MDSP 805 Understanding Power Industry New

PhD
Course Code: MDSP-805

Course Name: Understanding Power Industry
CENTRE FOR CONTINUING EDUCATION (CCE)
Contents
Part-1 Power Generation
Unit 1 Power Scenario in India .................................................................................. 3
Unit 2 Power Demand ............................................................................................... 13
Part-2 Power Transmission
Unit 3 Overview of Power Transmission Structure ................................................ 25
Unit 4 HVDC.............................................................................................................. 81
Part-3 Power Distribution
Unit 5 Distribution Systems ..................................................................................... 99
Unit 6 Metering, Billing and Revenue Collection ................................................. 113
Understanding Power Industry
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
UNIT 1 Power Scenario in India
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
The electricity sector in India is predominantly controlled
by the Government of Indias public sector undertakings
(PSUs). Major PSUs involved in the generation of electricity
include National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC),
National Hydroelectric Power Corporation (NHPC) and
Nuclear Power Corporation of India (NPCI). Besides PSUs,
several state-level corporations, such as Maharashtra State
Electricity Board (MSEB), are also involved in the generation
and intra-state distribution of electricity. The PowerGrid
Corporation of India is responsible for the inter-state
transmission of electricity and the development of national
grid.
The Ministry of Power is the apex body responsible for the
development of electrical energy in India. This ministry
started functioning independently from 2 July, 1992; earlier,
it was known as the Ministry of Energy. The Union Minister
of Power at present is Sushilkumar Shinde of the Congress
Party who took charge of the ministry on the 28th of May,
2009.
India is worlds 6th largest energy consumer, accounting for
3.4% of global energy consumption. Due to Indias economic
rise, the demand for energy has grown at an average of 3.6%
per annum over the past 30 years. In March 2009, the installed
power generation capacity of India stood at 147,000 MW while
the per capita power consumption stood at 612 kWH. The
Objectives
After reading this unit you will be able to:
Know present sector-wise generation of power
Learn the Power Sector Strategies
Understand Restructuring of Power Sector & steps
Unit 1
Power Scenario in India
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
countrys annual power production increased from about 190
billion kWH in 1986 to more than 680 billion kWH in 2006.
The Indian government has set an ambitious target to add
approximately 78,000 MW of installed generation capacity
by 2012. The total demand for electricity in India is expected
to cross 950,000 MW by 2030.
About 75% of the electricity consumed in India is generated
by thermal power plants, 21% by hydroelectric power plants
and 4% by nuclear power plants. More than 50% of Indias
commercial energy demand is met through the countrys vast
coal reserves. The country has also invested heavily in recent
years on renewable sources of energy such as wind energy.
As of 2008, Indias installed wind power generation capacity
stood at 9,655 MW. Additionally, India has committed
massive amount of funds for the construction of various
nuclear reactors which would generate at least 30,000 MW.
In July 2009, India unveiled a $19 billion plan to produce
20,000 MW of solar power by 2020.
Electricity losses in India during transmission and
distribution are extremely high and vary between 30 to 45%.
In 2004-05, electricity demand outstripped supply by 7-11%.
Due to shortage of electricity, power cuts are common
throughout India and this has adversely effected the
countrys economic growth. Theft of electricity, common in
most parts of urban India, amounts to 1.5% of Indias GDP.
Despite an ambitious rural electrification program, some 400
million Indians lose electricity access during blackouts.
While 80 percent of Indian villages have at least an electricity
line, just 44 percent of rural households have access to
electricity. According to a sample of 97,882 households in
2002, electricity was the main source of lighting for 53% of
rural households compared to 36% in 1993. Multi Commodity
Exchange has sought permission to offer electricity future
markets.
Shortage level is 13.8% for peak demand and 10% for base
demand. The 16th Indian Electricity Power survey estimates
a capacity addition requirement of 80,000 MW by the end of
the Eleventh Five Year Plan.
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
The major reasons for the inadequate, erratic and unreliable
power supply are
1. Inadequate power generation capacity
2. Lack of optimum utilization of the existing capacity.
3. Inadequate inter-regional transmission links
4. Inefficient use of electricity by the end consumers
5. Slow pace of rural electrification
All India installed capacity (in MW) of power stations located
on the main land and on islands expressed in terms of
territorial regions/various energy sources as on 28.02.2010,
is as per the given table.

Future Power Generation
Plan
The Govt of India, Ministry of Power has taken a realistic
view on the demand requirement and set itself a target of
installing around 80000 MW capacity required to be added
by the end of the XIth Five Year Plan. The capacity shall be
further augmented by 125000GW in 12
th
5 year plan.
Fuel
Large coal reserves of the country which are expected to last
for more than 150 years provide a ready and economical
resource and energy security. Hence coal has been identified
as the mainstay fuel for power generation. Special emphasis
has been laid to encourage setting up of large Mega Sized projects
at the coal pit head to avoid high costs associated with the
transportation of high ash bearing Indian coal and overstraining
the already overloaded Rail Networks of the country.
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Funds
It is estimated that building over 100,000 MW of additional
power capacity and associated transmission & distribution
Infrastructure would require an investment of more than
USD 200 billion. The Govt of India is seriously looking at
long term solutions to attract investments in the sector and
have taken large scale reforms at the Federal level and the
Provincial levels for prompt and efficient revenue collection
from all the electricity consumers to provide the necessary
comfort to the investors.
Transmission facility
Further, to solve the inter-grid transfer of power, plans have
been approved by Govt of India for construction of 37,500
MW interregional capability, through the formation of
National Power Grid. This would improve reliability, quality
and economics of power and provide some stability to the
generation units. The Govt. has also permitted private
investments in the transmission projects in the country.
Power Trading
It has also created a Power Trading Corporation which is
supposed to source, buy and transmit the surplus power from
one area / Region to another and act as a payment security
mechanism for inter-regional sale of power. This corporation
has started its activities and has been trading the power from
the currently surplus Eastern Grid to the other deficit areas.
The corporation is actively discussing with various Electricity
Boards and power Distribution Companies to identify their
demand pattern on the one hand, and discussing with the
potential mega Power projects for the supply of Power, on
the other hand. Power trading and power distribution has
also been opened up to private parties.
Mega Power Project
The Govt. of India has announced the Ultra Mega Power
Project policy for thermal power projects of more than 4000
MW which could be located at the coal pit head and would
supply power to more then one state. The policy permits the
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
import of plant and equipment for the project, duty free, to
get the tariff at the international level. The power tariff for
such projects works out to be less then Rs 3/ Kwh, which is
comparable to the international level. Indias power sector
is growing at an annual growth rate of 5 - 8%.
Electricity Generation and Supply Act
The Electricity supply Industry is presently governed by
three enactments, namely,
The Indian Electricity Act, 1910
The Electricity Supply Act, 1948
The Electricity Regulatory Commission Act, 1998 and The
Electricity Act, 2003.
The Indian Electricity Act 1910 created the basic framework
for these electric supply industries in India which was then
in its infancy. The Act envisaged growth of electricity
generation through private licensees. Accordingly, it
provided for licensees who could supply electricity in a
specified area. The Electricity (Supply) Act 1948, mandated
the creation of state Electricity Boards with responsibility
of arranging the supply of electricity in the state. It was felt
that electrification which was limited to cities needed to be
extended rapidly and the states should step in to shoulder
this responsibility through the respective state Electricity
Boards (SEBs). Accordingly, the SEBs through the successive
Five Year Plans undertook the rapid growth and expansion
by utilizing the plan funds of Govt. of India.
With the policy of encouraging private sector participation
in generation, transmission and distribution and the
objective of distancing the regulatory commission, and the
need for harmonising and rationalising the provisions in the
Indian Electricity Act 1910, the Electricity (supply) Act 1948
and the Electricity Regulatory Commission Act 1998, a new
legislation has now been enacted: the Electricity Act, 2003.
The main provisions of Electricity Act 2003 are:
1. Generation shall be delicensed and captive generation
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
would be permitted. Large capacity coal based plants
would be encouraged.
2. Transmission would be handled by a Central Govt
owned Transmission Utility. However private
participation through transmission licensees would be
encouraged.
3. There would be open access in transmission with
provision for the surcharge for taking care of cross
subsidy which would be gradually phased out.
4. Distribution licensees would be free to undertake
generation, and generating companies likewise would
be free to take up distribution.
5. Trading of power shall be identified as a separate
activity related to the interstate / inter grid transfer.
6. Where there is direct commercial relationship between
a consumer and a generating company or a power trading
company, the price of power would not be regulated and
only the transmission & wheeling charges (with the
surcharge) would be regulated.
This Act is now being implemented progressively by all the
state governments.
Power Sector - Proposed Strategies
1. Separation of Generation, Transmission & Distribution
Organization along with responsibility of the respective
functions.
2. Encourage Fast track coal (thermal) and gas based power
projects.
3. Increase generation by hydro and nuclear power plants
for mid range planning.
4. Formation of National Grid and Regional Grids The
Power Grid Corporation Ltd. (PGCL) was established
in 1989 at national Level for formation of a national
transmission network with responsibility of transmission.
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
NTPC was relieved of the responsibility of transmission.
Hierarchical levels at national, regional, state and city
levels were identified for transmission and distribution
of electrical energy.
5. Load side management for better utilization of existing
capacity, and handling peak demand by adopting load
side management (peak shaving, load shaping, load
shifting distribution management.
6. Improved Power Factor, reduction of losses and better
voltage control and reducing peak MVA demand by
installing shunt capacitors in distribution system.
7. Reforms in Energy & Power Sector. The Energy sector
as a whole, including the power sector was opened to
private sector and joint sector. Investments from
multinational power companies were encouraged.
Competition has been introduced by bringing in private
sector, in an effort to boost efficiency and productivity.
8. To improve Plant Load Factors from 50-60% to 75-80%.
9. To use energy efficient plant and equipment.
Modernization projects for power generating plants and
power consuming plants have been sanctioned.
10. Develop Non-conventional energy technologies for
augmenting the power supply and conserving the
conventional raw energy forms while reducing pollution:
uplift of rural areas.
11. Encourage Human Resource Development (HRD) in
energy sector.
12. Encourage Research & Development in the energy
sector.
13. Accelerate gas based projects for quick increase in
installed capacity. Encourage use of naphtha for power
generation.
14. Develop modern coal gasification technologies.
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Reform efforts and privatisation
1. Since liberalisation in 1992, both the Central and State
governments have sought to increase the quantum of
private sector participation, specially in power sector.
2. Initially, the focus of the reform has been on encouraging
private participation in generation. Most of the projects,
however, could not achieve financial closure.
3. Private investors and lenders were wary of supporting
power projects that have to rely exclusively on
financially weak SEBs for evacuating their power.
Hence, the state governments gradually shifted the focus of
their efforts to areas such as SEBs, reform and regulation,
while the Central Government has been focusing on the areas
of regulation, transmission, privatization and power trading
companies.
Institutional Structure of Indian Power Sector is given in
Figure 1 & 2.
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________

UNIT 2 Power Demand
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
The load demand on a power system is governed by
consumption patterns, which vary within wide limits. The
variation of load can be considered as daily, weekly, monthly
or yearly.
The maximum power demand can be estimated from load
duration curve, which indicates for how many hours a certain
load has been required in the course of the day. The figure
below shows the construction of load duration curve using
daily load curve. The area under the load duration curve
represent the total energy required during the day. It is
usually divided in three parts:
1. Base Load
2. Intermediate Load
3. Peak Load
Objectives
After reading this unit you will be able to:
Know various types of loads & its effect on the system
Understand various terms used regarding operation & utilization
of Power System
Unit 2
Power Demand
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
The base load is the load below which the demand never falls
and is supplied for 100% of the time. The peak load occurs
for about 15 - 20% of the time. The intermediate load
represents the remaining region. The daily load curves of
one week can be superimposed, thereby generating the week
load curve.
Since, peaking load on plants are only for small fraction of
the total time, the fuel cost is not of major importance.
Minimum capital cost should be the criteria. The base load
plants being loaded heavily, operating costs of such plants
are important.
The variable load problem affects power plant design and
operation as well as the cost of generation. A careful study
of the load duration curve helps to decide capacity of the
base load plant and also of the peak load plant. The base
load plant should be run at high load factor. The peak load
plant should be of smaller capacity to reduce the cost of
generation. It could be a gas turbine unit, pumped hydro-
system, compressed air energy storage system or a diesel
engine, depending on the size and scope of availability. If
the whole of load is to be supplied by the same power plant,
then the prime movers and generators should act fairly
quickly and take up or shed load without variation of the
voltage or frequency of the system. It is the function of the
governor to control the supply of fuel to the prime mover
according to load. The capacity of the generators should be
so chosen as to suit and fit into the portions of the predicted
load curve. If the load conditions differ too much from this
capacity, the cost of energy increases.
When planning a power plant, the two basic parameters to
be decided are:
1. Total power output to be installed
2. Size of the generating units
The total installed capacity required can be determined from:
1. First demand estimated
2. Growth of demand anticipated
3. Reserve capacity required
UNIT 2 Power Demand
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
The size of generating units will depend on:
1. Variation of load (load curve) during 24 hours (summer,
winter, week-days, holidays)
2. Total capacity start-up and shut-down periods of the
units
3. Maintenance programme planned
4. Plant efficiency vs. size of unit
5. Price and space demand per kW vs. size of unit
Effect of Variable load on Power Plant Design: The
characteristics and method of use of a power plant s
equipment is largely influenced by the extent of variable load
on the plan. Supposing the load on the plant increases. This
will reduce the rotational speed of the turbo-generator. The
governor will come into action, operating a steam valve to
admit more steam and increase the turbine speed to bring it
up to its normal value. This increased amount of steam will
have to be supplied by the steam generator. The governing
response, however, will be somewhat slower.
The reason is explained below:
In most automatic combustion control systems, steam
pressure variation is the primary signal used. The steam
generator must operate with imbalance between heat
transfer and steam demand long enough to suffer a slight
but definite decrease in steam pressure. The automatic
combustion controller must then increase fuel, air and water
flow in the proper amount. This will affect the operation of
practically every component of auxiliary equipment in the
plant. Thus, there is a certain time lag element present even
in an combustion efficient design, but in general, they are
quick to cope with the variable load demand.
Variable load results in fluctuating steam demand. Due to
this, it becomes very difficult to secure good combustion since
efficient combustion requires the co-ordination of so many
various services. Efficient combustion is readily attained
under conditions where a steady head of steam is allowed to
be maintained. In diesel and hydro power plants, the total
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
governing response is prompt, since control is needed only
for the prime mover.
The variable load requirements also modify the operating
characteristics built into equipment. Due to non-steady load
on the plant, the equipment cannot operate at the designed
load points. Hence for the equipment, a flat-topped load
efficiency curve is more desirable than a peaked one.
Regarding the plant units, if their number and sizes have
been selected to fit a known or a correctly predicted load
curve, then, it may be possible to operate them at or near
the point of maximum efficiency. However, to follow the
variable load curve very closely, the total plant capacity has
usually to be sub-divided into several power units of different
sizes. Sometimes, the total plant capacity would more nearly
coincide with the variable load curve, if more units of smaller
unit size are employed than a few units of bigger unit size.
Also, it will be possible to load the smaller units somewhere
near their most efficient operating pints. However, it must
be kept in mind that as the unit size decreases, the initial
cost per kW of capacity increases.
Again, duplicate units may not fit the load curve as closely
as units of unequal capacities. However, if identical units
are installed, there is a saving in the first cost, because of
the duplication of sizes, dimensions of pipes, foundations,
wires insulators, etc., and also because spare parts required
are less.
Effect of variable load on Power Plant Operation: In
addition to the effect of variable load on power design, the
variable load conditions impose operation problems also,
when the power plant is commissioned. Even though the
availability for service of the modern central power plants
is very high, usually more than 95%, the public utility plants
commonly remain on the "readiness-to-service". This capacity
is called "spinning reserve" and represents the equipment
standby at normal operating conditions of pressure, speed,
etc. Normally, the spinning reserve should be at least equal
to the largest unit actively carrying load. This will increase
the cost of electric generation per unit (kWh).
UNIT 2 Power Demand
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
In a steam power plant, the variable load on electric
generator ultimately gets reflected on the variable steam
demand on the steam generator and on various other
equipments. The operating characteristics of such
equipments are not linear with load, so their operation
becomes quite complicated.
As the load on electrical supply systems grow, a number of
power plants are interconnected to meet the load. The load
is divided among various power plants to achieve the utmost
economy in the whole system. When the system consists of
one base load plant and one or more peak load plants, the
load in excess of base load plant capacity is dispatched to
the best peak system, all of which are nearly equally efficient.
The best load distribution needs thorough study and full
knowledge of the system.
Co-ordination Base load and Peak load Power Plants: If the
load represented by figure is to be supplied from one power
plant only, then the installed capacity of the plant should be
equal to the peak load. Such a plant will be uneconomical
since the peak load occurs only for a short period in a year
and therefore the capacity equal to the difference of peak
load and base load will remain idle for the major part of the
year. Hence such a demand for power would not be met by a
single power station. There would be some stations supplying
the base load and others, possibly of different type, supplying
the peak load.
One method of meeting this varying load demand is to co-
ordinate the operation of hydro and steam stations. The
steam plant capacity and the available water power energy
are fitted into the load curve. Peak load demand can be
conveniently met by hydro-stations, the base load being
supplied by the steam power plants. A hydro-station can be
started up quickly at any time to meet a sudden emergency.
Also the load on a hydro-station can be reduced more quickly
than is possible with steam plant. There are two methods
for utilizing the hydro-electric power for supplying the peak
load:
1. By storing the natural run-off from a catchment area
during hours of light load and employing the water to
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
operate the station at full capacity during periods of
peak demand.
2. Pumped storage system. In this the water is pumped
into a high level reservoir at off-peak periods, and is
utilized to drive the turbines and generators at the time
of peak demand.
Peak load can also be supplied by diesel engine power plant
and gas turbine power plants. Base load stations operate
almost continuously, i.e., at a load factor of about 80%. They
are shut down only for small periods for maintenance and
overhaul. The load factor of peak load plants is very low,
normally 5 to 15%, since they operate only for a small period
in a day, week, month or a year. As already discussed, the
cost of supplying the electric energy may be divided into two
parts:
a. Fixed cost, which mainly consists of the interest on the
capital cost and depreciation. It is independent of the
amount of electric energy actually supplied. It is
however, approximately proportional to the capacity of
plant installed, i.e., proportional to kW.
b. Running cost, which depends upon the actual energy
generated, i.e., it is proportional to the kWh.
Since electric power plants are very expensive to install, it
is desirable and even essential to generate as much energy
as possible in order to spread the fixed cost over the highest
possible number of units (kWh) supplied. Therefore the plants
should run at a high load factor, which will result in
minimising the cost per unit. If the plant is idle for most of
the period, it will generate only a small number of units and
hence the fixed charges will have to be spread over a smaller
number of units, resulting in high cost per unit supplied.
Therefore, the load factor has a very important effect on the
cost of the electric energy supplied from a power plant.
Hence, while base loads are cheaper to supply, peak load
units are expensive to produce. A base load power station
should have the highest possible efficiency. For peak load
UNIT 2 Power Demand
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
plants, since the units to be generated are small, efficiency
is not of much importance. Of course, the capital cost should
be minimum since it is to be distributed over the small
number of units supplied or generated. Since a peak load
plant may have to be started once or perhaps twice in a day
and possibly for some unexpected emergency condition, it
should be capable of quick starting and quick load pick up.
Significance of Various Factors
1. Load Factor: High load factor is a desirable quality.
Higher load factor means greater average load, resulting
in greater number of power units generated for a given
maximum demand. Thus, the fixed cost, which is
proportional to the maximum demand, can be
distributed over a greater number of units (kWh)
supplied. This will lower the overall cost of the supply
of electric energy.
2. Diversity Factor: High diversity factor (which is always
greater than unity) is also a desirable quality. With a
given number of consumers, higher the value of diversity
factor, lower will be the maximum demand on the plant,
since
group total the of demand Maximum
demands maximum individual the of Sum
= factor Diversity
The capacity of the plant will, therefore, be smaller,
resulting in fixed charges.
3. Plant Capacity Factor: Since the load and diversity
factors are not involved with 'reserve capacity' of the
power plant, a factor is needed which will measure the
reserve, likewise the degree of utilization of the installed
equipment. For this, the factor "Plant factor, Capacity
factor or Plant Capacity factor" is defined as
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Thus, the annual plant capacity factor will be
The difference between load and capacity factors is an

indication of reserve capacity.
4. Plant use factor: This is a modification of Plant Capacity
factor in that only the actual number of hours that the
plant was in operation are used. Thus, Annual Plant Use
factor is
The Power Plant capacity study needs understanding of

following related terms:
1. Load Factor: It is defined as the ratio of the average
load to the peak load during a certain prescribed period
of time. The load factor of a power plant should be high
so that the total capacity of the plant is utilized for the
maximum period that will result in lower per unit cost
of the electricity being generated.
2. Utility Factor: It is the ratio of the units of electricity
generated per year to the capacity of the plant installed
in the station. It can also be defined as the ratio of
maximum demand of a plant to the rated capacity of the
plant. Supposing the rated capacity of a plant is 200 MW.
If the maximum load on the plant is 100 MW at load
factor of 80%, then the utility will be = (100x0.8)/200 x
100 = 40%
3. Plant Operating Factor: It is the ratio of the duration
during which the plant is in actual service, to the total
duration of the period of time considered.
4. Capacity Factor: It is the ratio of the average load on
a machine or equipment to the rating of the machine or
equipment, for a certain period of time considered.
5. Demand Factor: The actual maximum demand of a
consumer is always less than his connected load since
UNIT 2 Power Demand
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
all the appliances in his residence will not be in
operation at the same time or to their fullest extent.
This ratio of the maximum demand of a system to its
connected load is termed as demand factor.
6. Load Curve: It is a curve showing the variation of power
with time. It shows the value of a specific load for each
unit of the period covered. The unit of time considered
may be hours, days, weeks, months or years.
7. Firm Power: It is the power which should always be
available even under emergency conditions.
8. Prime Power: It is Power, be it mechanical, hydraulic
or thermal, that is always available for conversion into
electric power.
9. Reserve: It is that reserve generating capacity which is
in operation but not in service.
10. Spinning reserve: It is that reserve generating capacity
which is connected to the bus and is ready to take the
load.
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
UNIT 3 Overview of Power Transmission Structure
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Growth of Power Systems in India
India is fairly rich in natural resources like coal and lignite;
while some oil reserves have been discovered so far, intense
exploration is being undertaken in various regions of the
country. India has immense water power resources also; of
which only around 20% have so far been utilised, i.e., only
36800 MW has so far been commissioned up to 2010. As per a
recent report of the CEA, the total feasible potential of hydro
power is 148000. As regards nuclear power, India is deficient
in uranium, but has rich deposits of thorium which can be
utilised at a future date in fast breeder reactors. Since
independence, the country has made tremendous progress
in the development of electric energy and today it has the
largest system among the developing countries.
When India attained independence, the installed capacity
was as low as 1900 MW. In the early stages of the growth of
power system, the major portion of generation was through
thermal stations. But due to economical reasons, hydro
development received attention in areas like Kerala, Tamil
Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab.
Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to:
Get an overview of power systems in India
Understand the problems Indian power sector is facing
Get a technical overview of Power Transmission
Unit 3
Overview of Power
Transmission Structure
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
In the beginning of the First Five Year Plan (1951-56), the
total installed capacity was around 2300 MW (560 MW
hydro, 1004 MW thermal, 149 MW through oil stations and
587 MW through non-utilities). For transporting this power
to the load centers, transmission lines of up to 110 KV
voltage level were constructed. The emphasis during the
Second Plan (1956-61) was on the development of basic and
heavy industries and thus there was a need to step up
power generation. The total installed capacity which was
around 3420 MW at the end of the First Five Year Plan
became 5700 MW at the end of the Second Five Year Plan.
The introduction of 230 KV transmission voltage came up
in Tamil Nadu and Punjab. During this Plan, totally about
1009 circuit kilometres were energized. In 1965- 66, the
total installed capacity was increased to 10,170 MW. During
the Third Five Year Plan (1961-66) transmission growth
took place very rapidly, with a nine-fold expansion in
voltage level below 66 KV. Emphasis was on rural
electrification. A significant development in this phase was
the emergence of an interstate grid system. The country
was divided into five regions, each with a regional
electricity board, to promote integrated operation of the
constituent power systems. Figure 1 shows these five
regions of the country with projected installed capacity in
MW for the year 1989-90. During the Fourth Five Year
Plan, India started generating nuclear power. At the
Tarapur Nuclear Plant 2 x 210 MW units were
commissioned in April-May 1969. This station uses two
boiling water reactors of American design.
By August 1972, the first unit of 220 MW of the Rajasthan
Atomic Power Project, Kota (Rajasthan), was added to the
nuclear generating capability. The total generating capacity
at Kota is 430 MW with nuclear reactors of Canadian design
which use natural uranium as fuel and heavy water as a
moderator and coolant. The third nuclear power station of 2
x 235 MW has been commissioned at Kalpakkam (Tamil
Nadu). This is the first nuclear station to be completely
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
designed, engineered and constructed by Indian scientists
and engineers. A reactor research centre has been set up
near the Madras Atomic Power Station to carry out study in
fast breeder reactor technology. The fourth nuclear power
plant has been set up at Narora in Uttar Pradesh. It has two
units of 235 MW each. The fifth will be in Kaiga in Karnataka
and sixth in Gujarat near Surat.

Inter regional Link MW capacity
NER-ER 1,250
ER-NR 3,650
ER-SR 1,150
ER-WR 1,850
SR-WR 1,700
WR-NR 2300
Other 132 KV Links 200
Talcher Kolar HVDC Bipole 2,500
Total as on date 14,600
Target for 2012 37,700

Fig. 1: Electrical Regions of India
To be self-sufficient in power, BHEL has plants spread
out allover the country and these turn out an entire range
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
of power equipment, viz. turbo sets, hydro sets, turbines
for nucl ear pl ants, high pressure boi lers, power
transformers, switch gears, etc. Each plant specializes in
a range of equipment. BHEL' s first 500 MW turbo-
generator has been commissioned at Singrauli. Today
BHEL is considered among the top ten manufacturers in
the world with an annual production capacity to be soon
touching 10, 000MW.
Problems Facing Indian Power Industry and its Choices
The electricity requirements of India have grown
tremendously and the demand has been running ahead of
supply. Electricity generation and transmission processes
in India are very inefficient in comparison with those of some
advanced countries. Generating capacity is utilised is very
poor as compared to other developed countries. If the
utilization factor could be increased, it should be possible to
avoid power cuts. The transmission loss in 2009 on a national
basis was 32%, consisting of both technical losses in
transmission lines and transformers, and also nontechnical
losses caused by energy thefts and meters not being read. It
should be possible to achieve considerable saving by reducing
this loss to 15% by the end of the Eighth Five Year Plan by
using well known ways and means and by adopting sound
commercial practices. Further, every attempt should be made
to improve system load factors by flattening the load curve,
by giving proper tariff incentives and taking other
administrative measures.
As per the Central Electricity Authority's (CEA) fourteenth
annual report, the all India load factor likely to prevail by
2012 is 84%. By 2012, 100% villages will be. Assuming a very
modest average annual energy growth of 5%, India's electrical
energy requirement in the year 2012 will be enormously high.
A difficult and challenging task of planning, engineering and
constructing new power stations is imminent to meet this
situation. The government has built several super thermal
stations such as at Singrauli (Uttar Pradesh), Farakka (West
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Bengal), Korba (Madhya Pradesh), Ramagundam (Andhra
Pradesh) and Neyveli (Tamil Nadu), all in coal mining areas,
each with a capacity in the range of 2000 MW. Many more
super thermal plants would be built in future. Intensive work
must be conducted on boiler furnaces to burn coal with high
ash content. National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC)
is in charge of these large scale generation projects.
Also the concept of UMPP (ultra Mega power Project) has
been implemented with capacity 4000MW and above working
on supercritical technology and unit size in excess of 660MW.
TATA power, Reliance are the major private players that
has entered into this field in a big way.
Hydro power will continue to remain cheaper than other
types for the next decade. As mentioned earlier, India has
so far developed only around 25% of its estimated total hydro
potential of 148000 MW. The utilization of this perennial
source of energy would involve massive investments in dams,
channels and generation-transmission system. The Central
Electricity Authority, the Planning Commission and the
Ministry of Energy are coordinating to work out a perspective
plan to develop all hydroelectric sources by the end of this
century, to be executed by the National Hydro Power
Corporation (NHPC).
Nuclear energy assumes special significance in energy
planning in India. Because of the limited coal reserves and
its poor quality, India has no choice but to keep going on
with its nuclear energy plans. According to the Atomic Energy
Commission, India's nuclear power generation will increase
to 20000 MW by year 2020 and 63000MW by 2032. Everything
seems to be set for a take off in nuclear power production
using the country's thorium reserves in breeder reactors. In
India, concerted efforts to develop solar energy and other
non-conventional sources of energy need to be emphasized,
so that the growing demand can be met and depleting fossil
fuel resources may be conserved. To meet the energy
requirement, it is expected that the coal production will have
to be increased considerably to meet the growing demand.
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
A number of 400 kV lines are operating successfully as
mentioned already. This is the first step in working towards
a national grid. There is a need in future to go in for even
higher voltages (750/1000 kV).
There is a need for constructing HVDC (High Voltage DC)
links in the country since DC lines can carry considerably
more power at the same voltage and require fewer
conductors. A 400 kV Singrauli Vindhyachal line of 500
MW capacity is the first HVDC back-to-back scheme that
has been commi ssi oned by NPTC ( National Power
Transmission Corporation), followed by first point-to-point
bulk EHVDC transmission of 1500 MW at 500 kV over a
distance of 915 km from Rihand to Delhi. At the time of
writing, the whole energy scenario is so clouded with
uncertainty that it would be unwise to try any quantitative
predictions for the future. However, certain trends that
will decide the future developments of electric power
industry are clear.
Generally, unit size will go further up from 1000 MW. A
higher voltage (765/1200 kV) will come eventually at the
transmission level. There is a little chance for six-phase
transmission becoming popular though there are few such
lines in USA. As the population grows in India, we may see
a trend to go toward underground transmission in urban
areas.
Shortfall in the tenth Plan has been around 55%. There have
been serious power shortages and generation and availability
of power in turn have lagged too much from the industrial,
agricultural and domestic requirements. Because of power
shortages, many of the industries, particularly power-
intensive ones, have installed their own captive power plants.
Currently 12% of the electricity generated in India comes
from the captive power plants and this is bound to go up in
the future. Consortium of industrial consumers should be
encouraged to put up coal-based captive plants. Import
should be liberalized to support this activity.
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
With the ever increasing complexity and growth of power
networks and their economic and integrated operation, it is
planned to establish central automatic load dispatch centers
with real time computer control.
Energy Conservation
Energy conservation is the cheapest new source of energy.
We should resort to various conservation measures such as
cogeneration (discussed earlier), and use energy-efficient
motors to avoid wasteful electricity uses. We can achieve
considerable electric power savings by reducing unnecessary
high lighting levels, oversized motors etc. Everyone should
be taught how consumption levels can be reduced without
any essential lowering of comfort. Rate restructuring can
have incentives in this regard. There is no consciousness on
energy accountability yet and no sense of urgency as in
developed countries.
Load Management
By various "load management" schemes, it is possible to shift
demand away from peak hours. A more direct method would
be the control of the load either through modified tariff
structures that encourage the individual customers to
readjust their own electric use schedules or direct electrical
control of appliances in the form of remote timer controlled
on/off switches with least inconvenience to the customer.
Systems for load management are varied. Ripple control has
been tried in Europe. Remote kWh meter reading by carrier
systems is being tried. Most of the potential for load control
lies in the domestic sector. In USA, power companies are
planning the introduction of system-wide load management
schemes.
Maintenance
Management and plant utilization factors of existing plants
must be improved. Maintenance must be on schedule rather
than an emergency. Maintenance manpower training should
be held on war footing. [PSE, Nagrath & Kothari]
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Structure of Power Systems
Generating stations, transmission lines and the distribution
systems are the main components of an electric power
system. Generating stations and a distribution system are
connected through transmission lines, which also connect
one power system (grid, area) to another. A distribution
system connects all the loads in a particular area to the
transmission lines.
For economical and technological reasons (which will be
discussed in detail in later chapters), individual power
systems are organized in the form of electrically connected
areas or regional grids (also called power pools). Each area
or regional grid operates technically and economically
independently, but these are eventually interconnected to
form a national grid (which may even form an international
grid) so that each area is contractually tied to other areas in
respect to certain generation and scheduling features. India
is now heading for a national grid.
Interconnection has the economic advantage of reducing
the reserve generation capacity in each area. Under
conditions of sudden increase in load or loss of generation in
one area, it is immediately possible to borrow power from
adjoining interconnected areas. Interconnection causes
larger currents to flow on transmission lines under faulty
condition with a consequent increase in capacity of circuit
breakers. Also, the synchronous machines of all
interconnected areas must operate stably and in a
synchronized manner. The disturbance caused by a short
circuit in one area must be rapidly disconnected by circuit
breaker openings before it can seriously affect adjoining
areas. It permits the construction of larger and more
economical generating units and the transmission of large
chunk of power from the generating plants to major load
centres. It provides capacity savings by seasonal exchange
of power between areas having opposing winter and summer
requirements. It permits capacity savings from time zones
of random diversity. It facilitates transmission of off-peak
power. It also gives the flexibility to meet unexpected
emergency loads.
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
The siting of hydro stations is determined by the natural
water power sources. The choice of site for coal fired thermal
stations is more flexible. The following two alternatives are
possible.
1. Power stations may be built close to coal mines (called
pit head stations) and electric energy is evacuated over
transmission lines to the load centres.
2. Power stations may be built close to the load centres
and coal is transported to them from the mines by rail
road.
In practice, however, power station siting will depend upon
many factors---technical, economical and environmental. As
it is considerably cheaper to transport bulk electric energy
over extra high voltage (EHV) transmission lines than to
transport equivalent quantities of coal over rail road, the
recent trend in India is to build super (large) thermal power
stations near coal mines. Bulk power can be transmitted to
fairly long distances over transmission lines of 400 kV and
above. However, the country's coal resources are located
mainly in the eastern belt and some coal fired stations will
continue to be sited in distant western and southern regions.
As nuclear stations are not constrained by the problems of
fuel transport and air pollution, a greater flexibility exists
in their siting. So these stations are located close to load
centres, avoiding high density pollution areas to reduce the
risks, however remote, of radioactivity leakage.
In India, as of now, about 65% of electric power used is
generated in thermal plants (including nuclear). The
remaining 35% comes from hydro stations. Coal is the fuel
for most of the steam plants; the rest depends upon oil/natural
gas and nuclear fuels.
Electric power is generated at a voltage of 11 to 25 kV which
is then stepped up to the transmission levels in the range of
66 to 400 kV (or higher). As the transmission capability of a
line is proportional to the square of its voltage, research is
continuously being carried out to raise transmission voltages.
Some of the countries are already employing 765 kV. The
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
voltages are expected to rise to 1200 kV in the near future.
In India, several 400 kV lines are already in operation.
For very long distances (over 600 km), it is economical to
transmit bulk power by DC transmission. It also obviates
some of the technical problems associated with very long
distance AC transmission. The DC voltages used are 400 kV
and above, and the line is connected to the AC systems at
the two ends through a transformer and converting/inverting
equipment (silicon controlled rectifiers are employed for this
purpose). Several DC transmission lines have been
constructed in Europe and the U.S.A. In India, the first
HVDC transmission line has recently been commissioned
and several others are being planned.
The first step down of voltage from transmission level is at
the bulk power substation, where the reduction is to the
range of 33 to 132 kV, depending on the transmission line
voltage. Some industries may require power at these voltage
levels. This step down is from the transmission and grid
level to subtransmission level.
The next step-down in voltage is at the distribution
substation. Normally, two distribution voltage levels are
employed:
1. The primary or feeder voltage (11 kV)
2. The secondary or consumer voltage (440 V three phase/
230 V single phase).
The distribution system, fed from the distribution
transformer stations, supplies power to the domestic or
industrial and commercial consumers. Thus, the power
system operates at various voltage levels separated by
transformer. Figure 2 depicts schematically the structure of
a power system.
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Figure 2: Schematic diagram depicting power system
structure
Though the distribution system design, planning and
operation are subjects of great importance, we are compelled,
for reasons of space, to exclude them from the scope of this
book except for a short appendix (M) which gives elementary
description of a distribution system. [PSE, Nagrath &
Kothari]
Technical Overview of Transmission Lines
Short transmission lines
For short lines of length 100 Km or less, the total 50 Hz shunt
admittance (jeCl) is small enough to be negligible resulting
in the simple equivalent circuit as shown in figure 3.

Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Figure 3: Simple equivalent circuit
This being a simple series circuit, the relationship between
sending-end receiving-end voltages and currents can be
immediately written as:

The phasor diagram for the short line is shown in Figure 2
for the lagging current case. From this figure we can write

The last term is of negligible order and so,

Expanding Binomially and retaining first order terms, we
get

or,

Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Figure 4: Phasor Diagram for the short line for the lagging
current
Voltage regulation
Voltage regulation of a transmission line is defined as the
rise in voltage at the receiving-end; expressed as percentage
of full load voltage, when full load at a specified power factor
is thrown off, i.e.
Percentage voltage regulation =

Medium Transmission Lines
For lines more than 100km long, charging currents due to
shunt admittance cannot be neglected. For lines in range
100km to 250km length, it is sufficiently accurate to lump all
the line admittance at the receiving-end, resulting in the
equivalent diagram shown in Figure 5

Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Figure 5: Medium line, localized load end capacitance
Starting from fundamental circuit equations, it is fairly
straight forward to write the transmission line equations in
the ABCD constant form given below:

Nominal T Representation
If all the shunt capacitance is lumped at the middle of the
line, it leads to the nominal-T circuit shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6: Medium line nominal T representation

Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
For the nominal T circuit, the following circuit equations can
be written,

Substituting for Vc and Is in the last equation, we get

Rearranging the results , we get

Nominal-t Representation
In this method the total line capacitance is divided into two
equal parts which are lumped at the sending and receiving-
ends resulting in the nominal- t representation as shown in
Figure 7.
Figure 7: Medium line, II representation

Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
The equations for the above circuit are:

Finally we have,

Long Transmission Lines-Rigorous Solution
For lines over 250 km, the fact that the parameters of a line
are not lumped but distributed uniformly throughout its
length must be considered.
Figure 8: Schematic diagram for a long transmission line
Figure 8 shows one phase and the neutral return (of zero
impedance) of a transmission line. Let dx be an elemental
section of the line at a distance x from the receiving-end
having a series impedance zdx and a shunt admittance ydx.
The rise in voltage to neutral over the elemental section in
the direction of increasing x is dVx. We can write the

Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
following differential relationships across the elemental
section,

Differentiating the 1
st
equation we get

and using in the 2
nd
equation we get,

This is a linear differential equation whose general solution
can be written as follows:

where

and C1 & C2 are the constants to be evaluated.
Using the boundary conditions the value of C
1
& C
2
can be
obtained and then substituting them in the original equation
we get,

where Z
c
is the characteristic impedance and is the
propagation constant.

Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
and

Surge Impedance Loading
A line terminated in its characteristic impedance is called
the infinite line. The incident wave under this condition
cannot distinguish between a termination and an infinite
continuation of the line. Power system engineers normally
call Zc the surge impedance. It has a value of about 400
ohms for an overhead line and its phase angle normally varies
from 0o to -15o. For underground cables Zc is roughly one-
tenth of the value for overhead lines. The term surge
impedance is, however, used in connection with surges (due
to lightning or switching) on transmission lines, where the
line loss can be neglected such that,

is a pure resistance.
Surge Impedance Loading (SIL) of a transmission line is
defined as the power delivered by a line to purely resistive
load equal in value to the surge impedance of the line. Thus
for a line having 400 ohms surge impedance,

where

is the line-to-line receiving-end voltage in kV.
Sometimes, it is found convenient to express line loading in
per unit of SIL, i.e. as the ratio of the power transmitted to
surge impedance loading.
Ferranti Effect
The effect of the line capacitance is to cause the no-load
receiving-end voltage to be more than the sending-end
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
voltage. The effect becomes more pronounced as the line
length increases. This phenomenon is known as the Ferranti
effect.
A simple explanation of the Ferranti effect on an approximate
basis can be advanced by lumping the inductance and
capacitance parameters of the line. As shown in Figure 9 the
capacitance is lumped at the receiving-end of the line.
Figure 9: Simple circuit demonstrating the Ferranti effect
Now,

since C is small compared to L, eLl can be neglected in
comparison to 1/ eCl. Thus,

Now,

Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
The magnitude of voltage rise:

where

is the velocity of propagation of the
electromagnetic wave along the line, which is nearly equal
to the velocity of light.
Tuned Power Lines
For an overhead line, shunt conductance G is always
negligible and it is sufficiently accurate to neglect line
resistance R as well. With this approximation,

It simplifies to,

now if

where n = 1, 2, 3..

i.e. the receiving-end voltage and current are numerically
equal to the corresponding sending-end values, so that there
is no voltage drop on load. Such a line is called a tuned line.
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
For 50 Hz , the length of line for tuning is,

is the velocity of light.
Therefore, we have

It is too long a distance of transmission from the point of
view of cost and efficiency (note that line resistance was
neglected in the above analysis). For a given line, length and
frequency tuning can be achieved by increasing L or C, i.e.
by adding series inductances or shunt capacitances at several
places along the line length. The method is impractical and
uneconomical for power frequency lines and is adopted for
telephone lines where higher frequencies are employed. A
method of tuning power lines which is being presently
experimented with, uses series capacitors to cancel the effect
of the line inductance and shunt inductors to neutralize line
capacitance. A long line is divided into several sections which
are individually tuned. However, so far the practical method
of improving line regulation and power transfer capacity is
to add series capacitors to reduce line inductance; shunt
capacitors under heavy load conditions; and shunt inductors
under light or no-load conditions.
Power Flow Through A Transmission Line
So far the transmission line performance equation was
presented in the form of voltage and current relationships
between sending and receiving-ends. Since loads are more
often expressed in terms of real (watts/KW) and reactive
(VARs/kVAR) power, it is convenient to deal with
transmission line equations in the form of sending and
receiving-end complex power and voltages. The principles
involved are illustrated here through a single transmission
line (2-node 2-bus system) as shown in Figure 10,
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Figure 10: Two bus system
Let us take receiving-end voltage as a reference phasor

and let the sending-end voltage lead it
by an angle

. The angle o is known as the
torque angle. The complex power leaving the receiving-end
and entering the sending-end of the transmission line can
be expressed as (on per phase basis),

Receiving and sending-end currents can, however, be
expressed in terms of receiving and sending-end voltages
as,

by solving we get,

Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Similarly,

In the above equations S
R
and S
S
are per phase volt amperes,
while V
R
and V
S
are expressed in per phase volts. [PSE,
Nagrath & Kothari].
Conductor Types
Transmission lines consisting of single solid cylindrical
conductors for forward and return paths are rarely used. To
provide the necessary flexibility for stringing, conductors
used in practice are always stranded except for very small
cross-sectional areas. Stranded conductors are composed of
strands of wires electrically in parallel, with alternate layers
spiraled in opposite direction to prevent unwinding. The total
number of strands (N) in concentrically stranded cables with
total annular space filled with strands of uniform diameter
(d) is given by,
N = 3x
2
3x + 1
Where x is the number of layers wherein, the single central
strand is counted as the first layer. The overall diameter (D)
of a stranded conductor is,
D = (2x 1)d
Aluminium is now the most commonly employed conductor
material. It has the advantages of being cheaper and lighter
than copper though with less conductivity and tensile
strength. Low density and low conductivity result in larger
overall conductor diameter which offers another incidental
advantage in high voltage lines. Increased diameter results
in reduced electrical stress at conductor surface for a given
voltage so that the line is corona free. The low tensile
strength of aluminium conductors is made up by providing
central strands of high tensile strength steel. Such a
conductor is known as aluminium conductor steel reinforced
(ACSR) and is most commonly used in overhead transmission
lines. Figure 3.11 shows the cross-sectional view of an ACSR
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
conductor with 24 strands of aluminium and 7 strands of
steel.
Figure 11: Cross-sectional view of ACSR-7 steel strands, 24
aluminium strands
In extra high voltage (EHV) transmission line, expanded
ACSR conductors are used. These are provided with paper
or hessian between various layers of strands so as to increase
the overall conductor diameter in an attempt to reduce
electrical stress at conductor surface and prevent corona.
The most effective way of constructing corona-free EHV lines
is to provide several conductors per phase in suitable
geometrical configuration. These are known as bundled
conductors and are a common practice now for EHV lines.
Bundled Conductors
It is economical to transmit large chunks of power over long
distances by employing EHV lines. However, the line
voltages that can be used are severely limited by the
phenomenon of corona. Corona, in fact, is the result of
ionization of the atmosphere when certain field intensity
(about 3,000 kV/m at NTP) is reached. Corona discharge
causes communication interference and associated power loss
which can be severe in bad weather conditions. Critical line
voltage for formation of corona can be raised considerably
by the use of bundled conductors i.e., a group of two or more

Aluminium
strands
Steel strands
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
conductors per phase. This increase in critical corona voltage
is dependent on number of conductors in the group, the
clearance between them and the distance between the groups
forming the separate phases. The bundle usually comprises
two, three or four conductors arranged in configurations
illustrated in Fig 12.
Figure 12: Configurations of conductors in bundled
conductors
Circuit Breaker
Figure 13 is illustrative of a 3-phase symmetrical short-
circuit on a generator with an intervening circuit breaker
having three circuit opening poles, one in each phase. The
short circuit current would comprise two components-DC
offset current and symmetrical short-circuit current. The DC
offset current is maximum in the phase whose voltage is zero
at the instant of short circuit (say in phase B).
Figure 13: Phase short-circuit and circuit breaking

Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Because of the time-varying synchronous reactance of the
synchronous generator, the symmetrical short-circuit
current decays reaching steady state after passing through
subtransient and transient phases. The short-circuit current
of phase B is shown in Figure 13.
The heavy short-circuit current is sensed by protective
relaying, which energizes the trip circuit of the circuit
breaker (CB) causing its moving poles to separate from the
fixed poles at high speed. This is accomplished by a
mechanical toggle mechanism. As the poles separate electric
arc is struck across the intervening air-gap feeding the
current. The arc would extinguish at current zero (of the AC
current) and, if it does not restrike, the circuit opens
successfully. The voltage across the poles is almost constant
(about 80 V) during the arcing phase (nonlinear nature of
the arc phenomenon). After the arc is extinguished, AC
voltage appears across the poles which builds up with
passage of time as the air-gap flux in the generator recovers
with the vanishing armature reaction.
The waveforms of i
B
and V
B
are shown in Figure 3.14. These
phenomena also occur in other phases with a time phase
difference of 120. The voltage Vn will not be the phase voltage
during the time phases when R and Y have not yet opened.
The short-circuit current has an initial major loop (called
making current), whose peak value is known as the
maximum momentary current. The mechanical parts of
the circuit breaker must be capable of withstanding forces
released by this current (these are proportional to square of
the current). The voltage appearing across the poles (va)
when the arc extinguishes is known as recovery voltage.
The current which would have flown if the breaker did not
open is called the prospective current.
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Figure 14: Short circuit current and recovery voltage
At the instant of current interruption (arc extinction) an LC
transient occurs involving generator inductance and stray
capacitance causing high frequency damped oscillations as
shown in Figure 15. The recovery voltage with this transient
is known as transient recovery voltage (TRV). Thus the
voltage VB across the breaker poles has a fast rate of rise
and a peak value almost double the maximum voltage of the
power-frequency component of the recovery voltage. These
two phenomena in the recovery voltage tend to restrike the
arc so that the breaker would then open at a later current
zero when larger pole separation has occurred. Restriking
is detrimental to circuit breaking as it would damage the
poles and delay the fault clearing in the power system.

Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Figure 15: Transient recovery voltage (TRV)
Power System Transients
In this chapter we will discuss the abnormal situation,
wherein the power system is in dynamic state with large
scale perturbation caused by a fault, or opening or closing of
a switch, or other large scale disturbances. This is the study
of power system transients.
Transient phenomenon lasts in a power system for a very
short period of time, ranging from a few s up to 1s. Yet the
study and understanding of this phenomenon is extremely
important, as during these transients, the system is subjected
to the greatest stress from excessive over-currents or
voltages which, depending upon their severity can cause
extensive damage. In some extreme cases, there may be a
complete shutdown of a plant, or even a blackout of a whole
area. Because of this, it is necessary that a power system
engineer should have a clear understanding of power system
transients, to enable him to find out their impact on the
system, to prevent them if possible, or at least control their
severity or mitigate the damage caused. This chapter is
devoted to the study of power system transients.

Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Types of System Transients
The main causes of momentary excessive voltages and
currents are:
(i) Lightning
(ii) Switching
(iii) Short-circuits and
(iv) Resonance conditions.
Out of these, lightning and switching are the most common,
and usually the most severe causes. Transients caused by
short-circuits or resonance conditions usually arise as
secondary effects, but may well lead to the plant breakdown
in EHV (500-765 kV) systems. Also in EHV systems the
voltage transients or surges caused by switching, i.e. opening
and closing of circuit breakers, are becoming increasingly
important. On cable systems, of course, lightning transients
rarely occur and the other causes become more important.
Depending upon the speed of the transients, these can be
classified as:
Surge phenomena (extremely fast transients)
Short-circuit phenomena (medium fast transients)
Transient stability (slow transients)
Surge Phenomena
This type of transient is caused by lightning (atmospheric
discharges on overhead transmission lines) and switching.
Physically, such a transient initiates an electromagnetic wave
(surge) travelling with almost the speed of light (3 10
8
m/s)
on transmission lines. In a 150 km line, the travelling wave
completes a round trip in 1 ms. Thus the transient
phenomena associated with these travelling waves occur
during the first few milliseconds after their initiation. The
ever-present line losses cause pretty fast attenuation of
these waves, which die out after a few reflections.
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
The reflection of surges at open line ends, or at transformers
which present high inductance, leads to multiplicative effect
on voltage buildup, which may eventually damage the
insulation of high-voltage equipment with consequent short-
circuit (medium fast transient). The high inductance of the
transformer plays a beneficial role of insulating the generator
windings from transmission line surges. The travelling
charges in the surges are discharged to ground via lightning
arresters without the initiation of a line short-circuit,
thereby protecting the equipment.
Selection of insulation level of various line equipment and
transformers is directly related to the overvoltages caused
by surge phenomena. Hence the importance of studying this
class of transients.
Short-circuit Phenomena
About more than 50% short-circuits take place on exposed
overhead lines, owing to the insulation failure resulting from
overvoltages generated by surge phenomena described
earlier, birds and other mechanical reasons. Short-circuits
result from symmetrical (3-phase) faults, as well as
unsymmetrical (LG, LL, LLG) faults. The occurrence of a
symmetrical fault brings the power transfer across the line
to zero immediately, whereas the impact is only partial in
case of unsymmetrical faults. Like surge phenomena, short-
circuits are also fully electric in nature. Their speed is
determined by the time constants of the generator windings,
which vary from a few cycles of 50 Hz wave for the damper
windings to around 4s for the field winding. Therefore, these
transients will be sufficiently slower than the surge
phenomena. The time range that is of practical importance
to power system analyst is from 10 to 100 ms, i.e. the first
few (5-10) cycles of the short-circuit currents.
The short-circuit currents may attain such high values that,
if allowed to persist, they may result in thermal damage to
the equipment. Therefore, the faulty section should be
isolated as quickly as possible. Most of the short-circuits do
not cause permanent damage. As soon as the fault is cleared,
short-circuit path is deionized, and the insulation is restored.
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Reclosing breakers are, therefore, used in practice which
automatically close periodically to find out if the line has
recovered. If the fault continues for some time, then of course,
the breaker has to open permanently. This whole operation
of successive closing-opening cycle may last for a second or
so.
Transient Stability
Whenever a short-circuit takes place at any part of the
integrated system, there is an instantaneous total or partial
collapse of the bus voltages of the system. This also results
in the reduction of the generator power output. Since initially
for some instants the input turbine power remains constant,
as there is always some time delay before the controllers
can initiate corrective actions, each generator is subjected
to a positive accelerating torque. This condition, if sustained
for some time, can result in the most severe type of transients,
namely the mechanical oscillations of the synchronous
machine rotors. These electromechanical transients may,
under extreme conditions, lead to loss of synchronism for
some or all of the machines, which implies that the power
system has reached its transient stability limit. Once this
happens, it may take several hours for an electric system
engineer to resynchronize such a "blacked-out" system. Thus,
it is quite necessary to simulate this phenomenon on the
computers and use the switching and load-management
strategies that will avoid or minimize, the ill effects of short-
circuits.
The rotor swings are quite slow, as they are mechanical in
nature. A transient stability study, thus, may confine itself
for the time period of a few milliseconds to one minute in
most of the cases. [PSE, Nagrath & Kothari]
Generation of Overvoltages on Transmission Lines
Transmission lines and power apparatus have to be protected
from over voltages. The over voltages in' a power system fall
under three categories:
Resonance overvoltages
Switching overvoltages
Lightning overvoltages
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Overvoltages due to the latter two causes, though transient
in nature, constitute the basis for selection of insulation level
of lines and apparatus, and of devices for surge protection.
Resonance overvoltages on the other hand decide the steady
voltage rating of such devices. Resonance and switching
overvoltages are directly related to the system operating
voltage, but the level of lightning overvoltages caused by the
natural phenomenon are independent of it. At transmission
line voltages up to around 230 kV, the insulation level is
dictated by the requirement of protection against lightning.
For voltages from 230 kV to 700 kV, both switching transients
and lightning overvoltages must be accounted for in deciding
the insulation levels. In EHV (> 700 kV) switching surges
cause higher overvoltages than lightning, and are therefore
mainly responsible for insulation level decision. Fortunately
cables are not exposed to lightning, and are automatically
immune to the line surges which attenuate, upon entering a
cable. However, lines are preferred to cables for economic
and technical reasons.
Resonance Overvoltages
Though it is unlikely that resonance in a supply network be
obtained at nominal supply frequencies, it is possible to have
this condition at harmonic frequencies. Near resonance
conditions may occur under certain type of unsymmetrical
faults. Temporary overvoltages are also caused by inrush
current, when transformers or reactors are energized (ferro-
resonance). Such overvoltages are important in choosing
lightning arresters, which are not supposed to operate at
these voltages. Thus they indirectly determine the insulation
level of the network.
Switching Overvoltages
These overvoltages are caused by normal switch-gear
operation and/or power system faults, and their magnitudes
are related to the system operating voltages. Further, these
overvoltages have a very wide range of magnitudes and wave
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
shapes and last for durations ranging from a few MS (Micro
Seconds) to several seconds. At EHV levels the most
important causes of switching overvoltages are classified as:
Sustained earth fault on phase conductors.
Energisation or reclosure of long lines.
Load rejection at receiving end.
Fault initiation and reclosure.
Switching transients are also classified as single-energy or
double energy transients. In a single-energy transient, energy
is redistributed in the circuit inductance or capacitance while
in a double-energy transient, one transient is interchanged
between system inductance and capacitance, giving rise to
natural frequency (fn = 1/2t (VL/C) with R = 0) voltages and
currents. Closing a circuit may result in excessive currents,
and perhaps voltages also, while its opening normally results
only in excessive transient voltages.
Among factors which decide the switching behaviour of power
systems are the nature of source, characteristics of the
transmission circuit, its length, the termination condition,
the characteristic of earthing and shunt compensation. When
the terminations are such that the energy is entirely or almost
entirely reflected, high surge voltages are likely to build up.
The most important switching operations to be considered
are line energisation and reclosing. With the improvement
of arc restriking performance of circuit breakers, the
consequent surges--interruption of line charging current and
chopping of magnetizing current are no longer of significance.
Attenuation of surges caused by line losses; corona and
reflection at the far end of the line from a loaded transformer
help reduce the switching overvoltages, but mutual effects
of sequential reclosing of the three phases tend to accentuate
these.
The cost of EHV transmission system may be lowered by
decreasing the switching overvoltages. This can be achieved
by employing a circuit breaker, filled with a closing resistor
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
of the order of the line surge impedance, in series with the
breaker and the line which is subsequently short-circuited.
The system is energised in two stages, producing-two
overvoltages, both of which are smaller than the overvoltage
produced without the resistor.
Lightning Overvoltages
Lightning is a naturally occurring phenomenon wherein
clouds get charged to several thousand kilovolts, and a
discharge (stroke) can occur to high ground objects, or even
to the ground. Transmission lines and towers being high
objects attract lightning stroke, the underground cables being
inherently immune to strokes. Lightning transients to which
power system (lines, towers, substations and generating
stations) are susceptible may occur on account of:
Indirect strokes
Direct strokes to phase conductors
Direct strokes to towers
Direct strokes to earth wires
Direct Stroke A direct stroke occurs when a thunder cloud
directly discharges on to transmission lines, tower or earth
wires. This is the most severe and rarest form of stroke.
Indirect Stroke When a thunder cloud passes over ground
objects, it induces a positive charge in them. Over a period
of hundreds of seconds, positive charges leak from the tower
along the string insulators to the line conductors. This
happens due to high field gradients involved. In the event
the cloud discharges to some earth object, the line is left with
a huge free concentration of positive charge, which cannot
leak suddenly, but instead travels in the form of two identical
surges in either line direction. This is called an indirect
stroke.
Typical lightning voltage surge in wave form and amplitude
that may be injected in direct stroke on line conductors in
absence of ground wire is shown in Figure 16 (a). Typical
lightning current on transmission line tower is shown in
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Figure 16 (b). High voltages of the form of Figure 16 (a) are
known as impulse voltages. The standard test impulse
voltage will be defined later in this section.
(a) Typical lightning stroke voltage (b) Typical lightning current on a
on transmission line without transmission line tower
ground wire
Figure 16
Back Flashover A direct stroke to tower causes a high
voltage to be set up across the tower inductance and tower
footing resistance by the fast changing lightning current (say
10 KA/s). This appears as an overvoltage between the tower
top and conductors which are at lower voltage and can cause
a flashover from tower to line conductor across the line
insulator, called back flashover. The voltage wave caused on
the line because of back flashover has a very high rate of rise
which can cause damage to terminal equipment.
The amplitudes of voltages induced indirectly by lightning
strokes to a tower, earth wire or nearby ground object, are
normally much less than those caused by direct stroke to a
line conductor. This voltage depends upon electrical nature
of tower footing resistance and stroke characteristics. They
are of significance at lower voltages, such as 33 kV and below,
and may even be important above this voltage.

Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Protection of Transmission Lines Against Lightning
Surges due to lightning are mostly injected into the power
system through long cross-country transmission lines.
Substation apparatus is always well shielded against direct
lightning strokes. The protection of transmission lines
against direct strokes requires a shield to prevent lightning
from striking the electrical conductors. Adequate drainage
facilities and adequate insulation structures must be
provided so that the discharge can drain to ground without
affecting the conductors. This prevents any arc from line
conductor to ground.
Protection Using Shielding Wires or Ground Wires
The ground wire is a conductor run parallel to the main
conductors of the transmission line. It is placed higher than
the main conductors, is supported on the same towers and is
earthed at equally and regularly spaced towers. It acts in
two ways to protect the main conductors.
The ground wire helps to increase the effective
capacitance between the line conductor and ground, such
that the voltage appearing between conductor and
ground because of static cloud charge is reduced. This
is illustrated by the capacitor equivalent of the cloud-
conductor system shown in Figure 17.
Figure 17: The capacitor equivalent of the cloud-conductor
system

Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Being higher than the ground wire shields the main
conductor against direct strokes, though it increases the
probability of a direct stroke to itself (more than what
it would be for the main conductor if the ground wire
were absent). The protection (or shielding) angle of a
ground wire is found to be 30 for tower heights of 30m
or less. The protection zones of one and two ground
wires are shown in Figures 18 (a) and (b), while Figure
18 (c) shows a double circuit line protected by a single
ground wire. The height of the ground wire above the
highest line conductor can be easily determined by the
protection zone geometry. However, the present trend
in fixing tower height and the shielding angle is by
considering flashover rates and failure probabilities.
Figure 18: (a) Protection zone of one ground wire (b)
Protection zone of two ground wires (c) A double circuit line
The presence of ground wire(s) helps reduce the rise of
back flashover in the event of direct stroke to tower, as
the instantaneous potential to which the tower top is
raised is reduced by the fact that half the surge
impedance (Zg/2) of the ground wire appears in parallel

Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
to the tower surge impedance (ZT). It follows from
Figure 19 that the tower top voltage is

where I
i
is the impulse current injected into the tower.
It is easily seen that Z
g
(as low as possible) reduces V
T
.
Figure 19: Half the surge impedance (Zg/2) of ground wire
appears in parallel to the tower surge impedance (Zr)
If the surge impedance of the tower which is the effective
tower footing resistance, is reduced, the tower top surge
voltage reduces to a considerable extent. Towers are
grounded by providing driven ground rods and counterpoise
wires connected to tower legs at its foundations.
The standard value of this resistance is around 10 ohms for
66 kV lines, and increases with the operating voltage. For
400 kV it is approximately 80 ohms. The tower footing
resistance is the value of the footing resistance when
measured at 50 Hz. It is made as low as economically
justifiable.
Power System Protection
Introduction
A fail-free power system is neither economically justifiable
nor technically feasible. Faults can occur in any power system

Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
components generators, transformers, buses, lines - though
transmission lines being exposed to environment are the
most vulnerable. Faults fall into two general categories -
short-circuit faults and open circuit faults. Short circuit faults
are the most severe kind, resulting in flow of abnormally
high currents. If allowed to persist even for a short period of
time, short circuits can lead to extensive damage to
equipment. Undesirable effects of short circuits faults are
enumerated below:
Arcing faults (most common) can vaporize in the vicinity
leading to, possibly, fire and explosion, e.g. in
transformers and circuit breakers.
Power system components carrying abnormal currents
get over heated, with consequent reduction in the life
span of their insulation.
Operating voltages can go above or below their
acceptable values, leading to development of another
fault or damage to utilization equipment.
Consequent unbalanced system operation causes over
heating of generator rotors.
Power flow is severely restricted, or even completely
blocked, while the short circuit lasts.
As a consequence of blockage of power flow, power
system areas can lose synchronism. The longer a fault
lasts, the more is the possibility of loss of synchronism.
Open circuit faults cause abnormal system operation and
danger to personnel. Voltages tend to rise well beyond
acceptable values in certain parts of the system with
possibility of insulation failure and development of a short
circuit fault. While open circuit faults can be tolerated for
longer periods of time than short circuit faults, these cannot
be allowed to persist , and must be removed. We shall devote
our attention to the more severe type faults, i.e. the short
circuit faults. There are also other abnormal operating
conditions which require remedying, but do not fall into the
two categories of faults mentioned. Two such important
conditions are heavily unbalanced generator operation and
loss of generator excitation.
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Faults should be instantly detected and the faulty section
isolated from the rest of the system in the shortest possible
time. It is obviously not possible to do this manually, and it
must therefore be accomplished automatically. Faults are
detected automatically by means of relays and the faulty
section (say a line, a transformer or generator). The
combination of relays and circuit breakers is known as the
protective system. The salient features of power system
protection are:
Speed: Faults at any point in the system must be
detected and isolated in the shortest possible time. This
time is of the order of 30 - 100 ms, depending upon the
fault level of the section involved.
Sensitivity: Relaying equipment must be sufficiently
sensitive to operate reliably when required under
conditions that produce the least operating tendency.
Selectivity: Relaying equipment must clearly
discriminate between normal and abnormal system
conditions, so that it never operates unnecessarily.
Protective system must isolate a fault keeping as much of
the system interconnected as possible.
Reliability: Relaying equipment must be found in
healthy operating condition, when called upon to act,
as years might elapse between two consecutive
operations of relays at a particular station.
On important lines the protective system, after once
isolating the fault, must try to recluse the breakers
restoring the system to its original configuration. This
is necessary as many faults (arcing faults) are self-
clearing and the system must be healthy in this respect.
The above objectives of a protective system are quite stringent
and some of these may conflict. Systems have however been
devised and installed that work quite satisfactorily. The
priorities of protective schemes differ from one organization
to another, giving rise to a wide variation in relay application.
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Protective Zones
In order to demerit the number of elements disconnected by
the protective system during a fault, the protective system
is divided into a number of zones. Each protective zone has
the primary responsibility to disconnect the element or
elements in the zone in the event of a fault. For this purpose
circuit breakers and relays are located at the zone
boundaries. The protective zone concept is illustrated by
means of Figure 3.20 below. Certain features are observed
here.
Figure 20: Protective Zones of a power system
A separate zone of protection is established around each
system element. Any failure within a zone will cause
"tripping" (i.e. opening) of all circuit breakers of that
zone, and only those breakers.
The generator and transformer are lumped together in
modern unit generation system (210 MW and above) and
are protected by a single zone. However, separate
protective schemes must be provided for the generator
and transformer and both these schemes control the zone
breaker. In older schemes, separate protective zones are
employed for generator and transformer, necessitating
two or more circuit breakers and a low voltage bus.

Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Adjoining protective zones are made to overlap. For a
fault in the overlapping area of two zones, more circuit
breakers will open than the minimum necessary to
disconnect the faulty elements. Instead if there is no
overlap, a small region between adjoining zones will
remain unprotected. This is not acceptable.
The protection provided by each zone to its element(s) is
known as primary protection. There may arise situations,
however rare, that some components of zone protection
scheme failed to operate when called upon to do so. In order
to almost 100% protect the power system elements and to
prevent extensive damage, backup protection is provided
which takes over only in the event of primary protection
failure. Backup relays should not employ or control anything
that is in common with primary relays that are to be backed
up. This requires that back up relays should be located at
different physical locations (relaying station). Because of this
requirement, a larger chunk of power system gets
disconnected when backup relays operate. The principle of
backup protection is illustrated by means of Fig. 21. Certain
observations can be made immediately from this figure.
Figure 21: Backup Protection
For a fault on line 1-2, if the primary protection fails to
operate, backup relays will trip circuit breakers ABIJ
opening five lines in place of one.
For a fault on bus 1, backup protection is provided by
relays located at ABF.
While remote backup concept is dealt above, mention needs
to be made about local backup. This is widely used in present

Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
day 132 kV and above lines. Local backup relay trips all the
breakers connected to the bus is not isolated by its breakers
beyond a certain time. With reference to Figure 21, a fault in
the line 1-2 will be mainly isolated by E and F. If any of them
fails e.g. E, a local backup relay will isolate C and D after
some time (obviously before the opening of A and B).
In general we conclude:
Backup relaying should function with sufficient time
delay so that first opportunity is given to primary relays
to function in the event of a fault.
When back up relaying functions, a larger part of the
system is disconnected than when primary relaying
operates correctly.
Backup relaying is a must but not a substitute for good
maintenance.
Backup relaying need to be provided for only the most
severe kind of faults, i.e. short circuits. No backup
relaying is employed for other abnormal conditions.
In the event of a fault on the line AC (Figure 19), the backup
relay at A, which controls the breaker A provides a backup
protection of sorts. In spite of this line AC must be provided
with its independent backup protection whose relays and
breakers are located physically away from the stations A and
C.
Relaying Elements and Quantities
Currents and voltages at the two ends of a protected element
are the basic quantities which are employed to recognize if
the fault is in the protected zone. These quantities are fed to
the relay which suitably processes these to produce a binary
output-"trip" or "not trip (block)"- in the circuit breaker under
its control. In order that the relay (which indeed is a signal
processor) be of small size and low-expense element, it must
not be fed directly by the system currents and voltages whose
level is tremendously high. This is further necessitated by
the fact that the personnel working with the relay must be
provided with a safe environment. Low-level samples of
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
power system currents and voltages must, therefore, be
extracted by means of transducers which are nothing but
current and voltage transformers. It is seen with reference
to Figure 22 that at each relaying station, the protection
system comprises three elements.
Circuit breaker (CB) - to open the line
Transducers (T) - to provide low-level current and
voltage samples to the relay
Relay (R) - to process the current and voltage signals to
produce binary logic signal-'trip' or 'not trip'.
The power supply needed to trip the circuit breaker or to
provide the biasing signal in case of electronic relays must
be provided by an independent battery source, which must
be regularly and thoroughly maintained. This is a must as
during a fault, power system voltage would dip to very low
levels. In case of a fault at the point P of line 1-2 in
Figure 22, both relays RI2 and R21 must recognize or see
this fault and proceed to trip the respective breakers under
their control. The area of responsibility of a relay is known
as the reach of the relay.
Figure 22: Relay system
The signal processing time to arrive at the logical decision
is typically 8-40 ms, depending upon the type of relay

Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
employed. The total time that may elapse from the initiation
of a fault to opening of the circuit breaker is between 30-100
ms depending upon the type of relay and circuit breaker
employed. Intentional time delays may be included for
coordination purposes.
For every type and location of a fault, there is some distinctive
difference in the attributes of power system currents and
voltages. Each relay is designed to recognize a particular
difference and to operate in response to it. The differences
are possible in one or more of the following attributes leading
to various kinds of relays.
Magnitude (of current or voltage).
Direction (large change in phase angle).
Ratio (impedance).
Duration.
Rate of change.
Order of change.
Frequency.
Harmonics in wave shape.
[PSE, Nagrath & Kothari]
Power Transmission Cables & Transformers
The motivation for applying superconducting materials to a
power transmission and distribution system is the promise
of power delivery and conversion without the electric losses
that result from I2R or Joule heating. The period of 25 years
from 1961 to 1986 saw considerable activity in development
of power transmission cables using metallic or low
temperature superconductors (LTS). Had it not been for the
energy crisis of the early 1970s and the subsequent decline
in energy demand, today there might be superconducting
power transmission cables in use throughout the world.
Target power ratings per circuit for superconducting cable
systems dropped from 5,000-10,000 MW in the 1970s to 1,000
MW by the early 1980s (Engelhardt, Von Dollen, and Samm
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
1992). Although economic considerations continue to
dominate the criteria for deciding whether a
superconducting solution to electric power problems is
appropriate, other factors are becoming increasingly
important in the minds of decision makers. These include
growing public concern over environmental issues and safety
and the uncertain effects of deregulation on the generation
and distribution of electric power. The responses to many of
these issues will be known only after lengthy debate and no
doubt countless pages of legislation. While the actual need
for superconducting cables and transformers will be
determined by local market conditions, aided perhaps by
varying legislative requirements, the technology of
superconducting systems is being developed globally and
competitors in the United States, Europe and Japan who are
looking for a stake in an anticipated multi-billion dollar
business are making excellent progress. When leaders in the
field of superconductivity convened in Japan in May 1996
for the Fifth International Superconductivity Industrial
Summit, they agreed that the world market for electric power
devices based just on superconductivity will exceed $10
billion by the year 2010.
In spite of worldwide efforts to develop superconducting
cables and transformers using LTS materials, the expense
of cryogenic cooling systems for liquid He operation at 4.2 K
with the strict operational reliability demanded by electric
utilities, and the difficulty of developing a suitable low loss
AC superconductor, presented seemingly unsurmountable
barriers to their introduction into the network. The discovery
since 1986 of high temperature superconducting (HTS)
materials in oxide-based systems with increasingly high
transition temperatures has rekindled an interest in
superconductivity in everyone in the power delivery chain,
from generator to consumer. The operating temperature of
HTS materials of up to 77 K (liquid nitrogen temperature) is
considerably higher than the 4.2 K (liquid helium
temperature) on which design of the LTS power systems of
the 1970s and early 1980s was based. With higher
temperatures come not only reduced refrigeration costs but
also enhanced reliability.
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Superconducting Power Transmission Cables Overview
Although the energy crisis of the 1970s is now past and
demand has increased considerably, the motivation for
developing HTS power transmission cables comes primarily
from the need to increase the power-handling capabilities of
existing underground circuits, which are filled to capacity.
HTS cables not only offer a doubling of the power per circuit,
they also provide an environmentally attractive solution,
because a leak in an underground HTS system would cause
the benign release of nitrogen, whereas a leak in existing
oil-filled high voltage cables could result in devastating soil
contamination. Where oil-filled cables are used underwater,
such leaks could produce even greater environmental
damage.
Upgrading a power system by retrofitting existing ducts with
HTS cables is most likely to occur in dense urban areas where
the costs of trenching to install higher-capacity conventional
systems would be prohibitive. In Tokyo, for instance, where
demand for electric power is increasing at a rate of 2-3% per
year, use of HTS cables is attractive since space is extremely
limited and most underground ducts are filled to capacity.
The opportunity in Tokyo alone provides a tremendous
development incentive. There are ten large cable tunnels in
Tokyo, each 20 km long and each containing three cables. If
these cables were replaced with HTS cables at the rate of
only one of the three cables in several tunnels each year, the
project would require 600 km of cable and last ten years.
The HTS conductor alone needed for such a venture would
exceed 100 million meters and represent a business
opportunity of several billion dollars. And if the relative
economic value of the joints and terminations required
for the cable follows today's pattern, then the business
opportunity for these cryogenic components is at least
ten times greater than that of the conductor business
itself.
Development of LTS cables and cable concepts in the 1960s
was pursued by industrial giants like Siemens, GE-France,
BICC, and Westinghouse, and by several academic and
government laboratories, including important contributions
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
from the Technical University of Graz, Austria, and
Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) in the United States
(Giese 1993). In Japan, members of the MITI's Electro-
technical Laboratory carried out an economic study and
concluded that superconducting cables were especially
attractive for high power DC applications. Early testbeds
used LTS materials in a variety of configurations.
In Germany, Linde studied the AC loss characteristics of
rigid Nb tubes and built a 7 meter-long cryostat to measure
these losses. Later the Linde team proposed a composite
conductor of Nb, copper, and invar. In a collaborative program
between the Technical University of Graz, AEG, Kabelmetal,
and Linde (Munich), the superconductor was formed by
coating the inner and outer walls of concentric corrugated
tubes with a layer of Nb so that the layer on the outside of
the smaller tube faced the Nb layer on the inside of the larger
tube.
The BNL project employed Nb
3
Sn superconducting tapes, and
for the demonstration cable Intermagnetics General
Corporation (IGC) manufactured a composite tape that had
layers of copper, Nb
3
Sn, Nb, and stainless steel. This work
resulted in design of a 1,000 MVA, 138 kV, 4,200 Amp system
and in a preliminary solution to the problem of terminations.
Progress in phase two of this work went well; however, the
project was terminated for economic reasons.
HTS Power Transmission Cables - An Overview
The major players in development of power transmission
cables using high temperature superconductors are Pirelli
and Southwire Corporation in the United States, Siemens,
Pirelli, and BICC in Europe, and Sumitomo Electric
Corporation, Furukawa and Fujikura in Japan. Each of the
major Japanese corporations manufactures its own HTS
tapes. Siemens also manufactures its own HTS tapes, but it
has also purchased material from others for use in earlier
experiments. Pirelli has an arrangement with American
Superconductor Corporation (ASC) that gives it exclusive
access to ASC's tapes for use in power transmission cables.
IGC also supplies high performance HTS tapes to this
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
marketplace (Beales et al. 1996). All experimental and
prototype HTS cables have been manufactured with multi-
filamentary tape containing the BSCCO-2223 compound.
The German government is providing half the funds (DM 20
million over three years) necessary to complete the cable
program carried out and cost-shared by Siemens. In both the
United States and Japan, on the other hand, the utilities are
playing a major role in promoting the development of HTS
cables. Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO) provides
nearly a million dollars annually to both Sumitomo and
Furukawa to develop HTS cable prototypes and terminations,
respectively. Chubu Electric Power Company has also
worked with both Fujikura (Kume et al. 1995) and Sumitomo
(Masuda et al. 1995) to develop related technology. In the
United States, the Electric Power Research Institute, with
some financial assistance from the Department of Energy,
has invested heavily in power cable technology by forging a
close alliance with Pirelli and ASC. The total program costs
are estimated to be $6 million over three years. Pirelli,
Siemens, and BICC Cables have benefited from an earlier
European collaboration, which included GEC, ABB, and
Alcatel Cable, and which was financially supported by the
European Commission under both the JOULE and BRITE-
EuRAM initiatives.
The European project resulted in a very useful techno-
economic study (Ashworth, Metra, and Slaughter 1993) that
allowed individual members of the consortium to decide
whether there was sufficient incentive to pursue further
development of cable technology on their own. The significant
conclusions of this study were
1. that for transmitted powers greater than 1 GVA, the
HTS conductor's critical current density must exceed
200,000 A/cm
2
at liquid nitrogen temperatures in order
for the overall costs to be comparable to conventional
cables and
2. that in a 150 mm fixed diameter duct, an HTS cable can
transmit up to seven times more power (to 700 MVA at
66 kV) at the same transmission cost.
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
HTS conductors, like so many other materials in their
embryonic development phases, must exhibit improved
performance and become less expensive if they are to gain
widespread acceptance as articles of commerce. The Joule
study presented a target performance-price window for HTS
conductors (Figure 23) for transmission of 400 MVA in a fixed
diameter duct (believed to be an early application of HTS
cables), the superconductor must carry in excess of 150,000
A/cm
2
if the price is about $40/meter. If the price falls to say,
$5/meter, the superconductor performance may be as low as
50,000 A/cm
2
. For a given conductor price, say $5/meter, the
"economic" critical current density is greater for application
in a high power link than in a fixed diameter duct. This seems
reasonable as HTS must compete with the best available
conventional cable solution in the former case, whereas HTS
can be considered enabling in the latter.
HTS Power Transmission Cable Development in Japan
Of the major players in Japan that are developing HTS power
transmission cables Sumitomo, Furukawa, and to a lesser
extent, Fujikura and Mitsubishi (Yuhya, Hosotani, and
Hiraoka 1995), Sumitomo Cable working with TEPCO has
demonstrated the best performance in both fundamental
materials development and cable construction. The
configuration of its 7-meter cable prototype is schematically
illustrated in Figure 23, and the corresponding dimensions
are shown in Table 1 (Shibata et al. 1995). Note that in this
design the HTS tapes are used not only for transmission of
the primary current, but also for shielding the external pipe
from the magnetic fields generated by the tapes transmitting
the power. This design increases the needed quantity of
costly HTS conductor, but the lower electrical losses place
less strain on the cryogenic systems, which reduces cooling
costs. Several characteristics of this cable are as follows:
3-phase, 66 kV / 1 kVA
rms
(114 MVA)
7 m length, 130 mm diameter
magnetic shielding layer, PLPP insulated
3-phase continuous current test ( 1 kA
rms
, 7 hours)
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Figure 23: Schematic illustration of 7-meter HTS cable
prototype (Sumitomo)
Table 1: Sumitomo/TEPCO Cable Prototype
Table 2 gives characteristics of the Sumitomo HTS conductor
used in assembling the 50-meter cabled conductor that is
shown in Figure 24.

Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Table 2: Sumitomo/TEPCO HTS Conductor
Figure 24: Fifty-meter-long cabled conductor coil
The Sumitomo HTS tapes have a high cross-sectional aspect
ratio. The self-field critical current densities are not as high
as those cited as being "economic" in the Joule study;
however, they are presently the best in the world and
represent the state of the art for long-length HTS conductors.
At 10-12 ohm * m and 10-13 ohm * m criteria, the Ics of the

Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
conductor are 2,900 A and 2,200 A, respectively. It should be
noted that it was the requirement of the utility sponsor,
TEPCO, that the critical current density for its application
(fixed diameter retrofit) be 100,000 A/cm2. Lower critical
current densities could only be tolerated if the attendant
AC losses were reduced substantially. At the time of this
WTEC study, AC losses were ten times higher than
acceptable. Recent measurements on each of the four
individual layers constituting this cable confirm that the AC
loss is described by a self-field loss of a single cylindrical
bulk superconductor based on the Bean model (Saga et al.
1996).
Based on Sumitomo's cabled conductor characteristics, only
four tape layers are needed to carry nearly 3,000 amps (dc
critical current) at 77 K. With a tape width of 4.1 mm and a
cable diameter of 23 mm, one can estimate that just over 60
tapes have been used to wind this cabled conductor, which
means that the average Ic of one tape is approaching 50 A at
77 K! This is nearly ten times the Ic of the Furukawa cabled
conductor.
Characteristics of Furukawa cabled conductor are as follows:
1-phase, 66 kV / 1.4 kA
rms
(38 MVA)
5 m length, 124 mm diameter
66 kV - class terminations
load test (1.4 kA
rms
, 15 minutes)
In the Furukawa case, the Jc and the overall tape cross-
section are nearly half of the Sumitomo values; consequently,
one would expect an Ic at least four times smaller. Since ten
tape layers were wound at a larger diameter than in the
Sumitomo cable to produce a much smaller DC critical
current at 77 K, the Ic is much smaller and is estimated to be
about 5 A.
Although there is not much published detail about the cable
prototype proposed and assembled by Fujikura, it is unique
in that it has HTS tapes lying axially along the cable length
instead of being wound with a pitch (Kakimoto et al. 1995;
Kume et al. 1995).
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Superconducting Transformers An Overview
Transformers represent one of the oldest and most mature
elements in a power transmission and distribution network.
From the point of electricity generation at a power plant,
where extremely high voltages are needed to "push" large
amounts of power into the grid, to the end user of electricity
in a home or office, where typical appliances operate at much
lower voltages (100-200 volts), transformers are needed for
effective voltage conversions. At each conversion point,
energy is lost, primarily in the form of wasted heat from
changing electrical and magnetic fields in the copper (coil),
iron (core), tank, and supporting structure. Even when the
transformer is "idling," so-called "no-load losses" (NLL) are
generated in the core. Research over the last 50 years has
succeeded in reducing NLL by a factor of three while
increasing core costs by a factor of two. Recent substitution
in distribution transformers (ratings below about 100 kVA)
of amorphous metals for silicon iron core material has
reduced NLL further, but this material has not been used in
the cores of power transformers (ratings greater than 500
kVA). When a transformer is under a loaded condition, Joule
heating (I2R losses) of the copper coil adds considerably to
the amount of lost energy. In spite of the fact that today's
utility power transformer loses less than 1% of its total rating
in wasted energy, any energy saved within this one percent
represents a tremendous potential savings over the expected
lifetime of the transformer.
In a conventional power transformer, load losses (LL)
represent approximately 80% of total losses. Of this load loss,
80% are I2R losses. The remaining 20% consists of stray and
eddy current losses. To date, efforts to reduce load losses
have been directed toward the latter. Unlike copper and
aluminum, superconductors present no resistance to the flow
of DC electricity, with the consequence that I2R losses
become essentially zero, thereby creating the potential for a
dramatic reduction in overall losses. In AC operation, the
superconductor in an HTS transformer experiences a type
of eddy current loss: both the heat produced by this loss
(although extremely small in comparison to the energy lost
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
in conventional materials) and heat conducted into the lower
temperature regions of the superconducting transformer
need to be removed through refrigeration. Even with the
added cost of refrigeration, HTS transformers in the 10 MVA
and higher range are projected to be substantially more
efficient and less expensive than their conventional
counterparts.
Motivation for developing superconducting transformers is
not based solely on economic considerations of lowering total
owning costs (initial capital cost + capitalized cost of load
and no-load losses over the transformer's effective life). With
limited new siting availability in urban areas, the anticipated
2% annual growth in power demand means that existing sites
must be upgraded with higher power capabilities. Many
existing sites are indoors or adjacent to buildings, which
restricts the use of most oil-filled transformers. The inherent
dangers of oil-filled devices are totally eliminated by
application of superconducting technology where the only
coolant required is benign (nitrogen as opposed to oil).
Consequently, superconducting transformers operating
either with a refrigerated coil or one cooled with liquid
nitrogen pose no fire hazards and no threat to the
environment comparable to that posed by leaks of flammable
oils and toxic chemicals such as PCBs.
Serious interest in superconducting transformers began in
the early 1960s as reliable low temperature superconductors
based on Nb-Ti and Nb
3
Sn became available. Analysis of the
feasibility of such LTS transformers concluded that the high
refrigeration loads required to keep the LTS materials at
4.2 K made the LTS transformers uneconomical. A major
reduction in refrigeration costs and/or the discovery of
materials that superconduct at much higher temperatures
would be required to improve the economic attractiveness
of these electric power applications. In the mid-1970s
Westinghouse conducted an exhaustive design study of a
1,000 MVA, 550/22 kV generator step-up unit; it found that
current transfer, over-current operation, and protection
remained persistent problems.
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Since 1980, development of LTS transformers has been
conducted primarily by ABB and GEC-Alsthom in Europe
and by various utilities, industries, and universities in Japan.
Advances in production of long-length ultrafine multi-
filamentary Nb-Ti conductor and high resistivity Cu-Ni
matrix materials have assisted in the reduction of AC losses.
Feasibility of weight reduction and higher efficiencies has
been demonstrated on smaller devices with ratings smaller
than 100 kVA: single-phase 80 kVA (Alsthom), 30 kVA
(Toshiba), and a three-phase 40 kVA (Osaka University).
Larger units have also been constructed and tested
successfully. A single-phase 330 kVA transformer built by
ABB included provisions for fault-current limiting and
quench protection. Kansai Electric Power Company reported
the development of an LTS transformer utilizing Nb3Sn
conductor. One phase of this three-phase 2,000 kVA unit
operated at 1,379 kVA without quenching and transferred
fault current to parallel coils under quench condition.
UNIT 4 HVDC
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Unit 4
HVDC
The first commercially used HVDC link (20 MW, 100 kV)
in the world was built in 1954 between the mainland of
Sweden and the island of Gotland. Since then the technique
of power transmission by HVDC has been continuously
developed. In 1970 thyristor valves replaced the valves
based on mercury arc technique. To date the biggest HVDC
transmission is ITAIPU in Brazil (two bipoles, 630 MW
and 300 kV). DC transmission is an effective means to
improve system performance. It is mai nly used to
compliment AC systems rather than to displace these. In
India, the first HVDC line is Rihand-Delhi (500 kV, 800
MW). Global HVDC transmission capacity has increased
from 20 MW in 1954 to 70 GW in 2005. The highest
transmission voltage reached is in excess of 1000kV (EHV
- Extra High Voltage) in China connecting Yibin, Sichuan
and Shanghai. Now the growth of DC transmission has
reached an average of 2500 MW/year.
Principles of AC/DC Conversion
HVDC transmission consists of two converter stations which
are connected to each other by a DC cable or an overhead
DC line. Atypical arrangement of main components of an
HVDC transmission is shown in Figure 4.1. Two series
connected 6-pulse converters (12-pulse bridge) consisting of
Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to:
Understand the operation of HVDC systems
Know the Technical advantages of HVDC systems over EHV
systems
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
valves and converter transformers are used. The valves
convert AC to DC, and the transformers provide a suitable
voltage ratio to achieve the desired direct voltage and
galvanic separation of the AC and DC systems. A smoothing
reactor in the DC circuit reduces the harmonic currents in
the DC line, and possible transient over-currents. Filters are
used to take care of harmonics generated at the conversion.
Thus, we see that in an HVDC transmission, power is taken
from one point in an AC work, where it is converted to DC in
a converter station (rectifier), transmitted to another
converter station (inverter) via line or a cable and injected
into an AC system. By varying the firing angle (a point on
the voltage wave when the gating pulse is applied and
conduction starts) the DC output voltage can be controlled
between two limits, +ve and -ve.
Figure 4.1: Main component of a HVDC transmission- A
typical arrangement
Harmonics
The AC/DC converter is a source of harmonics on AC as well
as DC sides. In order to reduce harmful effects of harmonics
on the AC side, shunt filters are installed. At fundamental
frequency, the filters act as shunt capacitors supplying

UNIT 4 HVDC
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
reactive power to the converter. A smoothing reactor is
installed to limit harmonics on the DC side.
Reactive Power Demand
The requirement of reactive power at converter stations is
due to
1. The control of HVDC converter which introduces a phase
shift between the fundamentals of AC current and
voltage, and
2. The commutation process, in which the DC current is
commutated from one valve to another, and which
introduces further phase shift.
In addition to reactive power consumption by converters,
converter transformers also consume reactive power.
Considering normal values of a (rectifier) or y (inverter), the
reactive power demand usually is in the range of 50-60% of
the transmitted active power. This figure is for each converter
station.
The reactive power may be supplied from:
1. AC filters
2. Shunt capacitors (least costly)
3. Excessive reactive power from AC network
4. Static compensators (SVS) (for fast voltage regulation),
and
5. Synchronous condensers (if AC network is weak).
While choosing reactive power generation equipment one
must consider both economic and technical aspects.
Principles of HVDC Control
One of the most important aspects of HVDC systems is its
fast and stable controllability. In DC transmission, the
transmitted power is proportional only to the difference in
terminal DC voltage between the two ends, and hence the
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
transmitted power can be rapidly controlled by changing the
DC voltages. The current in the system can only flow in one
direction (Figure 4.2) for a given setting. Power is
transported from rectifier to inverter and by altering the
voltages, the power flow direction is reversed.
Figure 4.2: Current flow in one direction in the system for a
given setting
In an HVDC transmission, one of the converter stations,
generally the inverter station is so controlled that the direct
voltage of the system is fixed and has a rigid relation to the
voltage on the AC side. The other terminal station (rectifier)
adjusts the direct voltage on its terminal so the current is
controlled to the desired transmitted power.
In Figure 4.2,
1 2 d d
d
V V
I
R
=
(L-1)
Where R is the resistance of link and includes loop
transmission resistance (if any), and resistance of smoothing
reactors and converter valves. The power received is
therefore given as
1 2
2 2
d d
d d d
V V
P V I V
R
| |
= =
|
\ .
(L-2)

UNIT 4 HVDC
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
The rectifier and inverter voltages are given by
1
2
3 2 3
cos ( 3)
3 2 3
cos ( 4)
lr cr
d d
li ci
d d
V X
V n I L
V X
V n I L
o
t t
t t
| |
=
|
|
\ .
| |
=
|
|
\ .
where n = number of series connected bridges
V
lr
, V
li
= line to line AC voltages at the rectifier and inverter
bridges, respectively
X
cr
, X
ci
= commutation reactance at the rectifier and inverter,
respectively
From Eq.(L-2) it is clear that the DC power per pole is
controlled by relative control of DC terminal voltages, V
d1
and V
d2
. Control on DC voltage is exercised by the converter
control angles o and as given by Eqs (L-3) and (L-4). Normal
operating range of control angles is:
0
min
5 o = ,
0
max
(15 3) o = ,
0
min
15 =
The prime considerations in HVDC transmission are to
minimize reactive power at the terminals and to reduce the
system losses. For this DC voltage should be as high as
possible and o should be as low as possible.
Economic Considerations
AC vs. DC
The advantage of AC for distributing (possession of controlling
influence) power over a distance is due to the fact that power
is given by the rate at which energy is drawn from a source
that produces a flow of electricity in a circuit (expressed in
volts) voltage (A steady flow (usually from natural causes))
current (P = VI). For a given power, a low voltage requires a
higher current and a higher voltage requires a lower current.
However, since metal conducting wires have a certain (group
action in opposition to those in power) resistance, some
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
power will be wasted as heat in the wires. This power is
given by P = I2R, or by P = V2/R (where V is the voltage drop
along the wire, not the overall voltage). As such, low-voltage,
high-current transmissions will suffer a much greater power
loss than high-voltage, low-current ones, even though the
overall transmitted power is the same. This holds whether
DC or AC is used. However, it was very difficult to transform
DC power to a high-voltage, low-current form efficiently,
whereas with AC this can be done with a simple and efficient
transformer. This was the key to the success of the AC
system. Modern distribution grids often use AC in the
5,00,000 volt range.
This has begun to change in recent decades with the rise of
DC bulk power transmission systems. The mercury arc valve
and later power semiconductors such as silicon controlled
rectifiers (SCRs) finally made it possible to build efficient,
high power voltage converters using and producing either
AC or DC. With this technology, high voltage DC power
transmission can provide several advantages over AC,
especially over very long distances or through undersea
cables. However, since AC is the standard for power
distribution to customers, the power from a DC transmission
line is always converted back to AC.
The Advantage of HV Systems
Early electric power distribution schemes used direct-
current generators located near the customer's loads. As
electric power use became more widespread, the distances
between loads and generating plant increased. Since the flow
of current through the distribution wires resulted in a voltage
drop, it became difficult to regulate the voltage at the
extremities of distribution circuits.
When transmitting a given quantity of power, higher voltages
reduce the transmission loss or reduce the cost of conductors,
since a smaller current is required. Conductor cost is roughly
proportional to the current carried, and conductor loss is
roughly proportional to the square of the current, so higher
transmission voltages improve the efficiency of transmission.
UNIT 4 HVDC
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
However, low voltage is convenient for utilization equipment
such as lamps and motors. The principal advantage of AC is
the use of transformers to change the voltage at which power
is used. No equivalent of the transformer exists for direct
current, so the manipulation of DC voltages is considerably
more complex. With the development of efficient AC
machines, such as induction motors, AC transmission and
utilization became the norm.
Technical Explanation
Consider an AC line and a DC line employing the same
number of conductors and insulators. Let us compare the
power per conductor on the two lines. If in each case the
current is limited by temperature rise, the direct current
equals the rms alternating current, assuming that insulators
withstand the same peak voltage to ground in each case. Then
the direct voltage is 1.414 times the rms AC voltage
the DC power per conductor is

and the AC power per conductor is

where I
dc
and I
ac
are the currents per conductor, V
dc
and V
ac
the conductor to ground voltages, and cosu the power factor.
Now

taking

Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Now compare a three phase, three conductor AC line with a
bipolar two conductor DC line. The Power capabilities of the
respective circuits are

Both lines carry the same power. The DC line, however, is
simpler and cheaper, having two conductors instead of three.
Further, an overhead line requires only 2/3 as many insulators
and the towers are simpler, cheaper and narrower. A
narrower right of way would be required. Both lines have
the same power loss per conductor. The percentage loss of
the DC line is only two thirds that of AC line. If cables are
used instead of line, the permissible working stress (voltage
per unit thickness of insulation) is higher for DC than for
AC and further, the power factor for DC is unity and for AC,
considerably lower than that used above. Both changes
further favour DC as compared to AC by increasing the ratio
of DC power to AC power per conductor. The resulting ratio
may be between 5 and 10. Since the power limit of an
overhead AC line is normally fixed by factors other than
conductor heating, the ratio of DC power per conductor to
AC power per conductor may be as high as 4.
HVDC Applications
The following modes of implanting a DC link in a predominant
AC system may be used:
1. Interconnection of systems of the same frequency
through a zero length DC link (back to back connection):
This does not require any DC transmission line and AC lines
terminate on the rectifier and inverter which are connected
back to back (Figure 4.3). A typical example is the E-el river
scheme in Canada connecting the Quebec hydro system with
that of New Brunswick. This helps in interconnecting two
AC systems without increasing their fault levels. In India a
400 kV, 500 MW Singrauli to Vindhyachal back to back link
is being commissioned at Vindhyachal (the breakeven
distance concept is meaningless for such schemes).
UNIT 4 HVDC
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Figure 4.3: Back to Back connection
2. HVDC links are used to evacuate power from the remote
super power stations to the load centers situated several
hundred kilometers away. If there are faults in the AC
network, this will not trip the units at the power station
since the asynchronous DC link insulates the power
station from the AC system.
3. Interconnection between power systems or pools: For
smooth interchange of power between neighboring grids
irrespective of voltage and frequency fluctuations, such
links ensure retention of the tie under the most stringent
conditions of the constituent grids.
4. High power underground (submarine) distribution
system feeders: Here it is found that DC may be cheaper
at distances greater than approximately 50 km with a
power level of 1000-2000 MW. With AC we need forced
cooling due to the higher amount of heat produced. Also
there are increased dielectric losses at EHV AC.
5. Stabilizing AC system by modulating DC power flow.
Transmission Modes
Monopolar The line has one energized conductor with the
return path through the earth (Figure 4.4). It may be noted

Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
that the earth has a much lower resistance to DC as compared
to AC. Such a line is called monopolar.
Figure 4.4: Monopoloar line
Bipolar A bipolar transmission gives two circuits which are
almost independent of each other. Bipolar mode (Figure 4.5)
has one conductor at a positive potential with respect to
ground and a second conductor operating at negative
potential of the same magnitude (e.g. 650 kV). A bipolar line
can be operated as a monopolar line in an emergency. In some
applications continuous current through earth is not
permitted and a bipolar arrangement is the natural solution.
Homopolar lines have two or more conductors having the
same polarity, normally negative as the corona loss and radio
interference are reduced and they always operate with
ground as the return.
Since the power limit of AC lines is often fixed by factors
other than conductor heating, the ratio of DC power per
conductor to AC power may be as high as 4. A two-conductor
DC line is more reliable than a three-conductor AC line,
because in the event of a fault on one conductor, the
other conductor can continue to operate with ground return
during the fault period. The same cannot be done with the
AC line.

UNIT 4 HVDC
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Figure 4.5: Bipolar lines
However, the cost of terminal equipment is much more in
case of DC (converting stations) than in case of AC
(transformer substations). If we plot the variation of cost of
power as a function of transmission distance, it will be as
shown in Figure 4.6. The slope gives cost per unit length of
the line and other accessories. The point of intersection P is
called a breakeven point which shows that, if the
transmission distance is more than OP then it is preferable
to use DC; otherwise AC should be used.
There is hardly any scope to reduce the cost of AC terminal
equipment.
Figure 4.6: Breakeven analysis

Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
But a lot of progress has been made in the development of
converting devices and the breakeven distances are reducing
with further development of these devices.
Present day breakeven distance in favour of DC transmission
is 700 km for overhead lines. However, the breakeven
distance varies with each individual project and should
always be checked. The difference in installation costs
between AC and DC submarine or underground cables is
several times as high as the corresponding difference in
overhead line costs. This means that the breakeven distance
for a cable transmission is much shorter and is of the order
of 30-50 km.
Advantages of HVDC Systems
The advantages of the HVDC systems are as under:
1. These systems are economical for long distance bulk
power transmission by overhead lines.
2. There is greater power per conductor and simpler line
construction. .
3. Ground return is possible.
4. There is no charging current and skin effect.
5. The voltage regulation problem is much less serious for
DC, since only the IR drop is involved (IX=0). For the
same reason steady state stability is no longer a major
problem.
6. There is easy reversibility and controllability of power
at DC link. Flow through.
7. The DC line is an asynchronous or flexible link
(resynchronization is not required )and it can
interconnect two rigid systems operating at different
frequencies.
8. For a single DC line between two converter stations,
circuit breakers are unnecessary since control of the
converters can be used to block current flow during
faulty conditions.
UNIT 4 HVDC
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
9. Each conductor can be operated as an independent
circuit.
10. Smaller amount of right way is required. The distance
between two outside-conductors of a 400 kV AC line is
normally 20 m, whereas the same between a
corresponding DC lines is roughly half.
11. There is considerable insulation economy. The peak
voltage of the 400 kV AC line is V2x 400 - 564 kV. So the
AC line requires more insulation between the tower and
conductors as well as greater clearance above the earth
as compared to corresponding 400 HVDC.
12. There is no technical limit to the distance over which
power may be transmitted by lines or cables because of
the absence of both charging current and stability
limitations.
13. Line losses are smaller.
14. It is possible to bring more power into an AC system via
a DC link without raising the fault level and circuit
breaker ratings.
15. No reactive compensation of DC lines is required.
16. Corona loss and radio interference are less as compared
to AC.
17. HVAC line and HVDC link can be used in parallel as an
AC-DC system.
18. The contribution of HVDC link to SCC of AC system is
considerably less as compared to that of an alternative
AC link.
19. DC cables can be worked at higher voltage gradient.
20. Low SC current is required on DC line.
Disadvantages of HVDC Systems
1. The systems are costly since installation of complicated
converters and DC switchgear is expensive.
2. Converters require considerable reactive power.
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
3. Harmonics are generated which require filters.
4. Converters do not have overload capability.
5. Lack of HVDC circuit breakers hampers multi terminal
or network operation. There is no DC device which can
perform excellent switching operations and ensure
protection. (Simultaneous control at all converters is
difficult).
6. There is nothing like DC transformer which can change
the voltage level in a simple way. Voltage
transformation has to be provided on the AC sides of
the system.
7. Reactive power required by the load is to be supplied
locally as no reactive power can be transmitted over a
DC link.
8. Contamination of insulators in polluted areas or along
the sea coast. Pollution affects DC more than AC. More
frequent cleaning of insulators is required.
Future Trends
Considerable research and development work is under way
to provide a better understanding of the performance of
HVDC links to achieve more efficient and economic designs
of the thyristor valves and related equipment and to justify
the use of alternative AC/DC system configurations.
Future power systems would include a transmission mix of
AC and DC. Future controllers would be more and more
microprocessor based which can be modified or upgraded
without requiring hardware changes, and without bringing
the entire system down. While one controller is in action
the duplicate controller is there as a hot standby in case of
a sudden need. In the near future, it is expected that fibre
optic system would be used to generate firing signal and the
direct light fired thyristors would be employed for HVDC
converters. Availability of 100 mm thyristors has eliminated
the need of paralleling thyristors as these can handle currents
of the order of 4 kA. Although presently HVDC schemes
operate perfectly well without the assistance of DC circuit
UNIT 4 HVDC
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
breakers, it is clear that the prospective extension from point
to point to other DC power system configurations can gain
versatility and operational flexibility with the use of DC
circuit breakers. The lack of current zero presents a difficult
problem to the opening of DC. It is by now clear that HVDC
transmission is already a reliable, efficient and cost-effective
alternative to HVAC for many applications. [PSE, Nagrath
& Kothari]
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
UNIT 5 Distribution Systems
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Electricity is the most useful and convenient form of energy
for the modern society. The present social infrastructure
cannot be completed without it. Growing standard of the
people world over is measured in terms of their per capita
consumption of energy. However, this form of energy needs
a special treatment for its distribution to the masses and
this is what I known as "Power Distribution".
In India, the power distribution has always been considered
to be a conventional affair i.e. providing a connection, billing
and revenue realization. However, a number of other issues
need to be considered as a part of the same system. For
instance, Outages or failures on the distribution system
affect the consumer immediately. Moreover, these systems
are more vulnerable and have less backup capacity than bulk
power supply system and generation. The problem is,
further, aggravated by losses, poor voltage regulation etc.
Frequent cycle of power shortages impose restriction on the
distribution system.
Objectives
After reading this unit you will be able to understand:
Distribution Planning
Planning Methods
Distribution Substations - Site Considerations
Layout
Layout Considerations
Unit 5
Distribution Systems
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Many changes are taking place in the electrical industry after
the promulgation of Electricity Act 2003. A few of these can
be cited as:
Privatization process of the power industry in many
states with varying degrees of failures and successes.
Rising tariff and power shortages.
In the 21st century, affordable power and commitment to
consumer service are going to be the key words for the power
utilities. An urgent need for innovation and creating
sustainable electricity is there. High quality and reliability,
economics, environmental considerations, globalization, new
technologies are the driving forces in the power sector. A
few of these technologies are:
Network mapping and GIS
ERP - Enterprise Resource Planning
Electronic metering and planning
Construction skills.
The Electricity Act, 2003 is an innovative approach to solve
India's power problems. It has paved way for a competitive
environment: open access to existing transmission and
distribution network to transmit electricity across regions;
laying of parallel distribution in special cases; de-licensing
for generation, captive power and dedicated transmission
lines; licensing for distribution and supply companies; and
the restructuring of the State Electricity Boards. The aim of
100% electrification of the country is, again, a matter of
concern. Majority of the rural area are without any electricity
connection. Irregularity of power is another problem which
aggravates the economical conditions of the rural areas.
These issues can be, effectively, dealt with by having a
distribution system in a planned manner. This requires a
careful planning of the distribution system.
Distribution Planning
While knowing the fact that distribution system is a part of
the system between transmission and the consumer service
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
point, the importance of equipment layout, facility design
and equipments etc play an important role in providing
quality of service to the consumers at the lowest possible
cost. In a power utility, this process seeks to identify the
best schedule of future resources and actions to achieve the
utility's goals.
Planning is driven by two inputs:
Future needs
Time to fulfill these needs with defined priorities in
Master Plan.
Long term planning determines the power energy forecasts
and optimum network arrangements. Network planning
covers individual investments in one or two years as a
medium-term planning tool within the period of a long term
plan. A short-term plan covers the annual plans for each year.
Following are the steps involved in the planning process:
Feasibility studies are carried out to identify, evaluate
and finalize the best plan.
Define the problem Find the alternatives
Evaluate the alternatives Select the best one.
A project report for long, medium and short term works
along with the action plan / pert chart / bar chart for
each activity / work is prepared. Dates are set for
milestones.
Final approval is accorded after financial and economic
appraisal.
Implementation begins.
Basic Principles of Distribution Planning:
Transmission and Distribution lines transport power from
one bulk power location to the consumer site, the
transformers change the voltage level of the power,
considering the following basic principles:
It is more economical to transport the power at a high
voltage. The higher the voltage, the lower the cost / kW
to transport power to a distant point.

Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Electricity travels as per Kirchoff's current and voltage
laws. It follows the least resistance path.
Power must be delivered in relatively small quantities
at a low voltage level.
Voltage drop occurs from the source point to the end
location.
Losses in power are incurred, creating a cost.
Equipments and labor come at a cost.
Operation and maintenance add to service cost.
Future growth accounting is survival.
When power is used for any purpose by the consumer,
the responsibility lies on the consumer to share the
degradation of environment on this account.
Nominal rated system voltage for equipment operation.
A rise above this voltage tends to reduce the power
factor of equipment.
Segmentation and scheduling of agriculture supply on a
feeder is a step in the direction of economy and to supply
power at low cost to agriculture consumers.
Electricity market: Wholesale, select retail, bi-lateral
contracts will cut-down the cost of supply if adequate
power surplus and grid links are available.
Planning Methods
Planning of integrated recourses requires the following two
methods:
(I) Traditional Least Cost Planning: It is process by
which utilities minimize the cost of supplying a given
amount of electricity. It is the method of acquiring
recourses at the lowest cost, taking into account all
possible means of meeting electricity needs and all
resource cost including construction, operation, sub-
transmission, distribution, consumer and environment
costs.
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Firstly the existing inadequacies are identified as:
Poor voltage regulation;
Higher system losses;
Higher equipment failure/breakdowns and/or
higher line breakdowns / tripping.
Bad quality of power supply; and
No scope for future load growth.
The initial system improvements can be very cost-
effective in removing the above inadequacies as
compared to the other alternative of laying a new
extended system. Thus, there are two options:
a) System Improvement: Argumentation and
strengthening of the existing system; improving the
reliability and quality of supply; reduction of
commercial and technical losses, and/or
b) Expansion of the existing network: The least cost
optimal solution from various alternative schemes
may be worked out considering the capital cost of
the proposed works and present values of the kW
and energy losses over the expected life of
equipments in case of expansion of network. When
the argumentation and strengthening of existing
system are involved, the benefits of saving in losses
(kW and energy), net revenue increase due to
additional sale of power and energy after adjusting
the expenditure incurred on generation of the
additional energy. The net present values of
alternate plans are compared to choose the least-
cost solution. Also, financial analysis of the chosen
scheme is done to satisfy the funding organization.
(2) Demand-side Planning (DSP): It is the process by
which power utilities quantify and assess programmes
to alter the pattern and level of their consumers' demand
for electricity. This is planning at the consumer level
and often has a long planning period, much longer than
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
distribution planning and often as long as that of
generation. It can take years of slow progress to obtain
meaningful levels of participation. According to a study,
the low-cost demand side option can be:
Item Approximate cost (2000)
Implementation energy Rs 1500/kW
conservation Programmes
Providing vigilance and Rs 50/kW
detection of theft
Providing metering Rs 300/kW
Demand-Side Planning (DSM) measures required special
programmes that try to mobilize cost-effective saving in
electricity and peak demand. Numerous studies in India,
China and other countries have found that cost-effective
DSM programmes can reduce electricity use and peak
demand by approximately 20 to 40 per cent. DSM
benefits households, industry, agriculture, utilities and
society in the following ways:
Reduces consumer's energy bills.
Reduces the need for power plant, transmission and
distribution construction.
Stimulates economic development.
Creates long-term jobs that benefit the economy.
Increase the competitiveness of local enterprises.
Can reduce maintenance and equipment
replacement costs.
Reduce local air pollution.
Reduce emissions that contribute to national and
international environment problems such as acid
rain and global warming.
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Enhances national security by easing dependence
on foreign energy sources.
Can increase the comfort and quality of work
spaces, which in turn can increase worker
productivity.
Utility DSM programmes generally fall into three main
categories:
(A) Conservation Programmes: Reduce energy use with
programmes to improve the efficiency of equipment (like
lighting and motors), buildings and industrial processes
as per the Energy Conservation Act, 2001.
(B) Load Management Programmes: Redistribute energy
demands to spread it more evenly throughout the day.
Some of the ways of doing this are: Load-shifting
programmes (reducing air-conditioning loads during the
periods of peak demand and shifting these loads to less
critical periods), time-of-use rates (charging more
electricity during peak demand) and interruptible rates
(providing rate discounts in exchange for the right to
reduce consumers' electricity allocation each year
during a few hours when electricity demand is the
highest).
(C) Strategic load growth programmes: Increase energy
use during some periods, e.g. encourage cost-effective
electrical technologies that operate primarily during
periods of the electricity demand.
Within these categories, the following approaches can be
used:
1) General information programmes to inform consumers
about generic energy-efficient options.
2) Site-specific information programmes that provide
information about specific DSM measures appropriate
for a particular industry, agriculture or home.
3) Financing programmes to assist consumers to pay for
DSM measures including loans, rebates and shared-
saving programmes.
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
4) Direct installation programmes that provide complete
services to design, finance and install a package of
efficiency measures.
5) Alternative tariff and load-shifting tariff. These
programmes generally do not save energy but they are
effective ways to shift loads to off-peak periods.
6) Bidding Programmes in which a utility solicits bids from
consumers and energy service companies to promote
energy saving in the utility's service area.
7) Market transformation programmes that seek to change
the market for a particular technology or service so that
the efficient technology is in widespread use without
continued utility intervention.
8) Load limiters are effective in demand-side management,
as they limit the maximum power that the consumer
draws from the supply. Widespread use of Load
Limiters for low- consumption rural/urban slum
consumers instead of meters can result in substantial
saving on transmission, distribution and generating
equipment.
The process of designing and implementing DSM programmes
generally consists of the following steps:
Identifying sectors, end-users and efficiency measures
to targets;
Developing programmes designs;
Conducting cost-effective screening;
Preparing an implementation plan;
Implementing programmes and
Evaluating programmes.
Distribution Substations - Site Considerations
Planning of the substation is best done by considering the
impact of any siting or sizing decisions on all fours levels.
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
The main criterion for selecting a substation site is:
1) Proximity of load: Some sites are close to the existing
transmission line or can be replaced at a low cost. Other
sites require lengthy or underground access, thus adding
to costs.
2) Out- going feeder space: Getting a feeder out of a
substation requires right-of -way which may be a problem
in some cases viz. religious places, un-approachable
areas etc..
3) Geographic: Nearby terrain or public facilities may
constrain feeder routing and raise costs.
4) Site preparation: The slope, drainage "and underlying
soil and rock" determine the cost of preparing the site
for a substation and building the foundation etc.
5) Cost of land: Some sites cost more than others due to
commercial consideration.
6) Weather exposure: Sites on hilltops are more exposed
to lightning and adverse weather, increasing some
operation and maintenance costs.
Size
There is a thumb-rule (10), the minimum economical capacity
(MVA) for a substation is approximately equal to one-fourth
of high-side voltage (kV). A 66 k V can serve about 16 MVA.
Service Area Location
The service area for a substation should be, as far as is
practical, circular. The consumer should be served from the
nearest substation. This will make the supply line distance
as short as possible to reduce losses, costs and service
interruption exposure. To apply this concept, the best
approximation is made by the perpendicular bisector rule.
It consists of the following steps:
(i) Draw a straight line between a proposed substation site
and each of the substations surrounding it.
(ii) Then draw a perpendicular bisect of each of these
lines.
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
(iii) The area enclosed by the perpendicular bisectors around
the proposed substation will be the service area.
(iv) Shifting of the load of nearby substations can be
determined from the area falling within the polygon.
Let's say the purpose is to shift the specific load of a
particular by substation, 'C'. If this is not accomplished,
then the proposed site should be moved closer to that
substation and repeat the above three steps.
(v) So the 'optimal site' for a new substation is determined
by an iterative process.
Feeder System
Feeder is of the distribution system tailored to load locations
and needs. Voltage drop, power flow, power quality and cost
are important points of consideration. More than 80% of the
distribution worldwide is accomplished using a radial feeder
in which there is only one path between any consumer and
the substation. In most cases, the feeder system is physically
interlinked with normally open switches at the suitable
points, which are operated as radial. The various types of
feeders are:
Radial Feeder: Radial circuits are low-cost and easy
to analyze and operate though reliability is low. Any
equipment failure will interrupt service to at least all
the consumers downstream from it.
Loop Feeder: Two feeders can be constructed and
operated as loop feeder circuits and are tapped for
consumers in which the power flows into each end of a
feeder. There is a 'null point' somewhere on the loop
where no power flows. This is basically a dynamic radial
circuit with an open point (null point) shifting as the
load changes. When constructed and protected properly,
it provides a high level of reliability for the consumer.
Feeder Network: This consists of a group of feeders
which are interconnected so that there is always more
than one route between any two points in the feeder
network. It is designed with sufficient capacity protection
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
throughout. This system gives a very high level of
reliable power to the consumer. The cost is very high
compared to the radial system. Voltage drop, fault
behaviour and load flow studies are somewhat
complicated. Computer programs are now available to
carry out such studies.
Consumers
Consumers are defined by the load and load centres. They
are of diversified nature and requirements vary over a wide
range. Further, there is an element of satisfaction and quality
of services involved which should be addressed with caution.
Such issues shall be discussed in the subsequent chapters
later in this book.
Layout
Total network is a complex grid of interconnected lines
comprising of primary distribution system (High Voltage
Transmission lines between the generating station and the
distribution centres) and the secondary distribution system
(Low voltage lines between the distribution centre and the
load). The distribution planning has to plan their investment
programme 5 -10 years in advance with annual investment
plans in place. Route and location of sub-transmission lines
and distribution substations is made after carrying the
computer based flow analysis of various alternatives. The
objective of distribution system planning is to ensure that
the growing demand for electricity, with growing rates, can
be satisfied in an optimum way, mainly to achieve minimum
total cost of the distribution system expansion. This is
achieved by dividing the system into smaller problems with
a heuristic attached.
A typical Distribution System consists of four elements viz.
Sub-transmission, Sub-station, Feeder System & Consumers.
Sub-Transmission
This designates the system that delivers energy from
transmission to the primary distribution system. Usually this
function is served by the transmission sub-station. However,
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
with the growth of the load and more power, the voltages
results in a low transmission voltages viz. 220 KV to 33 KV.
Sub-Station
A sub-station consists of all equipments involved in the
switching or regulating the electricity. Sub-stations can be
small or large. Power transformers constitute an important
part of the sub-station. The transformer is a static device
which transfers electrical energy from one circuit
magnetically coupled with another and transforms voltage
levels. On-load tap changing transformers are used to
regulate voltages. Switchgear constitutes an essential
component of the sub-station. Under normal operating
conditions, it provides the means to perform routine
switching operations, e.g. disconnecting and isolating various
equipment for maintenance, inspection or replacement,
transferring load, isolating regulators, etc. Under abnormal
conditions, switchgear provides the means for automatically
isolating parts of the system in trouble to prevent damage
and to localize the problem. The main components of the
switchgear include circuit breakers, disconnecting switches,
fuse, instrument transformers, buses and connections,
supporting insulators, protective and control relays, and
control switches.
Layout Considerations
A distribution system is a network of Devices and Connectors
(Feeders). It starts from the transmission end-point and
terminates at the load (Consumer service point). Normal
operation voltages are low. In fact, it is a part of an Electric
Power System which is dedicated to delivering electric
energy to the end-user. Since this element deals with the
consumer directly, Distribution System affects the consumer
immediately. Suitable selection of voltages, access and
security needs to be addressed forehand.
It has High Voltage Primary distribution: 3.3, 6.6, 11, 22, 33,
66, 132 or 220 kV. 11 & 22 kV is the main primary distribution
voltage (India). Higher Voltages may be applicable for large
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
consumers. A typical distribution system can be shown as
below:
Design for distribution systems depends on a few factors viz.
Ease of access, load density, type of load, socio-political
environment etc. However, future growth should not be
ignored. Further, serviceability of equipments and approach
to the facility also plays its own role in designing of a
distribution system.
66 or 33 KV
66/33/11 KV
M
M
M
M
M
11 KV
11 KV / 415 V
For Energy Accounting
At Consumer premises
At consumer Premises with
HT Load
Distribution Transformer
UNIT 6 Metering, Billing and Revenue Collection
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Electricity has been declared as commodity through EA'03.
State Electricity Boards did not ay the requisite attention
to this fact due to various reasons either political, technical,
economical or otherwise. However, it is a fact that the sector
cannot survive unless an efficient, effective and reasonable
process to realize cost plus profit. However, the path is not
so easy. It is fraught with a large number of bottlenecks and
the concerned agencies have to come with iron hand to weed
out the problem which is embedded into the society for long.
This, in fact, has acquired a mammoth size. This sector needs
a huge amount of investment to cope up with the demand-
supply gap. Private investors have been invited to participate
in the process.
Best Practices in Power Distribution
Objectives
After reading this unit you will be able to understand:
Customer Indexing
Metering & Billing and Types of Metering
Types of Billing and HR Initiatives
Unit 6
Metering, Billing and Revenue
Collection
Process Practices
Customer
Indexing
Customer Indexing GIS Mapping Asset Codification
Metering &
Billing
Outsourcing /
Franchise
Spot Billing AMR Meter
Reading thru
CMRI
Computeriz
ed Bill
Generation
Web based
billing,
Collection
Revenue
Management
HR Initiatives
Online
collection for
depositing
bills in any
counter
Collection
through
Bank / ATM
/ ECS / Post
Office
Online
payment
through
Credit Card,
Bank Account
Cheque
Drop Boxes
Daily
reconciliatio
n of
payment
Technical HVDS
Commercial 100%
Metering
Energy Audit Cash Loss
Reduction Loss Reduction
Administrativ
e
Theft
Control
Implementati
on of EA03

Consumer
Grievance
Cell

Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
To boost the reform programme, the Ministry of Power
formulated a six level intervention strategy for distribution
reforms at National, State, SEB, Distribution Circle, Feeder
& consumers levels to ensures accountability, deliver ability
and performance at all level.
1. National level interventions: include providing for a
legal framework for ushering distribution reforms like
enabling local institutions to manage distribution, third
party sale, remote metering, removal of cross subsidies,
penal provision for thefts etc.
2. State level interventions: The States are being asked
to sign the MOUs with the MoP to set up SERCs
restructure SEBs, remove cross subsidies and tariff
anomalies, provide budgetary support to SEBs towards
subsidies, introduce privatization etc. So far
28 States have signed MOUs with the Ministry of
Power,
21 States have constituted SERCs,
17 State Regulatory Commissions have issued tariff
orders
9 States have unbundled / corporatized their SEBs.
3. SEB level intervention: The SEBs were asked to sign
an MOA with the MoP to carry out distribution reforms.
This would lead to increased accountability, introduction
of commercial accounting, setting up of online
management information systems, reduction of T &0
losses, introduction of bench marking of crucial
parameters that cover consumer satisfaction and system
stability. So far
28 states have signed the MOA.
4. Distribution Circle level interventions: At this level,
the Technical, commercial and administrative
interventions for reducing outages, improving reliability,
reducing technical and commercia110sses are envisaged.
The Superintending Engineer will be the head of the
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
distribution circle, which will work as an independent
profit centre.
5. Feeder level intervention - 11 KY Feeders will be
operated as business units that will be accountable for
quality of power and reliability, metering, billing and
collection. IT applications covering remote metering at
feeder and distribution transformer levels will be the
mainstay for monitoring and collection. Replacement of
conductors and energy efficient distribution
transformers, metering feeders and distribution
transformers, reducing HT/LT ratio, segregation of
technical and commercial losses \ are envisaged.
6. Consumer level intervention: Mandatory metering with
digital interface for all consumers, prepaid metering,
incentives for energy efficiency are envisaged here.
Customer Indexing
It is a process to see that every customer is recorded and
linked to the distribution transformers. The database records
physical connectivity as well as allows for forecasting of
future requirements for equipments and other resources.
Customer profiling: All parameters of the customer like
sanctioned load, connected load are documented and
updated. This facilitates planning for resource augmentation,
tariff determination and optimum utilization. The data can
also be used for reduction of AT&C losses by scheduling loads
differently. Authentication of such data is a mammoth task
and the agencies have to depend, largely, on third part
efforts.
GIS Based Mapping: Dakshin Haryana Bijli Vitaran Nigam
Ltd. (DHBVN L) have initiated action for field survey and
customer indexing of consumers in 5 Circles under APDRP
This would enable the respective Utilities to increase their
customer coverage, regularization of unregistered/
unauthorized connections, auditing at feeder level by
comparison of 'Energy sent out' on a 11 kV feeder with total
energy meter reading of all HT/LT customers in that
particular feeder.
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Metering & Billing
As the nos. of customers in the Power Distribution business
is quite large the metering, billing and revenue collection
measures should have following characteristics to meet the
challenges suitably:
a) The metering and billing should be accurate, as any
discrepancy in these components will directly lead to
revenue loss on either side (utility/consumer) beside loss
of valuable manpower time for its correction & customer
satisfaction.
b) The metering, billing and revenue collection activities
should be prompt enough to realize the revenue dues
within minimum possible time, so that the precious
revenue does not remain block.
c) The measures and activities to fulfill these objectives
should be economical and suit the utility' s budget.
d) These activities should be transparent enough to leave
no scope of grievances from consumers or utility.
Types of Metering
1. Automatic Meter Reading (AMR): AMR generally is
regarded as the reading of a utility meter by a means
that does not require physical access or visual inspection
of the meter. A typical AMR system has several main
components: meter, meter interface unit (MID), a
communications network & host computer.
Normally, within an AMR system, the meter data is
passed from the meter to an MID, which may be external
to the meter or integrated within the body of the meter.
In addition to the meter data, other pertinent
information may be stored within the MIU, such as any
tamper or alarm conditions. This device forms the
interface between the meter and the communications
network, including modulated radio frequencies (RF),
telephone lines, or the electric power line itself. Each
of these methods has advantages and disadvantages as
well as specific suitability.
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Depending on the network used, information from the
MIU may be retrieved and stored in intermediate nodes
or delivered directly to the utility. In the case of an RF
network this may be a hand-held receiver, a mobile unit,
such as a van, or a node on a fixed network.
The transfer of the meter data from the network to the
utility may be instantaneous or stored for later
transmission to the utility host computer. Often, on a
fixed network, the data from the MID is transmitted
via a wide area network (WAN) back to the host
computer. The WAN may be any variety of data
networks, including; private data services or public data
networks. Once the data is resident within the utility,
the meter and other retrieved information can then be
shared with other points on the system, including a
customer service representative's PC or the central
billing computer. .
2. Time-of-Day Metering (TOD): TOD metering is a rate
option that is offered by many utilities. When elected
by the customer, a meter that records demand, time,
and energy usage is installed in place of the existing
meter. The metering option benefits utility companies
by decreasing the required capacity. The metering
option benefits customers by providing reduced demand
and usage rates during off-peak times, which gives
customers a chance to reduce their utility bill.
At a given time a utility company has a certain capacity
of energy available to its customers. A utility i11ust be
prepared to meet the demands placed on the grid by
the consumers. During on-peak hours, demands are
typically highest because of manufacturing loads, office
loads, air conditioning loads and etc. The on-peak hours
usually vary from around 9:00 a.m. - 6:00 p.m. Monday
through Friday. During this on-peak period, utility
companies must have enough capacity on-hand to meet
the loads placed on them by their customers. Having
this on-hand capacity creates additional expenses for
the utility. To' lessen the required capacity, the utility
often offers incentives to customers that are willing to
shift or move a portion of their demand to off-peak hours.
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Types of Billing
1. Meter reading & spot Billing: Billing forms the core
of the commercial operations for any power distribution
utility. It is through the metering, billing and collection
process that the utility realizes its revenue. Many
deficiencies exist in these processes resulting in huge
commercial losses, and creeping inefficiencies, which can
be effectively reduced through IT initiatives and
strategic partnership. A good billing solution is required
for Handling Complex Billing, Revenue Protection,
Establishing a System of Checks & Validations,
Satisfying Consumers Demand.
2. Spot billing is a revolutionary solution devised with an
intention to enable the power distribution utilities to
streamline and implement an effective metering &
billing system, improve cash flows and to make the
processes customer centric.
The spot billing process helps in integrating various
activities being handled by several people at multiple
locations' into a single window operation.
3. The process of collecting billing data from LT / Domestic
electro-mechanical meters using hand-held computers
consist of the following steps.
The hand-held computer is pre loaded with a set of
records! information based on which the meter data
needs to be collected. This includes parameters like
Number, House Number, Meter number, Previous
Reading etc.
The meter reader moves around collecting the
required data.
At the end of the day, the meter reader downloads
the data into a Computer, where the master
database gets updated.
Using the updated data base, the Computer can
generate the Bills.
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
4. Online Collections: Payment of electricity bills has
generally been an unpleasant & time-consuming
experience for the customers. Long queues, inconvenient
timings, limited modes of payment have made payment
of electricity bills a difficult task for the customers.
Online collection of electricity bills has provided
customers several options for making their payments.
Collection Centers have been setup by power
distribution utilities or state governments under e-
governance to enable customers to make payments in
an easy and convenient manner. Collection centers work
on extended timing and payments can be made in any of
the centers either through cash, cheques, demand draft,
credit cards, debit cards, etc. Collection centers have
been successfully implemented in Andhra Pradesh.
Similarly some banks have offered their services for
collecting electricity bills from the consumers.
Customers can go to these banks and pay their bills
either various payment modes.
HR Initiatives
Electricity Call Center: To address the power supply
related complaints on a proactive basis and provide effective,
assured and timely services to the customers several power
distribution companies' and state 'electricity boards have set
up an Electricity Call Centers. These call centers work
round the Clock to receive customer complaints through
several channels such as telephone, fax, email, etc. The
telephone number 1912 is specifically allotted to Electricity
Call Centers for handling power supply related complaints.
The customer complaints are registered and forwarded to
the field personnel for timely action and rectification. The
status of the complaint is periodically tracked and updated.
The customer can know the status of the complaints
registered by contacting the call center personnel In case
the complaint is not resolved within a specified time limit,
the complaint is escalated to the notice of higher authorities
for expediting the resolution process,
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
The Electricity Call Centers are managed through specially
designed software solutions, which form the backbone of
operations. The software deployed may vary from technically
advanced to simple solutions. The software generally
comprise of Contact Management Solution and/or Process
Monitoring Solution. These call centers are either managed
by the utility's personnel or outsourced to third parties.
Electricity Call Centers have been implemented in the states
of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. In the states
such as Rajasthan, Delhi, Madhya Pradesh, etc the call
centers are at the various stages' of implementation. With
the help of these call centers the distribution utilities have
been able to conform to the stringent service levels defined
by their respective state Electricity Regulatory Commissions.
Customer Service Center: Customer Service Centers are.
set up by the power distribution utilities / state electricity
boards to provide a Single Window interface for all the
customer related activities. Customers are thus spared for
the tedious process of approaching several offices for getting
their work done. Customers can approach the Customer
Service Centers for availing new service connections;
resolving their complaints related to metering, billing,
disconnections, reconnections, etc; and for processing their
service requests related to category changes, title transfers,
load changes, etc.
Generally these customer service centers work on extended
and convenient timing for, the benefit of the customers. The
entire process of registration of complaints / service requests,
dispatch, status updating, closure is managed through custom
designed Software solutions- or Software Products.
In case the complaint / service request is not resolved within
a specified time limit, the same is escalated to the notice of
higher authorities for expediting the resolution process. The
escalation process is enabled through the intelligent
components of the software.
These service centers are generally setup with good ambience
to enhance the customer interaction experience. Customer
service centers have been successful in bringing down the
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
processing time and have thus significantly enhanced the
customer satisfaction levels.
Customer Service Centers have been implemented in the
states of Andhra Pradesh, Delhi and Karnataka. With the
help of these service centers the distribution utilities have
been able to conform to the stringent service levels defined
by their respective state Electricity Regulatory
Commissions.
Citizen Charter: In order provide effective and efficient
services to the electricity customers, state level Electricity
Regulatory Commissions have developed Citizen Charter
defining the tariff structures, billing systems and customer
service systems. Service Levels have been defined for
providing processing customer complaints and service
requests. These service levels are stringent and enforced
strictly.
Electricity Regulatory Commissions in several states such
as Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Orissa, Rajasthan, etc have
developed Citizen Charter and are being implemented. A
few encouraging results have been seen over a period of time.
But, it is still a far cry before the situation can be said to be
under controls. Most of the states are, yet, to initiate action,
however, some of them have shown remarkable
performances. The national level ranking of states indicates
such a phenomenon. One of such rankings is given below for
reference.
Notes
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Ranking Of The Utilities/ States On The Basis Of Number Of
Trippings Of 11 KV Feeders In Towns Having Population
More Than Eight Lakhs
SI. Utility (State) Town No. of Trippings Per Feeder
MPPKVVN (M.P.) Jabalpur 0.06
CESC (West Bengal) Kolkata 0.09
Reliance Energy (Maha.) Mumbai Suburbs 0.46
AEC (Gujarat) Ahmedabad 0.49
APCPDCL (A.P.) V isakhapatnam 1.26
KEB (Kerala) Thiruvananthapuram 1.41
SEC (Gujarat) Surat 1.60
MSEB (Maha.) Bhandup 1.90
TNEB (Tamil Nadu) Madurai 2.00
BEST (Maha.) Greater Mumbai 2.05
TNEB (TamilNadu) Tiruchirapalli 2.07
MSEB (Maha.) Mulund 2.15
NDPL (NCT of Delhi) Delhi 2.98
MSEB (Maha.) Nagpur 3.10
GEB (Gujarat) Vadodara 4.45
CSEB (Chattisgarh) Raipur 6.37
TNEB (Tamil Nadu) Chennai 7.55
TNEB (Tamil Nadu) Coimbatore 8.47
APCPDCL (A.P.) Hyderabad 8.70
GEB (Gujarat) Rajkot 10.83
PSEB (Punjab) Amritsar 11.71
KEB (KeraJa) Kochi 14.46
APCPOCL (A.P.) Vijayavada 14.57

MDSP 805 Understanding Power Industry New

Diunggah oleh

Informasi Dokumen

Judul Asli

Hak Cipta

Format Tersedia

Bagikan dokumen Ini

Bagikan atau Tanam Dokumen

Opsi Berbagi

Apakah menurut Anda dokumen ini bermanfaat?

Apakah konten ini tidak pantas?

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

MDSP 805 Understanding Power Industry New

Diunggah oleh

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

PhD

Course Code: MDSP-805

The difference between load and capacity factors is an

The Power Plant capacity study needs understanding of

Anda mungkin juga menyukai