a city should bustle

prelude

a city full of spaces

urgency and instruments

12

drawing by numbers
practice

36

spatial quality: compensation for density

essay

72

towards cities full of quality

9 measures

84

laws of density
theory bibliography glossary

88

118 119

cities full of space 5

prelude

a city should bustle

6 a city should bustle

steden vol ruimte 7

Ive called my story Cities Full of Space. For cities are not merely the museums and theatres of everyday life, in which we experience what occupies people in the broad scope of their lives, they are also ingenious spatial constellations that bring together people and their activities in all their diversity: from dynamic to intimate, from everyday to ceremonial and ritual activities. Density creates a loss of (natural) qualities. Urban design and architecture can and must contribute to the neutralization of such losses by eliminating oppressive spatial effects and compensating them with allure. Putting together intelligent puzzles can produce high-quality interior and exterior domains. This study focuses primarily on this interaction between the public and private realms.

All sorts of cities are sources of inspiration for what I call the miracle of density. They contain exciting, bustling spaces full of variation and diversity. They have allure, but they also include unsuspected domains of intimacy. The significance of these spatial configurations usually lies in the motivations behind their creation, their history and their functions. Aculture settles in a network of proximities in order toenable all manner of lifestyles, with which we can (or cannot) identify, to relate to one another. Thismutual proximity, with the market as its archetype, is the intrinsic quality and the appeal of cities. Accommodating it requires buildings. And building subsequently generates the ingenious system of public and multi-private spaces. Spaces whose conditions conform to the various activities to be expected and stimulated therein. It is precisely because this system is organized according to and expresses the values of a culture that a city is one of the most significant products of culture.

8 een stad moet bruisen

The city dweller is often part of multiple subcultural groups at the same time. The need for mutual proximity requires space for territories that overlap, places in the city (platforms) thatdifferent subcultures can use, simultaneously or at differenttimes. Urban diversity defines the qualityand dynamism of a city. Firstly as a spatial system, of course. The mix of ingredients conditions the culture and the identity of a city. Byaccommodating different functions, the mix changes, andthe specific character of thecity emerges: a market town, royal city, garrison town, port city, university town, and all combinations thereof.

An analysis of the city should identify these different ingredients (port,park,buildings) of a city or urban tissue. Next, the quantity of the different ingredients should be examined in greater detail, especially in relation to one another. This mix is expressed in percentages. Then the distribution of these ingredients is looked at, for example in relation to the mesh ofthe urban tissue (thedimensions of city blocks, and therefore walking distances between different places). Finally, the superimposition, the concurrenceof the various elements, is identified. Elementsthat are present simultaneously promote complexity and proximity, and therefore interaction between activities and events, and with it the degree of urbanity. Oratleastits potential.

At the urban tissue level, we examine the composition and organization of public spaces. Streets determine the mesh of the urban network and with it the degree of penetration of the public domain into the private domain. Privatized space (from the palace and its grounds and the closed housing block to the free-standing building) is demarcated by streets, parks, water, squares, and so forth. In general, a few exceptions notwithstanding, space for access to the city coincides with the non-built space in the city.

steden vol ruimte 9

Density in urban tissues is achieved, once an optimum balance between built and nonbuilt space has been reached, by building deeper or stacking higher. Both operations result in aloss of certain qualities. However, a mutual proximity ofurban activities, and therefore urban dynamism and efficient land use, are gained.

1 the website www.stedenvolruimte.nl has been set up to provide planners, urban designers, architects and students in various design disciplines with the results of the density research project of delft university of technology. the site offers spreadsheets into which any user may input his or her specific data. hypotheses can be tested and adjusted, and the inter-connected effects of decisions are made visible an important tool at the scale of spatial planning and urban design, as well as that of architectural design. the site also includes several interactive spreadsheets for density computations. there are animations in which various building patterns are displayed in 3-d. the blocklib (block library), as described on pp.34-35, can be accessed from the site. the site also includes links to related websites, and it is open to a forum and commentary on the book. additions and new developments will also be listed on the site. 2 the density research project at delft university of technology, faculty of architecture, housing department, was conducted under the direction of professor in architecture related to practice rudyuytenhaak between 2003 and 2007. research assistance was provided by jeroenmensink, bartreuser, marijnschenk, saskiaoranje, renskeappel and simonderuijter. 3 rudyuytenhaak obtained his degree from eindhoven university of technology, faculty of architecture in 1973, inarchitectonic urban design (under prof. d.apon and prof.w.quist)

The study of density is not so much about maximizing density in terms of, say, floor space or people in general as it is about optimizing and guiding the mixture of the ingredients mentioned above. In our view, awareness of this data results in better, more ingenious urban tissues of built space interspersed with space left vacant. Instead of unconscious or experimentally The quality of density iswhat discovered and copied solutions, matters to the city; inother this can lead to the development words, are the physical of an arsenal of genes and possibilities of a location organs for the urban body. reducedor increased, made The significance of this is morediverse and more intensive, political. It makes it possible by the way in which buildings to reasonably weigh interests are arranged and compressed against one another in order to in relation to oneanother, and serve diversity/heterogeneity howdoes this relate to its use? and balance. This results in a more conscious programming of the issue of space allocation, using economic, cultural, architectural and urbandesign instruments (including typologies). Andthisissorely needed. For theuse of space in the Netherlands is not growing gradually it is accelerating at anexponential rate.

10 uytenhaak steden vol ruimte

If the country is to avoid silting upcompletely, more compact cities are imperative. This book aims to provide an impetus to anew way of thinking about urban densities. The first chapter, CityFull of Spaces, describes, among other things, the researchwe have conducted at Delft University of Technology, which has resulted in a mathematical model and theLaws ofDensity derived from this. Themathematical model, incidentally, is available as a spreadsheet at the website www.stedenvolruimte.nl1

The work done at Delft University of Technology2 can essentially be seen as making a science out of my design methods. Even as Iwas finishing up my studies I waslooking for ways to increase the densities in particular planning areas.3 In order to build more, but also better, housing than was actually required. Practically all my design sketches, in fact, include calculations that show how many dwellings a particular design variant produces. The chapter Drawingby Numbers is about this practice-oriented research. The projects are listed in chronological order and were selected to illustrate particular problems that are inextricably connected to the creation of high densities. Designs that produce the largest quantities ofhousing units, after all, are not necessarily the best plans. The more dwellings, the greater the risk thatthis will come at the cost of, for instance, penetration of natural light into the dwelling or of the privacy of the occupants. The definitive designs must do more than eliminate all these risks. They must do more. Theymust compensate for the density created. This can only come in theform of more quality.

How this quality can be achieved is described in the third chapter, Spatial Quality, Compensation for Density. The better we can describe this quality, the more quantitative analyses will be able to stimulate creativity and imagination. The three chapters are all equally important. Without sufficient quality, density does not work it is even dangerous. Andquality can only be achieved by researching, by observing and most of all by playing with the puzzle pieces of floor plans and street maps and cross sections in order to achieve maximum syntheses.

steden steden vol vol ruimte ruimte11 11

urgency and instruments

a city full of spaces

12 a city full of spaces

steden vol ruimte 13

a city should bustle. itshouldbe full. full of people, of functions, of movements. in spite of its density and fullness, it must not become oppressive. in the dense city, therefore, spaces are imperative spaces that exude comfort, style and perfection.
As indispensable counterpoints to these grand spaces, the city also contains domains of intimacy. All of these spaces are significant and are laden with possibilities. They speak of life; they fill the city with stories. How much space can be contained in relatively small pieces of urban tissue becomes clear during brief strolls around historic cities. They present a complete film

space in an urban tissue with a high density: oudegracht, utrecht

14 a city full of spaces

of impressions. Like Alice in Wonderland, one stumbles from one world into another. Take the city centre of Utrecht as an example: on a stroll down Oudegracht in the vicinity of the town hall, one walks along a meandering canal featuring differentlevels, with a combination of shops, offices, restaurants and cafs. Below, above, aroundthe corner, behind a door, a window, on the roof, everywhere there is something to see. When a part of an urban tissue as condensed as this is torn down, it often turns out to have occupied a relatively modest area of land. The demolition of Les Halles in Paris, Kowloon City in Hong Kong and the Maupoleum in Amsterdam, for instance, revealed the gap between the perception ofthe world of activities full of history and the spatial differentiation associated with it.

Because of this need for proximity, whichcan be called the essence of the city, both its population and the number of its functions increased. Growth in combination with a quest for safety and security automatically led to density, because growthhad to occur within the city walls, which formed the unnatural and inflexible limits of the city. Building higher and deeperbecame necessary, and this made the urban tissue grow gradually denser. Both operations meant the automatic loss ofcertain qualities, but at the same time they produced a higher level of mutual proximity for urban activities, greater urban dynamism and more efficient use of land. The open spaces in the cities came to be allocated according to the needs of their various subcultures. This resulted in ingenious spatial systems of public and collective spaces in which the encounter of the different subcultures led to synergy: theurban potential.

proximity the paradox of space in density is the secret of prosperous cities.

soho city, bejing

It serves as a neutralization and compensation for the inevitable loss of (natural) qualities engendered by density. This might identify the secret to a lively city, but it falls far short of explicating it. In order to design new cities with similar qualities, we have to conduct observations, typological explorations and fundamental research in historic cities. For much implicit know-how about how the miracle of density works is stored there, the product of centuries of intensive use of space. This does not mean we should succumb to the temptation of copying the objects of our study. Indeed, this is probably impossible. Our model cities, after all, were not designed to begin with. Their density, andwith it their spatial layeredness, evolved in an almost organic way. They grew out of the human drive toward society, prosperity and diversion.

lucca

cities full of space 15

200

1200

1650

inwoners
18 16 14 12 inwoners*1.000.000 10 inwoners 8 6 4 2 0 18 18 16 16 14 14 12 inwoners*1.000.000 inwoners*1.000.000 number*1.000.000 12 10
inwoners*1.000.000 aantal*1.000.000 inwoners*1.000.000

16

11

inwoners
1900

inwoners 1950 inwoners

jaar 16

2000

18 18 18 16 16 16 14 14 14 12 12 12 10 10 10 8 8 8 6 6 6 4 4 4 2 2 2 0 0 0 5 5 5 5
5

halvering woningbezetting inwoners

16 16 16 16

11 11 11 1111

10 8 6 4 2 0 8 6 4 2 0

inwoners inwoners inwoners

inwoners

inwoners woningen

40

6,5

x4

1900

1900 1900 1900 1

1950 jaar 1950

2,5

2000 2000 2000

2000 2000 2000

jaar halvering woningbezetting 1950

18 18 16 16 14 14 12 aantal*1.000.000 aantal*1.000.000 number*1.000.000 18

18 80 16 16 70 14 14 12 60 12 10 50 10 8 8 6 6 4 4 2

1900

1 9 19 0 000

halvering 19woningbezetting 501950

1950

jaar

inhabitants halvering woningbezetting verdubbeling woningoppervlak

halvering woningbezetting
11 11 11
11 16

jaar jaar

16 16 16 72

72 16 4 x4

12 10 10 8 6 4 2 0

60

aantal*1.000.000 aantal*1.000.000 m aantal*1.000.000

8 6 4 2 0

6,5 6,5

1950

5 40 5 5
5

35 2,5 1 1 1900 1
1 6,5

6,5

inwoners woningen inwoners woningen inwoners woningen inwoners inwoners woningen woningen m2/woning

30

2,5 2,5 11 1950 jaar 1950

2,5

20

16

2000 2006,5 0

2 10 0 0 0

1900 1 1900 1900

jaar 2,5 verdubbeling woningoppervlak 1950

1950

80

1900 1900

halving of dwelling occupancy

verdubbeling 1950woningoppervlak 1950
jaar jaar

jaar

20002000
2000 2000

89

80 70

verdubbeling woningoppervlak

72 72 72
72

39 13

80

verdubbeling woningoppervlak netto vierkante meters

60 60 60
60

x3
m2 m m number*1.000.000 aantal*1.000.000

m aantal*1.000.000 m aantal*1.000.000 aantal*1.000.000 aantal*1.000.000

1990

70 700 60 80 70 60 50 70 600 60 50 40 60 500 50 40 30 50 40 400 30 20 40 30 300 20 10 30 20 10 200 0 20 10 0 100 10 0

00

620

35 35 35
35

16 11 16 2,5 11
11

inwoners woningen inwoners m2/woning woningen inwoners m2/woning woningen inwoners inwoners m2/woning woningen woningen m2/woning m2/woning netto m 6,5 16 6,5 2000 6,5

5 5 5
5

11 1 1 190 0 19001 1900 1900 1 1 40

176
16

2,5 1950 2,5 1950 1950 jaar 60

195

700

190 0 1 900

netto vierkante meters doubling of dwelling size

11

35

jaar 2,5 2,5 1950 jaar

2000 6,5 2000

16 6,5 2000
2000 2000

72

netto vierkante meters 195019 50

jaar jaar

108 36

x3
m2 m m number*1.000.000 aantal*1.000.000

700 600 700

netto vierkante meters

netto vierkante meters

620 620 620

620

600 700 500 600

m aantal*1.000.000 m aantal*1.000.000 aantal*1.000.000

2050

500 600 400 500 inwoners woningen inwoners m2/woning woningen netto m inwoners m2/woning woningen netto m inwoners m2/woning woningennetto m m2/woning netto m 72 16 16 16
6,5 2000

400 500 400

300

people per dwelling (m2)

number of m2 in dwelling per person

footprint of city and stacking per inhabitant

300 400 300 176 176 60 11 11 11 2,5 60 60

176

200

200 300 200 35 5 5 5

5 1

100

100 200 0 100 0 100 0

0

40 40 35 40

176 6,5

72 72

increase in use of space per person in the netherlands

1900
1 1900 1900 1

35

1950
2,51950
2,5

35 1900

net square metres

40 11

jaar 195060 2,5

2000
6,52000
72 6,5 2000

jaar 1950 jaar

16

2000

total necessary housing surface area has increased by a factor of 16

jaar

1900

1950

16 a city full of spaces

1900

2000

2020

the leiden region underwent explosive growth during the twentieth century (source: limes atlas). right, the expected space requirements in 2020

explosion of the city: politicsand urgency

Motivations for densification are no longer found in the city itself. Protective defence structures (fortified ramparts) have long since lost their function. Under the influence of more intensive mobility, technology and the declining economic importance of the surrounding agricultural lands, the boundary between city and landscape has become diffuse. New freedoms and possibilities have resulted in an erosion of the contemporary city and of the urban potential.

simply put, half as many people live in homes three times as large as a century ago. when, on top of that, these homes are situated on twice 200 200 asmuch land, this produces 180 180 2 3 2 = 12. 160 160
140 140

Amsterdam, for instance, grew from 15 km2 to 200 km2 over the last 100 years, while its population grew by a mere 50 per cent (from 500,000 to 750,000 inhabitants). Haddensity remained constant, 22.5 km2 would have sufficed. The figures in the illustration below clearly show that per capita use of space, directly or indirectly, is responsible for an expansion of the urban area by a factor of 6.

the cities of the netherlands have undergone explosive growth and have spilled over an enormous amount of space.

Finally, the population of the Netherlands 120 120 has increased substantially. Whereas a little 100 100 80 80 more than six million people lived in this 60 country at the start of the twentieth century, 60 m rental m2 huur 40 40 the Dutch now number 16 million. All this m owner m2 koop occ 20 total totaal means the use of space increased by a factor 20 m /occupant m2 per bewoner 0 0 of 32 during the past century, explaining 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2005 the evolution of cartographic data for the content and dwelling occupancy of new-build housing Inhoud en woningbezetting van nieuwbouwwoningen bron: CBS (source: cbs, leiden) Netherlands over the last 100 years.
2 2 2

1900

2000

70%

50%

a century ago: 5 people per dwelling short cross sections, limited view (unilateral orientation), shallow dwellings on narrow streets

today: 2.3 people per dwelling long cross sections, open views (bilateral orientation), deeper dwellings on broader streets

cities full of space 17