfere at a given location in such a way that the compression of one wave meets up with the rarefaction of a second wave, destructive interference results. The net effect of a compression (which pushes particles together) and a rarefaction (which pulls particles apart) upon the particles in a given region of the medium is to not even cause a displacement of the particles. The tendency of the compression to push particles together is canceled by the tendency of the rarefactions to pull particles apart; the particles would remain at their rest position as though there wasn't even a disturbance passing through them. This is a form of destructive interference. Now if a particular location along the medium repeatedly experiences the interference of a compression and rarefaction followed up by the interference of a rarefaction and a compression, then the two sound waves will continually cancel each other and no sound is heard. The absence of sound is the result of the particles remaining at rest and behaving as though there were no disturbance passing through it. Amazingly, in a situation such as this, two sound waves would combine to produce no sound. As mentioned in a previous unit, locations along the medium where destructive interference continually occurs are known as nodes.

Two Source Sound Interference A popular Physics demonstration involves the interference of two sound waves from two speakers. The speakers are set approximately 1-meter apart and produced identical tones. The two sound waves traveled through the air in front of the speakers, spreading our through the room in spherical fashion. A snapshot in time of the appearance of these waves is shown in the diagram below. In the diagram, the compressions of a wavefront are represented by a thick line and the rarefactions are represented by thin lines. These two waves interfere in such a manner as to produce locations of some loud sounds and other locations of no sound. Of course the loud sounds are heard at locations where compressions meet compressions or rarefactions meet rarefactions and the "no sound" locations appear wherever the compressions of one of the waves meet the rarefactions of the other wave. If you were to plug one ear and turn the other ear towards the place of the speakers and then slowly walk across the room parallel to the plane of the speakers, then you would encounter an amazing phenomenon. You would alternatively hear loud sounds as you approached anti-nodal locations and virtually no sound as you approached nodal locations. (As would commonly be observed, the nodal locations are not true nodal locations due to reflections of sound waves off the walls. These reflections tend to fill the entire room with reflected sound. Even though the sound waves that reach the nodal locations directly from the speakers destructively interfere, other waves reflecting off the walls tend to reach that same location to produce a pressure disturbance.)

Destructive interference of sound waves becomes an important issue in the design of concert halls and auditoriums. The rooms must be designed in such as way as to reduce the amount of destructive interference. Interference can occur as the result of sound from two speakers meeting at the same location as well as the result of sound from a speaker meeting with sound reflected off the walls and ceilings. If the sound arrives at a given location such that compressions meet rarefactions, then destructive interference will occur resulting in a reduction in the loudness of the sound at that

location. One means of reducing the severity of destructive interference is by the design of walls, ceilings, and baffles that serve to absorb sound rather than reflect it. This will be discussed in more detail later in Lesson 3. The destructive interference of sound waves can also be used advantageously in noise reduction systems. Earphones have been produced that can be used by factory and construction workers to reduce the noise levels on their jobs. Such earphones capture sound from the environment and use computer technology to produce a second sound wave that one-half cycle out of phase. The combination of these two sound waves within the headset will result in destructive interference and thus reduce a worker's exposure to loud noise.
Musical Beats and Intervals

Interference of sound waves has widespread applications in the world of music. Music seldom consists of sound waves of a single frequency played continuously. Few music enthusiasts would be impressed by an orchestra that played music consisting of the note with a pure tone played by all instruments in the orchestra. Hearing a sound wave of 256 Hz (middle C) would become rather monotonous (both literally and figuratively). Rather, instruments are known to produce overtones when played resulting in a sound that consists of a multiple of frequencies. Such instruments are described as being rich in tone color. And even the best choirs will earn their money when two singers sing two notes (i.e., produce two sound waves) that are an octave apart. Music is a mixture of sound waves that typically have whole number ratios between the frequencies associated with their notes. In fact, the major distinction between music and noise is that noise consists of a mixture of frequencies whose mathematical relationship to one another is not readily discernible. On the other hand, music consists of a mixture of frequencies that have a clear mathematical relationship between them. While it may be true that "one person's music is another person's noise" (e.g., your music might be thought of by your parents as being noise), a physical analysis of musical sounds reveals a mixture of sound waves that are mathematically related. To demonstrate this nature of music, let's consider one of the simplest mixtures of two different sound waves - two sound waves with a 2:1 frequency ratio. This combination of waves is known as an octave. A simple sinusoidal plot of the wave pattern for two such waves is shown below. Note that the red wave has two times the frequency of the blue wave. Also observe that the interference of these two waves produces a resultant (in green) that has a periodic and repeating pattern. One might say that two sound waves that have a clear whole number ratio between their frequencies interfere to produce a wave with a regular and repeating pattern. The result is music.

Another simple example of two sound waves with a clear mathematical relationship between frequencies is shown below. Note that the red wave has three-halves the frequency of the blue wave. In the music world, such waves are said to be a fifth apart and represent a popular musical interval. Observe once more that the interference of these two waves produces a resultant (in green) that has a periodic and repeating pattern. It should be said again: two sound waves that have a clear whole number ratio between their frequencies interfere to produce a wave with a regular and repeating pattern; the result is music.

Finally, the diagram below illustrates the wave pattern produced by two dissonant or displeasing sounds. The diagram shows two waves interfering, but this time there is nosimple mathematical relationship between their frequencies (in computer terms, one has a wavelength of 37 and the other has a wavelength 20 pixels). Observe (look carefully) that the pattern of the resultant is neither periodic nor repeating (at least not in the short sample of time that is shown). The message is clear: if two sound waves that have no simple mathematical relationship between their frequencies interfere to produce a wave, the result will be an irregular and non-repeating pattern. This tends to be displeasing to the ear.

Investigate!
The widget below allows you to add two waves together and view the resulting waveform. Wave 1 has a frequency of 2.00 Hz. Wave 2's frequency canbe selected from the pull-down menu. Experiment with various Wave 2 frequencies and observe the waveform that results from their interference.
Waveform of Musical Interval
Determine the waveform of two notes separated by a given interval. Wave 1 Frequency (Hz): Wave 2 Interval Relationship: Submit 2.00

A final application of physics to the world of music pertains to the topic of beats. Beatsare the periodic and repeating fluctuations heard in the intensity of a sound when two sound waves of very similar frequencies interfere with one another. The diagram below illustrates the wave interference pattern resulting from two waves (drawn in red and blue) with very similar frequencies. A beat pattern is characterized by a wave whose amplitude is changing at a regular rate. Observe that the beat pattern (drawn in green) repeatedly oscillates from zero amplitude to a large amplitude, back to zero amplitude throughout the pattern. Points of constructive interference (C.I.) and destructive interference (D.I.) are labeled on the diagram. When constructive interference occurs between two crests or two troughs, a loud sound is heard. This corresponds to a peak on the beat pattern (drawn in green). When destructive interference between a crest and a trough occurs, no sound is heard; this corresponds to a point of no displacement on the beat pattern. Since there is a clear relationship between the amplitude and the loudness, this beat pattern would be consistent with a wave that varies in volume at a regular rate.

The beat frequency refers to the rate at which the volume is heard to be oscillating from high to low volume. For example, if two complete cycles of high and low volumes are heard every second, the beat frequency is 2 Hz. The beat frequency is always equal to the difference in frequency of the two notes that interfere to produce the beats. So if two sound waves with frequencies of 256 Hz and 254 Hz are played simultaneously, a beat frequency of 2 Hz will be detected. A common physics demonstration involves producing beats using two tuning forks with very similar frequencies. If a tine on one of two identical tuning forks is wrapped with a rubber band, then that tuning forks frequency will be lowered. If both tuning forks are vibrated together, then they produce sounds with slightly different frequencies. These sounds will interfere to produce detectable beats. The human ear is capable of detecting beats with frequencies of 7 Hz and below. A piano tuner frequently utilizes the phenomenon of beats to tune a piano string. She will pluck the string and tap a tuning fork at the same time. If the two sound sources the piano string and the tuning fork - produce detectable beats then their frequencies are not identical. She will then adjust the tension of the piano string and repeat the process until the beats can no longer be heard. As the piano string becomes more in tune with the tuning fork, the beat frequency will be reduced and approach 0 Hz. When beats are no longer heard, the piano string is tuned to the tuning fork; that is, they play the same frequency. The process allows a piano tuner to match the strings' frequency to the frequency of a standardized set of tuning forks. Suppose that there is a happy bug in the center of a circular water puddle. The bug is periodically shaking its legs in order to produce disturbances that travel through the water. If these disturbances originate at a point, then they would travel outward from that point in all directions. Since each disturbance is traveling in the same

medium, they would all travel in every direction at the same speed. The pattern produced by the bug's shaking would be a series of concentric circles as shown in the diagram at the right. These circles would reach the edges of the water puddle at the same frequency. An observer at point A (the left edge of the puddle) would observe the disturbances to strike the puddle's edge at the same frequency that would be observed by an observer at point B (at the right edge of the puddle). In fact, the frequency at which disturbances reach the edge of the puddle would be the same as the frequency at which the bug produces the disturbances. If the bug produces disturbances at a frequency of 2 per second, then each observer would observe them approaching at a frequency of 2 per second. Now suppose that our bug is moving to the right across the puddle of water and producing disturbances at the same frequency of 2 disturbances per second. Since the bug is moving towards the right, each consecutive disturbance originates from a position that is closer to observer B and farther from observer A. Subsequently, each consecutive disturbance has a shorter distance to travel before reaching observer B and thus takes less time to reach observer B. Thus, observer B observes that the frequency of arrival of the disturbances is higher than the frequency at which disturbances are produced. On the other hand, each consecutive disturbance has a further distance to travel before reaching observer A. For this reason, observer A observes a frequency of arrival that is less than the frequency at which the disturbances are produced. The net effect of the motion of the bug (the source of waves) is that the observer towards whom the bug is moving observes a frequency that is higher than 2 disturbances/second; and the observer away from whom the bug is moving observes a frequency that is less than 2 disturbances/second. This effect is known as the Doppler effect. The Doppler effect is observed whenever the source of waves is moving with respect to an observer. The Doppler effect can be described as the effect produced by a moving source of waves in which there is an apparent upward shift in frequency for observers towards whom the source is approaching and an apparent downward shift in frequency for observers from whom the source is receding. It is important to note that the effect does not result because of an actual change in the frequency of the source. Using the example above, the bug is still producing disturbances at a rate of 2 disturbances per second; it just appears to the observer whom the bug is approaching that the disturbances are being produced at a frequency greater than 2 disturbances/second. The effect is only observed because the distance between observer B and the bug is decreasing and the distance between observer A and the bug is increasing.

The Doppler effect can be observed for any type of wave - water wave, sound wave, light wave, etc. We are most familiar with the Doppler effect because of our experiences with sound waves. Perhaps you recall an instance in which a police car or emergency vehicle was traveling towards you on the highway. As the car approached with its siren blasting, the pitch of the siren sound (a measure of the siren's frequency) was high; and then suddenly after the car passed by, the pitch of the siren sound was low. That was the Doppler effect - an apparent shift in frequency for a sound wave produced by a moving source.

The Doppler effect is of intense interest to astronomers who use the information about the shift in frequency of electromagnetic waves produced by moving stars in our galaxy and beyond in order to derive information about those stars and galaxies. The belief that the universe is expanding is based in part upon observations of electromagnetic waves emitted by stars in distant galaxies. Furthermore, specific information about stars within galaxies can be determined by application of the Doppler effect. Galaxies are clusters of stars that typically rotate about some center of mass point. Electromagnetic radiation emitted by such stars in a distant galaxy would appear to be shifted downward in frequency (a red shift) if the star is rotating in its cluster in a direction that is away from the Earth. On the other hand, there is an upward shift in frequency (a blue shift) of such observed radiation if the star is rotating in a direction that is towards the Earth. As a wave travels through a medium, it will often reach the end of the medium and encounter an obstacle or perhaps another medium through which it could travel. Oneexample of this has already been mentioned in Lesson 2. A sound wave is known to reflect off canyon walls and other obstacles to produce an echo. A sound wave traveling through air within a canyon reflects off the canyon wall and returns to its original source. What affect does reflection have upon a wave? Does reflection of a wave affect the speed of the wave? Does reflection of a wave affect the wavelength and frequency of the wave? Does reflection of a wave affect the amplitude of the wave? Or does reflection affect other properties and characteristics of a wave's motion? The behavior of a wave (or pulse) upon reaching the end of a medium is referred to as boundary

behavior. When one medium ends, another medium begins; the interface of the two media is referred to as the boundary and the behavior of a wave at that boundary is described as its boundary behavior. The questions that are listed above are the types of questions we seek to answer when we investigate the boundary behavior of waves. the behavior of waves traveling along a rope from a more dense medium to a less dense medium (and vice versa) was discussed. The wave doesn't juststop when it reaches the end of the medium. Rather, a wave will undergo certain behaviors when it encounters the end of the medium. Specifically, there will be some reflection off the boundary and some transmission into the new medium. But what if the wave is traveling in a twodimensional medium such as a water wave traveling through ocean water? Or what if the wave is traveling in a three-dimensional medium such as a sound wave or a light wave traveling through air? What types of behaviors can be expected of such two- and three-dimensional waves? The study of waves in two dimensions is often done using a ripple tank. A ripple tank is a large glass-bottomed tank of water that is used to study the behavior of water waves. A light typically shines upon the water from above and illuminates a white sheet of paper placed directly below the tank. A portion of light is absorbed by the water as it passes through the tank. A crest of water will absorb more light than a trough. So the bright spots represent wave troughs and the dark spots represent wave crests. As the water waves move through the ripple tank, the dark and bright spots move as well. As the waves encounter obstacles in their path, their behavior can be observed by watching the movement of the dark and bright spots on the sheet of paper. Ripple tank demonstrations are commonly done in a Physics class in order to discuss the principles underlying the reflection, refraction, and diffraction of waves. If a linear object attached to an oscillator bobs back and forth within the water, it becomes a source of straight waves. These straight waves have alternating crests and troughs. As viewed on the sheet of paper below the tank, the crests are the dark lines stretching across the paper and the troughs are the bright lines. These waves will travel through the water until they encounter an obstacle such as the wall of the tank or an object placed within the water. The diagram at the right depicts a series of straight waves approaching a long barrier extending at an angle across the tank of water. The direction that these wavefronts (straight-line crests) are traveling through the water is represented by the blue arrow. The blue arrow is called a ray and is drawn perpendicular to the wavefronts. Upon reaching the barrier placed within the water, these waves bounce off the water and head in a different direction. The diagram

below shows the reflected wavefronts and the reflected ray. Regardless of the angle at which the wavefronts approach the barrier, one general law of reflection holds true: the waves will always reflect in such a way that the angle at which they approach the barrier equals the angle at which they reflect off the barrier. This is known as the law of reflection. This law will be discussed in more detail in Unit 13 of The Physics Classroom.

The discussion above pertains to the reflection of waves off of straight surfaces. But what if the surface is curved, perhaps in the shape of a parabola? What generalizations can be made for the reflection of water waves off parabolic surfaces? Suppose that a rubber tube having the shape of a parabola is placed within the water. The diagram at the right depicts such a parabolic barrier in the ripple tank. Several wavefronts are approaching the barrier; the ray is drawn for these wavefronts. Upon reflection off the parabolic barrier, the water waves will change direction and head towards a point. This is depicted in the diagram below. It is as though all the energy being carried by the water waves is converged at a single point - the point is known as the focal point. After passing through the focal point, the waves spread out through the water. Reflection of waves off of curved surfaces will be discussed in more detail in Unit 13 of The Physics Classroom.

Reflection involves a change in direction of waves when they bounce off a barrier.Refraction of waves involves a change in the direction of waves as they pass from one medium to another. Refraction, or the bending of the path of the waves, is accompanied by a change in speed and wavelength of the waves. In Lesson 2, it was

mentioned that the speed of a wave is dependent upon the properties of the medium through which the waves travel. So if the medium (and its properties) is changed, the speed of the waves is changed. The most significant property of water that would affect the speed of waves traveling on its surface is the depth of the water. Water waves travel fastest when the medium is the deepest. Thus, if water waves are passing from deep water into shallow water, they will slow down. And as mentioned in the previous section of Lesson 3, this decrease in speed will also be accompanied by a decrease in wavelength. So as water waves are transmitted from deep water into shallow water, the speed decreases, the wavelength decreases, and the direction changes. This boundary behavior of water waves can be observed in a ripple tank if the tank is partitioned into a deep and a shallow section. If a pane of glass is placed in the bottom of the tank, one part of the tank will be deep and the other part of the tank will be shallow. Waves traveling from the deep end to the shallow end can be seen to refract (i.e., bend), decrease wavelength (the wavefronts get closer together), and slow down (they take a longer time to travel the same distance). When traveling from deep water to shallow water, the waves are seen to bend in such a manner that they seem to be traveling more perpendicular to the surface. If traveling from shallow water to deep water, the waves bend in the opposite direction. The refraction of light waves will be discussed in more detail in a later unit of The Physics Classroom.

Reflection involves a change in direction of waves when they bounce off a barrier;refraction of waves involves a change in the direction of waves as they pass from one medium to another; and diffraction involves a change in direction of waves as they pass through an opening or around a barrier in their path. Water waves have the ability to travel around corners, around obstacles and through openings. This ability is most obvious for water waves with longer wavelengths. Diffraction can be demonstrated by placing small barriers and obstacles in a ripple tank and observing the path of the water waves as they encounter the obstacles. The waves are seen to pass around the barrier into the regions behind it; subsequently the water behind the barrier is disturbed. The amount of diffraction (the sharpness of the bending) increases with increasing wavelength and decreases with decreasing wavelength. In fact, when the wavelength of the waves is smaller than the obstacle, no noticeable diffraction occurs. Diffraction of water waves is observed in a harbor as waves bend around small boats and are found to disturb the water behind them. The same waves however are unable to diffract around larger boats since their wavelength is smaller than the boat.

Diffraction of sound waves is commonly observed; we notice sound diffracting around corners, allowing us to hear others who are speaking to us from adjacent rooms. Many forest-dwelling birds take advantage of the diffractive ability of long-wavelength sound waves. Owls for instance are able to communicate across long distances due to the fact that their long-wavelength hoots are able to diffract around forest trees and carry farther than the short-wavelength tweets of songbirds. Diffraction is observed of light waves but only when the waves encounter obstacles with extremely small wavelengths (such as particles suspended in our atmosphere). Diffraction of sound waves and of light waveswill be discussed in a later unit of The Physics Classroom Tutorial.

Reflection, refraction and diffraction are all boundary behaviors of waves associated with the bending of the path of a wave. The bending of the path is an observable behavior when the medium is a two- or three-dimensional medium. Reflection occurs when there is a bouncing off of a barrier. Reflection of waves off straight barriers follows the law of reflection. Reflection of waves off parabolic barriers results in the convergence of the waves at a focal point. Refraction is the change in direction of waves that occurs when waves travel from one medium to another. Refraction is always accompanied by a wavelength and speed change. Diffraction is the bending of waves around obstacles and openings. The amount of diffraction increases with increasing wavelength.
The Bernoulli effect, or the Bernoulli principle or Bernoulli's law, is a statement of relationship between flow speed and pressure in a fluid system; in essence, when the speed of horizontal flow through a fluid increases, the pressure decreases. This effect, and the principle which states this formally, was discovered by the renowned mathematician Daniel Bernoulli, who first published its formulation in 1738. Since the word "fluid" in physics refers to the behavior of both liquids and gasses, such as air, the Bernoulli effect can be observed in both hydrodynamic, or fluid, systems as well as aerodynamic, or gaseous, systems. A common example used to explain the Bernoulli effect is the flow of fluid through a pipe. If the fluid is moving uniformly through the pipe, then the only forces acting on the fluid are its own weight and the pressure of the fluid itself. Now, if the pipe narrows, the fluid must speed up, because the same amount of fluid is traveling through a smaller space. However, if the fluid is moving uniformly, and the weight has not changed, then the only way in which the fluid will move faster is if the pressure behind the fluid is greater than the pressure in front. Thus, the pressure must decrease as the speed increases.

As has been previously mentioned in this unit, a sound wave is created as a result of a vibrating object. The vibrating object is the source of the disturbance that moves through the medium. The vibrating object that creates the disturbance could be the vocal cords of a person, the vibrating string and soundboard of a guitar or violin, the vibrating tines of a tuning fork, or the vibrating diaphragm of a radio speaker. Any object that vibrates will create a sound. The sound could be musical or it could be noisy; but regardless of its quality, the sound wave is created by a vibrating object.

Nearly all objects, when hit or struck or plucked or strummed or somehow disturbed, will vibrate. If you drop a meter stick or pencil on the floor, it will begin to vibrate. If you pluck a guitar string, it will begin to vibrate. If you blow over the top of a pop bottle, the air inside will vibrate. When each of these objects vibrates, they tend to vibrate at a particular frequency or a set of frequencies. The frequency or frequencies at which an object tends to vibrate with when hit, struck, plucked, strummed or somehow disturbed is known as the natural frequency of the object. If the amplitudes of the vibrations are large enough and if natural frequency is within the human frequency range, then the vibrating object will produce sound waves that are audible. All objects have a natural frequency or set of frequencies at which they vibrate. The quality or timbre of the sound produced by a vibrating object is dependent upon the natural frequencies of the sound waves produced by the objects. Some objects tend to vibrate at a single frequency and they are often said to produce a pure tone. A flute tends to vibrate at a single frequency, producing a very pure tone. Other objects vibrate and produce more complex waves with a set of frequencies that have a whole number mathematical relationship between them; these are said to produce a rich sound. A tuba tends to vibrate at a set of frequencies that are mathematically related by whole number ratios; it produces a rich tone. Still other objects will vibrate at a set of multiple frequencies that have no simple mathematical relationship between them. These objects are not musical at all and the sounds that they create could be described as noise. When a meter stick or pencil is dropped on the floor, it vibrates with a number of frequencies, producing a complex sound wave that is clanky and noisy.

The actual frequency at which an object will vibrate at is determined by a variety of factors. Each of these factors will either affect the wavelength or the speed of the object. Since frequency = speed/wavelength

an alteration in either speed or wavelength will result in an alteration of the natural frequency. The role of a musician is to control these variables in order to produce a given frequency from the instrument that is being played. Consider a guitar as an example. There are six strings, each having a different linear density (the wider strings are more dense on a per meter basis), a different tension (which is controllable by the guitarist), and a different length (also controllable by the guitarist). The speed at which waves move through the strings is dependent upon the properties of the medium - in this case the tightness (tension) of the string and the linear density of the strings. Changes in these properties would affect the natural frequency of the particular string. The vibrating portion of a particular string can be shortened by pressing the string against one of the frets on the neck of the guitar. This modification in the length of the string would affect the wavelength of the wave and in turn the natural frequency at which a particular string vibrates at. Controlling the speed and the wavelength in this manner allows a guitarist to control the natural frequencies of the vibrating object (a string) and thus produce the intended musical sounds. The same principles can be applied to any string instrument - whether it is the harp, harpsichord, violin or guitar. As another example, consider the trombone with its long cylindrical tube that is bent upon itself twice and ends in a flared end. The trombone is an example of a wind instrument. The tube of any wind instrument acts as a container for a vibrating air column. The air inside the tube will be set into vibration by a vibrating reed or the vibrations of a musician's lips against a mouthpiece. While the speed of sound waves within the air column is not alterable by the musician (they can only be altered bychanges in room temperature), the length of the air column is. For a trombone, the length is altered by pushing the tube outward away from the mouthpiece to lengthen it or pulling it in to shorten it. This causes the length of the air column to be changed, and subsequently changes the wavelength of the waves it produces. And of course, a change in wavelength will result in a change in the frequency. So the natural frequency of a wind instrument such as the trombone is dependent upon the length of the air column of the instrument. The same principles can be applied to any similar instrument (tuba, flute, wind chime, organ pipe, clarinet, or pop bottle) whose sound is produced by vibrations of air within a tube.

There were a variety of classroom demonstrations (some of which are fun and some of which are corny) that illustrate the idea of natural frequencies and their modification. A pop bottle can be partly filled with

water, leaving a volume of air inside that is capable of vibrating. When a person blows over the top of the bottle, the air inside is set into vibrational motion; turbulence above the lip of the bottle creates disturbances within the bottle. These vibrations result in a sound wave that is audible to students. Of course, the frequency can be modified by altering the volume of the air column (adding or removing water), which changes the wavelength and in turn the frequency. The principle is similar to the frequencywavelength relation of air columns; a smaller volume of air inside the bottle means a shorter wavelength and a higher frequency. A toilet paper roll orchestra can be created from different lengths of toilet paper rolls (or wrapping paper rolls). The rolls will vibrate with different frequencies when struck against a student's head. A properly selected set of rolls will result in the production of sounds that are capable of a Tony Award rendition of "Mary Had a Little Lamb." Maybe you are familiar with the popular water goblet prom trick that is often demonstrated in a Physics class. Obtain a water goblet and clean your fingers. Then gently slide your finger over the rim of the water goblet. If you are fortunate enough, you might be able to set the goblet into vibration by means of slip-stick friction. (It is not necessary to use a crystal goblet. It is often said that crystal goblets work better; but the trick is just as easily performed with clean fingers and an inexpensive goblet.) Like a violin bowstring being pulled across a violin string, the finger sticks to the glass molecules, pulling them apart at a given point until the tension becomes so great. The finger then slips off the glass and subsequently finds another microscopic surface to stick to; the finger pulls the molecules at that surface, slips and then sticks at another location. This process of stick-slip friction occurring at a high frequency is sufficient to set the molecules of the glass into vibration at its natural frequency. The result is enough to impress your dinner guests. Try it at home!! Perhaps you have seen a pendulum bob vibrating back and forth about its equilibrium position. While a pendulum does not produce a sound when it oscillates, it does illustrate an important principle. A pendulum consisting of a longer string vibrates with a longer period and thus a lower frequency. Once more, there is an inverse relationship between the length of the vibrating object and the natural frequency at which the object vibrates. This very relationship carries over to any vibrating instrument - whether it is a guitar string, a xylophone, a pop bottle instrument, or a kettledrum.

To conclude, all objects have a natural frequency or set of frequencies at which they vibrate when struck, plucked, strummed or somehow disturbed. The actual frequency is dependent upon the properties of the material the object is made of (this affects the speed of the wave) and the length of the material (this effects the wavelength of the

wave). It is the goal of musicians to find instruments that possess the ability to vibrate with sets of frequencies that are musically sounding (i.e., mathematically related by simple whole number ratios) and to vary the lengths and (if possible) properties to create the desired sounds. Musical instruments and other objects are set into vibration at their natural frequencywhen a person hits, strikes, strums, plucks or somehow disturbs the object. For instance, a guitar string is strummed or plucked; a piano string is hit with a hammer when a pedal is played; and the tines of a tuning fork are hit with a rubber mallet. Whatever the case, a person or thing puts energy into the instrument by direct contact with it. This input of energy disturbs the particles and forces the object into vibrational motion - at its natural frequency. If you were to take a guitar string and stretch it to a given length and a given tightness and have a friend pluck it, you would hear a noise; but the noise would not even be close in comparison to the loudness produced by an acoustic guitar. On the other hand, if the string is attached to the sound box of the guitar, the vibrating string is capable of forcing the sound box into vibrating at that same natural frequency. The sound box in turn forces air particles inside the box into vibrational motion at the same natural frequency as the string. The entire system (string, guitar, and enclosed air) begins vibrating and forces surrounding air particles into vibrational motion. The tendency of one object to force another adjoining or interconnected object into vibrational motion is referred to as aforced vibration. In the case of the guitar string mounted to the sound box, the fact that the surface area of the sound box is greater than the surface area of the string means that more surrounding air particles will be forced into vibration. This causes an increase in the amplitude and thus loudness of the sound. This same principle of a forced vibration is often demonstrated in a Physics classroom using a tuning fork. If the tuning fork is held in your hand and hit with a rubber mallet, a sound is produced as the tines of the tuning fork set surrounding air particles into vibrational motion. The sound produced by the tuning fork is barely audible to students in the back rows of the room. However, if the tuning fork is set upon the whiteboard panel or the glass panel of the overhead projector, the panel begins vibrating at the same natural frequency of the tuning fork. The tuning fork forces surrounding glass (or vinyl) particles into vibrational motion. The vibrating whiteboard or overhead projector panel in turn forces surrounding air particles into vibrational motion and the result is an increase in the amplitude and thus loudness of the sound. This principle of forced vibration explains why demonstration tuning forks are mounted on a sound box, why a commercial music box mechanism is mounted on a sounding board, why a guitar utilizes a sound box, and why a piano string is attached to a sounding board. A louder

sound is always produced when an accompanying object of greater surface area is forced into vibration at the same natural frequency. Now consider a related situation that resembles another common Physics demonstration. Suppose that a tuning fork is mounted on a sound box and set upon the table; and suppose a second tuning fork/sound box system having the same natural frequency (say 256 Hz) is placed on the table near the first system. Neither of the tuning forks is vibrating. Suppose the first tuning fork is struck with a rubber mallet and the tines begin vibrating at its natural frequency - 256 Hz. These vibrations set its sound box and the air inside the sound box vibrating at the same natural frequency of 256 Hz. Surrounding air particles are set into vibrational motion at the same natural frequency of 256 Hz and every student in the classroom hears the sound. Then the tines of the tuning fork are grabbed to prevent their vibration and remarkably the sound of 256 Hz is still being heard. Only now the sound is being produced by the second tuning fork - the one which wasn't hit with the mallet. Amazing!! The demonstration is often repeated to assure that the same surprising results are observed. They are! What is happening? In this demonstration, one tuning fork forces another tuning fork into vibrational motion at the same natural frequency. The two forks are connected by the surrounding air particles. As the air particles surrounding the first fork (and its connected sound box) begin vibrating, the pressure waves that it creates begin to impinge at a periodic and regular rate of 256 Hz upon the second tuning fork (and its connected sound box). The energy carried by this sound wave through the air is tuned to the frequency of the second tuning fork. Since the incoming sound waves share the same natural frequency as the second tuning fork, the tuning fork easily begins vibrating at its natural frequency. This is an example of resonance - when one object vibrating at the same natural frequency of a second object forces that second object into vibrational motion. The result of resonance is always a large vibration. Regardless of the vibrating system, if resonance occurs, a large vibration results. This is often demonstrated in a Physics class with an odd-looking mechanical system resembling an inverted pendulum. The apparatus consists of three sets of two identical plastic bobs mounted on a very elastic metal pole, which are in turn mounted to a metal bar. Each metal pole and attached bob has a different length, thus giving it a different natural frequency of vibration. The bobs are often color-coded to distinguish between them; they are colored red, blue and green (a set of three colors that

will be significant later in The Physics Classroom Tutorial). The red bobs are mounted on the longer poles and they have the lowest natural frequency of vibration. The blue bobs are mounted on the shorter poles and have the highest natural frequency of vibration. (Note the length-wavelength-frequency relationship that was discussed earlier.) When the red bob is disturbed, it begins vibrating at its natural frequency. This in turn forces the attached bar to vibrate at the same frequency; and this forces the other attached red bob into vibrating at the same natural frequency. This is resonance one bob vibrating at a given frequency forcing a second object with the same natural frequency into vibrational motion. While the green and the blue bobs were disturbed by the vibrations transmitted through the metal bar, only the red bob would resonate. This is because the frequency of the first red bob is tuned to the frequency of the second red bob; they share the same natural frequency. The result is that the second red bob begins vibrating with a huge amplitude.
Since air can be considered a fluid (in physics, anything that flows is considered a fluid), the Bernoulli effect is frequently used in modeling aerodynamic systems. Race cars use the Bernoulli effect to help keep them on the road at high speeds; by using a tail fin angled so that the air pressure above the fin is higher than below, the car is essentially held down by atmospheric pressure. This keeps the car on the road by negating "drift," and allows the driver greater control and safety. Airplanes use the Bernoulli effect in the opposite manner to help generate lift. Other common, real-world applications of the Bernoulli effect include carburetors, which apply the effect to draw in and mix air and fuel, and sailing ships, which can generate propulsive force from both the wind and the pressure differential described by Bernoullis principle. Although there are different formulations of Bernoullis equation, which is a formal mathematical statement of the principle, the Bernoulli effect can be observed in each type of system that the formulations describe. Each formulation describes a different set of fluid characteristics incompressible flow, unsteady potential flow and so on but the Bernoulli effect is generally observable in each system. However, there are certain cases where the principle is invalid, and in those cases, the effect is as well. it was mentioned that when an object is forced

into resonance vibrations at one of its natural frequencies, it vibrates in a manner such that a standing wave pattern is formed within the object. Whether it is a guitar sting, a Chladni plate, or the air column enclosed within a trombone, the vibrating medium vibrates in such a way that a standing wave pattern results. Each natural frequency that an object or instrument produces has its own characteristic vibrational mode or standing wave pattern. These patterns are only created within the object or instrument at specific frequencies of vibration; these frequencies are known as harmonic frequencies, or merely harmonics. At any frequency other than a harmonic frequency, the resulting disturbance of the medium is irregular and non-repeating. For musical instruments and other objects that vibrate in regular and periodic fashion, the harmonic frequencies are related to each other by simple whole number ratios. This is part of the reason why such instruments sound pleasant. We will see in this part of Lesson 4 why these whole number ratios exist for a musical instrument.

First, consider a guitar string vibrating at its natural frequency or harmonic frequency. Because the ends of the string are attached and fixed in place to the guitar's structure (the bridge at one end and the frets at the other), the ends of the string are unable to move. Subsequently, these ends become nodes - points of no displacement. In between these two nodes at the end of the string, there must be at least one antinode. The most fundamental harmonic for a guitar string is the harmonic associated with a standing wave having only one antinode positioned between the two nodes on the end of thestring. This would be the harmonic with the longest wavelength and the lowest frequency. The lowest frequency produced by any particular instrument is known as the fundamental frequency. The fundamental frequency is also called the first harmonic of the instrument. The diagram at the right shows the first harmonic of a guitar string. If you analyze the wave pattern in the guitar string for this harmonic, you will notice that there is not quite one complete wave within the pattern. A complete wave starts at the rest position, rises to a crest, returns to rest, drops to a trough, and finally returns to the rest position before starting its next cycle. (Caution: the use of the words crest and trough to describe the pattern are only used to help identify the length of a repeating wave cycle. A standing wave pattern is not actually a wave, but rather a pattern of a wave. Thus, it does not consist of crests and troughs, but rather nodes and antinodes. The pattern is the result of the interference of two waves to produce these nodes and antinodes.) In this pattern, there is only one-half of a wave within the length of the string. This is the case for the first harmonic or fundamental frequency of a guitar string. The diagram below depicts this length-wavelength relationship for the fundamental frequency of a guitar string.

The second harmonic of a guitar string is produced by adding one more node between the ends of the guitar string. And of course, if a node is added to the pattern, then an antinode must be added as well in order to maintain an alternating pattern of nodes and antinodes. In order to create a regular and repeating pattern, that node must be located midway between the ends of the guitar string. This additional node gives the second harmonic a total of three nodes and two antinodes. The standing wave pattern for the second harmonic is shown at the right. A careful investigation of

the pattern reveals that there is exactly one full wave within the length of the guitar string. For this reason, the length of the string is equal to the length of the wave. The third harmonic of a guitar string is produced by adding two nodes between the ends of the guitar string. And of course, if two nodes are added to the pattern, then two antinodes must be added as well in order to maintain an alternating pattern of nodes and antinodes. In order to create a regular and repeating pattern for this harmonic, the two additional nodes must be evenly spaced between the ends of the guitar string. This places them at the one-third mark and the two-thirds mark along the string. These additional nodes give the third harmonic a total of four nodes and three antinodes. The standing wave pattern for the third harmonic is shown at the right. A careful investigation of the pattern reveals that there is more than one full wave within the length of the guitar string. In fact, there are three-halves of a wave within the length of the guitar string. For this reason, the length of the string is equal to threehalves the length of the wave. The diagram below depicts this length-wavelength relationship for the fundamental frequency of a guitar string.

After a discussion of the first three harmonics, a pattern can be recognized. Each harmonic results in an additional node and antinode, and an additional half of a wave within the string. If the number of waves in a string is known, then an equation relating the wavelength of the standing wave pattern to the length of the string can be algebraically derived.

This information is summarized in the table below.

# of Harm. Waves # in String 1 2 3 4 5 1/2 1 or 2/2 3/2 2 or 4/2 5/2 2 3 4 5 6 Nodes # of

# of

Length-

Anti-

Wavelength

nodes 1 2 3 4 5

Relationship Wavelength = (2/1)*L Wavelength = (2/2)*L Wavelength = (2/3)*L Wavelength = (2/4)*L Wavelength = (2/5)*L

The above discussion develops the mathematical relationship between the length of a guitar string and the wavelength of the standing wave patterns for the various harmonics that could be established within the string. Now these length-wavelength relationships will be used to develop relationships for the ratio of the wavelengths and the ratio of the frequencies for the various harmonics played by a string instrument (such as a guitar string).

Determining the Harmonic Frequencies Consider an 80-cm long guitar string that has a fundamental frequency (1st harmonic) of 400 Hz. For the first harmonic, the wavelength of the wave pattern would be two times the length of the string (see table above); thus, the wavelength is 160 cm or 1.60 m. Thespeed of the standing wave can now be determined from the wavelength and the frequency. The speed of the standing wave is
speed = frequency wavelength

speed = 400 Hz 1.6 m speed = 640 m/s This speed of 640 m/s corresponds to the speed of any wave within the guitar string. Since the speed of a wave is dependent upon the properties of the medium (and not

upon the properties of the wave), every wave will have the same speed in this string regardless of its frequency and its wavelength. So the standing wave pattern associated with the second harmonic, third harmonic, fourth harmonic, etc. will also have this speed of 640 m/s. A change in frequency or wavelength will NOT cause a change in speed. Using the table above, the wavelength of the second harmonic (denoted by the symbol 2) would be 0.8 m (the same as the length of the string). The speed of the standing wave pattern (denoted by the symbol v) is still 640 m/s. Now the wave equation can be used to determine the frequency of the second harmonic (denoted by the symbol f2).
speed = frequency wavelength

frequency = speed/wavelength f2 = v /
2

f2 = (640 m/s)/(0.8 m) f2 = 800 Hz

This same process can be repeated for the third harmonic. Using the table above, the wavelength of the third harmonic (denoted by the symbol 3) would be 0.533 m (twothirds of the length of the string). The speed of the standing wave pattern (denoted by the symbol v) is still 640 m/s. Now the wave equation can be used to determine the frequency of the third harmonic (denoted by the symbol f3).
speed = frequency wavelength

frequency = speed/wavelength f3 = v /
3

f3 = (640 m/s)/(0.533 m) f3 = 1200 Hz

Now if you have been following along, you will have recognized a pattern. The frequency of the second harmonic is two times the frequency of the first harmonic. The frequency of the third harmonic is three times the frequency of the first harmonic. The frequency of the nth harmonic (where n represents the harmonic # of any of the harmonics) is n times the frequency of the first harmonic. In equation form, this can be written as

fn = n f1

The inverse of this pattern exists for the wavelength values of the various harmonics. The wavelength of the second harmonic is one-half (1/2) the wavelength of the first harmonic. The wavelength of the third harmonic is one-third (1/3) the wavelength of the first harmonic. And the wavelength of the nth harmonic is one-nth (1/n) the wavelength of the first harmonic. In equation form, this can be written as

= (1/n)

These relationships between wavelengths and frequencies of the various harmonics for a guitar string are summarized in the table below.

Harm.

Freq.

Wavelength

Speed fn / f1
n

# 1 2 3 4 5 n

(Hz) 400 800 1200 1600 2000 n * 400

(m) 1.60 0.800 0.533 0.400 0.320 (2/n)*(0.800)

(m/s) 640 640 640 640 640 640 1 2 3 4 5 n 1/1 1/2 1/3 1/4 1/5 1/n

The table above demonstrates that the individual frequencies in the set of natural frequencies produced by a guitar string are related to each other by whole number ratios. For instance, the first and second harmonics have a 2:1 frequency ratio; the second and the third harmonics have a 3:2 frequency ratio; the third and the fourth harmonics have a4:3 frequency ratio; and the fifth and the fourth harmonic have a 5:4 frequency ratio. When the guitar is played, the string, sound box and surrounding air vibrate at a set of frequencies to produce a wave with a mixture of harmonics. The

exact composition of that mixture determines the timbre or quality of sound that is heard. If there is only a single harmonic sounding out in the mixture (in which case, it wouldn't be a mixture), then the sound is rather pure-sounding. On the other hand, if there are a variety of frequencies sounding out in the mixture, then the timbre of the sound is rather rich in quality. In Lesson 5, these same principles of resonance and standing waves will be applied to other types of instruments besides guitar strings.

In sound applications, a resonant frequency is a natural frequency of vibration determined by the physical parameters of the vibrating object. This same basic idea of physically determined natural frequencies applies throughout physics in mechanics, electricity and magnetism, and even throughout the realm of modern physics. Some of the implications of resonant frequencies are:

1. It is easy to get an object to vibrate at its resonant frequencies, hard to get it to vibrate at other frequencies.

Example

2. A vibrating object will pick out its resonant frequencies from a complex excitation and vibrate at those frequencies, essentially "filtering out" other frequencies present in Example the excitation. 3. Most vibrating objects have multiple resonant frequencies. In the previous part of Lesson 5, the formation of a standing wave patterns in an openend instrument was discussed. The mathematics of the harmonic frequencies associated with such standing wave patterns were developed. This part of Lesson 5 will use similar principles to develop the standing wave patterns and associated mathematics for closed-end air column. An instrument consisting of a closed-end column typically contains a metal tube in which one of the ends is covered and not open to the surrounding air. Some pipe organs and the air column within the bottle of a pop-bottle orchestra are examples of closed-end instruments. Some instruments that operate as open-end air columns can be transformed into closed-end air columns by covering the end opposite the mouthpiece with a mute. As we will see the presence of the closed end on such an air column will affect the actual frequencies that the instrument can produce. As has already been mentioned, a musical instrument has a set of natural frequencies at which it vibrates at when a disturbance is introduced into it. These natural frequencies are known as the harmonics of the instrument. Each harmonic is associated with a standing wave pattern. In Lesson 4 of Unit 10, a standing wave pattern was defined as a vibrational pattern created within a medium when the vibrational frequency of the source causes reflected waves from one end of the medium to interfere with incident waves from the source in such a manner that specific points

along the medium appear to be standing still. In the case of stringed instruments (discussed earlier), standing wave patterns were drawn to depict the amount of movement of the string at various locations along its length. Such patterns show nodes - points of no displacement or movement - at the two fixed ends of the string. In the case of air columns, a closed end in a column of air is analogous to the fixed end on a vibrating string. That is, at the closed end of an air column, air is not free to undergo movement and thus is forced into assuming the nodal positions of the standing wave pattern. Air at the closed end of an air column is still. Conversely, air is free to undergo its back-and-forth longitudinal vibration at the open end of an air column. And as such, the standing wave patterns will depict vibrational antinodes at the open ends of air columns. So the basis for drawing the standing wave patterns for air columns is that vibrational antinodes will be present at any open end and vibrational nodes will be present at any closed end. If this principle is applied to closed-end air columns, then the pattern for the fundamental frequency (the lowest frequency and longest wavelength pattern) will have a node at the closed end and an antinode at the open end. For this reason, the standing wave pattern for the fundamental frequency (or first harmonic) for a closedend air column looks like the diagram below.

The distance between adjacent antinodes on a standing wave pattern is equivalent to one-half of a wavelength. Since nodes always lie midway in between the antinodes, the distance between an antinode and a node must be equivalent to one-fourth of a wavelength. A careful analysis of the diagram above shows that a node and an adjacent antinode are positioned at the two ends of the air column. Thus, the length of the air column is equal to one-fourth of the wavelength for the first harmonic. The fundamental frequency is the lowest possible frequency that any instrument can play; it is sometimes referred to as the first harmonic of the instrument. The second harmonic of any instrument always has a frequency that is twice the frequency of the first harmonic. The fourth harmonic of any instrument always has a frequency that is four times the frequency of the first harmonic. As we will see, a strange pattern results for a closed-end air column. Just as for all the instruments, the next harmonic for a closed-end air column is the harmonic that has one more node. And just as for all the instruments, the addition of an extra node also means that an extra antinode must also be added to the pattern. This would result in a total of two vibrational antinodes and one vibrationalnode. This pattern is shown in the diagram below. Observe in the pattern that there is three-fourths of a full wave in the length of the air column. That is three

times the number of waves in the first harmonic. Since, the frequency of this harmonic is three times the frequency of the first harmonic, this is called the third harmonic.

But what happened to the second harmonic? Unlike the other instrument types, there is no second harmonic for a closed-end air column. The next frequency above the fundamental frequency is the third harmonic (three times the frequency of the fundamental). In fact, a closed-end instrument does not possess any even-numbered harmonics. Only odd-numbered harmonics are produced, where the frequency of each harmonic is some odd-numbered multiple of the frequency of the first harmonic. The next highest frequency above the third harmonic is the fifth harmonic. It is the standing wave pattern with the next smallest wavelength. The standing wave pattern for the fifth harmonic of a closed-end air column is produced by adding another node to the pattern. This would result in a total of three anti-nodes and three nodes. This pattern is shown in the diagram below. Observe in the pattern that there are one and one-fourth waves present in the length of the air column. That is five times the number of waves in the first harmonic. For this reason, the frequency of the fifth harmonic is five times the frequency of the first harmonic.

The process of adding another node and antinode to each consecutive harmonic in order to determine the pattern and the resulting length-wavelength relationship could be continued. If doing so, it is important to keep vibrational antinodes on the open ends andvibrational nodes on the closed end of the air column and to maintain an alternating pattern of nodes and antinodes. When finished, the results should be consistent with the information in the table below. The relationships between the standing wave pattern for a given harmonic and the length-wavelength relationships for closed-end air columns are summarized below.

LengthHarm. # of Waves # of # of Wavelength # in Column Nodes Antinodes Relationship 1/4 1 1 = (4/1)*L

3/4

= (4/3)*L

5/4

= (4/5)*L

7/4

= (4/7)*L

9/4

= (4/9)*L

(The symbol

represents the wavelength.)

Now the aim of the above discussion is to internalize the mathematical relationships for closed-end air columns in order to perform calculations predicting the length of air column required to produce a given natural frequency. And conversely, calculations can be performed to predict the natural frequencies produced by a known length of air column. Each of these calculations requires knowledge of the speed of a wave in air (which is approximately 340 m/s at room temperatures). The graphic below depicts the relationships between the key variables in such calculations. These relationships will be used to assist in the solution to problems involving standing waves in musical instruments.

To demonstrate the use of the above problem-solving scheme, consider the following example problem and its detailed solution.

Example Problem The speed of sound waves in air is 340 m/s. Determine the fundamental frequency (1st harmonic) of a closed-end air column that has a length of 67.5 cm.

The solution to the problem begins by first identifying known information, listing the desired quantity, and constructing a diagram of the situation.
Given: Find: Diagram:

v = 340 m/s L = 67.5 cm = 0.675 m

f1 = ??

The problem statement asks us to determine the frequency (f) value. From the graphic above, the only means of finding the frequency is to use the wave equation (speed=frequency wavelength) and knowledge of the speed and wavelength. The speed is given, but wavelength is not known. If the wavelength could be found then the frequency could be easily calculated. In this problem (and any problem), knowledge of the length and the harmonic number allows one to determine the wavelength of the wave. For the first harmonic, the wavelength is four times the length. This relationship is derived from the diagram of the standing wave pattern (see table above). The

relationship, which works only for the first harmonic of a closed-end air column, is used to calculate the wavelength for this standing wave.
Wavelength = 4 Length

Wavelength = 4 0.675 m Wavelength = 2.7 m Now that wavelength is known, it can be combined with the given value of the speed to calculate the frequency of the first harmonic for this closed-end air column. This calculation is shown below.
speed = frequency wavelength

frequency = speed / wavelength frequency = (340 m/s) / (2.7 m) frequency = 126 Hz

Most problems can be solved in a similar manner. It is always wise to take the extra time needed to set the problem up; take the time to write down the given information and the requested information, and to draw a meaningful diagram. Seldom in physics are two problems identical. The tendency to treat every problem the same way is perhaps one of the quickest paths to failure. It is much better to combine good problem-solving skills (part of which involves the discipline to set the problem up) with a solid grasp of the relationships among variables. Avoid the tendency to memorize approaches to different types of problems.

To further demonstrate the use of the above problem-solving scheme, consider the following example problem and its detailed solution.

Example Problem Determine the length of an closed-end air column that produces a fundamental frequency (1st harmonic) of 480 Hz. The speed of waves in air is known to be 340 m/s.

The solution to the problem begins by first identifying known information, listing the desired quantity, and constructing a diagram of the situation.
Given: Find: Diagram:

v = 340 m/s f1 = 480 Hz

L = ??

The problem statement asks us to determine the length of the air column. From thegraphic above, the only means of finding the length of the air column is from knowledge of the wavelength. But the wavelength is not known. However, the frequency and speed are given, so one can use the wave equation (speed = frequency wavelength) and knowledge of the speed and frequency to determine the wavelength. This calculation is shown below.
speed = frequency wavelength

wavelength = speed / frequency wavelength = (340 m/s) / (480 Hz) wavelength = 0.708 m Now that the wavelength is found, the length of the air column can be calculated. For the first harmonic, the length is one-fourth the wavelength. This relationship is derived from the diagram of the standing wave pattern (see table above); it may also be evident to you by looking at the standing wave diagram drawn above. This relationship between wavelength and length, which works only for the first harmonic of a closedend air column, is used to calculate the wavelength for this standing wave.
Length = (1/4) Wavelength

Length = (1/4) Wavelength Length = 0.177 m

If you have successfully followed the logic of the two solutions above, then take a try at the following practice problems. As you proceed, be sure to be mindful of the numerical relationships involved in such problems. And if necessary, refer to the problem solving scheme presented above. Many musical instruments consist of an air column enclosed inside of a hollow metal tube. Though the metal tube may be more than a meter in length, it is often curved upon itself one or more times in order to conserve space. If the end of the tube is uncovered such that the air at the end of the tube can freely vibrate when the sound wave reaches it, then the end is referred to as an open end. If both ends of the tube are uncovered or open, the musical instrument is said to contain an open-end air column. A variety of instruments operate on the basis of open-end air columns;

examples include the flute and the recorder. Even some organ pipes serve as open-end air columns.

Standing Wave Patterns for the Harmonics

As has already been mentioned, a musical instrument has a set of natural frequencies at which it vibrates at when a disturbance is introduced into it. These natural frequencies are known as the harmonics of the instrument; each harmonic is associated with a standing wave pattern. In Lesson 4 of Unit 10, a standing wave pattern was defined as a vibrational pattern created within a medium when the vibrational frequency of the source causes reflected waves from one end of the medium to interfere with incident waves from the source in such a manner that specific points along the medium appear to be standing still. In the case of stringed instruments (discussed earlier), standing wave patterns were drawn to depict the amount of movement of the string at various locations along its length. Such patterns show nodes - points of no displacement or movement - at the two fixed ends of the string. In the case of air columns, a closed end in a column of air is analogous to the fixed end on a vibrating string. That is, at the closed end of an air column, air is not free to undergo movement and thus is forced into assuming the nodal positions of the standing wave pattern. Conversely, air is free to undergo its back-and-forth longitudinal motion at the open end of an air column; and as such, the standing wave patterns will depict antinodes at the open ends of air columns. So the basis for drawing the standing wave patterns for air columns is that vibrational antinodes will be present at any open end and vibrational nodes will be present at any closed end. If this principle is applied to open-end air columns, then the pattern for the fundamental frequency (the lowest frequency and longest wavelength pattern) will have antinodes at the two open ends and a single node in between. For this reason, the standing wave pattern for the fundamental frequency (or first harmonic) for an openend air column looks like the diagram below.

The distance between antinodes on a standing wave pattern is equivalent to one-half of a wavelength. A careful analysis of the diagram above shows that adjacent antinodes are positioned at the two ends of the air column. Thus, the length of the air column is equal to one-half of the wavelength for the first harmonic. The standing wave pattern for the second harmonic of an open-end air column could be produced if another antinode and node was added to the pattern. This would result in a

total of three antinodes and two nodes. This pattern is shown in the diagram below. Observe in the pattern that there is one full wave in the length of the air column. One full wave is twice the number of waves that were present in the first harmonic. For this reason, the frequency of the second harmonic is two times the frequency of the first harmonic.

And finally, the standing wave pattern for the third harmonic of an open-end air column could be produced if still another antinode and node were added to the pattern. This would result in a total of four antinodes and three nodes. This pattern is shown in the diagram below. Observe in the pattern that there are one and one-half waves present in the length of the air column. One and one-half waves is three times the number of waves that were present in the first harmonic. For this reason, the frequency of the third harmonic is three times the frequency of the first harmonic.

Summary of Length-Wavelength Relationships

The process of adding another antinode and node to each consecutive harmonic in order to determine the pattern and the resulting length-wavelength relationship could be continued. If doing so, it is important to keep antinodes on the open ends of the air column and to maintain an alternating pattern of nodes and antinodes. When finished, the results should be consistent with the information in the table below. The relationships between the standing wave pattern for a given harmonic and the length-wavelength relationships for open end air columns are summarized in the table below. Harm. # 1 2 3 4 5 # of Waves in Air Column 1/2 1 or 2/2 3/2 2 or 4/2 5/2 # of Nodes 1 2 3 4 5 # of Antinodes 2 3 4 5 6 LengthWavelength Relationship Wavelength = (2/1)*L Wavelength = (2/2)*L Wavelength = (2/3)*L Wavelength = (2/4)*L Wavelength = (2/5)*L

Problem-Solving Scheme
Now the aim of the above discussion is to internalize the mathematical relationships for open-end air columns in order to perform calculations predicting the length of air column required to produce a given natural frequency. And conversely, calculations can be performed to predict the natural frequencies produced by a known length of air column. Each of these calculations requires knowledge of the speed of a wave in air (which is approximately 340 m/s at room temperatures). The graphic below depicts the relationships between the key variables in such calculations. These relationships will be used to assist in the solution to problems involving standing waves in musical instruments.

To demonstrate the use of the above problem-solving scheme, consider the following example problem and its detailed solution.

Example Problem
The speed of sound waves in air is found to be 340 m/s. Determine the fundamental frequency (1st harmonic) of an open-end air column that has a length of 67.5 cm. The solution to the problem begins by first identifying known information, listing the desired quantity, and constructing a diagram of the situation. Given: Find: Diagram:

v = 340 m/s L = 67.5 cm = 0.675 m

f1 = ??

The problem statement asks us to determine the frequency (f) value. From the graphic above, the only means of finding the frequency is to use the wave equation (speed = frequency wavelength) and knowledge of the speed and wavelength. The speed is given, but wavelength is not known. If the wavelength could be found then the frequency could be easily calculated. In this problem (and any problem), knowledge of the length and the harmonic number allows one to determine the wavelength of the wave. For the first harmonic, the wavelength is twice the length. This relationship is derived from the diagram of the standing wave pattern (see table above). The relationship, which works only for the first harmonic of an open-end air column, is used to calculate the wavelength for this standing wave. Wavelength = 2 Length Wavelength = 2 0.675 m Wavelength = 1.35 m Now that wavelength is known, it can be combined with the given value of the speed to calculate the frequency of the first harmonic for this open-end air column. This calculation is shown below. speed = frequency wavelength frequency = speed / wavelength frequency = (340 m/s) / (1.35 m) frequency = 252 Hz

Most problems can be solved in a similar manner. It is always wise to take the extra time needed to set the problem up. Take the time to write down the given information and the requested information, and to draw a meaningful diagram.

Seldom in physics are two problems identical. The tendency to treat every problem the same way is perhaps one of the quickest paths to failure. It is much better to combine good problem-solving skills (part of which involves the discipline to set the problem up) with a solid grasp of the relationships among variables. Avoid the tendency to memorize approaches to different types of problems.

Amplitude: Amplitude is the variation or displacement of a wave from its mean value. With sound waves, it is the extent to which air particles are displaced, and is experienced as the intensity or loudness of a sound. Antinode: Antinodes are the points on a wave with the greatest displacement or amplitude. Bulk modulus: Bulk modulus (K) is the measure of a material's resistance to uniform compression. Constructive Interference: Constructive Interference occurs where two identical phases meet and combine to create a wave with a greater amplitude. Destructive Interference: Destructive Interference occurs where two opposite phases meet and combine to create a wave with a lesser amplitude. Diffraction: The ability of waves to bend or change direction through an opening or around a barrier [3]. Dissipated Energy: Dissipated Energy is energy that is transformed or lost from an action or movement. Friction and heat are common examples of dissipated energy. Elastic Energy: The energy of compressing or stretching of a substance. Example: A compressed spring has elastic energy. Fixed End Reflection: A Fixed End Reflection occurs when a wave meets the end of a medium, or a heavier/denser medium. Fixed End Reflections cause a phase inversion of a wave. Compressions of longitudinal waves are reflected back as rarefactions, while crests of transverse waves are reflected as troughs [16]. Free End Reflection: A Free End Reflection occurs when a wave meets an open end, or a lighter/less dense medium. Free End Reflections allow the phase of the wave to remain unchanged. Compressions of longitudinal waves are reflected back as compressions, while crests of transverse waves are reflected as crests [16]. Frequency: Frequency is simply a mathematical representation of how low or high a pitch is, and is based on the rate at which waves vibrate [15, pg. 8]. It is measured in Hertz, or number of complete wave cycles per second, and is commonly abbreviated as Hz [18]. Frequency Ratio: The Frequency Ratio is the mathematical equivalent to a musical interval. Examples: a major third would be 5/4, a fifth would be 3/2 and an octave would be 2 [11]. Fundamental Principle: The Fundamental Principle states that if a frequency of a tone is n, that of its octave is 2n, that of its fifth is 3/2n, and that of the major third is

5/4n. Therefore, tube or string length is inversely proportional to frequency, i.e., every time length is halved, frequency is doubled [15, pg 10]. Harmonics/Overtones: All Harmonics are Overtones, but not all Overtones are Harmonics. Harmonics are defined as a series of musical pitches whose frequencies are multiples of the fundamental frequency, whereas Overtones are defined as all harmonic and non-harmonic frequencies that are produced as sympathetic vibrations above the fundamental. Therefore, Overtones also include the body of non-harmonic and dissonant frequencies that are produced in membranophones and idiophones. In terms of classification, Harmonics above the fundamental can also be called overtones; the second harmonic is the first overtone, the third harmonic is the second overtone and so forth [15, pg. 10]. Kinetic Energy: Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by an object because of its motion. Example: Temperature is a way of measuring the kinetic energy of particles moving about. Longitudinal Wave: Longitudinal Waves transfer energy parallel to the direction of motion. To further understand this concept, imagine a slinky lying flat on the floor, stretched out in a straight line. When you push on it either forward or backward the slinky compresses and expands, sending a pulse down the slinky. Sound is an example of a longitudinal wave. Medium: A medium is a substance through which waves propagate. Examples would be air, water, wood, or metal. Sound requires a medium through which to travel, and therefore cannot exist in a vacuum. Membrane: A membrane is the material that is stretched over a drum, also referred to as a drum head. Musical Interval: The distance between two pitches [14, pg. 418]. Examples: a major third, a perfect fifth, or an octave. Node: Nodes are the points on a wave where the displacement or amplitude is equal to zero. For example, on a glockenspiel the nodal points would be found at 0.224 x the length of the tube.

Important Fundamental Concepts in Musical Acoustics 1. Harmonic Series and its relationship to Harmony A. Numbers in a harmonic series have a 1, 2, 3, ... relationship B. Example: Harmonics of 440: 440, 880, 1320, 1760, 2200, .... C. Example: Pitch sequence C4, C5, G5, C6, E6, G6, flat Bb6, C7, ...(bugle calls) D. Consonant intervals: 2/1 = P8 (octave), 3/2 = P5 (fifth), 4/3 = fourth P4, 5/4 =

third M3 2. Wave theory A. Longitudinal (compressional) waves in air B. Transverse waves in strings C. Bending waves (combination of other two) in stiff bars D. Higher frequency --> Shorter wavelength E. Higher wave speed --> Longer wavelength F. In 2 or 3 dimensions, waves spread out from source, get smaller in amplitude 3. Resonance in simple oscillators (spring/mass) A. Spring provides restoring force, brings mass back to center "equilibrium position" B. Mass provides inertia, keeps moving past equilibrium position C. Stiffer spring (2 side-by-side, or 1 shorter spring) increases frequency D. Larger mass (inertia) reduces frequency E. Stretched or compressed spring --> Potential energy F. Moving mass --> Kinetic energy 4. Wind instruments A. Longer tube --> longer wavelength --> lower frequency B. Larger hole --> air can rush in and out faster --> higher frequency C. In bottle instruments, cavity acts like spring, smaller cavity --> stiffer spring --> higher f. D. Frequency f proportional to 1/(Tube length L), so 1 octave lower is 2x longer 5. String instruments A. Longer string --> longer wavelength --> lower frequency, f proportional to 1/L B. Higher tension --> greater restoring force --> higher frequency C. Heavier string --> greater mass (inertia) --> lower frequency D. Thin string doesn't radiate well, instead energy --> bridge --> body --> room E. Thinner top plate --> more motion --> louder

F. Cavity + Hole like a bottle --> tune bottle for louder sound 6. Xylophone instruments A. Longer bar --> longer wavelength --> lower frequency, now f proportional to (1/L)^2 B. Removing material can remove moving mass (on free end) or stiffness (where bending) C. Careful! Long, thin bars don't radiate well at low frequencies! LISTEN to scale!