Coverage and Performance Evaluation of Mobile Cellular Structured WiMAX

All praise is for ALLAH for his gracious & grants upon us.
We wish to express our sincere gratitude to the person

who stands besides us with his great competence, vision
and direction to present our thoughts and visions in this
book, to him we dedicate this book ...
To our teacher Dr.Hamed El Shenawy.
We cannot forget to thank Head of Communication and

Electronic Engineering Department Prof.Dr.Abd El Wahab
Fayz for his contiguous encouragement for us to improve
our skills and become innovators.
Abstract
Recently WiMAX technology has gained growing interest due to its applications and advantages.
WiMAX is fast emerging as a last-mile problem solution and broadband access technology. WIMAX
stands for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access based on IEEE 802.16 standard. As an air
Interface for Fixed Broadband Wireless Access (FBWA) in metropolitan area networks (MANs) and for
Mobile Broadband Wireless Access (MBWA) Systems thus allowing technology to be embedded in
handheld devices and portable devices such as laptops. The interoperability and the standard
compliance of the equipments from different vendors are assured.
The key elements for coverage prediction including calculation of link budget taken into account
the particularities of the WIMAX technology and different scenario were considered. The operation
scenarios are specified based on real world conditions considering the regulatory rules for radio
frequency spectrum utilization for licensed and licensed exempted bands and using appropriate
propagation model to calculate the cell radius. Several coverage prediction models have been analyzed
such as free space model, COST231 Okumara Hata model, COST231 Walfish Ikegami model and Stanford
university interim (SUI) model but in our project we will focus on free space model as line of sight (LOS)
and Stanford university interim (SUI) model was adopted because it provides acceptable accuracy for
NLOS scenario and frequency up to 6 GHz. Finally the system performance is evaluated in terms of the
maximum transmission data rate.
The influence of the key system parameters on coverage and

performance are studied such as:
 Effect of type of CPE.
 Effect of type of BTS.
 The effect of different channel bandwidth
 licensed and license exempted frequency bands
 The impact of type of adaptive modulation and coding rate
 The effect of BTS height.
 The effect of the BTS & transmission power and using subchannelization scheme in WiMAX
technology.
 Comparison among different model.
 Effect o CPE height.

Also the effects of the key system parameters on performance are
investigated as follows:
 Effect of modulation type and code rate.
 Effect of cyclic prefix rate.
 Effect of nominal channel bandwidth and operating frequency.
 Effect of subchannelization.
This project is organized as follows:

Chapter one: describes the basis of WiMAX technology its standards, different network topologies,
system architecture, system specifications and the major aspects of the technology. In this project only
traditional cellular architecture point to multipoint (PMP) configuration is studied.
Chapter two: presents the basis of OFDM.
Chapter three: shows the key different between mobile WiMAX and other broadband technologies.
Chapter four: explains how the coverage of mobile WiMAX is done.
Chapter five: discusses the different parameters which affects in mobile WiMAX coverage and its
numerical results.
Chapter six: discusses the different parameters which affects in mobile WiMAX performance and its
numerical results.
Chapter seven: presents a uniform solution of Network planning of WIMAX cellular structured system.
Chapter eight: contains a hardware implementation of RF Field strength meter.
Chapter nine: discusses the functions which convert fixed WiMAX into mobile WiMAX.
Chapter ten: includes the conclusions and suggestion for future research.
II
Table of contents
Chapter 1: Overview of WiMAX technology
1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 1 - 1
1.2 WiMAX ............................................................................................................................................... 1 - 1
1.2.1 What is WiMAX? ......................................................................................................................... 1 - 1
1.2.2 WiMAX Standard ......................................................................................................................... 1 - 2
1.2.3 What is a Standard? .................................................................................................................... 1 - 3
1.2.4 Benefits of standardized WiMAX ................................................................................................ 1 - 3
1.2.5 General features of IEEE 802.16 ................................................................................................. 1 - 3
1.2.6 General features of IEEE 802.16a ............................................................................................... 1 - 4
1.2.7 General features of IEEE 802.16b ............................................................................................... 1 - 4
1.2.8 General features of IEEE 802.16c ................................................................................................ 1 - 5
1.2.9 General features of IEEE 802.16d-2004 Fixed WiMAX ............................................................... 1 - 5
1.2.10 General features of IEEE 802.16e Mobile WiMAX .................................................................... 1 - 5
1.3 WiMAX Spectrum Availability ............................................................................................................ 1 - 6
1.3.1 Licensed Band ............................................................................................................................. 1 - 6
1.3.2 Unlicensed Band ......................................................................................................................... 1 - 7
1.4 WiMAX Network Architecture ........................................................................................................... 1 - 7
1.4.1 WiMAX Network Reference Model (NRM) ................................................................................. 1 - 8
1.5 WIMAX Topologies........................................................................................................................... 1 - 11
1.5.1 Point-to-point (P2P) .................................................................................................................. 1 - 11
1.5.2 Point-to-Multipoint (PMP) ........................................................................................................ 1 - 12
1.5.3 Mesh Topology.......................................................................................................................... 1 - 12
1.6 Line of sight (LOS) or Non-line of sight (NLOS) ................................................................................ 1 - 13
1.7 WiMAX Antennas ............................................................................................................................. 1 - 14
1.7.1 Omni directional antenna ......................................................................................................... 1 - 14
1.7.2 Sector antennas ........................................................................................................................ 1 - 15
1.7.3 Panel antennas .......................................................................................................................... 1 - 16
1.8 Subscriber Stations .......................................................................................................................... 1 - 16
1.8.1 Mobile CPE ................................................................................................................................ 1 - 16
III
1.8.2 Portable CPE.............................................................................................................................. 1 - 17
1.9 WiMAX Technical specifications ...................................................................................................... 1 - 17
1.10 WiMAX Advantages ....................................................................................................................... 1 - 20
1.11 WiMAX Applications ...................................................................................................................... 1 - 22
1.11.1 Private Networks..................................................................................................................... 1 - 22
1.11.2 Cellular Backhaul ..................................................................................................................... 1 - 22
1.11.3 Wireless Service Provider Backhaul ........................................................................................ 1 - 23
1.11.4 Banking Networks ................................................................................................................... 1 - 24
1.11.5 Education Networks ................................................................................................................ 1 - 25
1.11.6 Public Safety ............................................................................................................................ 1 - 26
1.11.7 Offshore Communications ...................................................................................................... 1 - 27
1.11.8 Campus Connectivity .............................................................................................................. 1 - 28
1.11.9 Temporary Construction Communications ............................................................................. 1 - 29
1.11.10 Theme Parks.......................................................................................................................... 1 - 30
1.11.11 Public Networks .................................................................................................................... 1 - 31
1.11.12 Wireless Service Provider Access Network ........................................................................... 1 - 31
1.11.13 Rural Connectivity ................................................................................................................. 1 - 32
1.12 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 1 - 33
Chapter 2: Overview of OFDM
2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 2 - 1
2.1.1 History of OFDM ......................................................................................................................... 2 - 1
2.1.2 What is OFDM? ........................................................................................................................... 2 - 2
2.1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages .................................................................................................. 2 - 3
2.1.4 Comparison among different multiplexing techniques .............................................................. 2 - 4
2.1.4.1 OFDM versus FDM ............................................................................................................... 2 - 4
2.1.4.2 OFDM versus TDM ............................................................................................................... 2 - 5
2.1.4.3 OFDM versus CDMA ............................................................................................................. 2 - 6
2.1.5 Applications................................................................................................................................. 2 - 7
2.2 Basics of OFDM .................................................................................................................................. 2 - 8
2.2.1 Orthogonality .............................................................................................................................. 2 - 8
2.2.2 Cyclic Prefix ............................................................................................................................... 2 - 10
2.2.3 Multiple Access in OFDM .......................................................................................................... 2 - 12
IV
2.2.4 OFDM versus Single Carrier ...................................................................................................... 2 - 14
2.2.5 Scalable OFDM Access (SOFDMA)............................................................................................. 2 - 17
2.2.5.1 S-OFDMA parameters ........................................................................................................ 2 - 18
2.2.5.2 Other Complementary Features of S-OFDMA ................................................................... 2 - 18
2.2.5.3 SOFDMA frame structure................................................................................................... 2 - 18
2.2.5.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of SOFDMA System ......................................................... 2 - 19
2.3 OFDM Parameters............................................................................................................................ 2 - 19
2.3.1 Basic Terms in OFDM ................................................................................................................ 2 - 20
2.3.2 Basic OFDM Parameters ........................................................................................................... 2 - 22
2.3.3 Properties of OFDM .................................................................................................................. 2 - 24
2.3.4 OFDM Real Parameters ............................................................................................................. 2 - 26
2.3.5 Subchannelization ..................................................................................................................... 2 - 26
2.3.6 Frame Structure ........................................................................................................................ 2 - 28
2.3.7 From Bits to Carrier ................................................................................................................... 2 - 29
2.4 OFDM Generation and Reception .................................................................................................... 2 - 30
2.4.1 Serial to parallel conversion ...................................................................................................... 2 - 31
2.4.2 Modulation................................................................................................................................ 2 - 32
2.4.3 Frequency to time domain conversion ..................................................................................... 2 - 34
2.4.4 Guard Period ............................................................................................................................. 2 - 35
Chapter 3: Comparison between WiMAX and other Broadband access technologies
3.1 Comparison between WiMAX and 3G cellular................................................................................... 3 - 1
3.1.1 Introduction to 3G Technologies ................................................................................................ 3 - 1
3.1.1.1 THE STANDARDS FOR 3G ..................................................................................................... 3 - 1
3.1.1.2 3G STANDARDIZATION PROCESS ......................................................................................... 3 - 1
3.1.1.3 3GPP ..................................................................................................................................... 3 - 1
3.1.2 Competing Technologies ............................................................................................................. 3 - 2
3.1.2.1 CDMA Family ........................................................................................................................ 3 - 2
3.1.2.2 HSDPA .................................................................................................................................. 3 - 3
3.1.3 Roadmap for 3G Enhancements ................................................................................................. 3 - 3
3.1.4 Technological Comparison .......................................................................................................... 3 - 4
3.2 Comparing Mobile WiMAX to 1xEVDO and HSPA ............................................................................. 3 - 5
3.2.1 Common Features ....................................................................................................................... 3 - 6
V
3.2.1.1 Adaptive Modulation and Coding (AMC) ............................................................................. 3 - 6
3.2.1.2 Hybrid ARQ ........................................................................................................................... 3 - 6
3.2.1.3 Fast Scheduling .................................................................................................................... 3 - 7
3.2.1.4 Bandwidth Efficient Handoff ................................................................................................ 3 - 7
3.1 Key Advantages of Mobile WiMAX .................................................................................................. 3 - 11
3.2.2 Tolerance to Multipath and Self-Interference .......................................................................... 3 - 11
3.2.3 Scalable Channel Bandwidth ..................................................................................................... 3 - 12
3.2.4 Orthogonal Uplink Multiple Access........................................................................................... 3 - 12
3.2.5 Support for Spectral-Efficient TDD ............................................................................................ 3 - 12
3.2.6 Frequency Selective Scheduling ................................................................................................ 3 - 13
3.2.7 Fractional Frequency Reuse ...................................................................................................... 3 - 14
3.2.8 Quality of Service ...................................................................................................................... 3 - 14
3.2.9 Advanced Antenna Technology ................................................................................................ 3 - 15
3.2.10 Spectral Efficiency ................................................................................................................... 3 - 16
3.2.11 Throughput Comparison ......................................................................................................... 3 - 17
3.2.12 Base-Station Deployment ....................................................................................................... 3 - 17
3.2.13 Power control .......................................................................................................................... 3 - 18
3.2.13.1 Power control in 3G ......................................................................................................... 3 - 18
3.2.13.2 Power control in WiMAX .................................................................................................. 3 - 19
3.2.13.3 Comparison between Powers Controls on 3G versus WiMAX......................................... 3 - 20
3.3 Comparison between WiMAX and WiFi ........................................................................................... 3 - 20
3.3.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 3 - 20
3.3.2 Scalability .................................................................................................................................. 3 - 21
3.3.2.1 Improved user connectivity ............................................................................................... 3 - 21
3.3.2.2 Higher quality of service .................................................................................................... 3 - 21
3.3.2.3 Full support for WMAN service .......................................................................................... 3 - 21
3.3.2.4 Robust carrier-class operation ........................................................................................... 3 - 22
3.3.3 Relative Performance ................................................................................................................ 3 - 22
3.3.3.1 Channel Bandwidth ............................................................................................................ 3 - 22
3.3.3.2 Data rate ............................................................................................................................ 3 - 23
3.3.4 Quality of Service ...................................................................................................................... 3 - 23
3.3.4.1 Quality of Service in WiFi: .................................................................................................. 3 - 23
VI
3.3.4.2 Quality of Service in WiMAX .............................................................................................. 3 - 24
3.3.5 RANGE ....................................................................................................................................... 3 - 27
3.3.6 Coverage ................................................................................................................................... 3 - 29
3.3.7 WiMAX Security ........................................................................................................................ 3 - 30
3.4 Comparison between Mobile and Fixed WiMAX ............................................................................. 3 - 31
3.4.1 WiMAX Rollout .......................................................................................................................... 3 - 31
3.4.1.1 Features of IEEE 802.16a.................................................................................................... 3 - 31
3.4.1.2 General features of IEEE 802.16b ...................................................................................... 3 - 32
3.4.1.3 General features of IEEE 802.16c ....................................................................................... 3 - 32
3.4.1.4 IEEE 802.16d-2004 “Fixed WiMAX” ................................................................................... 3 - 32
3.4.1.5 IEEE 802.16e “Mobile WiMAX” .......................................................................................... 3 - 33
3.4.2 Types of WiMAX ........................................................................................................................ 3 - 33
3.4.2.1 Fixed WiMAX ...................................................................................................................... 3 - 33
3.4.2.2 Mobile WiMAX ................................................................................................................... 3 - 34
3.4.2.3 Backhaul ............................................................................................................................. 3 - 34
3.4.3 What is Fixed WiMAX? .............................................................................................................. 3 - 35
3.4.4 What is mobile WiMAX? ........................................................................................................... 3 - 35
3.4.5 Difference between Fixed vs. Mobile ....................................................................................... 3 - 37
3.4.5.1 Mobility Management and Handoff .................................................................................. 3 - 37
3.4.5.2 Technically both are based on OFDM ................................................................................ 3 - 37
3.4.5.3 Mobile WiMAX adds .......................................................................................................... 3 - 37
3.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 3 - 39
Chapter 4: Coverage analysis of mobile WiMAX
4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 4 - 1
4.2 Link Budget......................................................................................................................................... 4 - 2
4.2.1 Why link budget? ........................................................................................................................ 4 - 3
4.2.2 What is a link? ............................................................................................................................. 4 - 3
4.2.3 Base Station ................................................................................................................................ 4 - 3
4.2.4 Customer Premises Equipment (CPE) ......................................................................................... 4 - 4
4.2.5 What is EIRP? .............................................................................................................................. 4 - 5
4.2.6 Receiver Sensitivity ..................................................................................................................... 4 - 6
4.2.6.1 The thermal noise ................................................................................................................ 4 - 6
VII
4.2.6.2 The receiver SNR .................................................................................................................. 4 - 7
4.2.6.3 The noise figure ................................................................................................................... 4 - 7
4.2.6.4 The implementation loss ..................................................................................................... 4 - 8
4.2.7 Uplink Subchanneling Gain ......................................................................................................... 4 - 8
4.2.8 Margins ....................................................................................................................................... 4 - 8
4.2.9 Link Budget Calculation (Maximum Allowable Path Loss) .......................................................... 4 - 9
4.2.10 Effect of Adverse Weather Conditions ................................................................................... 4 - 10
4.2.11 Improving Coverage and Throughput ..................................................................................... 4 - 11
4.3 Propagation Model .......................................................................................................................... 4 - 12
4.3.1 Hata Model ............................................................................................................................... 4 - 13
4.3.2 COST-231 Hata Model ............................................................................................................... 4 - 15
4.3.3 Walfish-Ikegami Model ............................................................................................................. 4 - 16
4.3.4 Erceg Model .............................................................................................................................. 4 - 17
4.3.5 Ecc-33 path loss model ............................................................................................................. 4 - 19
4.3.6 COMPARISON WITH SIMULATION RESULTS ............................................................................. 4 - 19
4.4 Cell Area ........................................................................................................................................... 4 - 21
4.5 Bit Rate per Sector ........................................................................................................................... 4 - 22
4.6 Required Number of Sites and Sectors ............................................................................................ 4 - 22
4.7 Planning Tool: Graphical User Interface (GUI) ................................................................................. 4 - 23
4.8 Link budget sample .......................................................................................................................... 4 - 24
4.9 Conclusions ...................................................................................................................................... 4 - 25
Chapter 5: Numerical results of WiMAX
5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 5 - 1
5.2 The BS antenna height and the modulation technique and coding rate ........................................... 5 - 2
5.3 Effect of different morphologies........................................................................................................ 5 - 3
5.4 Effect of operating frequency ............................................................................................................ 5 - 4
5.5 Effect of channel bandwidth .............................................................................................................. 5 - 5
5.6 Effect of subchannelization................................................................................................................ 5 - 6
5.6.1 The forward link versus reverse link cell radius in case of no subchannelization ...................... 5 - 6
5.6.2 The forward link versus reverse link cell radius in case of subchannelization ........................... 5 - 7
5.7 Comparison between Fixed and mobile WiMAX ............................................................................... 5 - 8
5.8 Comparison between Erceg A, B and C .............................................................................................. 5 - 9
VIII
Chapter 6: Performance analysis of mobile WiMAX
6.1 Performance measures ...................................................................................................................... 6 - 1
6.2 Effect of modulation type and code rate ........................................................................................... 6 - 4
6.3 Effect of Cyclic prefix rate .................................................................................................................. 6 - 6
6.4 Effect of nominal bandwidth and operating frequency..................................................................... 6 - 8
6.5 Effective subchannelization (Licensed operation) ........................................................................... 6 - 10
6.6 Effective subchannelization (Licensed-exempt operation) ............................................................. 6 - 12
6.7 Comparison between fixed WiMAX and Mobile WiMAX ................................................................ 6 - 14
Chapter 7: Practical part of mobile WiMAX coverage
7.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 7 - 1
7.2 Cellular structured WiMAX Network planning processes .................................................................. 7 - 1
7.2.1 Nominal or preliminary cell planning.......................................................................................... 7 - 1
7.2.2 Site surveys ................................................................................................................................. 7 - 2
7.2.3 Field measurements.................................................................................................................... 7 - 3
7.2.4 System design (or final cell plan) ................................................................................................ 7 - 3
7.2.5 System tuning ............................................................................................................................. 7 - 4
7.2.6 System growth ............................................................................................................................ 7 - 4
7.3 BS site choice ..................................................................................................................................... 7 - 4
7.4 Antenna configuration and cell type choice ...................................................................................... 7 - 5
7.5 Antenna selection .............................................................................................................................. 7 - 5
7.6 Uniform solution of cellular structured mobile WiMAX network coverage ...................................... 7 - 6
7.6.1 Case study one ............................................................................................................................ 7 - 6
7.6.2 Case study two ............................................................................................................................ 7 - 8
7.7 Non uniform solution of cellular structured mobile WiMAX network coverage ............................... 7 - 9
7.7.1 Rural area (RU) ............................................................................................................................ 7 - 9
7.7.2 Suburban area (SU) ................................................................................................................... 7 - 10
7.7.3 Urban area (UR) ........................................................................................................................ 7 - 11
7.7.4 Dense urban area (DU).............................................................................................................. 7 - 12
Chapter 8: Hardware implementation of RF Field strength meter
8.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 8 - 1
8.2 RF strength meter applications .......................................................................................................... 8 - 1
8.3 RF strength meter specifications ....................................................................................................... 8 - 1
IX
8.3.1 Antenna specification ................................................................................................................. 8 - 1
8.3.2 Frequency range ......................................................................................................................... 8 - 2
8.3.3 Power supply ............................................................................................................................... 8 - 2
8.3.4 Power density ............................................................................................................................. 8 - 2
8.4 Block diagram of RF strength meter .................................................................................................. 8 - 3
8.5 RF strength meter Circuit diagram..................................................................................................... 8 - 4
8.6 Circuit Operation ................................................................................................................................ 8 - 4
8.6.1 Whip antenna.............................................................................................................................. 8 - 4
8.6.2 Preamplifier................................................................................................................................. 8 - 5
8.6.2.1 VHF-UHF preamplifier .......................................................................................................... 8 - 5
8.6.2.2 LF-HF preamplifier................................................................................................................ 8 - 5
8.6.3 Chopper amplifier ....................................................................................................................... 8 - 6
8.6.4 Power supply ............................................................................................................................... 8 - 7
8.6.5 Bar graph display......................................................................................................................... 8 - 7
8.7 Parts Placement of RF Field Strength Meter...................................................................................... 8 - 8
8.8 PC Board Pattern for Solder Side of RF Field Strength Meter............................................................ 8 - 9
8.9 Test Procedure of RF strength meter............................................................................................... 8 - 10
8.10 RF Strength Meter parts List .......................................................................................................... 8 - 11
8.11 Packaging of RF field strength meter ............................................................................................. 8 - 12
8.12 Conclusions .................................................................................................................................... 8 - 14
Chapter 9: Mobility Management in WiMAX
9.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 9 - 1
9.2 Channel acquisition ............................................................................................................................ 9 - 1
9.3 Initial Ranging and Negotiation of SS Capabilities ............................................................................. 9 - 2
9.4 Authentication and Registration ........................................................................................................ 9 - 3
9.5 IP Connectivity ................................................................................................................................... 9 - 3
9.6 Idle mode management. .................................................................................................................... 9 - 4
9.7 Call procedure. ................................................................................................................................... 9 - 4
9.7.1 VoIP ............................................................................................................................................. 9 - 5
9.7.2 Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) .................................................................................................. 9 - 5
9.7.3 SIP network elements ................................................................................................................. 9 - 5
9.8 Radio Link Control (RLC) ..................................................................................................................... 9 - 8
X
9.9 Hand over ......................................................................................................................................... 9 - 10
9.9.1 Hard Handover .......................................................................................................................... 9 - 10
9.9.2 Macro Diversity Handover ........................................................................................................ 9 - 11
9.9.3 Fast Base Station Switching ...................................................................................................... 9 - 11
9.10 Simulation ...................................................................................................................................... 9 - 12
Chapter 10: Conclusions and suggestions for future work
10.1 Introductions .................................................................................................................................. 10 - 1
10.2 Conclusions .................................................................................................................................... 10 - 1
10.3 Suggestions for future work........................................................................................................... 10 - 3
10.3.1 WiMAX future ......................................................................................................................... 10 - 3
10.3.1.1 IMT-2000 & IMT-Advanced .............................................................................................. 10 - 3
10.3.1.2 IEEE 802.16m goals .......................................................................................................... 10 - 4
10.3.1.3 802.16m specifications. ................................................................................................... 10 - 4
10.3.1.4 IEEE 802.16m & LTE ......................................................................................................... 10 - 4
10.3.2 Mobility management suggestions ......................................................................................... 10 - 6
10.3.3 Hardware suggestions............................................................................................................. 10 - 6
XI
Figures caption
Chapter 1: Overview of WiMAX technology
Figure1.1 WiMAX network ....................................................................................................................... 1 - 2
Figure1.2 WiMAX Standards .................................................................................................................... 1 - 3
Figure1.3 WiMAX Network Architecture ................................................................................................. 1 - 7
Figure1.4 WiMAX Network reference model .......................................................................................... 1 - 8
Figure1.5 Functions performed across reference points ....................................................................... 1 - 10
Figure1.6 WiMAX Various Topologies.................................................................................................... 1 - 11
Figure1.7 Point-to-point WiMAX Configurations ................................................................................... 1 - 11
Figure1.8 Point-to-Multipoint WiMAX Configurations .......................................................................... 1 - 12
Figure1.9 Mesh Network with Wi-Fi and/or WiMAX ............................................................................. 1 - 13
Figure1.10 The difference between line o f sight and non-line of sight ................................................ 1 - 14
Figure1.11 Different antenna types are designed for different applications ........................................ 1 - 14
Figure1.12 an Omni-directional antenna broadcasts 360 degrees from the base station .................... 1 - 15
Figure1.13 Sector antennas are focused on smaller sectors ................................................................. 1 - 15
Figure1.14 Panel antennas are most often used for point-to-point applications ................................. 1 - 16
Figure1.15 an mobile WiMAX CPE device .............................................................................................. 1 - 17
Figure1.16 Portable WiMAX CPE with PCMCIA ..................................................................................... 1 - 17
Figure1.18 Cellular Backhaul .................................................................................................................. 1 - 22
Figure1.19 Wireless Service Provider Backhaul ..................................................................................... 1 - 23
Figure1.20 Banking Networks ................................................................................................................ 1 - 24
Figure1.21 Education Networks ............................................................................................................. 1 - 25
Figure1.22 Public Safety......................................................................................................................... 1 - 26
Figure1.23 Offshore Communications ................................................................................................... 1 - 27
Figure1.24 Campus Connectivity ........................................................................................................... 1 - 28
Figure1.25 Temporary Construction Communications .......................................................................... 1 - 29
Figure1.26 Theme Parks......................................................................................................................... 1 - 30
Figure1.27 Wireless Service Provider Access Network .......................................................................... 1 - 31
Figure1.28 Rural Connectivity ................................................................................................................ 1 - 32
Figure2.1 Conceptual scheme of a multi-carrier transmission system.................................................... 2 - 2
Figure2.2 parallel-data-transmission scheme .......................................................................................... 2 - 2
Figure2.3 Frequency response of the subcarriers in a 5 tone OFDM ...................................................... 2 - 3
Figure2.4 Concept of the OFDM signal .................................................................................................... 2 - 5
Figure2.5 TDMA scheme where each user is allocated a small ............................................................... 2 - 6
Figure2.6 Conventional CDMA PN Code sequence .................................................................................. 2 - 7
Figure2.7 (A) Basis functions of an OFDM signal with N=16 carriers represented in frequency domain 2 - 8
(B) Resulting spectrum from the basic functions..................................................................................... 2 - 8
Figure2.8 Time domain construction of an OFDM signal ...................................................................... 2 - 10
XII
Figure2.9 Cyclic Prefix in OFDM ............................................................................................................. 2 - 11
Figure2.10 Cyclic Prefix in OFDM ........................................................................................................... 2 - 11
Figure2.11 FDMA channelization ........................................................................................................... 2 - 13
Figure2.12 OFDMA channelization ........................................................................................................ 2 - 13
Figure2.13 Single carrier and OFDM ...................................................................................................... 2 - 14
Figure2.15 Single carrier and OFDM received ....................................................................................... 2 - 15
Figure2.17 Multi path Fading Channel................................................................................................... 2 - 16
Figure2.18 OFDM sub carrier structure ................................................................................................. 2 - 17
Figure2.19 SOFDM structure ................................................................................................................. 2 - 18
Figure2.20 OFDM in Both Time and Frequency domains ...................................................................... 2 - 22
Figure2.21 The spectrum of an OFDM signal (without cyclic prefix) ..................................................... 2 - 24
Figure2.22 The spectrum of an OFDM signal (without cyclic prefix) ..................................................... 2 - 25
Figure2.23 Subchannelization with 4 used subchannels ....................................................................... 2 - 27
Figure2.24 The effect of sub-channelization ......................................................................................... 2 - 28
Figure2.25 OFDM frame structure ......................................................................................................... 2 - 28
Figure2.26 OFDM / OFDMA transmitter architecture (simplified) ........................................................ 2 - 29
Figure2.27 Block diagram showing a basic OFDM transceiver .............................................................. 2 - 31
Figure2.28 Adaptive Modulation ........................................................................................................... 2 - 33
Figure2.29 OFDM generation, IFFT stage .............................................................................................. 2 - 34
Figure2.30 Addition of a guard period to an OFDM signal .................................................................... 2 - 35
Figure3.1 Cellular Network Evolution ...................................................................................................... 3 - 2
Figure3.2 Mobile WiMAX will be available before 3G – LTE .................................................................... 3 - 4
Figure3.3 Hard handover realization ....................................................................................................... 3 - 8
Figure3.4 Macro Diversity Handover ....................................................................................................... 3 - 8
Figure3.5 Fast Base Station Switching ..................................................................................................... 3 - 9
Figure3.6 Hard handoff ............................................................................................................................ 3 - 9
Figure3.7 Soft handoff ........................................................................................................................... 3 - 10
Figure3.8 Fractional Frequency Reuse with Mobile WiMAX ................................................................. 3 - 14
Figure3.9 Performance of Adaptive MIMO Switch (AMS) ..................................................................... 3 - 16
Figure3.10 Mobile WiMAX Versus 3G spectral efficiency comparison.................................................. 3 - 16
Figure3.11 Mobile WiMAX versus 3GNet Throughput Comparison ...................................................... 3 - 17
Figure3.12 Mobile WiMAX versus 3G Number of required sites........................................................... 3 - 17
Figure3.13 Near-Far-problem ................................................................................................................ 3 - 18
Figure3.14 UGS scheduling service uplink grants allocation mechanism .............................................. 3 - 25
Figure3.15 rtPS scheduling service uplink grants allocation and request mechanismnon-real-time Polling
Service (nrtPS) ........................................................................................................................................ 3 - 26
Figure3.16 Illustration of the nrtPS scheduling service uplink grants allocation and request mechanism.
The SS may use contention request opportunities as well as unicast request opportunities............... 3 - 26
XIII
Figure3.17 Illustration of the BE scheduling service uplink grants allocation and request mechanism. The
BS does not have any unicast uplink request polling obligation for a BE SS ......................................... 3 - 27
Figure3.18 WiMAX versus WiFi range.................................................................................................... 3 - 28
Figure3.19 WiMAX vs. WiFi coverage .................................................................................................... 3 - 29
Figure3.20 Mobile versus Fixed data rate.............................................................................................. 3 - 36
Figure4.1 Link-budget for downlink ......................................................................................................... 4 - 1
Figure4.2 illustration of link budget ......................................................................................................... 4 - 2
Figure4.3 illustration of EIRP.................................................................................................................... 4 - 5
Figure4.4 Link analysis of a WiMAX system operating at 2.5 and 5GHz ................................................ 4 - 10
Figure4.5 Correction factor in small and medium size area .................................................................. 4 - 14
Figure4.6 Correction factor in large size area ........................................................................................ 4 - 14
Figure4.7 Path loss propagation in suburban area versus distance ...................................................... 4 - 15
Figure4.8 the Walfish-Ikegami model .................................................................................................... 4 - 16
Figure4.9 Comparison of path loss propagation for rural environments ............................................. 4 - 20
Figure4.10 Comparison of path loss propagation for suburban environments .................................... 4 - 20
Figure4.11 Comparison of path loss propagation for urban environments .......................................... 4 - 21
Figure4.12 Illustration of cell area calculation ....................................................................................... 4 - 21
Figure4.13 Range of the different modulation schemes, indicated by different colors. The lighter the
color, the less data bits per symbol (cf. Table 4.4) ................................................................................ 4 - 22
Figure4.14 Graphical user interface of the planning tool ...................................................................... 4 - 23
Figure5.1 Modulation technique effect ................................................................................................... 5 - 2
Figure5.2 Morphology effect ................................................................................................................... 5 - 3
Figure5.3 Operating frequency effect...................................................................................................... 5 - 4
Figure5.4 Channel bandwidth effect ....................................................................................................... 5 - 5
Figure5.5 FL versus RL cell radius in case of no subchannelization ......................................................... 5 - 6
Figure5.6 FL versus RL cell radius in case of no subchannelization ........................................................ 5 - 7
Figure5.7 Comparison between Fixed and mobile WiMAX cell radius .................................................... 5 - 8
Figure5.8 Comparison between Erceg A, B and C cell radius .................................................................. 5 - 9
Figure6.1 Maximum transmission data rate calculations ........................................................................ 6 - 3
Figure6.2 Effect of modulation type in data rate .................................................................................... 6 - 5
Figure6.3 Effect of cyclic prefix in data rate ............................................................................................ 6 - 7
Figure6.4 Effect of Bandwidth and operating frequency in data rate ..................................................... 6 - 9
Figure6.5 Effect of subchannelization for licensed operation ............................................................... 6 - 11
Figure6.6 Effect of subchannelization for licensed-exempt operation ................................................. 6 - 13
Figure6. 7 Effect of bandwidth in Mobile and Fixed WiMAX ................................................................. 6 - 15
Figure7.1 Coverage of rural area ............................................................................................................. 7 - 7
Figure7.2 Coverage of dense urban area ................................................................................................. 7 - 8
XIV
Figure7.3 Rural area coverage ............................................................................................................... 7 - 10
Figure7.4 Suburban area coverage ........................................................................................................ 7 - 11
Figure7.5 Urban area coverage .............................................................................................................. 7 - 12
Figure7.6 Dense urban area coverage ................................................................................................... 7 - 13
Figure8.1 Block diagram of RF strength meter ........................................................................................ 8 - 3
Figure8.2 Schematic of RF Field Strength Meter ..................................................................................... 8 - 4
Figure8.3 VHF-UHF preamplifier .............................................................................................................. 8 - 5
Figure8.4 LF-HF preamplifier ................................................................................................................... 8 - 5
Figure8.5 Chopper amplifier .................................................................................................................... 8 - 6
Figure8.6 Bar graph display ..................................................................................................................... 8 - 7
Figure8.7 Parts Placement of RF Field Strength Meter Component Side ................................................ 8 - 8
Figure8.8 Parts Placement of RF Field Strength Meter Solder Side......................................................... 8 - 9
Figure8.9 PC Board Pattern for Solder Side of RF Field Strength Meter ................................................ 8 – 9
Figure8.10 Packaging of RF field strength meter ................................................................................... 8 - 12
Figure8.11 Photo of Completed RF Field Strength Meter with Matching Antenna .............................. 8 - 13
Figure8.12 Photo of inside Completed RF Field Strength Meter Showing Battery Pack ....................... 8 - 13
Chapter 9: Mobility Management in WiMAX
Figure9.1 Channel Acquisition, Ranging, and Negotiation of Subscriber Station Capabilities ................ 9 - 2
Figure9.2 Subscriber Station Authentication, Registration and IP connectivity ...................................... 9 - 3
Figure9.3 SIP Establishment of a peer to peer Call .................................................................................. 9 - 6
Figure9.4 Radio Link Control .................................................................................................................... 9 - 9
Figure9.5 Hard Handover realization ..................................................................................................... 9 - 10
Figure9.6 Macro Diversity Handover ..................................................................................................... 9 - 11
Figure9.7 Fast Base Station Switching ................................................................................................... 9 - 12
Figure 9.8 Welcome page ...................................................................................................................... 9 - 13
Figure 9.9 First view of HO simulation ................................................................................................... 9 - 13
Figure 9.10 the first step in HO procedure ............................................................................................ 9 - 14
Figure 9.11 the last step in HO procedure: ............................................................................................ 9 - 14
Chapter 10: Conclusions and suggestions for future work
Figure 10.1 IMT-2000 & IMT-Advanced ................................................................................................. 10 - 3
Figure 10.2 3GPP & Mobile WiMAX Timeline ........................................................................................ 10 - 5
XV
Tables caption
Table2.1 scalable ODFM parameters ..................................................................................................... 2 - 18
Table2.2 Required SNR to maintain a BER below a given threshold ..................................................... 2 - 33
Table3.1 Theoretical throughputs of CDMA systems .............................................................................. 3 - 3
Table3.2 WiMAX, EVDO and HSPA Features - summary of comparative features .................................. 3 - 5
Table3.3 AMC Capability .......................................................................................................................... 3 - 6
Table3.4 Mobile WiMAX Applications and Quality of Service ............................................................... 3 - 15
Table3.5 Power Control on 3G versus WiMAX ...................................................................................... 3 - 20
Table3.6 WiMAX versus WiFi Scalability ................................................................................................ 3 - 22
Table3.7 WiMAX versus WiFi QOS ......................................................................................................... 3 - 27
Table3.8 Mobile versus Fixed ................................................................................................................ 3 - 38
Table4.1 Base station parameters ........................................................................................................... 4 - 4
Table4.2 Coaxial feeder cable model (7/8”) diameter............................................................................. 4 - 4
Table4.3 CPE parameters ......................................................................................................................... 4 - 4
Table4.4 Parameters per channel bandwidth.......................................................................................... 4 - 6
Table4.5 Parameters per modulation scheme......................................................................................... 4 - 7
Table4.6 Urban corrections ..................................................................................................................... 4 - 9
Table4.7 Parameters of Erceg Model..................................................................................................... 4 - 18
Table4.8 Link budget sample ................................................................................................................. 4 - 24
Table5.1 Case studies............................................................................................................................... 5 - 1
Table 5.2 The Estimated downlink coverage radius for different BTS heights in Km with different
modulation techniques ............................................................................................................................ 5 - 2
morphologies ........................................................................................................................................... 5 - 3
operating frequency (licensed and license exempt) ................................................................................ 5 - 4
Table 5.5 The Estimated downlink coverage radius for different BTS heights in Km with different channel
BW ............................................................................................................................................................ 5 - 5
Table 5.6 The Estimated downlink coverage radius for different BTS heights in Km at FL and RL without
subchannelization .................................................................................................................................... 5 - 6
Table 5.7 The Estimated downlink coverage radius for different BTS heights in Km at FL and RL with
subchannelization .................................................................................................................................... 5 - 7
Table 5.8 The Estimated downlink coverage radius for different BTS heights in Km at mobile WiMAX and
fixed WiMAX ............................................................................................................................................ 5 - 8
XVI
Table 5.9 The Estimated downlink coverage radius for different BTS heights in Km at with different Erceg
models...................................................................................................................................................... 5 - 9
Table6.1 Coding schemes ........................................................................................................................ 6 - 2
Table6.2 Effect of modulation type in data rate ...................................................................................... 6 - 4
Table6.3 Effect of cyclic prefix in data rate .............................................................................................. 6 - 6
Table6.4 Effect of Bandwidth and operating frequency in data rate ...................................................... 6 - 8
Table6.5 Effect of subchannelization for licensed operation ................................................................ 6 - 10
Table6.6 Effect of subchannelization for licensed-exempt operation ................................................... 6 - 12
Table6.7 Effect of bandwidth in Mobile and Fixed WiMAX ................................................................... 6 - 14
Table7.1 the antenna selection for rural environment and for dense urban environment .................... 7 - 6
Table8.1 RF Strength meter parts list .................................................................................................... 8 - 11
XVII
Abbreviation and Symbols
1xEV-DO 1x Evolution data optimized
1xEV-DV 1x Evolution data and voice
3DES Triple data encryption standard
3G Third generations
3GPP Third-generation partnership project
3GPP2 Third generation partnership project-2
AAA Authentication, authorization, and accounting
AAS Advanced antenna systems
AC Admission control
ACE Active constellation extension
ADC Analog-to-digital converter
ADSL Asymmetric digital subscriber loop
AES Advanced encryption standard
AF Application function
AF Assured forwarding
AK Authentication key
AKA Authentication and key agreement
AM Amplitude modulation
AMC Adaptive modulation and coding
AoA Angle of arrival
AoD Angle of departure
API Application programming interface
AR Access router
ARQ Automatic repeat request
AS Angular spread
ASN Access services network
ASN-GW ASN gateway
ASP Application service provider
ATM Asynchronous transfer mode
AWGN Additive white Gaussian noise
AWS Advanced wireless services
BE Best effort
BEP Bit error probability
BER Bit error rate
BGCF Breakout gateway control function
BLAST Bell Labs layered spaced time
BLER Block error rate
BPSK Binary phase shift keying
BRS Broadband radio services
BS Base station
BSC Base station controller
BSN Block sequence number
BTS Base station transceivers
CBC Cipher-block chaining
CBR Constant bit rate
CC Convolution coding
CCDF Complementary cumulative distribution function
CCI Cochannel interference
CDF Cumulative distribution function
CDMA Code division multiple access
CGI Common gateway interface
CHAP Challenge handshake authentication protocol
CID Connection identifier
CLT Central limit theorem
CM Cubic metric
CMAC Cipher-based message authentication code
CMAC Complexes multiply and accumulate
CN Correspondent node
CoA Care-of address
COPS Common open policy service
CP Cyclic prefix
CPE Customer premise equipment
CPL Call-processing language
CQICH Channel-quality indicator channel
CRC Cyclic redundancy check
CQI Channel quality indicator
CS Convergence sublayer
CSCF Call session control function
CSI Channel state information
CSMA Carrier sense multiple access
CSN Connectivity services network
CTC Convolution turbo code
DAC Digital-to-analog converter
DARS Digital audio radio services
DC Direct current
DCD Downlink channel descriptor
DCF Distributed coordination function
DECT Digital-enhanced cordless telephony
DDFSE Delayed-decision-feedback sequence estimation
DES Data encryption standard
DFE Decision-feedback equalizer
DFT Discrete Fourier transform
DHCP Dynamic host control protocol
DiffServ Differentiated services
DL Downlink
DNS Domain name system
DoA Direction of arrival
DOCSIS Data over cable service interface specification
DP Decision point
DPF Data path function
DRM Digital rights management
DS Delay spread
DSA Dynamic service allocation
DSC Dynamic service change
DSCP DiffServ code point
DSD Dynamic service delete
DSL Digital subscriber line
DSP Digital-signal processing
DSTTD Double space/time transmit diversity
DVB-H Digital video broadcasting-handheld
EAP Extensible authentication protocol
ECRM Effective code rate map
EDGE Enhanced data rate for GSM evolution
EESM Exponentially effective SINR map
EF Expedited forwarding
EGC Equal gain combining
EIRP Effective isotopic radiated power
EMSK Enhanced master session key
EP Enforcement point
ErtPS Extended real-time packet service
ERT-VR Extended real-time variable-rate service
ESP Encapsulating security payload
ETH-CS Ethernet convergence sublayer
ETRI Electronics and Telecommunications Research Institute
ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institute
EVM Error vector magnitude
FA Foreign agent
FBSS Fast base station switching
FCC Federal Communications Commission
FCH Frame control header
FDD Frequency division duplexing
FDMA Frequency division multiple access
FEC Forward error correction
FEC Forward equivalence class
FEQ Frequency-domain equalization
FER Frame error rate
FFT fast Fourier transform
FHDC frequency-hopping diversity code
FIB forward information base
FIPS Federal Information Processing Standard
FIR finite impulse response
FM frequency modulation
FSH fragmentation subheader
FTP file transfer protocol
FTTH fiber-to-the-home
FUSC full usage of subcarriers
FWA fixed wireless access
GMH generic MAC header
GPRS GSM packet radio services
GRE generic routing encapsulation
GSM global system for mobile communications
GW gateway
HA home agent
HARQ hybrid-ARQ
HDTV high-definition television
HIPERMA high-performance metropolitan area network
HHO hard handover
HMAC hash-based message authentication code
HO handover
HoA home address
HPA high-power amplifier
HSDPA high-speed downlink packet access
HSPA high-speed packet access
HSS home subscriber server
HSUPA high-speed uplink packet access
HTTP hypertext transfer protocol
HUMAN high-speed unlicensed metropolitan area network
IBO input backoff
ICI intercarrier interference
ICMP Internet control message protocol
I-CSCF interrogating call session control function
IDFT inverse discrete Fourier transform
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IETF Internet Engineering Task Force
IFFT inverse fast Fourier transform
IGMP Internet group management protocol
IM instant messaging
IMS IP multimedia subsystem
IN intelligent network
IntServ integrated services
IP Internet protocol
IP-CS IP convergence sublayer
IPsec IP security
IP-TV Internet protocol television
IS Integrated services
ISDN Integrated services digital network
ISI Inter-symbol interference
ITU International Telecommunications Union
JAIN Java for advanced intelligence network
KEK Key encryption key
LAN Local area network
LDAP Lightweight directory access protocol
LDPC Low-density parity codes
Label distribution protocol/constraint-based
LDP-CR
routing
LER Label-edge router
LLR Log liklihood ratio
LMOS Local multipoint distribution system
LMMSE Linear minimum mean square error
LOS Line of sight
LPF Local policy function
LR Location register
LS Least squares
LSB Least significant bit
LSP Label switched path
LSR Label switching router
LTE Long-term evolution
MAC Media access control
MAC Message-authentication code
MAN Metropolitan area network
MBS Multicast broadcast service
MC-CDMA Multicarrier CDMA
MCS Modulation and coding scheme
MD5 Message-digest 5 algorithm
MDHO Macro diversity handover
MIMO Multiple input multiple outputs
MIC Mean instantaneous capacity
MIP Mobile IP
MIP-HA Mobile IP home agent
MISO Multiple input/single outputs
ML Maximum likelihood
MLD Maximum likelihood detection
MLSD Maximum-likelihood sequence detection
MMDS Multichannel multipoint distribution services
MMS Multimedia messaging service
MMSE Minimum mean square error
MN Mobile node
MPDU MAC protocol data unit
MPEG Motion Picture Experts Group
MPLS Multiprotocol label switching
M-QAM Multilevel QAM
MRC Maximal ratio combining
MRT Maximum ratio transmission
MS Mobile station
MSB Most significant bit
MSDU MAC service data unit
MSE Mean square error
MSK Master session key
MSL Minimum signal level
MSR Maximum sum rate
MUD Multiuser detection
NAI Network access identifier
NAP Network access provider
NAS Network access server
NAT Network address translation
NLOS Non–line-of-sight
NRM Network reference model
nrtPS Non–real n time polling service
NSP Network services provider
NTP Network timing protocol
NWG Network Working Group
OBO Output backoff
OC Optimum combiner
OCI Other-cell interference
OFDM Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
OFDMA Orthogonal frequency division multiple access
OSA Open systems architecture
OSI Open systems interconnect
O-SIC Ordered successive cancellation
OSS Operational support systems
OSTBC Orthogonal space/time block code
PA Paging agent
PAP Password authentication protocol
PAPR Peak-to-average-power ratio
PAR Peak-to-average ratio
PC Paging controller
PCS Personal communications services
P-CSCF Proxy call session control function
PDA Personal data assistant
PDF Probability density function
PDP Policy decision point
PDU Packet data unit
PEAP Protected extensible authentication protocol
PEP Policy enforcement point
PER Packet error rate
PF Proportional fairness; policy function
PG Paging group
PHB Per hop behavior
PHS Packet header suppression
PHSF PHS field
PHSI PHS index
PHSM PHS mask
PHSV PHS verify
PKI Public key infrastructure
PKM Privacy and key management
PM Phase modulation
PMIP Proxy mobile IP
PMK Pair wise master key
PN Pseudo noise
PoA Point of attachment
PPP Point-to-point protocol
PR Policy rule
PRC Proportional rate constraints
P/S Parallel to serial
PSH Packing subheader
PSK preshared key
PSTN Public switched telephone network
PTS Partial transmit sequence
PUSC Partial usage of subcarriers
QoS Quality of service
QAM quadrature amplitude modulation
QPSK quadrature phase shift keying
RADIUS Remote access dial-in user service
RF Radio frequency
RFC Request for comments
RMS Root mean square
ROHC Robust header compression
RP Reference point
RR Radio resource
RR Round-robin
RRA Radio resource agent
RRC Radio resource controller
RRM Radio resource management
RS Reed Solomon
RSA Rivest-Shamir-Adleman
RSS Received signal strength
RSSE Reduced-state sequence estimation
RSSI Received signal strength indicator
RSVP Resource reservation protocol
RTCP Real-time control protocol
RTP Real-time transport protocol
rtPS Real-time polling service
RTT Roundtrip time
RUIM Removable user identity module
SA Security association
SC Selection combining
S-CSCF Serving call session control function
SCTP Stream control transport protocol
SDP Session description protocol
SDU Service data unit
SET Secure electronic transactions
SF Service flow; shadow fading
SFA Service flow authorization
SFBC Space/frequency block code
SFID Service flow identifier
SFM Service flow management
SGSN Serving GPRS support node
SH Sub header
SHA Secure hash algorithm
SIC Successive interference cancellation
SII System identity information
SIM Subscriber identity module
SIMO Single input/multiple output
SINR Signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio
SIP Session initiation protocol
SIR Signal-to-interference ratio
SISO Single input/single output
SLA Service-level agreement
SLM Selected mapping
SM Spatial multiplexing
SME Small and medium enterprise
SMS Short messaging service
SNDR Signal-to-noise and distortion ratio
SNR Signal-to-noise ratio
SOFDMA Sealable OFDMA
SOHO Small office/home office
SOVA Soft input/soft output
S/P Serial to parallel
SPI Security parameter index
SPID Sub packet identity
SPM Spatial-channel model
SPWG Service Provider Working Group
SS Subscriber station
SSL Secure sockets layer
STBC Space/time block code
SUI Standford University Interim
SVD Singular-value decomposition
TCP Transport control protocol
TD-SCDMA Time division/synchronous CDMA
TDD Time division duplexing
TDL Tap-delay line
TDM Time division multiplexing
TDMA Time division multiple access
TE Traffic engineering
TEK Traffic encryption key
TLS Transport-layer security
TOS Type of service
TR Tone reservation
TSD Transmit selection diversity
TTLS Tunneled transport layer security
TUSC Tile usage of subcarriers
UA User agent
UCD Uplink channel descriptor
UDP User datagram protocol
UGS Unsolicited grant services
UHF Ultrahigh frequency
UICC Universal integrated circuit card
UL Uplink
ULA Uniform linear array
UMTS Universal mobile telephone system
U-NII Unlicensed national information infrastructure
URL Universal resource locator
USIM Universal subscriber identity module
VDSL Very high data rate digital subscriber loop
VHF Very high frequency
VLAN Virtual local area networking
VoD Video on demand
VoIP Voice over Internet protocol
VCI Virtual circuit identifier
VPI Virtual path indicator
VPN Virtual private network
WAN Wide area network
WAP Wireless access protocol
WCDMA Wideband code division multiple access
WCS Wireless communications services
WiBro Wireless broadband
Wi-Fi Wireless fidelity
WiMAX Worldwide interoperability for microwave access
WISP Wireless Internet service provider
WLAN Wireless local area network
WLL Wireless local loop
WMAN Wireless metropolitan area network
WRAN Wireless regional area network
WSS Wide-sense stationary
WSSUS Wide-sense stationary uncorrelated scattering
ZF Zero forcing
Chapter 1
Overview of WiMAX technology
1.1 Introduction
After years of development and uncertainty, a standards based interoperable solution is
emerging for wireless broadband. A broad industry consortium, the Worldwide Interoperability for
Microwave Access (WiMAX) Forum has begun certifying broadband wireless products for
interoperability and compliance with a standard. WiMAX is based on wireless metropolitan area
networking (WMAN) standards developed by the IEEE 802.16 group and adopted by both IEEE and the
ETSI HIPERMAN group. In this chapter, we present a concise technical overview of the emerging WiMAX
solution for broadband wireless.
We begin the chapter by summarizing the activities of the IEEE 802.16 group and its relation to
WiMAX. Next, we discuss the salient features of WiMAX and briefly describe the physical and MAC-layer
characteristics of WiMAX. Service aspects, such as quality of service, security, and mobility, are
discussed, and reference network architecture is presented. The chapter ends with a brief discussion of
expected WiMAX performance.
1.2 WiMAX
WiMAX has the potential to replace a number of existing telecommunications infrastructures. In
a fixed wireless configuration, it can replace the telephone company's copper wire networks, the cable
TV's coaxial cable infrastructure while offering Internet Service Provider (ISP) services. In its mobile
variant, WiMAX has the potential to replace cellular networks. How do we get there?
1.2.1 What is WiMAX?
WiMAX is stand for (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is an emerging

technology that is designed to deliver fixed, and more recently, mobile broadband connectivity. The
WiMAX trade name is used to group a number of wireless technologies that have emerged from the
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) 802.16 Wireless MAN (Metropolitan Area
Network) standards. The main two standards are identified as 802.16-2004 (October 2004) and802.16e
(December 2005), with 802.16e introducing mobility and currently receiving a great deal of interest in
the telecoms world. The diagram below summarizes different environments in which WiMAX could be
employed.
1-1
Chapter 1 Overview of WiMAX technology
Figure1.1 WiMAX network
1.2.2 WiMAX Standard
Like most IEEE standards, the 802.16 standard family consists of the basic 802.16 standard, and
several, ever-increasing variations signified by adding a small alphabet to the basic specification name.
The first 802.16 standard was published on 8 April 2002 and was followed by three amendments
802.16a to address issue of radio spectrum, 802.16b to address the issue of quality of service and
802.16c to address the issue of interoperability.
In September 2003, a revision project called 802.16REVd commenced aiming to align the
standard with aspects of the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) HYPERMAN
standard as well as lay down conformance and test specifications. This project concluded in 2004 with
the release of IEEE 802.16-2004 and the withdrawal of the earlier 802.16 documents including the a/b/c
also an amendment to the standard, 802.16e, and addressing mobility was concluded in 2005. This is
sometimes called “Mobile WiMAX”. The latest revisions in progress are 802.16f and g. These
specifications try to address the management issues relating to 802.16 specifications, especially to
802.16e. The 802.16g defines the management plan procedures and services, and the 802.16f defines
the management information base.
In addition there are amendments at pre-draft stage:
 802.16 – Improved coexistence mechanisms for license-exempt operation.

 802.16i - Mobile management information base.
1-2
WiMAX
Figure1.2 WiMAX Standards
1.2.3 What is a Standard?
Is a published document that sets out specifications and procedures designed to ensure that a
material, product, method, or service meets its purpose and consistently performs to its intended use.
1.2.4 Benefits of standardized WiMAX
 Fewer product variants through a common subset of capabilities.
 Less risk, lower system costs and greater return on investment.
 Faster, cheaper access to more widely available, higher quality service.
 Significant growth potential for broadband wireless deployment in underserved markets.
 Equivalent delivery of services vs. wire line or fiber.
 Guaranteed minimum performance levels.
 Consistent levels of voice, video and data flow quality.
1.2.5 General features of IEEE 802.16
 Broad bandwidth 70 Mbps throughput in 20 MHz channel (in WMAN-OFDM air interface).
 Supports multiple services simultaneously with full QOS.
 Bandwidth on demand (frame by frame).
 MAC designed for efficient use of spectrum.
1-3
 Comprehensive, modern, and extensible security.
 Supports frequency allocations from <1 to 66 GHz.
 TDD and FDD (TDD dominates lately).
 Link adaptation: Adaptive modulation and coding.
 Point-to-multipoint topology, with mesh extensions.
 Support for adaptive antennas and space-time coding.
 Extensions to mobility.
1.2.6 General features of IEEE 802.16a
It was approved in January 2003.
 It covers frequency band between 2GHz and11GHz (licensed and unlicensed).
 Its lower frequencies make non-line of sight a possibility; hence, it makes the IEEE 802.16a
standard the appropriate technology for last-mile application where obstacles like trees and
buildings are often present and where base stations may need to be roofs of homes or buildings
rather than towers on mountains.
 Total data rate can be up to 75 Mb/s in each 20MHz channel.
 It has up to 30 miles of range with a typical cell radius of 4-6 miles.
 It provides an ideal wireless backhaul technology to connect 802.11 wireless LANs and
commercial hotspots with the Internet.
 It enables business to flexibly deploy new 802.11 hotspots in locations where traditional wired
connection may be unavailable or time consuming to provide and offers service providers
around the globe with a flexible new way to stimulate growth of the residential broadband
access market segment.
 It will be mostly used for small businesses, residential users and for backhaul or hotspot.
 The most common 802.16 configurations consist of base station mounted on building or tower
that communicates on a point to multi-point basis with subscriber station located in businesses
and homes.
1.2.7 General features of IEEE 802.16b
IEEE 802.16b aims at the needs of license-exempt (unlicensed) applications around 5-6 GHz.
1-4
WiMAX
1.2.8 General features of IEEE 802.16c
The IEEE Standards Board approved IEEE 802.16c in December 2002. The aim was to develop 10-
66 GHz system profiles to aid interoperability specifications for Line-of-Sight broadband wireless access.
Its peak (shared) data rate 70Mbits/s, with range up to 50km.
1.2.9 General features of IEEE 802.16d-2004 Fixed WiMAX
IEEE 802.16a has all but been forgotten as the focus recently has been on IEEE 802.16- 2004,
which is also known as 802.16REVd .802.16-2004 is an improvement to the 802.16a Standard separately,
802.16-2004, was ratified in July 2004. 802.16-2004 is a wide-ranging standard that includes previous
versions and covers both LOS and NLOS applications in the 2-66 GHz frequencies. The changes
introduced in 802.16-2004 were focused on fixed and nomadic applications in the 2-11 GHz frequencies.
Two multi-carrier modulation techniques are supported in 802.16-2004: OFDM with 256 carriers and
OFDMA with 2048 carriers. IEEE 802.16-2004 is a fixed wireless access technology, meaning that it is
designed to serve as a wireless DSL replacement technology, to compete with the incumbent DSL or
broadband cable providers or to provide basic voice and broadband access in underserved areas where
no other access technology exists; examples include developing countries and rural areas in developed
countries where running copper wire or cable does not make economic sense.
802.16-2004 is also a viable solution for wireless backhaul for Wi-Fi access points or potentially
for cellular networks, in particular if licensed spectrum is used. Finally, in certain configurations, WiMAX
Fixed can be used to provide much higher data rates and therefore be used as a T1 replacement option
for high-value corporate subscribers. 802.16-2004 can also support VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol),
and assuming that the G.729 (8kbps) codec is used, it reportedly supports up to 96 simultaneous voice
calls in a 3.5MHz radio channel. The trade-off is increased path losses at frequencies such as 5.8GHz. It is
unlikely that an operator would use 2.4GHz to offer voice services due to the higher probability that
interference could develop (simple microwave ovens radiate RF in the 2.4GHz band).
1.2.10 General features of IEEE 802.16e Mobile WiMAX
IEEE 802.16e is the portable or mobile version of WiMAX, which promises to support voice and
data sessions at vehicular speeds of up to 120 kilo-meters per hour. The current strategy within the
WiMAX Forum is to launch 802.16e with portable features in order to achieve rapid time to market. As
the technology and market opportunity matures, the forum intends to introduce full-scale mobility. The
main features of mobile WiMAX are:
 Approved on the 23th of September 2004.
 Covers "Physical and Medium Access Control Layers for Combined Fixed and
 Mobile Operation in Licensed Bands.
 Optimized for and backwards compatible with fixed stations.
1-5
 Work on Licensed bands from 2 to 6 GHz.
 The IEEE 802.16e introduces nomadic capabilities which allow users to connect to wireless
Internet Service Provider (WISP) when they travel outside their home or business, or go to
another city that also has a WISP.
 It is targeted at mobile users, who will be able to keep their connection while moving or driving
from 75 to 93 miles per hour.
 It has proved to be the most controversial standard, as it overlaps with the authorization of the
IEEE 802.20 group, which was establish before 802.16e.
 Typical Channel BW < 5MHz.
 Packet oriented architecture.
 Channelization and control for multimedia services with QOS.
 High efficiency data uplinks and downlinks Technology.
 Low latency architecture.
1.3 WiMAX Spectrum Availability

WiMAX 802.16-2004 and 802.16e operate at frequencies below 11GHz and 6GHz respectively.
So far the most viable spectrum is available at the unlicensed 2.4GHz and 5.8GHz bands, as well as the
2.3GHz, 2.5GHz and 3.5GHz licensed bands. In addition, it may be possible to use the700MHz analogue
TV band (once released). With all these possible frequencies, the main issue is now one of worldwide
interoperability and the fact that WiMAX devices may have to support multiple frequency bands to be
globally compatible.
1.3.1 Licensed Band
The main issue with licensed spectrum is that it usually comes at a high price. It is however vital
for operators carriers wanting to offer a high level quality service, ensuring exclusive use of the
spectrum and thus protecting the users from unwanted interference.
 700MHz Band - This band is currently utilized worldwide for analogue television broadcasters.
 2.3GHz Band - In Australia, New Zealand and the United States, this band is currently utilized for
other systems, such that the spectrum is not that attractive. It is also used in South Korea where
it is used for WiBRO (Wireless Broadband), an early adoption of a WiMAX 802.16e standard.
 2.5GHz Band - This band is gaining a lot of attention since it is available for use in North America
and Latin America. It is also soon to be available across Europe, once the 3G (Third Generation)
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WiMAX Network Architecture
extension bands are auctioned off. This may cause issues since the band could be bought by 3G
operator carrier wanting to improve their offering.
 3.5GHz Band - This band is currently available for use in most countries with the exception of
the United States. In many countries this band also has various regulator license restrictions,
which in some cases limit the use of mobility.
1.3.2 Unlicensed Band
It is worth noting that the 2.4GHz and 5.8GHz are unlicensed bands and are currently being
utilized by such technologies as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth. The term unlicensed spectrum implies that there is
no regulation governing its use. However in Europe a concept of "light licensed" spectrum applies. In
this scenario, the users have to indicate their intent to use this spectrum. The idea behind this is to
enable regulators to identify usage and potentially control the number of licensees, thus minimizing
unwanted loading and interference.
1.4 WiMAX Network Architecture

The IEEE 802.16-2004 standard provides the air interface for WiMAX but does not define the full
end-to-end WiMAX network. The WiMAX Forum’s Network Working Group, is responsible for
developing the end-to-end network requirements, architecture, and protocols for WiMAX, using IEEE
802.16e-2005 as the air interface.
The WiMAX NWG has developed a network reference model to serve as an architecture
framework for WiMAX deployments and to ensure interoperability among various WiMAX equipment
and operators.
The network reference model envisions unified network architecture for supporting fixed,
nomadic, and mobile deployments and is based on an IP service model. Figure 2.3 shows a simplified
illustration of IP-based WiMAX network architecture.
Figure1.3 WiMAX Network Architecture
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1.4.1 WiMAX Network Reference Model (NRM)
WiMAX network reference model (NRM) is a logical representation of the network architecture
(as shown Figure 1.4). The NRM identifies the functional entities in the architecture and the reference
points between the functional entities over which interoperability is achieved. The NRM divides the end-
to-end system into three logical parts:
1. Mobile Stations (MS) which used by the subscriber to access the network.
2. Access Service Network (ASN) which is owned by a NAP and comprises one or more base
stations and one or more ASN gateways that form the radio access network.
3. Connectivity Service Network (CSN) which is owned by an NSP, and provides IP connectivity and
all the IP core network functions. The subscriber is served from the CSN belonging to the visited
NSP; the home NSP is where the subscriber belongs. In the no roaming case, the visited and
home NSPs are the same.
Figure1.4 WiMAX Network reference model
The architecture allows for three separate business entities as we show in Figure 1.5
1-8
WiMAX Network Architecture
1. Network Access Provider (NAP), which owns and operates the ASN.
2. Network Services Provider (NSP), which provides IP connectivity and WiMAX services.
Subscribers using the ASN infrastructure provided by one or more NAPs.
3. Application Service Provider (ASP), which can provide value-added services such as multimedia
applications. Using IMS (IP multimedia subsystem) and corporate VPN (virtual private networks)
that on top of IP.
This separation between NAP, NSP, and ASP is designed to enable a richer ecosystem or WiMAX
service business, leading to more competition and hence better services. The network reference model
developed by the WiMAX Forum NWG defines a number of functional. Entities and interfaces between
those entities. (The interfaces are referred to as reference points). Figure 1.4 shows some of the more
important functional entities.
Base station (BS)

The base station BS is responsible for providing the air interface to the MS. And additional
functions that may be part of the BS are micro mobility management functions, such as handoff
triggering and tunnel establishment, radio resource management, QOS policy enforcement, traffic
classification, DHCP (Dynamic Host Control Protocol) proxy, key management, session management, and
multicast group management.
Access service network gateway (ASN-GW)

The ASN gateway typically acts as a layer 2 traffic aggregation point within an ASN. Additional
functions that may be part of the ASN gateway include intra-ASN location management and paging,
radio resource management and demission control, caching of subscriber profiles and encryption keys,
AAA client functionality, establishment and management of mobility tunnel with base stations, QOS and
policy enforcement, and foreign agent functionality for mobile IP, and routing to the selected CSN.
Connectivity service network (CSN)

The CSN provides connectivity to the Internet, ASP, other public networks, and corporate
networks. The CSN is owned by the NSP and includes servers that support authentication for the
devices, users, and specific services. The CSN also provides per user policy management of QOS and
security. The CSN is also responsible for IP address management, support for roaming between different
NSPs, location management between ASNs, and mobility and roaming between ASNs. Further, CSN can
also provide gateways and interworking with other networks, such as PSTN (public switched telephone
network), 3GPP, and 3GPP2.
The WiMAX architecture framework allows for the flexible decomposition and/or combination
of functional entities when building the physical entities. For example, the ASN may be decomposed into
base station transceivers (BST), base station controllers (BSC), and an ASNGW analogous to the GSM
model of BTS, BSC, and Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN). It is also possible to collapse the BS and
ASN-GW into a single unit, which could be thought of as WiMAX router. Such a design is often referred
1-9
to as a distributed, or flat, architecture. By not mandating a single physical ASN or CSN topology, the
reference architecture allows for vendor/operator differentiation.
In addition to functional entities, the reference architecture defines interfaces, called reference
points, between function entities. The interfaces carry control and management protocols mostly IETF-
developed network and transport-layer protocols in support of several functions, such as mobility,
security, and QOS, in addition to bearer data. Figure 1.5 shows an example. The WiMAX network
reference model defines reference points between:
1. MS and the ASN, called R1, which in addition to the air interface includes protocols in the
management plane.
2. MS and CSN, called R2, which provides authentication, service authorization, IP Configuration
and mobility management.
3. ASN and CSN, called R3, to support policy enforcement and mobility Management.
4. ASN and ASN, called R4, to support inter-ASN mobility.
5. CSN and CSN, called R5, to support roaming across multiple NSP.
6. BS and ASN-GW, called R6, which consists of intra-ASN bearer paths and IP tunnels for mobility
events.
7. BS to BS, called R7, to facilitate fast, seamless handover.
Figure1.5 Functions performed across reference points
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WIMAX Topologies
1.5 WIMAX Topologies
Point to Point
(P2P)
WiMAX
Mesh Topology
Topologies
Point to
Multipoint
(P2MP)
Figure1.6 WiMAX Various Topologies
1.5.1 Point-to-point (P2P)
Point to point is used where there are two points of interest: one sender and one receiver. This
is also a scenario for backhaul or the transport from the data source (data center, co-Lo facility, fiber
POP, Central Office, etc) to the subscriber or for a point for distribution using point to multipoint
architecture. Backhaul radios comprise an industry of their own within the wireless industry. As the
architecture calls for a highly focused beam between two points range and throughput of point-to point
radios will be higher than that of point-to multipoint products, as shown in Figure 1.7.
Figure1.7 Point-to-point WiMAX Configurations
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1.5.2 Point-to-Multipoint (PMP)
Point-to-multipoint is synonymous with distribution. One base station can service hundreds of
dissimilar subscribers in terms of bandwidth and services, as shown in figure 1.8.
Figure1.8 Point-to-Multipoint WiMAX Configurations
1.5.3 Mesh Topology
Mesh topology is not supported by existing IEEE's wireless LAN standards but it becomes
popular as city-wide (municipal) Wi-Fi network deployment gains more supporters day after day. In a
mesh network, each node (i.e. base station or access point) connects to several neighboring nodes and
on to a mesh gateway (i.e. a base station that aggregates the mesh network traffic and routes it to the
Internet). Since each node has many routes to a mesh gateway, mesh network is very reliable. But mesh
network is more complex to manage and poses interference challenge especially for operation in a
license-exempt band such as in Wi-Fi case.
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Line of sight (LOS) or Non-line of
sight (NLOS)
Figure1.9 Mesh Network with Wi-Fi and/or WiMAX
1.6 Line of sight (LOS) or Non-line of sight (NLOS)

Earlier wireless technologies (LMDS, MMDS for example) were unsuccessful in the mass market
as they could not deliver services in non-line-of-sight scenarios. This limited the number of subscribers
they could reach and, given the high cost of base stations and CPE, those business plans failed. WiMAX
functions best in line of sight situations and, unlike those earlier technologies, offers acceptable range
and throughput to subscribers who are not line of sight to the base station. Buildings between the base
station and the subscriber diminish the range and throughput, but in an urban environment, the signal
will still be strong enough to deliver adequate service. Given WiMAX's ability to deliver services non-line-
of-sight, the WiMAX service provider can reach many customers in high-rise office buildings to achieve a
low cost per subscriber because so many subscribers can be reached from one base station.
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Figure1.10 The difference between line o f sight and non-line of sight
1.7 WiMAX Antennas

WiMAX antennas, just like the antennas for car radio, cell phone, FM radio, or TV, are designed
to optimize performance for a given application. The figure above illustrates the three main types of
antennas used in WiMAX deployments. From top to bottom is an Omni directional, sector and panel
antenna each has a specific function.
Figure1.11 Different antenna types are designed for different applications
1.7.1 Omni directional antenna
Omni directional antennas are used for point-to-multipoint configurations. The main drawback
to an Omni directional antenna is that its energy is greatly diffused in broadcasting 360 degrees. This
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WiMAX Antennas
limits its range and ultimately signals strength. Omni directional antennas are good for situations where
there are a lot of subscribers located very close to the base station. An example of Omni directional
application is a Wi-Fi hotspot where the range is less than 100 meters and subscribers are concentrated
in a small area.
Figure1.12 an Omni-directional antenna broadcasts 360 degrees from the base station
1.7.2 Sector antennas
A sector antenna, by focusing the beam in a more focused area, offers greater range and
throughput with less energy. Many operators will use sector antennas to cover a 360-degree service
area rather than use an Omni directional antenna due to the superior performance of sector antennas
over an Omni directional antenna.
Figure1.13 Sector antennas are focused on smaller sectors
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1.7.3 Panel antennas
Panel antennas are usually a flat panel of about one foot square. They can also be a
configuration where potentially the WiMAX radio is contained in the square antenna enclosure. Such
configurations are powered via the Ethernet cable that connects the radio/antenna combination to the
wider network.
That power source is known as Power over Ethernet (POE). This streamlines deployments, as
there is no need to house the radio in a separate, weatherproof enclosure if outdoors or in a wiring
closet if indoors. This configuration can also be very handy for relays.
Figure1.14 Panel antennas are most often used for point-to-point applications
1.8 Subscriber Stations

The technical term for customer premise equipment (CPE) is subscriber station. The generally
accepted marketing terms now focus on either "mobile CPE" or "portable CPE". There are advantages
and disadvantages to both deployment schemes as described below.
1.8.1 Mobile CPE
It is the CPE which can make a reliable connection during moving. It is required a hand off
system to avoid interruption or cutting off the connection. Also mobile CPE has several restrictions in its
size and the transmitted power.
Examples: mobile Handset as shown in figure 1.15
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WiMAX Technical specifications
Figure1.15 an mobile WiMAX CPE device
1.8.2 Portable CPE
It is the CPE that can be kept in bag and has a larger size than mobile CPE and its transmitted
power is higher than mobile CPE. It doesn’t require hand off for its connection.
Examples: PCMCIA in laptop as shown in figure 1.16
Figure1.16 Portable WiMAX CPE with PCMCIA
1.9 WiMAX Technical specifications

WiMAX is a wireless metropolitan broadband solution that offers a rich set of features with a lot
of flexibility in terms of deployment options and potential service offerings. Some of the more salient
features that deserve highlighting in that section, the basic WiMAX features are:
OFDM-based physical layer

The WiMAX physical layer (PHY) is based on orthogonal frequency division multiplexing, a
scheme that offers good resistance to multipath, and allows WiMAX to operate in NLOS conditions.
OFDM is now widely recognized as the method of choice for mitigating multipath for broadband
wireless.
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Very high peak data rates

WiMAX is capable of supporting very high peak data rates. In fact, the peak PHY data rate can be
as high as 74Mbps when operating using a 20MHz2 wide spectrum. More typically, using a 10MHz
spectrum operating using TDD scheme with a 3:1 downlink-to-uplink ratio, the peak PHY data rate is
about 25Mbps and 6.7Mbps for the downlink and the uplink, respectively. These peak PHY data rates
are achieved when using 64 QAM modulations with rate 5/6 error-correction coding. Under very good
signal conditions, even higher peak rates may be achieved using multiple antennas and spatial
multiplexing.
Scalable bandwidth and data rate support

WiMAX has a scalable physical-layer architecture that allows for the data rate to scale easily
with available channel bandwidth. This scalability is supported in the OFDMA mode, where the FFT (fast
Fourier transform) size may be scaled based on the available channel bandwidth. For example, a WiMAX
system may use 128,512, or 1,048-bit FFTs based on whether the channel bandwidth is 1.25MHz, 5MHz,
or10MHz, respectively. This scaling may be done dynamically to support user roaming across different
networks that may have different bandwidth allocations.
Adaptive modulation and coding (AMC)

WiMAX supports a number of modulation and forward error correction (FEC) coding schemes
and allows the scheme to be changed on a per user and per frame basis, based on channel conditions.
AMC is an effective mechanism to maximize throughput in a time-varying channel. The adaptation
algorithm typically calls for the use of the highest modulation and coding scheme that can be supported
by the signal-to-noise and interference ratio at the receiver such that each user is provided with the
highest possible data rate that can be supported in their respective links.
Link-layer retransmissions
For connections that require enhanced reliability, WiMAX supports automatic retransmission
requests (ARQ) at the link layer. ARQ-enabled connections require each transmitted packet to be
acknowledged by the receiver; unacknowledged packets are assumed to be lost and are retransmitted.
WiMAX also optionally supports hybrid-ARQ, which is an effective hybrid between FEC and ARQ.
Support for TDD and FDD

IEEE 802.16-2004 and IEE802.16e-2005 supports time division duplexing and frequency division
duplexing, as well as a half-duplex FDD, which allows for a low-cost system implementation.
TDD is favored by a majority of implementations because of its advantages:
 Flexibility in choosing uplink-to-downlink data rate ratios.
 Ability to exploit channel reciprocity.
 Ability to implement in nonpayer spectrum.
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WiMAX Technical specifications
 Less complex transceiver design. All the initial WiMAX profiles are based on TDD, except for two
fixed WiMAX profiles in 3.5GHz.
Orthogonal frequency division multiple access (OFDMA)

Mobile WiMAX uses OFDM as a multiple-access technique, whereby different users can be
allocated different subsets of the OFDM tones; OFDMA facilitates the exploitation of frequency diversity
and multi-user diversity to significantly improve the system capacity.
Flexible and dynamic per user resource allocation

Both uplink and downlink resource allocation are controlled by a scheduler in the base station.
Capacity is shared among multiple users on a demand basis, using a burst TDM scheme. When using the
OFDMA-PHY mode, multiplexing is additionally done in the frequency dimension, by allocating different
subsets of OFDM sub carriers to different users. Resources may be allocated in the spatial domain as
well when using the optional advanced antenna systems (AAS). The standard allows for bandwidth
resources to be allocated in time, frequency, and space and has a flexible mechanism to convey the
resource allocation information on a frame-by-frame basis.
Support for advanced antenna techniques

The WiMAX solution has a number of hooks built into the physical-layer design, which allows for
the use of multiple-antenna techniques, such as beam forming, space-time coding, and spatial
multiplexing. These schemes can be used to improve the overall system capacity and spectral efficiency
by deploying multiple antennas at the transmitter and/or the receiver.
Quality-of-service support
The WiMAX MAC layer has a connection-oriented architecture that is designed to support a
variety of applications, including voice and multimedia services. The system offers support for constant
bit rate, variable bit rate, real-time, and non-real-time Traffic flows, in addition to best-effort data
traffic. WiMAX MAC is designed to support a large number of users, with multiple connections per
terminal, each with its own QOS requirement.
Robust security
WiMAX supports strong encryption, using Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), and has a robust
privacy and key-management protocol. The system also offers Avery flexible authentication architecture
based on Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP), which allows for a variety of user credentials,
including username/password, digital certificates, and smart cards.
Support for mobility

The mobile WiMAX variant of the system has mechanisms to support secure seamless
handovers for delay-tolerant full-mobility applications, such as VoIP. The system also has built-in
support for power-saving mechanisms that extend the battery life of handheld subscriber devices.
Physical-layer enhancements, such as more frequent channel estimation, uplink subchannelization, and
power control, are also specified in support of mobile applications.
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IP-based architecture
The WiMAX Forum has defined reference network architecture that is based on an all-IP
platform. All end-to-end services are delivered over an IP architecture relying on IP-based protocols for
end-to-end transport, QOS, session management, security, and mobility. Reliance on IP allows WiMAX to
ride the declining cost curves of IP processing, facilitate easy convergence with other networks, and
exploit the rich ecosystem for application development that exists for IP.
1.10 WiMAX Advantages

Flexible Architecture
WiMAX supports several system architectures, including Point-to-Point, Point to- Multipoint,
and ubiquitous coverage. The WiMAX MAC (Media Access Control) supports Point-to-Multipoint and
ubiquitous service by scheduling a time slot for each Subscriber Station (SS). If there is only one SS in the
network, the WiMAX Base Station (BS) will communicate with the SS on a Point-to-Point basis. A BS in a
Point-to-Point configuration may use a narrower beam antenna to cover longer distances.
High Security
WiMAX supports AES (Advanced encryption Standard) and 3DES (Triple DES, where DES is the
Data Encryption Standard). By encrypting the links between the BS and the SS, WiMAX provides
subscribers with privacy (against eavesdropping) and security across the broadband wireless interface.
Security also provides operators with strong protection against theft of service. WiMAX also has built-in
VLAN support, which provides protection for data that is being transmitted by different users on the
same BS.
WiMAX QOS
WiMAX can be dynamically optimized for the mix of traffic that is being carried. Four types of
service are supported.
Quick Deployment
Compared with the deployment of wired solutions, WiMAX requires little or no external plant
construction. For example, excavation to support the trenching of cables is not required.
Operators that have obtained licenses to one of the licensed bands, or that plan to use one of
the unlicensed bands, do not need to submit further applications to the Government. Once the antenna
and equipment are installed and powered, WiMAX is ready for service. In most cases, deployment of
WiMAX can be completed in a matter of hours, compared with months for other solutions.
Multi-Level Service
The manner in which QOS is delivered is generally based on the Service Level Agreement (SLA)
between the service provider and the end-user. Further, one service provider can offer different SLAs to
different subscribers, or even to different users on the same SS.
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WiMAX Advantages
Interoperability
WiMAX is based on international, vendor-neutral standards, which make it easier for end-users
to transport and use their SS at different locations, or with different service providers. Interoperability
protects the early investment of an operator since it can select equipment from different equipment
vendors, and it will continue to drive the costs of equipment down because of mass adoption.
Portability
As with current cellular systems, once the WiMAX SS is powered up, it identifies itself,
determines the characteristics of the link with the BS, as long as the SS is registered in the system
database, and then negotiates its transmission characteristics accordingly.
Mobility
The IEEE 802.16e amendment has added key features in support of mobility. Improvements
have been made to the OFDM and OFDMA physical layers to support devices and services in a mobile
environment. These improvements, which include Scalable OFDMA, MIMO, and support for idle/sleep
mode and hand-off, will allow full mobility at speeds up to 160 km/hr. The WiMAX Forum-supported
standard has inherited OFDM’s superior NLOS (Non-Line Of Sight) performance and multipath-resistant
operation, making it highly suitable for the mobile environment.
Cost-effective
WiMAX is based on an open, international standard. Mass adoption of the standard, and the use
of low-cost, mass-produced chipsets, will drive costs down dramatically, and the resultant competitive
pricing will provide considerable cost savings for service providers and end-users.
Wider Coverage
WiMAX dynamically supports multiple modulation levels, including BPSK, QPSK, 16-QAM, and
64-QAM. When equipped with a high-power amplifier and operating with a low-level modulation (BPSK
or QPSK, for example), WiMAX systems are able to cover a large geographic area when the path
between the BS and the SS is unobstructed.
Non-Line-of-Sight Operation
NLOS usually refers to a radio path with its first Fresnel zone completely blocked. WiMAX is
based on OFDM technology, which has the inherent capability of handling NLOS environments. This
capability helps WiMAX products deliver broad bandwidth in a NLOS environment, which other wireless
product cannot do.
High Capacity
Using higher modulation (64-QAM) and channel bandwidth (currently 7MHz, with planned
evolution towards the full bandwidth specified in the (associated IEEE and ETSI standards), WiMAX
systems can provide significant bandwidth to end users
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1.11 WiMAX Applications

WiMAX technology will revolutionize the way we communicate. It will provide total freedom to
people who are highly mobile, allowing them to stay connected with voice, data and video services.
WiMAX will allow people to go from their homes to their cars, and then travel to their offices or
anywhere in the world, all seamlessly. To illustrate the ability of WiMAX to address the applications
outlined in the preceding section, several representative usage scenarios, grouped into two broad
categories – private and public networks are outlined in the following sections.
1.11.1 Private Networks
Private networks, used exclusively by a single organization, institution or business, offer

dedicated communication links for the secure and reliable transfer of voice, data and video. Quick and
easy deployment is generally a high priority, and configurations are typically Point-to-Point or Point-to-
Multipoint.
1.11.2 Cellular Backhaul
The market for cellular services is becoming more and more competitive. To stay in the
business, cellular operators are constantly looking for ways to reduce operating costs. Backhaul costs for
cellular operators represent a significant portion of their recurring costs.
WiMAX can provide Point-to-Point links of up to 30 miles (50 km), with data rates capable of
supporting multiple E1/T1s Cellular operators can therefore use WiMAX equipment to backhaul Base
Station traffic to their Network Operation and Switching Centers, as shown in Figure 1.18
Figure1.18 Cellular Backhaul
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WiMAX Applications
Note: Based on the availability of spectrum for WiMAX in different countries, the cellular backhaul
application may or may not be able to handle nationwide networks.
Cellular traffic is a mix of voice and data, for which the built-in QOS feature of WiMAX is highly
suited. Leasing backhaul facilities from local telephone companies can be cost prohibitive, and deploying
a fiber solution, which is both costly and time consuming, could negatively impact rollout of service.
Wired solutions for providing cellular backhaul are seldom cost-effective in rural or suburban areas, and
most versions of DSL and cable technology cannot offer the required bandwidth, especially for
backhauling upcoming 3G networks.
1.11.3 Wireless Service Provider Backhaul
Wireless Service Providers (WSPs) use WiMAX equipment to backhaul traffic from Base Stations
in their access networks as shown in Figure 1.19.
Figure1.19 Wireless Service Provider Backhaul
Access networks may be based on Wi-Fi, WiMAX or any proprietary wireless access technology.
If the access network uses Wi-Fi equipment, the overall WSP network is referred to as a Hot Zone. Since
WSPs typically offer voice, data and video, the built-in QOS feature of WiMAX will help prioritize and
optimize the backhauled traffic. WiMAX equipment can be deployed quickly, facilitating a rapid rollout
of the WSP network.
As already illustrated, leasing backhaul facilities from the local telephone company will increase
operating costs, and deployment of a fiber solution can be very costly and requires significant lead
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times, negatively impacting rollout. Furthermore, fiber, DSL and cable are not cost-effective in rural and
suburban areas, and most versions of DSL and cable technology will not provide the capacity required
for these networks.
1.11.4 Banking Networks
Large banks can connect branches and ATM sites to their regional office through a private
WiMAX network carrying voice, data and video traffic, as shown in Figure 1.20 These banks are normally
spread over a large area and need high security and bandwidth to handle the traffic.
Figure1.20 Banking Networks
WiMAX data encryption offers excellent link security, however, banks will most likely also need
end-to-end security, such as that provided by SSL, to protect against undesired interception and
manipulation of sensitive banking traffic.
The broad coverage and high capacity allows the bank’s regional office to be connected to a
large number of diversely located brand offices and ATM sites. WiMAX networks also offer a high degree
of scalability, so that low-data-rate traffic between the regional office and ATM machines can co-exist
with the high levels of traffic needed to support branch-to-regional office communications. The WiMAX
QOS, which is used to prioritize voice (telephony among branches), data (financial transactions, email,
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WiMAX Applications
Internet, and intranet) and video (surveillance, CCTV) traffic make this possible. It is desirable for banks
to own their own networks, for a number of reasons.
Besides eliminating the repeat costs charged by telephone companies, this will provide banks
the ability to quickly redeploy their network if an ATM or branch is temporarily or permanently
relocated. In addition to their inability to be quickly deployed, most versions of DSL and cable
technology will not provide the bandwidth required to support and sustain branch-to-regional office
communications.
1.11.5 Education Networks
School boards can use WiMAX networks to connect schools and school board offices within a
district, as shown in Figure 1.21. Some of the key requirements for a school system are NLOS, high
bandwidth (>15 Mbps), Point-to-Point and Point-to- Multipoint capability, and a large coverage
footprint.
Figure1.21 Education Networks
WiMAX-based education networks, using QOS, can deliver the full range of communication
requirements, including telephony voice, operating data (such as student records), email, Internet and
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intranet access (data), and distance education (video)between the school board office and all of the
schools in the school district, and between the schools themselves.
In the above scenario, the camera at School B delivers real-time classroom instruction to School
A, allowing the schools to simultaneously deliver instruction from a recognized subject-matter expert to
a large number of students, eliminating the need for additional instructors. The WiMAX solution
provides broad coverage, making it very cost-effective, particularly for rural schools, which may have
little or no communications infrastructure, and which are widely dispersed when school boards.
Own and operate their own network, they can be responsive to changes in the location and
layout of their facilities. This will significantly reduce the annual operating cost of leased lines. Wired
solutions cannot offer a quickly deployable, low-cost solution, and most versions of DSL and cable
technology do not have the throughput required by these education networks.
1.11.6 Public Safety
Government public safety agencies, such as police, fire, and search and rescue, can use WiMAX
networks to support response to medical and other emergency situations, as shown in Figure 1.22.
Figure1.22 Public Safety
In addition to providing two-way voice communications between the dispatch center and on-
site emergency response teams, the network relays video images and data from the site of the accident
or disaster to the control center. This data can be relayed to expert teams of medical or emergency
staff, who can analyze the situation in real-time, as if they were on site. WiMAX QOS allows the network
to handle these diverse types of traffic.
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WiMAX Applications
WiMAX solutions are highly deployable, so the initial response team can set up a temporary
wireless network at the site of the accident, event, or natural disaster, in a matter of minutes. They can
also relay traffic from this network back to a control or dispatch center, over an existing WiMAX
network. Wired solutions are not appropriate situations like these, due to unpredictability and instability
of accidents and disasters. As well, there may be a requirement for mobility, such as, for example, a
police officer having to access a database from a moving vehicle, or a fireman having to download
information about the best route to a fire scene or the architecture of the building on fire.
A video camera in the ambulance can offer advance information about the condition of a
patient, before the ambulance reaches the hospital. In all of these cases, WiMAX provides support for
mobility and high bandwidth, which narrowband systems cannot deliver.
1.11.7 Offshore Communications
Oil and gas producers can use WiMAX equipment to provide communication links from land-
based facilities to oilrigs and platforms, to support remote operations, security, and basic
communications, as shown in Figure 1.23.
Figure1.23 Offshore Communications
Remote operations include remote troubleshooting of complex equipment problems, site

monitoring, and database access. For example, video clips of malfunctioning components or
subassemblies can be transmitted to a land-based team of experts for analysis.
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Security includes alarm monitoring and video surveillance. Basic communications includes voice
telephony, email, Internet access, and video conferencing. WiMAX networks are quickly and easily
deployed.
The network can be set up or redeployed in a matter of hours, if not minutes, even when oilrigs
and platforms are moved to other locations. Wired solutions are not appropriate for this scenario,
because the facilities are offshore, and since oilrigs are temporarily located and moved regularly within
the oil or gas field. In the event of having to temporarily abandon an offshore facility, communications
for monitoring the status of the asset can continue to be maintained, using battery-backed WiMAX
terminals.
1.11.8 Campus Connectivity
Government agencies, large enterprises, industrial campuses, transportation hubs, universities,

and colleges, can use WiMAX networks to connect multiple locations, sites and offices within their
campus, as shown in Figure 1.24.
Campus systems require high data capacity, low latency, a large coverage footprint, and high
security. Like other usage scenarios, campus networks carry a mix of voice, data, and video, which the
WiMAX QOS helps prioritize and optimize.
It takes less time and resources to interconnect a campus through a WiMAX network, since
excavation and external construction are not required. Some campuses have been around for a long
time, and digging trenches for cable may not be permitted. In such cases, WiMAX solutions may be one
of the most effective ways to interconnect campus buildings.
Even if wired installations are permitted, the lead-time to deploy a wired solution is much longer
than the lead-time to deploy a WiMAX solution, without offering any accompanying benefits.
Figure1.24 Campus Connectivity
1 - 28
WiMAX Applications
1.11.9 Temporary Construction Communications
Construction companies can use WiMAX networks to establish communication links between
the company head office, construction sites, offices of other project participants, such as architectural
and engineering firms, and storage facilities, as shown in Figure 1.25.
The fast deploy ability of WiMAX networks is also important in this scenario, since it allows for
quick provision of communications to the construction site, including voice (telephony) and data (emails,
engineering drawings, and Internet access). Surveillance video can also be carried over the network to
support monitoring of the site or areas of the site that are otherwise difficult to access. A local Hotspot
can also be set up at the construction site, allowing personnel at the site to communicate and exchange
data and schedule information. Like the other usage scenarios, the WiMAX built-in QOS will prioritize
network traffic and optimize the communications channel. Construction sites include, but are not
limited to, office buildings, residential land development, and oil and gas facilities. Since construction
activity at these sites is temporary, wired solutions are usually not appropriate. WiMAX equipment,
being highly portable, can be redeployed and reused at other construction sites.
Figure1.25 Temporary Construction Communications
1 - 29
1.11.10 Theme Parks
Theme park operators can use WiMAX to deliver a broad range of communication services for
their amusement parks, expositions, hospitality and operation censers, and buses and service vehicles,
as shown in Figure 1.26. The above network can support a wide range of communications traffic,
including two-way dispatch from a control center, video surveillance throughout the park, reservation
data, inventory database access and update, site status monitoring, video on demand, and voice
telephony. Some of the key requirements for a system like this are support for fixed and mobile
operations, high security, scalable architecture and low latency.
The broad coverage range of WiMAX means an entire park can be covered from only 2 numbers
of Base Stations, scalable upwards as capacity requirements increase. The WiMAX QOS MAC will
prioritize and optimize the communications channel, based on the operator's requirements. Re-
deployment of the network, in response to changes in theme park facilities, is straightforward and
simple, unlike the changes that would be required had the park been served by wired facilities, such as
DSL or cable. WiMAX mobility capability will support two way voice and data communications to the
theme park’s tour buses and service vehicles. Real-time video can be broadcast to tour buses, providing
tourist information, promotions, and weather to passengers.
Figure1.26 Theme Parks
1 - 30
WiMAX Applications
1.11.11 Public Networks
In public network, resources are accessed and shared by different users, including both
businesses and private individuals. Public networks generally require a cost-effective means of providing
ubiquitous coverage, since the location of the users is neither predictable nor fixed. The main
applications of public networks are voice and data communication, although video communication is
becoming increasingly popular.
Security is a critical requirement, since many users share the network. Built-in VLAN support and
data encryption address these concerns several usage scenarios involving public networks.
1.11.12 Wireless Service Provider Access Network
Wireless Service Providers (WSPs) use WiMAX networks to provide connectivity to both
residential (voice, data and video) and business (primarily voice and Internet) customers, as shown in
Figure 1.27.
The WSP could be a CLEC (Competitive Local Exchange Carriers) that is starting its business with
little or no installed infrastructure. Since WiMAX is easy to deploy, the CLEC can quickly install its
network and be in position to compete with the ILEC (Incumbent Local Exchange Carrier). The WiMAX
built-in QOS mechanism is highly suited for the mix of traffic carried by the CLEC. The QOS MAC also
offers multi-level service to address the variety of customer service needs. A common network platform,
offering voice, data and video, is highly attractive to end customers, because it presents a one-stop shop
and a single monthly bill.
Figure1.27 Wireless Service Provider Access Network
1 - 31
Support for multiple service types allows for different revenue streams, yet it reduces customer
acquisition cost, and increases ARPU (Average Revenue per User). The WSP needs only one billing
system and one customer database. Cellular operators may also be interested in applying WiMAX in
their networks. These operators already have towers, billing infrastructure and a customer base in place,
but the deployment of a WiMAX solution will expand their market presence in their service area.
All of the wired solutions, including fiber, DSL, and cable, require substantial upfront costs for
implementing the wired infrastructure. In particular, wired solutions are not suited for markets in
developing countries, where there is very little infrastructure, or in the less-populated areas of
developed countries, such as rural areas, small towns or the suburban edges of major centers.
1.11.13 Rural Connectivity
Service providers use WiMAX networks to deliver service to underserved markets in rural areas
and the suburban outskirts of cities, as shown in Figure 1.28.
The delivery of rural connectivity is critical in many developing countries and underserved areas
of developed countries, where little or no infrastructure is available. Rural connectivity delivers much-
needed voice telephony and Internet service. Since the WiMAX solution it provides extended coverage;
it is a much more cost-effective solution than wired technology in areas with lower population densities.
WiMAX solutions can be deployed quickly, providing communication links to these underserved
areas, providing more secure environment, and helping to improve their local economies.
Figure1.28 Rural Connectivity
1 - 32
Conclusion
1.12 Conclusion
WiMAX offers benefits for wire line operators who want to provide last mile access to
residences and businesses, either to reduce costs in their own operating areas, or as a way to enter new
markets. 802.16e offers cost reductions to mobile operators who wish to offer broadband IP services in
addition to 2G or 3G voice services, and allows operators to enter new markets with competitive
services, despite owning disadvantaged spectrum. The capital outlay for WiMAX equipment will be less
than for traditional 2G and 3G wireless networks, although the supporting infrastructure of cell sites,
civil works, and towers and so on will still be needed. WiMAX’s all-IP architecture lends itself well to high
bandwidth multi-media applications, and with QOS will support mobile voice and messaging services, re-
using the mobile networks IP core systems.
The latest developments in the IEEE 802.16 group are driving a broadband wireless access (r)
evolution thanks to a standard with unique technical characteristics. In parallel, the WiMAX forum,
backed by industry leaders, helps the widespread adoption of broadband wireless access by establishing
a brand for the technology. Initially, WiMAX will bridge the digital divide and thanks to competitive
equipment prices, the scope of WiMAX deployment will broaden to cover markets with high DSL
unbundling costs or poor copper quality, which have acted as a brake on extensive high-speed Internet
and voice over broadband. WiMAX will reach its peak by making Portable Internet a reality.
When WiMAX chipsets are integrated into laptops and other portable devices, it will provide
high-speed data services on the move, extending today's limited coverage of public WLAN to
metropolitan areas. Integrated into new generation networks with seamless roaming between various
accesses, it will enable end-users to enjoy an "Always Best Connected" experience.
The combination of these capabilities makes WiMAX attractive for a wide diversity of people:
fixed operators, mobile operators and wireless ISPs (Internet Service Provider), but for many vertical
markets and local authorities. Alcatel, the worldwide broadband market leader with a market share in
excess of 37%, is committed to offer complete support across the entire investment and operational
cycle required for successful deployment of WiMAX services.
1 - 33
Chapter 2
Overview of OFDM
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 History of OFDM
Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing, or OFDM, is a process of digital modulation that is

used in communication technology today. During the last few years wireless communication system has
been transferred from low data-rate system to high data-rate system containing of voice, images and
even to videos.
The goal of third and fourth generation mobile networks is to provide users with a high data
rate, and to provide a wider range of services, such as voice communications, videophones, and high
speed Internet access. The higher data rate of future mobile networks will be achieved by increasing the
amount of spectrum allocated to the service and by improvements in the spectral efficiency. OFDM is a
potential candidate for the physical layer of fourth generation mobile systems. This thesis presents
techniques for improving the spectral efficiency of OFDM systems applied in WLAN and mobile
networks.
The history of OFDM goes back to the 1960’s. At the time, there was a need to make more
efficient use of bandwidth transmissions without creating situations where signals would be subject to a
phenomenon referred to as crosstalk.
The concept dates back some 40 years. This brief history of OFDM cites some landmark dates.
 At 1960: The OFDM technique was used in several high-frequency military systems such as
KINEPLEX, ANDEFT, and KATHRYN.
 At 1966: Chang shows that multicarrier modulation can solve the multipath problem without
reducing data rate. This is generally considered the first official publication on multicarrier
modulation. Some earlier work was Hollinger's 1964 MIT dissertation and some of Gallager's
early work on water filling.
 At 1971: Weinstein and Ebert show that multicarrier modulation can be accomplished using a
DFT.
 At 1985: Cimini at Bell Labs identifies many of the key issues in OFDM transmission and does a
proof-of-concept design.
 At 1993: DSL adopts OFDM, also called discrete multi tone, following successful field
trials/competitions at Bellcore versus equalizer-based systems.
2-1
Chapter 2 Overview of OFDM
 At 1999: The IEEE 802.11 committee on wireless LANs releases the 802.11a standard for OFDM
operation in 5GHz UNI band.
 At 2002: The IEEE 802.16 committee releases an OFDM-based standard for wireless broadband
access for metropolitan area networks under revision 802.16a.
 At 2003: The IEEE 802.11 committee releases the 802.11g standard for operation in the 2.4GHz
band.
 At 2004: The multiband OFDM standard for ultra-wideband is developed, showing OFDM's
usefulness in low SNR systems.
2.1.2 What is OFDM?
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is a multicarrier modulation technique that

has recently found wide adoption in a widespread variety of high-data rate communication systems,
including digital subscriber lines, wireless LANs (802.11a/g/n), digital video broadcasting, and now
WiMAX (802.16e/f/g/k) and other emerging wireless broadband systems as shown in Figure 2.1.
Figure2.1 Conceptual scheme of a multi-carrier transmission system
OFDM is one of the applications of a parallel-data-transmission reduces the influence of

multipath fading and makes complex equalizers unnecessary as shown in Figure 2.2.
Figure2.2 parallel-data-transmission scheme
2-2
< Introduction>
In OFDM systems, the spectrum of individual subcarrier is overlapped with minimum frequency
spacing, which is carefully designed so that each subcarrier is orthogonal to the other subcarriers. The
bandwidth efficiency of OFDM is another advantage as shown in Figure 2.3.
Figure2.3 Frequency response of the subcarriers in a 5 tone OFDM
OFDM is a multiplexing technique that subdivides the bandwidth into multiple frequency sub-carriers.
In an OFDM system, the input data stream is divided into several parallel sub-streams of
reduced data rate (thus increased symbol duration) and each sub-stream is modulated and transmitted
on a separate orthogonal sub-carrier.
OFDM can be viewed as either a modulation technique or a multiplex technique. In case of

Modulation technique, it viewed by the relation between input and output signals. On the other hand
from Multiplex technique, OFDM is viewed as the output signal which is the linear sum of the modulated
signal.
OFDM is a method of using many carrier waves instead of only one, and using each carrier wave
for only part of the message.
OFDM uses the principles of FDM to allow multiple messages to be sent over a single radio
channel. It is however in a much more controlled manner, allowing an improved spectral efficiency.
Each carrier in an OFDM signal has a very narrow bandwidth (i.e. 1 kHz), thus the resulting
symbol rate is low. This results in the signal having a high tolerance to multipath delay spread, as the
delay spread must be very long to cause significant inter-symbol interference (e.g. > 100 ms).
2.1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages:
 Immunity to delay spread and multipath, Robust against Inter-symbol interference (ISI) and
fading caused by multipath propagation.
2-3
 Resistance to frequency selective fading.
 Simple equalization, Robust against narrow-band co-channel interference.
 Efficient bandwidth usage, High spectral efficiency.
 Robust against Inter-symbol interference (ISI) and fading caused by multipath propagation.
 Low sensitivity to time synchronization errors.
 Efficient implementation using FFT.
 Tuned sub-channel receiver filters are not required (unlike conventional FDM).
 Multiuser diversity: OFDMA allows different users to transmit over different portions of the
broadband spectrum (traffic channel).
 Receiver simplicity: OFDMA has the merit of easy decoding at the receiver side, as it eliminates
the intra-cell interference avoiding CDMA type of multi-user detection.
Disadvantages:
 Sensitive to carrier frequency offset and phase noise .
 The Peak-to-Average Ratio (PAG) which tends to reduce the power efficiency of the radio
frequency (RF) amplifier.
 Sensitive to Doppler shift.
 Nonlinear effects generated by the power amplifier may introduce intercarrier- interference and
thus destroy the orthogonality.
2.1.4 Comparison among different multiplexing techniques
2.1.4.1 OFDM versus FDM
OFDM is different from FDM in several ways. In conventional broadcasting each radio
station transmits on a different frequency, effectively using FDM to maintain a separation
between the stations. There is however no coordination or synchronization between each of
these stations.
With an OFDM transmission such as Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB), the information
signals from multiple stations are combined into a single multiplexed stream of data. This data is
then transmitted using an OFDM ensemble that is made up from a dense packing of many
subcarriers. All the subcarriers within the OFDM signal are time and frequency synchronized to
each other, allowing the interference between subcarriers to be carefully controlled.
2-4
< Introduction>
These multiple subcarriers overlap in the frequency domain, but do not cause Inter-Carrier
Interference (ICI) due to the orthogonal nature of the modulation.
Typically with FDM the transmission signals need to have a large frequency guard band
between channels to prevent interference. This lowers the overall spectral efficiency. However
with OFDM the orthogonal packing of the subcarriers greatly reduces this guard band,
improving the spectral efficiency.
In FDM the total signal frequency band is divided into N non-overlapping frequency
subchannels. Each subchannel is modulated with a separate symbol, and then the N
subchannels are frequency multiplexed. It seems good to avoid spectral overlap of channels to
eliminate inter-channel interference. However, this leads to inefficient use of the available
spectrum.
OFDM use parallel data and FDM with overlapping subchannels, in which each, carrying
a signaling rate b, is spaced b apart in frequency to avoid the use of high-speed equalization and
to combat impulsive noise and multipath distortion, as well as to use the available bandwidth
fully.
Figure 2.4 show the difference between the conventional non-overlapping multicarrier
technique and the overlapping multicarrier modulation technique.
By using the overlapping multicarrier modulation technique, we save almost 50% of

bandwidth. To realize this technique, however, we need to reduce cross talk between SCs,
which means that we want orthogonality between the different modulated carriers, this
overcomes the problem of overhead carrier spacing required in FDMA.
(a) (b)
Figure2.4 Concept of the OFDM signal
(a) Conventional multicarrier technique (FDM). (b) Orthogonal multicarrier modulation.
2.1.4.2 OFDM versus TDM
TDM systems transmit data in a buffer and burst method, thus the transmission of each
channel is non-continuous. The input data to be transmitted is buffered over the previous frame
and burst transmitted at a higher rate during the time slot for the channel.
2-5
TDMA cannot send analog signals directly due to the buffering required, thus are only
used for transmitting digital data. TDMA can suffer from multipath effects as the transmission
rate is generally very high, resulting in significant inter-symbol interference.
There is an overhead associated with the change over between users due to time
slotting on the channel. A change B over time must be allocated to allow for any tolerance in the
start time of each user, due to propagation delay variations and synchronization errors. This
limits the number of users that can be sent efficiently in each channel. In addition, the symbol
rate of each channel is high (as the channel handles the information from multiple users)
resulting in problems with multipath delay spread as shown in Figure 2.5.
Figure2.5 TDMA scheme where each user is allocated a small
OFDM exploits the frequency diversity of the multipath channel by coding and
interleaving the information across the sub-carriers prior to transmissions. Complex equalizers
are not required to compensate for frequency selective fading.
OFDMA therefore, is very well-suited to support smart antenna technologies. The

increased symbol duration improves the robustness of OFDM to delay spread.
Furthermore, the introduction of the cyclic prefix (CP) can completely eliminate Inter-
Symbol Interference (ISI) as long as the CP duration is longer than the channel delay spread.
OFDM splits the available bandwidth into many narrow band channels (typically 100-8000).
Because of this there is no great need for users to be time multiplex as in TDMA, thus
there is no overhead associated with switching between users.
2.1.4.3 OFDM versus CDMA
The CDMA signal is generated by modulating the data by the PN sequence. The
modulation is performed by multiplying the data (XOR operator for binary signals) with the PN
sequence as shown in Figure 2.6.
2-6
< Introduction>
Figure2.6 Conventional CDMA PN Code sequence
CDMA is achieved by modulating the data signal by a pseudo random noise sequence
(PN code), which has a chip rate higher than the bit rate of the data. The PN code sequence is a
sequence of ones and zeros.
CDMA can suffer from two problems, Near Far Problem (NFP) so in CDMA cellular, the
base station uses a fast closed-loop power control scheme to tightly control each mobile's
transmit power, And the other problem Multiple Access Interference (MAI) These PN sequences
are statistically uncorrelated, and the sum of a large number of PN sequences results in Multiple
Access Interference (MAI) that is approximated by a Gaussian noise process. If all of the users
are received with the same power level, then the variance (e.g., the noise power) of the MAI
increases in direct proportion to the number of users.
At OFDM the carriers for each channel are made orthogonal to one another, allowing
them to be spaced very close together.
OFDM was found to perform very well compared with CDMA, with it out-performing
CDMA in many areas for a single and multi-cell environment. OFDM was found to allow up to 2-
10 times more users than CDMA in a single cell environment and from 0.7 – 4 times more users
in a multi-cellular environment. The difference in user capacity between OFDM and CDMA was
dependent on whether cell sectorization and voice activity detection is used.
2.1.5 Applications
 Broadcasting:
 DAB (Digital Audio Broadcasting)
 DVB (Digital Video Broadcasting)
 WLAN (Wireless Local Area Networks):
 IEEE 802.11a
 Hyper LAN/2
2-7
 Wireless MAN (Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks)
 IEEE 802.16 (WiMAX)
2.2 Basics of OFDM

2.2.1 Orthogonality
The subcarriers are orthogonal to each other when we multiply the waveforms of any two
subcarriers and integrate over the symbol period the result is zero. The orthogonality of the carriers
means that each carrier has an integer number of cycles over a symbol period. Due to this, the spectrum
of each carrier has a null at the centre frequency of each of the other carriers in the system as shown in
Figure 2.7.
(A) (B)
Figure2.7 (A) Basis functions of an OFDM signal with N=16 carriers represented in frequency domain
(B) Resulting spectrum from the basic functions.
This results in no interference between the carriers, allowing then to be spaced as close as
theoretically possible. This overcomes the problem of overhead carrier spacing required in OFDM.
Signals are orthogonal if they are mutually independent of each other. Orthogonality is a
property that allows multiple information signals to be transmitted perfectly over a common channel
and detected without interference.
OFDM achieves orthogonality in the frequency domain by allocating each of the separate
information signals onto different subcarriers.
OFDM signals are made up from a sum of sinusoids, with each corresponding to a sub carrier.
2-8
Basics of OFDM
The base band frequency of each sub carrier is chosen to be an integer multiple of the inverse of
the symbol time, resulting in all subcarriers having an integer number of cycles per symbol. As a
consequence the subcarriers are orthogonal to each other.
Sets of functions are orthogonal to each other if they match the conditions in equation 2.1. If
any two different functions within the set are multiplied, and integrated over a symbol period, the result
is zero, for orthogonal functions.
(2.1)
0
Another way of thinking of this is that if we look at a matched receiver for one of the orthogonal
functions, a sub carrier in the case of OFDM, then the receiver will only see the result for that function.
The results from all other functions in the set integrate to zero, and thus have no effect, and equation
2.2 shows a set of orthogonal sinusoids, which represent the subcarriers for an unmodulated real OFDM
signal.
sin 2 0 1,2,3 …
(2.2)
0
Where:
f0 is the carrier spacing,
M is the number of carriers,
T is the symbol period.
Since the highest frequency component is Mf0 the transmission bandwidth is also Mf0 .
Figure 2.8 shows the construction of an OFDM signal with four subcarriers. (1a), (2a), (3a) and
(4a) show individual subcarriers, with 1, 2, 3, and 4 cycles per symbol respectively. The phase on all
these subcarriers is zero.
Note that each sub carrier has an integer number of cycles per symbol making them cyclic.
Adding a copy of the symbol to the end would result in a smooth join between symbols
(1b), (2b), (3b) and (4b) show the FFT of the time waveforms in (1a), (2a), (3a) and (4a)
respectively. (4a) and (4b) shows the result for the summation of the 4 sub carriers.
2-9
Figure2.8 Time domain construction of an OFDM signal
This results in sum and difference frequency components, which will always be integer sub
carrier frequencies, as the frequency of the two mixing subcarriers has integer number of cycles. Since
the system is linear we can integrate the result by taking the integral of each frequency component
separately then combining the results by adding the two sub integrals.
The two frequency components after the mixing have an integer number of cycles over the
period and so the sub-integral of each component will be zero, as the integral of a sinusoid over an
entire period is zero.
Both the sub-integrals are zeros and so the resulting addition of the two will also be zero, thus
we have established that the frequency components are orthogonal to each other. Orthogonal
frequency division multiplexing is then the concept of typically establishing a communications link using
a multitude of carriers each carrying an amount of information identical to the separation between the
carriers.
A more detailed understanding of Orthogonal arises when we observe that the bandwidth of a
modulated carrier has a so called "Sinc" shape with nulls spaced by the bit rate. In OFDM, the carriers
are spaced at the bit rate, so that the carriers fit in the nulls of the other carriers. Another view of
Orthogonal is that each carrier has an integer number of sine wave cycles in one bit period.
2.2.2 Cyclic Prefix
The increased symbol duration in OFDMA improves the delay spread while the Inter Symbol
Interference (ISI) is completely eliminated by introduction of a Cyclic Prefix (some data). CP is a
repetition of the last samples of the data portion that is appended at the beginning of the data payload.
2 - 10
Basics of OFDM
The ISI is completely eliminated as long as the CP duration is longer than the channel delay spread. A
drawback of the CP is that it introduces overhead, which effectively reduces bandwidth efficiency. Since
OFDM signal power spectrum has a sharp fall off at the edge of channel, a larger fraction of the
allocated channel bandwidth can be utilized for data transmission which compensates the loss in
efficiency due to the cyclic prefix. The concept of CP in OFDMA is explained as shown in Figure 2.9.
Figure2.9 Cyclic Prefix in OFDM
The total length of the symbol is Ts=TG + TFFT, where Ts is the total length of the symbol in
samples, TG is the length of the guard period in samples, and TFFT is the size of the IFFT used to generate
the OFDM signal.
The strength of OFDM is maximized by the introduction of a guard period among the
transmitted symbols. The guard period allows time for multi-path signals from the earlier symbol to
gradually disappear before the information from the present symbol is get together. Cyclic extension is
the most essential guard to period to employ. Cyclic extension is necessary to decode the symbol by
using the FFT. This satisfies the multi-path resistance and the symbol time synchronization tolerance.
Figure2.10 Cyclic Prefix in OFDM
2 - 11
For a given system bandwidth the symbol rate for an OFDM signal is much lower than a single
carrier transmission scheme. For example for a single carrier BPSK modulation, the symbol rate
corresponds to the bit rate of the transmission.
However for OFDM the system bandwidth is broken up into Nc subcarriers, resulting in a symbol
rate that is Nc times lower than the single carrier transmission. This low symbol rate makes OFDM
naturally resistant to effects of Intersymbol Interference (ISI) caused by multipath propagation.
Multipath propagation is caused by the radio transmission signal reflecting off objects in the
propagation environment, such as walls, buildings, mountains, etc. These multiple signals arrive at the
receiver at different times due to the transmission distances being different. This spreads the symbol
boundaries causing energy leakage between them. The effect of ISI on an OFDM signal can be further
improved by the addition of a Cyclic Prefix to the start of each symbol. This guard period is a cyclic copy
that extends the length of the symbol waveform.
Each subcarrier, in the data section of the symbol, (i.e. the OFDM symbol with no guard period
added, which is equal to the length of the IFFT size used to generate the signal) has an integer number
of cycles. Because of these placing copies of the symbol end-to-end results in a continuous signal, with
no discontinuities at the joins. Thus by copying the end of a symbol and appending this to the start
results in a longer symbol time.
2.2.3 Multiple Access in OFDM
Multiple access schemes are used to allow many simultaneous users to use the same fixed
bandwidth radio spectrum. In any radio system, the bandwidth that is allocated to it is always limited.
For mobile phone systems the total bandwidth is typically 50 MHz, which is split in half to provide the
forward and reverse links of the system.
Sharing of the spectrum is required in order increase the user capacity of any wireless network.
FDMA, TDMA and CDMA are the three major methods of sharing the available bandwidth to multiple
users in wireless system. There are many extensions, and hybrid techniques for these methods, such as
OFDMA, and hybrid TDMA and FDMA systems.
However, an understanding of the three major methods is required for understanding of any
extensions to these methods.
OFDMA is similar to FDMA in that the multiple user access is achieved by subdividing the
available bandwidth into multiple channels, which are then allocated to users as shown in Figure 2.11.
However, OFDMA uses the spectrum much more efficiently by spacing the channels much closer
together. This is achieved by making all the carriers orthogonal to one another, preventing interference
between the closely spaced carriers.
2 - 12
Basics of OFDM
Figure2.11 FDMA channelization
Before the digital implementation of OFDMA, FDMA can only be realized using multiple analog
RF modules if one terminal is occupying multiple frequency bands. FDMA therefore was deemed
unsuitable for broadband communications. However, the rise of OFDM, and in particular, its IFFF/FFT
implementation, give FDMA a new life as a broadband multiple access scheme.
The use of IFFF /FFT allows terminals to arbitrarily combine multiple frequencies (subcarriers) at
the baseband, leading to orthogonal frequency division multiple access (OFDMA) scheme as shown in
Figure 2.12.
Figure2.12 OFDMA channelization
An OFDMA system is defined as one in which each terminal occupies a subset of subcarriers
(termed an OFDMA traffic channel), and each traffic channel is assigned exclusively to one user at any
time PI.
In OFDMA, users are not overlapped in frequency domain at any given time. However, the
frequency bands assigned to a particular user may change over the time as shown in Figure 2.12.
The IEEE 802.16a-e has an OFDMA mode with bandwidth options of 1.25, 5, 10 or 20 MHz
depending on the bandwidth, the entire spectrum is divided into 128, 512, 1024 or 2048 subcarriers.
2 - 13
For example, a 20 MHz band with 2048-FFT yields a subcarrier spacing of 9.8 KHz. In time domain, the
resource is further divided into frames and sub frames that can be allocated to different users.
2.2.4 OFDM versus Single Carrier
Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) technology provides operators with an

efficient means to overcome the challenges of NLOS propagation. The WiMAX OFDM waveform offers
the advantage of being able to operate with the larger delay spread of the NLOS environment. By virtue
of the OFDM symbol time and use of a cyclic prefix, the OFDM waveform eliminates the inter-symbol
interference (ISI) problems and the complexities of adaptive equalization. Because the OFDM waveform
is composed of multiple narrowband orthogonal carriers, selective fading is localized to a subset of
carriers that are relatively easy to equalize.
An example is shown in Figure 2.13 and Figure 2.14 as a comparison between an OFDM Multi
carrier signal and a single carrier signal, with the information being sent in parallel for OFDM and in
series for single carrier.
Figure2.13 Single carrier and OFDM
2 - 14
Basics of OFDM
The ability to overcome delay spread, multi-path, and ISI in an efficient manner allows for higher
data rate throughput. As an example it is easier to equalize the individual OFDM carriers than it is to
equalize the broader single carrier signal as shown in Figure 2.15 and Figure 2.16.
Figure2.15 Single carrier and OFDM received
2 - 15
In radio transmissions, the channel spectral response is not flat. In the frequency domain large
delay spreads translate into frequency-selective fading.
Signals on some frequencies arrive at the receiver in phase while signals at some other
frequencies arrive out of phase. This results in "frequency selective fading" as shown in Figure 2.17.
NLOS channels may also vary in time significantly, due to moving transceivers in mobile
communications. Also time variation of NLOS channels is caused by other moving objects in the paths of
signals. This results in time selective fading as shown in Figure 2.17.
Figure2.17 Multi path Fading Channel
The OFDMA symbol structure consists of three types of sub-carriers as shown in Figure 2.18.
 Data sub-carriers for data transmission.
 Pilot sub-carriers for estimation and synchronization purposes.
2 - 16
Basics of OFDM
 Null sub-carriers for no transmission; used for guard bands and DC carriers.
Figure2.18 OFDM sub carrier structure
Active (data and pilot) sub-carriers are grouped into subsets of sub-carriers called subchannels.
The WiMAX OFDMA PHY supports sub-channelization in both DL and UL.
The minimum frequency-time resource unit of sub channelization is one slot, which is equal to
48 data tones (sub-carriers).
There are two types of sub-carrier permutations for sub-channelization; diversity and
contiguous. The diversity permutation draws sub-carriers pseudo-randomly to form a subchannel. It
provides frequency diversity and inter-cell interference averaging.
2.2.5 Scalable OFDM Access (SOFDMA)
Scalable OFDMA is the OFDMA mode is used in Mobile Wi-MAX defined in IEEE 802.16e.
Scalability is supported by adjusting the size of FFT size while fixing the sub-carrier frequency spacing in
10.94 kHz. It supports channel bandwidths ranging from 1.25 MHz to 20 MHz.
SOFDMA adds scalability to OFDMA. With bandwidth scalability, Mobile Wi-MAX technology
can comply with various frequency regulations worldwide.
When designing OFDMA wireless systems the optimal choice of the number of subcarriers per
channel bandwidth is a tradeoff between protection against multipath, Doppler shift, and design
cost/complexity.
Increasing the number of subcarriers leads to better immunity to the inter-symbol interference
(ISI) caused by multipath (due to longer symbols); on the other hand it increases the cost and complexity
of the system (it leads to higher requirements for signal processing power and power amplifiers with the
capability of handling higher peak-to-average power ratios).
Having more subcarriers also results in narrower subcarrier spacing and therefore the system
becomes more sensitive to Doppler shift and phase noise.
2 - 17
2.2.5.1 S-OFDMA parameters
Smaller FFT size is given to lower bandwidth channels, while larger FFT size to wider
channels. By making the sub-carrier frequency spacing constant, SOFDMA reduces system
complexity of smaller channels and improves performance of wider channels. In order to keep
optimal sub-carrier spacing, the FFT size should scale with the bandwidth. This concept is
introduced in Scalable OFDMA (SOFDMA).This results in the property that the number of sub-
channels scales with FFT/bandwidth. Various scalable parameters in SOFDMA along with the
fixed parameters are given in the table below.
PARAMETERS VALUES
System Channel Bandwidth (MHz) 20 10 5 1.25
Sampling frequency Fp in MHz 22.4 11.2 5.6 1.4
FFT Size (Nfft) 2048 1024 512 128
Number of Sub-Channels 32 16 8 2
Sub-Carrier Frequency Spacing 10.94KHz
Useful symbol Time ( Tb=1/f) 91.4 microsecond
Guard Time (Tg=Tb/8) 11.4 microsecond
OFDMA symbol duration (Ts=Tb+Tg) 102.9 microsecond
Number of OFDMA Symbols (5ms Frame) 48
Table2.1 scalable ODFM parameters
2.2.5.2 Other Complementary Features of S-OFDMA
 Advanced Modulation and Coding(AMC)

 Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request (H-ARQ)
 high-efficiency uplink subchannel structures,
 Multiple-Input-Multiple Output (MIMO)
2.2.5.3 SOFDMA frame structure
Figure2.19 SOFDM structure
2 - 18
OFDM Parameters
2.2.5.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of SOFDMA System
Advantages
1. Combating ISI and Reducing ICI
When signal passes through a time-dispersive channel, the orthogonality of the

signal can be lost. CP helps to maintain orthogonality between the sub carriers. Initially
guard interval-empty space between two OFDM symbols served as a buffer for the multi
path reflection. But the empty guard time introduces Inter Carrier Interference (ICI) that
is crosstalk between different sub carriers. A better solution is cyclic extension of OFDM
symbol or CP. It ensures that the delayed replicas of the OFDM symbols will always have
a complete symbol within the FFT interval (often referred as FFT window).
At the receiver side, CP is removed before any processing starts. As long as the
length of CP interval is larger than maximum expected delay spread, all reflections of
previous symbols are removed and orthogonality is restore
2. Spectral Efficiency
In the case of OFDM, a better spectral efficiency is achieved by maintaining

orthogonality between the sub-carriers.
Disadvantages
1. Strict Synchronization Requirement
OFDMA is highly sensitive to time and frequency synchronization errors.

Demodulation of an OFDM signal with an offset in the frequency can lead to a high bit
error rate.
2. Peak-to-Average Power Ratio (PAPR)
Peak to Average Power Ratio (PAPR) is proportional to the number of sub-

carriers used for OFDM systems. An OFDM system with large number of sub-carriers will
thus have a very large PAPR when the sub-carriers add up coherently. Large PAPR of a
system makes the implementation of Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC) and Analog-to-
Digital Converter (ADC) to be extremely difficult. The design of RF amplifier also
becomes increasingly difficult as the PAPR increases .
2.3 OFDM Parameters

The IEEE 802.16-2004 standard specified OFDM as the transmission method for NLOS
connections. The OFDM signal is made up of many orthogonal carriers, and each individual carrier is
digitally modulated with a relatively slow symbol rate. This method has distinct advantages in multipath
2 - 19
propagation because, in comparison with the single carrier method at the same transmission rate, more
time is needed to transmit a symbol.
The BPSK, QPSK, 16QAM, and 64QAM modulation modes are used, and the modulation is
adapted to the specific transmission requirements. Transmission rates of up to 75 Mbps are possible.
Unlike WiMAX’s "little brother" WLAN, the bandwidth is not constant and can vary between 1.25 MHz
and 28 MHz. In IEEE 802.16-2004, a distinction is made between two methods: OFDM and OFDMA.
In the normal OFDM mode, 200 carriers are available for data transmission and both TDD and
FDD methods are used. In the OFDMA mode, various subscribers can be served simultaneously by
assigning each subscriber a specific carrier group (subchannelization) that carries the data intended for
that subscriber.
The number of carriers is also significantly increased. The 802.16e standard is a further
expansion of WiMAX in the frequency range up to 6 GHz with the objective of allowing mobile
applications and even roaming. In addition, the number of carriers can vary over a wide range
depending on permutation zones and FFT base (128, 512, 1024, and 2048). The Korean standard WiBRO
is a special case of 802.16e.
OFDM is a combination of modulation and multiplexing. Multiplexing generally refers to

independent signals, those produced by different sources. So it is a question of how to share the
spectrum with these users. In OFDM the question of multiplexing is applied to independent signals but
these independent signals are a sub-set of the one main signal.
In OFDM the signal itself is first split into independent channels, modulated by data and then re-
multiplexed to create the OFDM carrier. OFDM is a special case of Frequency Division Multiplex (FDM).
As an analogy, a FDM channel is like water flow out of a faucet, in contrast the OFDM signal is like a
shower. In a faucet all water comes in one big stream and cannot be sub-divided. OFDM shower is made
up of a lot of little streams.
Think about what the advantage might be of one over the other? One obvious one is that if I put
my thumb over the faucet hole, I can stop the water flow but I cannot do the same for the shower. So
although both do the same thing, they respond differently to interference.
In OFDM system, the subcarriers must be orthogonal. The independent sub-channels can be
multiplexed by frequency division multiplexing (FDM), called multi-carrier transmission or it can be
based on a code division multiplexing (CDM), in this case it is called multi-code transmission.
2.3.1 Basic Terms in OFDM
The WiMAX standard describes different modes of operation:
 Single Carrier (SC / SCa).
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex (OFDM / OFDMA).
2 - 20
OFDM Parameters
OFDM is one step in the evolution of transmitting information over a physical media:
 The easiest way to send information is bit-by-bit in time at one particular carrier frequency. With
this method, you start with the first bit, transmit it, send the second bit, transmit it, and so on.
This is done by means of ASK modulation for example.
 A more complex method is to group a certain number of bits together to form a symbol and
then to transmit such symbols symbol-by-symbol. QPSK (two bits form 1 QPSK symbol) or
16QAM (four bits form one 16QAM symbol) are examples of this modulation.
OFDM is an even more complex method of transmitting information over a physical channel.
The basic concept is to use ''multiple carriers'' (e.g. 256 carriers) to transmit a large number of symbols
at the same time, and distributing information blocks containing a certain number of bits to a certain
number of carriers.
Using OFDM has many advantages, including high spectrum efficiency, resistance against
multipath interference (particularly in wireless communications), and ease of filtering out noise (if a
particular range of frequencies is affected by interference, the carriers within that range can be disabled
or made to run slower). Also, the upstream and downstream speeds can be varied by allocating a higher
or lower number of carriers for each purpose.
An extremely important benefit from using multiple subcarriers is that because each carrier
operates at a relatively low bit rate, the duration of each symbol is relatively long. For example, if you
send a million bits per second over a single baseband channel, then the duration of each bit must be
under a microsecond. This imposes severe constraints on synchronization and removal of ''multipath
interference''.
If the same million bits per second are spread among N subcarriers, the duration of each bit can
be extended by a factor of N, and the constraints of timing and multipath sensitivity are greatly relaxed.
For moving vehicles, the Doppler Effect on signal timing is another constraint that causes difficulties for
some other modulation schemes.
The more complex the technique and the greater the information bandwidth (one parameter is
"bit/Hz", which indicates how many useful bits can be transmitted when using 1 Hz bandwidth), the
more sensitive the systems are to ''disturbing effects'' (such as fading, noise, transmitter and receiver
imperfections).
Overcome these problems, more sophisticated techniques to ''recover errors'' have to be

introduced (advanced protocols, multipath receivers such as Rake receivers, high-performance receiver
frontends, advanced error coding and error recovery methods such as turbo codes, Viterbi decoders,
etc).
2 - 21
2.3.2 Basic OFDM Parameters
In order to describe an OFDM system, a number of terms are used to specify the parameters of
the physical properties. In The following few words, we will explain and illustrate the basic terms related
to OFDM.
Figure2.20 OFDM in Both Time and Frequency domains
 Nominal channel bandwidth BWn (Hz)

The bandwidth which is allocated by the governmental authorities Values are 1.5 MHz, 5
MHz or 20 MHz, the bandwidth is defined in OFDM as
(2.3)
Where:
Fs is the sampling frequency,
n is the sampling factor.
 Used bandwidth BW (Hz)

The bandwidth is the area which is physically occupied by the WiMAX signal in
frequency domain.
2 - 22
OFDM Parameters
(2.4)
Where:
Δf is the sampling frequency,
Nused (max) is the maximum number of used subcarriers.
Note: The used bandwidth must be smaller than the nominal BW.
 Sampling frequency FS (Hz)

The sampling frequency is the "core" frequency of the transmission system, that means
the frequency at which e.g. of the D/A converter generates new samples.
(2.5)
Note: The sampling frequency is always greater that Bandwidth BW.
 Sampling factor n
The sampling factor is the ratio of sampling frequency to channel bandwidth
(2.6)
Note: The Typical factors used in OFDM are 8/7 (recommended), 28/25, 86/75…etc
 FFT size (NFFT)

In OFDM, signals are very often processed using fast Fourier transformation (FFT). NFFT
specifies the number of samples for this processing step and is always a power of 2.
 Subcarrier spacing Δf (Hz)
Is the distance between two adjacent physical OFDM carriers. The value is calculated by
Δf that given by:
∆ (2.7)
 Useful symbol time Tb (sec)

The time a symbol is "valid", which means the correct and undisturbed carrier
modulation state (also called the "orthogonality interval") is present, and it can be given as:
(2.8)
Note: For FFT analysis, this is the analyzed interval length.
 Guard period ratio / interval G, cyclic prefix (CP) time Tg (sec)

In order to collect multipath information, a particular ratio of the useful symbol is added
to the OFDM symbol. This ratio is called ''guard period'' and the absolute time is called ''cyclic
prefix'
. (2.9)
Note: Typical values of G: , , ,
2 - 23
 (Overall) OFDM symbol time Ts (sec)

The duration of the complete OFDM symbol with useful symbol time and cyclic prefix
time, where:
(2.10)
 Number of used subcarriers (Nused)

Due to the shape of the transmission filter, the outer carriers of an OFDM signal may be
attenuated and thus be disturbed. Also, the DC carrier cannot be used. Consequently, the outer
carriers do not carry any modulation data. Nused may vary, depending on special transfer modes.
 DC subcarrier
The DC subcarrier is the carrier at the transmission frequency and is not used for data
transmission (set to 0).
 Pilot carriers
Pilot carriers are used to synchronize the receiver to the transmitter by means of phase,
frequency and timing.
Note: For OFDM, 8 pilot carriers are used.
 Guard subcarriers NGuard(left) and NGuard(right)

The guard subcarriers are the outer carriers, which are not used for transmission.
1 (2.11)
2.3.3 Properties of OFDM
Unshaped QPSK signal produces a spectrum such that its bandwidth is equal to (1+ α) Rs. In
OFDM, the adjacent carriers can overlap in the manner shown here. The addition of two carriers, now
allows transmitting 3Rs over a bandwidth of -2Rs to 2Rs or total of 4Ts. This gives a bandwidth efficiency
of 4/3 Hz per symbol for 3 carriers and 6/5 for 5 carriers.
As more and more carriers are added, the bandwidth approaches bits per Hz.
Figure2.21 The spectrum of an OFDM signal (without cyclic prefix)
2 - 24
OFDM Parameters
Figure2.22 The spectrum of an OFDM signal (without cyclic prefix)
So the larger the number of carriers is better. Here is a spectrum of an OFDM signal and note
that the out of band signal is down by 50 dB without any pulse shaping.
Comparing this to the spectrum of a QPSK signal, not how much lower the sidebands are for OFDM
and how much less are the variance.
 Bit Error Rate performance
The BER of an OFDM is only exemplary in a fading environment. We would not use
OFDM is a straight line of sight link such as a satellite link. OFDM signal due to its amplitude
variation does not behave well in a non-linear channel such as created by high power amplifiers
on board satellites. Using OFDM for a satellite would require a fairly large back off, on the order
of 3 dB, so there must be some other compelling reason for its use such as when the signal is to
be used for a moving user.
 Peak to average power ratio (PAPR)
If a signal is a sum of N signals each of max amplitude equal to 1 v, then it is conceivable

that we could get max amplitude of N that is all N signals add at a moment at their max points.
The PAPR is defined as:
| |
(2.12)
Where:
R: Peak to average power ratio
x(t): Peak power
Pavg: average power
For an OFDM signal that has 128 carriers, each with normalized power of 1 w, then the
max PAPR can be as large as log (128) or 21 dB. This is at the instant when all 128 carriers
combine at their maximum point, unlikely but possible. The RMS PAPR will be around half this
number or 10-12 dB. This same PAPR is seen in CFDM signals as well.
2 - 25
When the signal has to go through amplifier non-linearity's, Large back off is required in
such cases. This makes use of OFDM just as problematic as Multi-carrier FDM in high power
amplifier applications such as satellite links.
 Synchronization
The other problem is that tight synchronization is needed. Often pilot tones are served
in the subcarrier space. These are used to lock on phase and to equalize the channel.
 Coding
The sub-carriers are typically coded with convolution coding prior to going through IFFT.
The coded version of OFDM is called COFDM or Coded OFDM.
2.3.4 OFDM Real Parameters
The OFDM use has increased greatly in the last 10 years. It is now proposed for radio
broadcasting such as in Eureka 147 standard and Digital Radio Mondiale (DRM). OFDM is used for
modem/ADSL application where it coexists with phone line. For ADSL use, the channel, the phone line, is
filtered to provide a high SNR. OFDM here is called Discrete Multi Tone (DMT.)
(Remember the special filters on your phone line if you have cable modem.) OFDM is also in use in
your wireless internet modem and this usage is called 802.11a. Let’s take a look at some parameters of
this application of OFDM. The summary of these are given below.
 Data rates: 6 Mbps to 48 Mbps
 Modulation: BPSK, QPSK, 16 QAM and 64 QAM
 Coding: Convolution concatenated with Reed Solomon
 FFT size: 64 with 52 sub-carriers uses, 48 for data and 4 for pilots.
 Subcarrier frequency spacing: 20 MHz divided by 64 carriers or .3125 MHz
 FFT period: Also called symbol period, 3.2 μsec = 1/Δf
 Guard duration: One quarter of symbol time, 0.8 μsec
 Symbol time: 4 μsec
2.3.5 Subchannelization
As WiMAX is designed to operate as an infrastructure network, resource allocation is also an

important topic. Within WiMAX (OFDM and OFDMA), subchannelization allows you to group the
complete number of OFDM carriers into blocks and assign each block to a different segment of a base
2 - 26
OFDM Parameters
station. The blocks are spread over the complete frequency range and contain a number of adjacent
carriers.
The subchannel index controls the use of the different blocks over the entire spectrum.
The complete number of data subcarriers (192) can be divided into 2, 4, 8 or 16 subchannels. All
subcarriers are spread in four different "regions" of the available frequency range.
If, four subchannels are used (as in the example below), there will be 16/4 = 4 different
subchannel indices and 192/4 = 48 subcarriers per subchannel, which are distributed over four different
"regions", thus yielding 48/4 = 12 adjacent subcarriers per subchannel block.
Figure 2.23 below shows the concept of subchannelization with the example of four used
subchannels. Subchannel index 12 (green) is used as an example.
Figure2.23 Subchannelization with 4 used subchannels
As shown in figure 2.24 Subchannelization in the uplink is an option within WiMAX. Without sub
channelization, regulatory restrictions and the need for cost effective CPEs, typically cause the link
budget to be asymmetrical, this causes the system range to be up link limited. Sub channeling enables
the link budget to be balanced such that the system gains are similar for both the up and down links.
Subchanneling concentrates the transmit power into fewer OFDM carriers; this is what increases the
system gain that can either be used to extend the reach of the system, overcome the building
penetration losses, and or reduce the power consumption of the CPE. The use of sub channeling is
further expanded in orthogonal frequency division multiple access (OFDMA) to enable a more flexible
use of resources that can support nomadic or mobile operation.
2 - 27
Figure2.24 The effect of sub-channelization
2.3.6 Frame Structure
Frame structure is illustrated in Figure 2.25 that shows the frame structure of an WiMAX OFDM
transmission. A frame is divided into a DL and a UL sub frame. The DL and UL sub frames start with the
preamble 8 a known symbol with a limited number of carriers 8 to recover information about the
transmission channel and allow the receiver to recover the channel response. The FCH and DL MAP
contain information about the frame content (location and modulation of the individual bursts) and is
BPSK-modulated.
Figure2.25 OFDM frame structure
2 - 28
OFDM Parameters
2.3.7 From Bits to Carrier
To get a basic impression of how OFDM / OFDMA transmission works, the path from bits to the
carrier is described as shown in Figure 2.26 that shows a 802.16-2004 OFDM transmitter (with parts of
the OFDMA transmitter) and is just an overview; the detailed implementation may vary.
First, data from upper layers pass the randomizer, which converts long 0's or 1's sequences into
randomly scrambled data, showing better coding performance in the next steps of transmission. The
initialization value consists of the base station ID, DL or UL interval usage code (DIUC/UIUC) and frame
number. The randomizer is implemented as a feedback register.
Figure2.26 OFDM / OFDMA transmitter architecture (simplified)
After that, the Forward Error Correction (FEC) coder adds redundancy to the signal. This is a
means of correcting errors that may occur during signal transmission. The coder is implemented as a
2 - 29
''Reed-Solomon coder'' as inner coding and a ''Convolution coder'' as outer coder. The total number of
bits after encoding is higher than the number of bits before encoding.
Alternatively, ''turbo coding'' can be added as a block turbo coder or convolution turbo coder,
which performs better but is also more complex.
The signal's number of bits must now be reduced. This is done within the puncturing device. It
removes parts of the two output streams of the FEC and joins them in a defined way depending on the
selected coding rate.
The interleaver now takes the bit stream and rearranges the data in a different order. This is
done to protect against burst (or block) errors that can occur due to fading, signal level drops or other
RF conditions.
The bit sequence leaving the interleaver is converted from serial to parallel (width depends on
the FFT size) and applied to a modulator that performs a specific modulation scheme on the data (BPSK,
16QAM, etc).
For OFDMA, the data from one user occupies a certain amount of frequency and time resource.
This mapping depends on different parameters such as amount of data to transmit, zone type, segment,
subchannel group, etc.
A logical carrier can be built up from more than one physical carrier, which are normally non-
adjacent physical carriers. This mapping is done by a burst mapper, which arranges the data in
accordance with the rules defined in the standard.
All operations up to now lead to a complex-value and symbol-based representation of the data
in frequency domain. This frequency domain data is now transformed to the time domain by means of
an FFT block, which takes a certain number of data carriers, maps them to the FFT inputs (where the
mapping rule may depend on complex rules) and adds a certain number of pilot carriers.
The pilot carriers are used to recover the absolute phase and phase response of the
transmission channel, and allow the receiver to recover information about the transmission channel.
The output data is now complex values in the time domain.
After the FFT block, the Guard Period is inserted into the IQ stream to overcome the problem of
multipath effects on the OFDM signal, is then filtered by a baseband filter and passed to the D/A
converter section, where it is converted to the transmission frequency and finally transmitted.
2.4 OFDM Generation and Reception

OFDM signals are typically generated digitally due to the difficulty in creating large banks of
phase lock oscillators and receivers in the analog domain. Figure 2.27 shows the block of typical OFDM
Transceiver.
2 - 30
OFDM Generation and Reception
Figure2.27 Block diagram showing a basic OFDM transceiver
The transmitter section converts digital data to be transmitted, into a mapping of sub carrier
amplitude and phase.
It then transforms this spectral representation of the data into the time domain using an Inverse
Discrete Fourier Transform (IDFT).
The Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) performs the same operations as an IDFT, except that
it is much more computationally efficiency, and so is used in all practical systems. In order to transmit
the OFDM signal the calculated time domain signal is then mixed up to the required frequency.
The receiver performs the reverse operation of the transmitter, mixing the RF signal to base
band for processing, then using a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) to analyze the signal in the frequency
domain. The amplitude and phase of the subcarriers is then picked out and converted back to digital
data.
The IFFT and the FFT are complementary function and the most appropriate term depends on
whether the signal is being received or generated. In cases where the signal is independent of this
distinction then the term FFT and IFFT is used interchangeably.
2.4.1 Serial to parallel conversion
Data to be transmitted is typically in the form of a serial data stream. In OFDM, each symbol
typically transmits 40 – 4000 bits, and so a serial to parallel conversion stage is needed to convert the
input serial bit stream to the data to be transmitted in each OFDM symbol.
2 - 31
The data allocated to each symbol depends on the modulation scheme used and the number of
sub carriers. For example, for a sub carrier modulation of 16-QAM each subcarrier carries 4 bits of data,
and so for a transmission using 100 sub carriers the number of bits per symbol would be 400.
For adaptive modulation schemes the modulation scheme used on each subcarrier can vary and
so the number of bits per subcarrier also varies. As a result the serial to parallel conversion stage
involves filling the data payload for each subcarrier. At the receiver the reverse process takes place, with
the data from the sub carriers being converted back to the original serial data stream.
When an OFDM transmission occurs in a multipath radio environment, frequency selective

fading can result in groups of sub carriers being heavily attenuated, which in turn can result in bit errors.
These nulls in the frequency response of the channel can cause the information sent in neighboring
carriers to be destroyed, resulting in a clustering of the bit errors in each symbol.
Most Forward Error Correction (FEC) schemes tend to work more effectively if the errors are
spread evenly, rather than in large clusters, and so to improve the performance most systems employ
data scrambling as part of the serial to parallel conversion stage.
This is implemented by randomizing the subcarrier allocation of each sequential data bit. At the
receiver the reverse scrambling is used to decode the signal. This restores the original sequencing of the
data bits, but spreads clusters of bit errors so that they are approximately uniformly distributed in time.
This randomization of the location of the bit errors improves the performance of the FEC and
the system as a whole.
2.4.2 Modulation
Most OFDM systems use a fixed modulation scheme over all sub carriers for simplicity. However
each subcarrier in a multi-user OFDM system can potentially have a different modulation scheme
depending on the channel conditions. Any coherent or differential, phase or amplitude modulation
scheme can be used including BPSK, QPSK, 8-PSK, 16-QAM, 64-QAM, etc, each providing a trade-off
between spectral efficiency and the bit error rate. The spectral efficiency can be maximized by choosing
the highest modulation scheme that will give an acceptable Bit Error Rate (BER).
In a multipath radio channel, frequency selective fading can result in large variations in the
received power of each subcarrier. For a channel with no direct signal path this variation can be as much
as 30 dB in the received power resulting in a similar variation in the SNR.
In addition to this, interference from neighboring cells can cause the SNR to vary significantly
over the system bandwidth. To cope with this large variation in SNR over the system sub carriers, it is
possible to adaptively allocate the subcarrier modulation scheme, so that the spectral efficiency is
maximized while maintaining an acceptable BER.
As shows in Figure 2.28 an example of applying adaptive modulation to an individual subcarrier

as the channel SNR varies with time.
2 - 32
Figure2.28 Adaptive Modulation (The modulation scheme is set based on the SNR of the channel)
The SNR must be greater than the threshold (chosen from Table 2.1) to maintain a maximum
BER. Excess SNR results in the BER being lower than the BER threshold. This diagram assumes that the
modulation scheme is updated continuously and with no delay.
Using adaptive modulation has a number of key advantages over using static modulation. In
systems that use a fixed modulation scheme the subcarrier modulation must be designed to provide an
acceptable BER under the worst channel conditions.
This results in most systems using BPSK or QPSK. However these modulation schemes give a
poor spectral efficiency (1 - 2 b/s/Hz) and result in an excess link margin most of the time. Using
adaptive modulation, the remote stations can use a much higher modulation scheme when the radio
channel is good.
Modulation Scheme Spectral Efficiency Required SNR(dB)

(Coherent) (b/s/Hz) BER < 10−2 BER < 10−4 BER < 10−5 BER < 10−6
BPSK 1 4.32 8.41 9.61 10.42
QPSK 2 7.33 11.41 12.58 13.48
8-QAM 3 11.38 15.3 16.45 17.35
16-QAM 4 13.9 18.22 19.46 20.43
32-QAM 5 17.75 21.58 22.74 23.58
64-QAM 6 19.94 24.39 25.6 26.52
128-QAM 7 23.62 27.6 28.76 29.83
256-QAM 8 25.74 30.34 31.6 32.61
512-QAM 9 29.44 33.54 34.54 35.65
1024-QAM 10 31.54 36.29 37.58 38.59
2048-QAM 11 35.23 39.49 40.67 41.75
Table2.2 Required SNR to maintain a BER below a given threshold
2 - 33
Thus as a remote station approaches the base station the modulation can be increased from 1
b/s/Hz (BPSK) up to 4 - 8 b/s/Hz (16-QAM – 256-QAM), significantly increasing the spectral efficiency of
the overall system.
Using adaptive modulation can effectively control the BER of the transmission, as sub carriers
that have a poor SNR can be allocated a low modulation scheme such as BPSK or none at all, rather than
causing large amounts of errors with a fixed modulation scheme. This significantly reduces the need for
Forward Error Correction.
2.4.3 Frequency to time domain conversion
After the subcarrier modulation stage each of the data sub carriers is set to an amplitude and
phase based on the data being sent and the modulation scheme; all unused sub carriers are set to zero.
This sets up the OFDM signal in the frequency domain. An IFFT is then used to convert this signal
to the time domain, allowing it to be transmitted.
Figure 2.29 shows the IFFT section of the OFDM transmitter. In the frequency domain, before
applying the IFFT, each of the discrete samples of the IFFT corresponds to an individual subcarrier. Most
of the sub carriers are modulated with data.
The outer sub carriers are unmodulated and set to zero amplitude. These zero sub carriers
provide a frequency guard band before the nyquist frequency and effectively act as an interpolation of
the signal and allows for a realistic roll off in the analog anti-aliasing reconstruction filters.
Figure2.29 OFDM generation, IFFT stage
2 - 34
2.4.4 Guard Period
The strength of OFDM is maximized by the introduction of a guard period among the
transmitted symbols. The guard period allows time for multi-path signals from the earlier symbol to
gradually disappear before the information from the present symbol is get together. Cyclic extension is
the most essential guard to period to employ. Cyclic extension is necessary to decode the symbol by
using the FFT. This satisfies the multi-path resistance and the symbol time synchronization tolerance.
For a given system bandwidth the symbol rate for an OFDM signal is much lower than a single
carrier transmission scheme. For example for a single carrier BPSK modulation, the symbol rate
corresponds to the bit rate of the transmission. However for OFDM the system bandwidth is broken up
into Nc sub carriers, resulting in a symbol rate that is Nc times lower than the single carrier transmission.
This low symbol rate makes OFDM naturally resistant to effects of Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI) caused
by multipath propagation.
Multipath propagation is caused by the radio transmission signal reflecting off objects in the
propagation environment, such as walls, buildings, mountains, etc. These multiple signals arrive at the
receiver at different times due to the transmission distances being different. This spreads the symbol
boundaries causing energy leakage between them.
The effect of ISI on an OFDM signal can be further improved by the addition of a
guard period to the start of each symbol. This guard period is a cyclic copy that extends the
length of the symbol waveform. Each subcarrier, in the data section of the symbol, (i.e. the OFDM
symbol with no guard period added, which is equal to the length of the IFFT size used to generate the
signal) has an integer number of cycles. Because of these placing copies of the symbol end-to-end
results in a continuous signal, with no discontinuities at the joins. Thus by copying the end of a symbol
and appending this to the start results in a longer symbol time. Figure 2.30 shows the insertion of a
guard period.
Figure2.30 Addition of a guard period to an OFDM signal
2 - 35
The total length of the symbol is Ts=TG + TFFT, where Ts is the total length of the symbol in
samples, TG is the length of the guard period in samples, and TFFT is the size of the IFFT used to generate
the OFDM signal. In addition to protecting the OFDM from ISI, the guard period also provides protection
against time-offset errors in the receiver.
2 - 36
Chapter 3
Comparison between WiMAX and
other Broadband access technologies
3.1 Comparison between WiMAX and 3G cellular

3.1.1 Introduction to 3G Technologies
3.1.1.1 THE STANDARDS FOR 3G
Third Generation (3G) is the mobile phone systems that will be begin to be available
commercially in the year 2001. The idea behind 3G is to unify the disparate standards that
today’s second generation wireless networks use. Instead of different network types being
adopted in The Americas, Europe and Japan, the plan is for a single network standard to be
agreed and implemented.
3.1.1.2 3G STANDARDIZATION PROCESS
In 1998, the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) called for Radio

Transmission Technology (RTT) proposals for IMT-2000 (originally called Future Public Land
Mobile Telecommunications Systems (FPLMTS)), the formal name for the Third Generation
standard. Many different proposals were submitted: the DECT and TDMA/ Universal Wireless
Communications organizations submitted plans for the RTT to be TDMA-based; whilst all other
proposals for non-satellite based solutions were based on wideband CDMA- the main
submissions were called Wideband CDMA (WCDMA) and cdma2000. The ETSI/ GSM players
including infrastructure vendors such as Nokia and Ericsson backed WCDMA. The North
American CDMA community, led by the CDMA Development Group (CDG) including
infrastructure vendors such as Qualcomm and Lucent Technologies, backed cdma2000.
3.1.1.3 3GPP
In December 1998, the Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) was created
following an agreement between six standards setting bodies around the world including ETSI,
ARIB and TIC of Japan, ANSI of the USA and the TTA of Korea. This unprecedented cooperation
into standards setting made 3GPP responsible for preparing, approving and maintaining the
Technical Specifications and Reports for a Third Generation mobile system based on evolved
GSM core networks and the Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) and Time Division Duplex (TDD)
radio access technology. For example, ETSI SMG2 activities on UMTS have been fully transferred
to 3GPP. The Chinese and the CDMA Development Group were unfortunately not original
3-1
Chapter 3 Comparison between WiMAX and other Broadband access technologies
members of the 3GPP. In the first half of 1999, much progress was made in agreeing a global
IMT-2000 standard that met the political and commercial requirements of the various
technology protagonists- GSM, CDMA and TDMA. In late March 1999, Ericsson purchased
Qualcomm’s CDMA infrastructure division and Ericsson and Qualcomm licensed each other’s key
Intellectual Property Rights and agreed to the ITU’s “family of networks” compromise to the
various standards proposals.
3.1.2 Competing Technologies
The 3G partnership project (3GPP) and 3G partnership project 2 (3GPP2) have been defining
standards for enhancements to today’s 3G systems. The objective is to add network capacity and
features enabling operators to offer new data-oriented services over their existing networks. The
extensions are discussed below:
Figure3.1 Cellular Network Evolution
3.1.2.1 CDMA Family
CDMA 2000 represents a family of technologies that includes CDMA2000 1X and

CDMA2000 1xEV.CDMA2000 1X can double the voice capacity of CDMA One networks and
delivers peak packet data speeds of 307 Kbps in mobile environments. CDMA2000 1xEV
includes:
 CDMA2000 1xEV-DO is a high-speed data only system for 1.25 MHz FDD channels and
delivers peak data speeds of 2.4Mbps supporting applications such as MP3 transfers and
video conferencing.
3-2
3G cellular
 CDMA2000 1xEV-DV provides integrated voice and simultaneous high-speed packet

data multimedia services at speeds of up to 3.09 Mbps.
 Wideband code division multiple access (WCDMA) uses direct sequence spread
spectrum (DSSS) to spread the signal over a 5 MHz spectrum. It is based on 3GPP
Release 99 and provides data rates of 384 Kbps for wide area coverage and up to 2
Mbps for hot-spot areas. In addition to the use of orthogonal spreading codes, it uses
quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) for its modulation
Theoretical Throughput
Family Technology Forward link Return link (Kbps)
(Kbps)
1 x 1.25MHz 614 614
1 x EV-DO Rev 0 (1.25MHz) 2458 153

CDMA
1 x EV-DO Rev A (1.25MHz) 3072 1800
1 x EV-DO Rev B (1.25MHz) 14745 5400

GPRS (200KHz) 163 163
EDGE (200KHz) 474 474
WCDMA WCDMA Rel 99 (5MHz) 2688 2304
HSDPA Rel 5 (5MHz) 14400 2300
HSUPA Rel 5 (5MHz) 14400 5000

Table3.1 Theoretical throughputs of CDMA systems
3.1.2.2 HSDPA
3GPP Release 5 extends the WCDMA specification with high speed downlink packet
access (HSDPA).HSDPA includes advanced features such as adaptive modulation and coding
(AMC), hybrid automatic repeat request (HARQ), and de-centralized scheduling architecture.
The 3GPP has also defined WCDMA enhancements for the uplink path. This enhancement is
known as high speed uplink packet access (HSUPA); the combination of HSDPA and HSUPA is
simply known as HSPA (high speed packet Access).
3.1.3 Roadmap for 3G Enhancements
1xEVDO Rev 0 had initial success in Korea and Japan beginning in 2003 with additional major
deployments following in 2004 and 2005.The initial launch for EV-DO Rev A with CDMA2000 UL
enhancements took place in Korea and Japan in 2005.
A further enhancement to the CDMA2000 standard is 1xEVDO-Rev B (also known as DO Multi-Carrier).
3-3
This enhancement will increase the DL peak over the air data rate for a 1.25 MHz carrier to 4.9
Mbps and, by aggregating 3 carriers (known as 3xEVDO) in a nominal 5 MHz channel bandwidth, will
provides peak DL rate of 14.7 Mbps and a peak UL data rate of 5.4 Mbps. Commercial deployments for
1xEVDO-Rev B are not anticipated until 2008.
HSUPA/HSPA availability is not expected until 2007-2008. The 3GPP envisions additional long
term WCDMA enhancements leading to UMTS terrestrial radio access node long term evolution (known
as 3GPP-LTE or UTRAN LTE) also referred to as 3.99G or evolved UMTS. 3GPP2 is on a similar path with
LTE forCDMA2000. Since approved standards for LTE are not expected until 2007, it is unlikely that
products will be available until 2009 or later.
Figure3.2 Mobile WiMAX will be available before 3G – LTE
3.1.4 Technological Comparison
3G enhancements have evolved from the 3G experiences and as a result, inherit both the
advantages and limitations of legacy 3G systems. WiMAX on the other hand was initially developed for
fixed broadband wireless access and is optimized for broadband data services.
3-4
Comparing Mobile WiMAX to
1xEVDO and HSPA
3.2 Comparing Mobile WiMAX to 1xEVDO and HSPA
Attribute 1xEVDO Rev A HSPA Mobile WiMAX
Base Standard CDMA2000/IS-95 WCDMA IEEE 802.16e
Duplex Method FDD FDD TDD (FDD optional)
Downlink TDM CDM- TDM OFDMA
Uplink Multiple CDMA CDMA OFDMA

Access
Channel BW 1.25 MHz 5.0 MHz Scalable: 4.375, 5,7, 8.75,

10 MHz
DL 1.67 milliseconds 2 milliseconds 5milliseconds TDD
6.67 milliseconds 2, 10 5 milliseconds TDD

UL milliseconds
Frame Size
Modulation DL QPSK/8PSK/ QPSK/16QAM QPSK/16QAM/ 64QAM
16QAM
Modulation UL BPSK,QPSK/8PSK BPSK/QPSK QPSK/16QAM
Coding CC, Turbo CC, Turbo CC, Turbo

DL Peak Over Rev A: 3.1 Mbps 14 Mbps 46(1:1)~54 (3:1) Mbps
the Rev B: 4.9 Mbps (DL/UL combined (32,14),
Air Data Rate (46, 8))
UL Peak Over Rev 0: 0.15 Mbps 5.8 Mbps
the Rev A,B: 1.8 Mbps
Air Data Rate
H-ARQ Fast 4-Channel Fast 6-Channel Multi-Channel
Synchronous IR Asynchronous Asynchronous CC
CC
Scheduling Asynchronous CC Fast Scheduling Fast Scheduling in DL and
in the DL UL
Handoff Virtual Soft Handoff Network Initiated Network Optimized
Hard Handoff Hard Handof
Tx Diversity Simple Open Loop Simple Open & STBC, SM
and MIMO Diversity Closed
Loop Diversity
Beamforming No Yes (Dedicated Yes
Pilots)
Table3.2 WiMAX, EVDO and HSPA Features - summary of comparative features
3-5
3.2.1 Common Features
Several features, designed to enhance data throughput, are common to EVDO, HSPDA / HSPA
and mobile WiMAX including:
 Adaptive modulation and coding (AMC)
 Hybrid ARQ (HARQ)
 Fast scheduling
 Bandwidth efficient handoff
3.2.1.1 Adaptive Modulation and Coding (AMC)
1xEVDO-Rev B introduces 64QAM to further increase the peak downlink data rate.
1xEVDO-Rev A and
HSUPA introduce adaptive coding and modulation in the uplink to enhance uplink data
rate with a finite number of specific packet sizes.
Mobile WiMAX supports AMC in both downlink and uplink with variable packet size. The
uplink supports 16QAM modulation or 64QAM due to OFDMA orthogonal uplink sub-channels.
Technology DL DL Code Rate UL UL Code Rate

Modulation Modulation
QAM64 Turbo, CC, QAM16 Turbo, CC,
QAM16 Repetition QPSK Repetition:
Mobile WiMAX QPSK 1/12, 1/8, 1/4, 1/2, QAM64 1/12, 1/8, 1/4, 1/2,
2/3, 3/4, 5/6 2/3, 3/4, 5/6
QAM16 Turbo, CC: BPSK BPSK

HSDPA QPSK 1/4, 1/2, 3/4, 4/4
BPSK BPSK Turbo, CC:

HSPA (DPA+UPA) QPSK 2/3, 3/4, 4/4
Table3.3 AMC Capability
3.2.1.2 Hybrid ARQ
All systems support HARQ as an important means to improve the robustness of data
transmission over the wireless channel.
Chase combining (CC) or incremental redundancy (IR) can be implemented at the

receiver to jointly process the packets in error and new retransmission to improve the packet
reception. HARQ CC is supported by mobile WiMAX and HSPA; HARQ IR is supported by 1xEVDO.
Multi-channel HARQ operation is supported by all systems.
3-6
1xEVDO and HSPA
3.2.1.3 Fast Scheduling
Mobile WiMAX, HSPA and 1xEVDO all apply fast scheduling in the downlink. HSPA uplink
supports.
Autonomous scheduling - all uplink transmissions can randomly occur in parallel with
controlled rates; Dedicated scheduling. However, due to no orthogonal uplink, the quality of an
individual link cannot be easily controlled even with dedicated scheduling.
Mobile WiMAX applies fast scheduling in both downlink and uplink. Furthermore,
WiMAX performs scheduling on a per-frame basis and broadcasts the downlink/uplink
scheduling in the MAP messages at the beginning of each frame. This is especially well suited for
busty data traffic and rapidly changing channel conditions.
3.2.1.4 Bandwidth Efficient Handoff
1xEVDO depends on the DSC signal for feedback on link conditions to accomplish
“Virtual” Soft Handoff. HSPA does not support soft handoff but rather uses a more bandwidth
efficient “Network Initiated Hard Handoff”, which can be optimized for reduced delay. Mobile
WiMAX supports “Network Optimized Hard Handoff” for bandwidth-efficient handoff with
reduced delay, achieving a handoff delay of less than 50ms. Mobile WiMAX also supports fast
base station switch (FBSS) and macro diversity handover (MDHO) as options to further reduce
the handoff delay.
Handover types in WiMAX

The basic mean of WiMAX handover is to provide the continuous connection when a
Mobile Station (MS) migrates from an air-interface of one BS to another air-interface provided
by another BS. In the IEEE 802.16e are defined three types of handover hard handover, Macro
Diversity Handover (MDHO) and Fast Base Station Switching (FBSS). Hard handover is mandatory
in WiMAX systems .Other two types of handover are optional.
 Hard Handover:
During hard handover the MS communicates with only just one BS in each time.
Connection with the old BS is broken before the new connection is established.
Handover is executed after the signal strength from neighbor’s cell is exceeding the
signal strength from the current cell. This situation is shown in Fig. 3.3 Red thick line
at the boarder of the cells presents the place where the hard handover is realized.
3-7
Figure3.3 Hard handover realization
 Macro Diversity Handover
When MDHO is supported by MS and by BS, the “Diversity Set” is maintained by

MS and BS. Diversity set is a list of the BS’s, which are involved in the handover
procedure. Diversity set is defined for each of MS’s in network. MS communicates
with all BS’s in the diversity set (see Fig. 3.4). For downlink in MDHO, two or more
BS’s transmit data to MS such that diversity combining can be performed at the MS.
For uplink in MDHO, MS transmission is received by multiple BS’s where selection
diversity of the received information is performed. The BS, which can receive
communication among MS’s and other BS’s, but the level of signal strength is not
sufficient is noted as “Neighbor BS”.
Figure3.4 Macro Diversity Handover
3-8
1xEVDO and HSPA
 Fast Base Station Switching
In FBSS, the MS and BS diversity set is maintained similar as in MDHO. MS

continuously monitors the base stations in the diversity set and defines an “Anchor
BS”. Anchor BS is only one base station of the diversity set that MS communicates
with for all uplink and downlink traffic including management messages (see Fig.
3.5).This is the BS where MS is registered, synchronized, performs ranging and there
is monitored downlink channel for control information. The anchor BS can be
changed from frame to frame depending on BS selection scheme. This means every
frame can be sent via different BS in diversity set.
Figure3.5 Fast Base Station Switching
Handover types in 3G
There are following categories of handover.
 Hard Handover
Hard handover means that all the old radio links in the UE are removed before
the new radio links are established. Hard handover can be seamless or non-
seamless. Seamless hard handover means that the handover is not perceptible to
the user. In practice a handover that requires a change of the carrier frequency
(inter-frequency handover) is always performed as hard handover.
Figure3.6 Hard handoff
3-9
 Soft Handover
Soft handover means that the radio links are added and removed in a way that
the UE always keeps at least one radio link to the UTRAN. Soft handover is
performed by means of macro diversity, which refers to the condition that several
radio links are active at the same time. Normally soft handover can be used when
cells operated on the same frequency are changed.
Figure3.7 Soft handoff
 Softer handover
Softer handover is a special case of soft handover where the radio links that are
added and removed belong to the same Node B (i.e. the site of co-located base
stations from which several sector-cells are served. In softer handover, macro
diversity with maximum ratio combining can be performed in the Node B, whereas
generally in soft handover on the downlink, macro diversity with selection
combining is applied.
 MAHO: Mobile Assisted Handoff
Mobile Assisted Handoff (MAHO) is a handoff technique involving feedback

from the mobile station as part of the handoff process. The feedback is usually in
3 - 10
Key Advantages of Mobile
WiMAX
the form of signal level and quality measurements on the downlink and signal level
measurements from neighbor cells.
3.1 Key Advantages of Mobile WiMAX

Unlike the CDMA-based 3G systems, which have evolved from voice-centric systems, WiMAX
was designed to meet the requirements necessary for the delivery of broadband data services as well as
voice. The Mobile WiMAX physical layer is based on Scalable OFDMA technology. The new technologies
employed for Mobile WiMAX result in lower equipment complexity and simpler mobility management
due to the all-IP core network and provide Mobile WiMAX systems with many other advantages over
CDMA- based 3G systems including:
 Tolerance to Multipath and Self-Interference
 Scalable Channel Bandwidth
 Orthogonal Uplink Multiple Access
 Support for Spectrally-Efficient TDD
 Frequency-Selective Scheduling
 Fractional Frequency Reuse
 Fine Quality of Service (QoS)
 Advanced Antenna Technology
3.2.2 Tolerance to Multipath and Self-Interference
With OFDMA systems, the sub-channels maintain their orthogonality in a multipath channel.
The number of multipath components does not limit the performance of the system as long as the
multipaths are within the cyclic prefix window. OFDMA systems therefore are robust to multipath
effects. The sub-channel orthogonality within the cyclic prefix window also relaxes the time
synchronization requirement.
In CDMA systems, RAKE receivers are usually employed to combat multipath fading. However, in
addition to multipath, other impairments such as frequency offset, Doppler Effect and lack of time
synchronization can cause CDMA systems to suffer from intra-cell interference between users in the
same cell and even self-interference in the absence of other users. This interference can be mitigated by
employing a time domain equalizer. The equalizer however, cannot completely remove interference as
in OFDMA and does not scale well with channel bandwidth since the complexity increases with channel
bandwidth and increased delay spread. Therefore, in broadband wireless systems where multipath
effect is prevalent, OFDMA systems are more robust and the equipment less complex than CDMA
systems.
3 - 11
3.2.3 Scalable Channel Bandwidth
Scalability is one of the most important advantages of OFDMA. With the OFDMA sub-carrier
structure, it can support a wide range of bandwidths. The scalability is achieved by adjusting the FFT
size7 to the channel bandwidth while fixing the sub-carrier frequency spacing.By fixing the sub-carrier
spacing and symbol duration, the basic unit. of physical (time and frequency) resource is fixed.
Therefore, the impact to higher layers is minimal when scaling the bandwidth.
One immediate advantage stemming from scalability is the flexibility of deployment. With little
modification to air interface, OFDMA systems can be deployed in various frequency band intervals to
flexibly address the need for various spectrum allocation and usage model requirements. Mobile
WiMAX supports channel bandwidths of 5 MHz, 7 MHz, 8.75 MHz, and 10 MHz and can optionally
support channel bandwidths ranging from 1.25 MHz to 20 MHz
With the flexibility to support a wider bandwidth, Mobile WiMAX also enjoys high aggregate
sector throughput, which allows more efficient multiplexing of data traffic, lower latency and better
QoS.
The CDMA-based systems such as 1xEVDO and HSPA on the other hand, are optimized for a
specific channel plan (1.25 MHz for 1xEVDO and 5 MHz for HSPA). These systems are very sensitive to
bandwidth change, because the signals occupy the entire bandwidth and do not have the same modular
property as the OFDMA signals in the frequency domain. Both the CDMA code and frame structure may
have to be re-optimized for the new channel bandwidth. Therefore, 1xEVDO and HSPA and do not
provide scalability in a natural manner.
3.2.4 Orthogonal Uplink Multiple Access
When considering multiple access benefits, sub-channel orthogonality provides OFDMA with a
distinct advantage over CDMA. Since with OFDMA, users are allocated different portions of the channel,
there is no (or little) multiple access interference (MAI) between multiple users. OFDMA therefore, can
support higher order uplink modulations and achieve higher uplink spectral efficiency. With CDMA, on
the other hand, each user transmits over the entire channel. Even though it is possible to construct
orthogonal spreading codes, due to the uplink synchronization issues, asynchronous CDMA is used in the
uplink in most practical CDMA systems. With asynchronous CDMA, the users interfere with each other
during uplink multiple accesses and MAI significantly reduces uplink spectral efficiency. Uplink capacity,
in fact, is the bottleneck in most CDMA systems. WiMAX with OFDMA on the other hand, is capable of
providing balanced downlink/uplink throughput. Orthogonal uplink sub-channels also enables the uplink
scheduler to provide better control of the uplink quality and uplink resource allocation. Therefore the
uplink performance is more predictable and QoS is better enforced.
3.2.5 Support for Spectral-Efficient TDD
Both HSDPA and 1xEVDO are FDD-based, whereas Mobile WiMAX supports TDD and optionally,
Full and Half-Duplex FDD. To counter interference issues, TDD does require system-wide frame
3 - 12
WiMAX
synchronization; nevertheless, TDD is the preferred duplexing mode for broadband services for the
following reasons:
 TDD enables adjustment of the downlink/uplink ratio on a per cluster basis to efficiently support
asymmetric downlink/uplink traffic while maintaining frame synchronization. With traffic
becoming more and more dominated by data, downlink traffic will generally be dominant. With
FDD, downlink and uplink always have fixed and generally, equal DL and UL bandwidths. Either
the downlink channel or the uplink channel will be underutilized when the traffic is asymmetric
resulting in a net decrease in overall spectral efficiency.
 TDD assures channel reciprocity for better support of link adaptation, MIMO and other closed
loop advanced antenna technologies.
 Unlike FDD, which requires a pair of channels, TDD only requires a single channel for both
downlink and uplink providing greater flexibility for adaptation to varied global spectrum
allocations.
 Transceiver design for TDD implementations is less complex and therefore less expensive.
It should be noted that there are TDD solutions for 3G as well. UMTS-TDD or TD-CDMA uses a
combined time division code division access scheme based on a radio access approach defined by the
ETSI Delta group. TD-CDMA is designed for operation at a 3.84 Mbps chip rate in a 5 MHz channel. TD-
CDMA can also use AMC features developed for HSDPA to further enhance channel capacity.
Specifications for TD-CDMA were approved by 3GPP in 1999 and continue to evolve. TD-SCDMA was
proposed by the China Wireless Telecommunications Standards group (CWTS) and approved by the ITU
in 1999. TD-SCDMA adds a synchronization mechanism and is designed to operate at a 1.28 Mcps chip
rate in a 1.6 MHz channel. Both TD-CDMA and TD-SCDMA were adopted by 3GPP as part of UMTS
Release 4 in 2001. To date, worldwide adoption of these systems has been limited and therefore, is not
discussed in greater detail in this paper. Nevertheless, given the favorable attributes of TDD for data-
centric services these systems can also be expected to play an important part in the ongoing evolution
of 3G networks.
3.2.6 Frequency Selective Scheduling
Both 1xEVDO and HSPA signals occupy the entire bandwidth. Mobile WiMAX signals on the
other hand only occupy a portion of the bandwidth. In broadband wireless channels, propagation
conditions can vary over different portions of the spectrum in different ways for different users. Mobile
WiMAX supports frequency selective scheduling to take full advantage of multi-user frequency diversity
and improve QoS. WiMAX with adjacent sub-carrier permutation makes it possible to allocate a subset
of sub-carriers to mobile users based on relative signal strength. By allocating a subset of sub-carriers to
each MS for which the MS enjoys the strongest path gains, this multi-user diversity technique can
achieve significant capacity gains over TDMA/CDMA.
3 - 13
3.2.7 Fractional Frequency Reuse
Mobile WiMAX, 1xEVDO and HSPA all support frequency reuse one, i.e. all cells/sectors operate
on one frequency channel to maximize spectrum utilization. However, due to heavy interference in
frequency reuse one deployment, users at the cell edge may suffer low connection quality. 1xEVDO and
HSPA address the interference issue by adjusting the loading of the network. However, the same loading
factor is applied to all users within the coverage area, leading to capacity loss by “over-protecting” users
that are closer to the base station. Since in WiMAX, users operate on sub-channels, which only occupy a
small fraction of the channel bandwidth, the cell edge interference problem can be easily addressed by
reconfiguration of the sub-channel usage without resorting to traditional frequency planning. In Mobile
WiMAX, the flexible sub-channel reuse is facilitated by sub-channel segmentation and permutation
zone. A segment is a subdivision of the available OFDMA sub-channels (one segment may include all
sub-channels). One segment is used for deploying a single instance of MAC. Permutation Zone is a
number of contiguous OFDMA symbols in DL or UL that use the same permutation. The DL or UL sub-
frame may contain more than one permutation zone. The sub-channel reuse pattern can be configured
so that users close to the base station operate on the zone with all sub-channels available. While for the
edge users, each cell sector operates on the zone with a fraction of all sub-channels available. In Figure
3, F1, F2 and F3 are different sets of sub-channels in the same frequency channel. In this configuration,
the full load frequency reuse of one is maintained for center users to maximize spectral efficiency while
fractional frequency reuse is achieved for edge users to improve edge user connection quality and
throughput. The sub-channel reuse planning can be adaptively optimized across sectors or cells based
on network load and interference conditions on a per frame basis. All the cells sectors can operate on
the same frequency channel and no frequency planning is required.
Figure3.8 Fractional Frequency Reuse with Mobile WiMAX
3.2.8 Quality of Service
WiMAX was developed from the outset to meet the stringent requirements for the delivery of
broadband services. The WiMAX QoS is specified for each service flow. The connection-oriented QoS
therefore, can provide accurate control over the air interface. Since the air interface is usually the
bottleneck, the connection-oriented QoS can effectively enable the end-to-end QoS control. The service
flow parameters can be dynamically managed through MAC messages to accommodate the dynamic
3 - 14
WiMAX
service demand. Service flows provide the same control mechanism in both the DL and UL to improve
QoS in both directions. Furthermore, since the sub-channels are orthogonal, there is no intra-cell
interference in either DL or UL. Therefore, the DL and UL link quality and QoS can be easily controlled by
the base station scheduler. The high system throughput also allows efficient multiplexing and low data
latency. Therefore, with fast air link, high system throughput, symmetric downlink/uplink capacity, fine
resource granularity and flexible resource allocation Mobile WiMAX can support a wide range of data
services and applications with varied QoS requirements as summarized in Table 3.
Support for QoS in 3G systems, on the other hand, is more limited. Using a priority-based
technique to support Conversational Class, Streaming Class, Interactive Class, and Background Class
services, higher priority traffic may completely starve lower priority traffic during periods of high usage.
QoS Category Applications QoS Specifications
UGS VoIP Maximum Sustained Rate

Unsolicited Grant Maximum Latency
Service Tolerance
Jitter Tolerance
rtPS Streaming Audio or Minimum Reserved Rate
Real-Time Polling Video Maximum Sustained Rate
Service Maximum Latency
Tolerance
Traffic Priority
ErtPS Voice with Activity Minimum Reserved Rate
Extended Real-Time Detection (VoIP) Maximum Sustained Rate
Polling Service Maximum Latency Tolerance
Jitter Tolerance
Traffic Priority
nrtPS File Transfer Protocol Minimum Reserved Rate
Non-Real-Time (FTP) Maximum Sustained Rate
Polling Traffic Priority
Service
BE Data Transfer, We Maximum Sustained Rate
Best-Effort Service Browsing, etc. Traffic Priority
Table3.4 Mobile WiMAX Applications and Quality of Service
3.2.9 Advanced Antenna Technology
In CDMA-based systems, the signals occupy the entire bandwidth. Since the processing
complexity for smart antenna technologies scales with the channel bandwidth, supporting advanced
antenna technologies in broadband wireless channels poses a more significant challenge than it does
with Mobile WiMAX [23]. Both 1xEVDO and HSPA support simple transmit diversity and the HSPA
standard has an option to support Beam forming. In general however, the use of advanced antenna
technologies in current 1xEVDO and HSPA solutions has been limited.
3 - 15
Mobile WiMAX on the other hand, is based on smart antenna friendly OFDM/OFDMA
technology. OFDM/OFDMA converts a frequency selective wideband channel into multiple flat narrow
band sub-carriers and allows smart antenna operations to be performed on vector flat sub-carriers.
Complex equalizers are not required to compensate frequency selective fading. With OFDM/OFDMA
systems therefore, it is far easier to support smart antenna technologies. Mobile WiMAX supports a full
range of smart antenna technologies to enhance performance including Beam forming, STC and SM [24,
25, 26, and 27]. These technologies can improve both system coverage and capacity.
WiMAX also supports dynamic switching between the smart antenna technologies to maximize
the benefit based on channel conditions. SM for example, improves peak throughput but, when channel
conditions are poor, the Packet Error Rate (PER) can be high and thus the coverage area where target
PER is met may be limited. STC on the other hand provides large coverage regardless of the channel
condition but does not improve the peak throughput. Mobile WiMAX supports Adaptive MIMO
Switching (AMS) between multiple MIMO modes to maximize spectral efficiency with no reduction in
coverage area as illustrated in Figure 3.9.
Figure3.9 Performance of Adaptive MIMO Switch (AMS)
3.2.10 Spectral Efficiency
Mobile WiMAX, as a 4G technology, deployments has higher spectral efficiency and will
outperform EVDO and HSPA
Figure3.10 Mobile WiMAX Versus 3G spectral efficiency comparison
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WiMAX
3.2.11 Throughput Comparison
Mobile WiMAX provides much better throughput than EVDO and HSxPA. Mobile WiMAX (with
MIMO) provides 3 times more throughput than HSPA or EVDO Rev B in the same occupied spectrum.
Mobile WiMAX (with SIMO) has 100% DL throughput advantage over EV-DO Rev B and a ~130%
advantage over HSPA.
3G-LTE is the only 3G technology which may put a real match to WiMAX. However, it will not be
commercially available until at least 2010/2011. Furthermore, 3G-LTE does not provide an
EVOLUTIONARY path from existing 3G networks, but does require an effort closer to “fork-lift”
revolution in the sense that it is a completely new network and requires entirely new devices.
Figure3.11 Mobile WiMAX versus 3GNet Throughput Comparison
3.2.12 Base-Station Deployment
The throughput and spectral efficiency advantages of mobile WiMAX result in fewer base
stations to achieve the same performance. Since deploying Radio Access Networks (base-stations) is a
significant percentage of the capital investment and operational expenses of the deployment, this has a
substantial impact on the business case of deploying a mobile Personal Broadband network, and far-
reaching ramifications on the service provider’s business and pricing model.
Figure3.12 Mobile WiMAX versus 3G Number of required sites
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3.2.13 Power control
3.2.13.1 Power control in 3G
Power control is used to overcome near-far-problem (NFP) in 3G.
Power control means the received power from all MS’s are nearly equal regardless their location
whether near or far.
Figure3.13 Near-Far-problem
Open loop power control
It depends on MS only each BS transmits pilot continuously. The MS receive pilot,

measure its signal strength and adjust. Its transmitted power increase proportional to the pilot
signal without feedback to BS.
Closed loop power control
 Reverse closed loop power control
The MS transmits & Bs receives. The Bs measures the receive signal and compare it with
certain threshold and generate power control command (Up or Down) to MS the MS
responds and the process continue until power control is full filled.
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WiMAX
 Reverse closed loop power control
The BS transmits & MS receives. The MS measures the receive signal and compare it
with certain threshold and generate power control command (Up or Down) to BS the BS
responds and the process continue until power control is full filled.
Combination of closed loop and open loop power control
Prior to any transmission, the MS measure the pilot signal from BS and adjust its
transmitted power.
Additional refinement, The BS receives the signal from MS, measure it and compare it
with threshold and generate power control command. The MS responds and the process
continue until power control is full filled.
3.2.13.2 Power control in WiMAX
Power control algorithms are used to improve the overall performance of the system; it
is implemented by the base station sending power control information to each of the CPEs to
regulate the transmit power level so that the level received at the base station is at a pre-
determined level. In a dynamical changing fading environment this pre-determined
performance level means that the CPE only transmits enough power to meet this requirement.
The converse would be that the CPE transmit level is based on worst-case conditions. The
power control reduces the overall power consumption of the CPE and the potential interference
with other co-located base stations. For LOS the transmit power of the CPE is approximately
proportional to its distance from the base station, for NLOS it is also heavily dependent on the
clearance and obstructions.
Open loop power control
The MS could determine the transmit power for the first attempt based on the transmit
power information sent by the BS and the measured DL signal strength.
Closed loop power control
The MS could determine the transmit power based on the power control information
feed backed by the BS.
The fast-moving MS
Due to the very dynamic changes of the channel response, the power control would not
be able to compensate the fast fading channel effect. As a result, the power control shall be
used to compensate the distance-dependent path loss and slow fading only. Moreover, the fast-
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moving MS could request to change the power control mode from open loop to closed loop and
vice versa. The BS could also send the unsolicited power control mode change command to the
MS.
3.2.13.3 Comparison between Powers Controls on 3G versus WiMAX
Items 3G WiMAX
Aim (UL) To solve near-far problem To mitigate interference
Interference Inter-cell Interference Intra-cell Interference
Priority High Low
Scheduler N/A Tightly Coupled
Table3.5 Power Control on 3G versus WiMAX
3.3 Comparison between WiMAX and WiFi

3.3.1 Introduction
There is lots of confusion among both WiMAX and WiFi technologies. There are many reasons
for that; one could be both technologies starts with W letter that makes some people think that they
both are same technologies with different names. There is one more major reason why it makes
confusing, they both belong from standard setter IEEE and there standards first 3 letter are same “802”,
and both WiFi and WiMAX technologies belong from Wireless connectivity family. Here it will be
explained these two technologies may have few visible similarities but how much they are different
from each other when considered practically.
WiFi: WiFi is used for developing wireless LAN to access high speed internet or access just a network for
file sharing and software services.
WiMAX: WiMAX is quite latest technology and it can do far more than just developing wireless networks
for high speed internet. It is also refer as Wireless broadband access, which can transfer not only data,
but voice data, video data etc and at much higher rates.
WiFi: WiFi is capably for short range data transfer, which can be within hundred of meters range using
non licensed spectrum to access network. WiFi is mostly connected to network in certain area which
may not be connected to internet; it can be used for file sharing only.
WiMAX: WiMAX is designed for long distance coverage and it covers distance in kilometers, it uses
licensed spectrum and unlicensed also in some case. WiMAX delivers point-to-point connection to the
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WiFi
internet from service provide to as user. In WiMAX there are multiple standards of 802.16 a, b etc, so
they are used for different types of access from mobile connectivity to fixed location connections.
WiFi: WiFi has introduced a quality of service similar to fixed Ethernet, where packets are priorities on
their tags. This shows that quality of service (QoS) is relative to packet flow.
WiMAX: WiMAX uses technology based on setting up connection between end users’ device and base
station. Special algorithm is scheduled for specific connection. This shows that Quality of Services (QoS)
parameters can be guaranteed for each flow.
WiFi is deployed much more than WiMAX because of its ease of installation and cost
effectiveness. It is easily deployed within the building or room for providing internet access by third
party internet service providers. Many public places, hotels, coffee shops have installed Wi-fi access
points providing high speed internet to their customers
3.3.2 Scalability
The WiMAX standard relies upon a grant-request access protocol that, in contrast to the
contention-based access used under WiFi doesn’t allow data collisions and, therefore, uses the available
bandwidth more efficiently. No collisions means no loss of bandwidth due to data retransmission. All
communication is coordinated by the base station. Other characteristics of the WiMAX standards
include:
3.3.2.1 Improved user connectivity
The WiMAX standards keep more users connected by virtue of its flexible channel
widths and adaptive modulation. Because it uses channels narrower than the fixed 20-MHz
channels used in WiFi, the WiMAX standards can serve lower- data-rate subscribers without
wasting bandwidth. When subscribers encounter noisy conditions or low signal strength, the
adaptive modulation scheme keeps them connected when they might otherwise be dropped.
3.3.2.2 Higher quality of service
This standard also enables WISPs to ensure QoS for customers that require it and to
tailor service levels to meet different customer requirements. For example, the Wimax
standards can guarantee high bandwidth to business customers or low latency for voice and
video applications, while providing only best-effort and lower-cost service to residential Internet
surfers.
3.3.2.3 Full support for WMAN service
From its inception, the WiMAX standards were designed to provide WMAN service.
Hence, it is able to support more users and deliver faster data rates at longer distances than
last-mile implementations based on the 802.11g standard.
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3.3.2.4 Robust carrier-class operation
The standard was designed for carrier-class operation. As more users join, they must
share the aggregate bandwidth and their individual throughput decreases linearly. The
decrease, however, is much less dramatic than what is experienced fewer than WiFi. This
capability is termed “efficient multiple access.”
We Conclude that:
WiFi uses 20 MHz channels; WiMAX is flexible allowing channels from 1.5 MHz to 20 MHz, with
spectral efficiency superior to that of 802.11 a and g, but lower than that of 802.11n.
WiFi WiMAX
 Wide (20MHz) frequency channels  Channel bandwidths can be chosen by

operator (e.g. for sectorization)
 MAC layer designed to support  1.5 MHz to 20 MHz width channels.

10’s of users MAC designed for scalability.
independent of channel bandwidth
 MAC layer designed to support

thousands of users.
Table3.6 WiMAX versus WiFi Scalability
3.3.3 Relative Performance
3.3.3.1 Channel Bandwidth
WiMAX: the approved WiMAX Forum profiles for Mobile WiMAX currently support channel
bandwidths of 5, 7, 8.75, and 10MHz. The IEEE802.16e 2005 standard, on which Mobile WiMAX
technology is based, supports channel bandwidths from 1.25 to 20MHz, leaving open the
possibility for additional WiMAX channel profiles in the future. In some cases local regulatory
requirements will dictate the choice of channel bandwidth by limiting the amount of spectrum
available to individual licensees or by specifying a specific channel plan From an equipment-
complexity and cost point of view there will be little or no difference in selecting a 5MHz versus
a10MHz channel bandwidth .Since the wider channel bandwidth will have greater capacity it will
, in most cases , be more cost effective to deploy the largest channel bandwidth support able by
local regulatory requirements , the desired reuse factor , and desire to conserve spectrum for
future overlays.
WiFi: Standardization is a process driven by market forces. Interoperability issues between non-
Wi-Fi brands or proprietary deviations from the standard can still disrupt connections or lower
throughput speeds on all users’ devices that are within range, to include the non-Wi-Fi or
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WiFi
proprietary product. Moreover, the usage of the ISM band in the 2.45 GHz range is also common
to Bluetooth, WPAN-CSS and any new system will take its share.
Wi-Fi pollution, or an excessive number of access points in the area, especially on the
same or neighboring channel, can prevent access and interfere with the use of other access
points by others, caused by overlapping channels in the 802.11g/b spectrum, as well as with
decreased signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) between access points. This can be a problem in high-
density areas, such as large apartment complexes or office buildings with many Wi-Fi access
points. Additionally, other devices use the 2.4 GHz band: microwave ovens, security cameras,
Bluetooth devices and (in some countries) Amateur radio, video senders, cordless phones and
baby monitors, all of which can cause significant additional interference. General guidance to
those who suffer these forms of interference or network crowding is to migrate to a Wi-Fi 5 GHz
product, (802.11a, or the newer 802.11n if it has 5 GHz support) because the 5 GHz band is
relatively unused, and there are many more channels available. This also requires users to set up
the 5 GHz band to be the preferred network in the client and to configure each network band to
a different name (SSID). It is also an issue when municipalities,[16] or other large entities such as
universities, seek to provide large area coverage. This openness is also important to the success
and widespread use of 2.4 GHz WiFi.
3.3.3.2 Data rate
WiFi versus WiMAX Efficiency:

Given the data rates supported on its 25 MHz channel (1 M to 11 Mbps), 802.11b
delivers bandwidth efficiency between 0.04 and 0.44 bps/Hertz. The 6 M to 54 Mbps
transmission rate supported on an 802.11a or g 20 MHz channel yields a bandwidth efficiency
between .24 and 2.7 bps/Hertz. In WiMAX, the combination of modulation and coding schemes
yields bandwidth efficiency up to 5- bits/Hertz. That would deliver a 100-Mbps transmission rate
on a 20-MHz radio channel. The bandwidth efficiency will decrease as the transmission range
increases, so a maximum of 3.5 bits/Hertz or 70 Mbps on a 20 MHz channel would be more
realistic.
3.3.4 Quality of Service
3.3.4.1 Quality of Service in WiFi:
There are plans to incorporate quality of service (QoS) capabilities in Wi-Fi with the
adoption of the IEEE 802.11e standard. The 802.11e standard will include two operating modes,
either of which can be used to improve service for voice:
 Wi-Fi Multimedia Extensions (WME)-Mandatory.
 Wi-Fi Scheduled Multimedia (WSM)-Optional.
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Wi-Fi Multimedia Extensions (WME):

This uses a protocol called Enhanced Multimedia Distributed Control Access (EDCA),
which is Extensions an enhanced version of the Distributed Control Function (DCF) defined in
the original 802.11 MAC.
The enhanced part is that EDCA will define eight levels of access priority to the shared
wireless channel. Like the original DCF, the EDCA access is a contention-based protocol that
employs a set of waiting intervals and back-off timers designed to avoid collisions. However,
with DCF, all stations use the same values and hence have the same priority for transmitting on
the channel.
With EDCA, each of the different access priorities is assigned a different range of waiting
intervals and back-off counters. Transmissions with higher access priority are assigned shorter
intervals. The standard also includes a packet-bursting mode that allows an access point or a
mobile station to reserve the channel and send 3- to 5-packets in sequence.
Wi-Fi Scheduled Multimedia (WSM):

True consistent delay services can be provided with the optional Wi-Fi Scheduled
Multimedia (WSM). WSM operates like the little used Point Control Function (PCF) defined with
the original 802.11 MAC.
In WSM, the access point periodically broadcasts a control message that forces all
stations to treat the channel as busy and not attempt to transmit. During that period, the access
point polls each station that is defined for time sensitive service.
To use the WSM option, devices must first send a traffic profile describing bandwidth,
latency. If the access point does not have sufficient resources to meet the traffic profile, it will
return a busy signal.
3.3.4.2 Quality of Service in WiMAX
The IEEE 802.16 standard provides powerful tools in order to achieve different QoS
constraints. The 802.16 standard MAC Layer provides QoS differentiation for the different types
of applications that might operate over 802.16 networks, through five defined scheduling
service types, also called QoS classes.
This classification into these scheduling service classes facilitates bandwidth sharing
between different users. Every user has a quality of scheduling service class, also known as QoS
class. According to this parameter, the BS scheduler allocates the necessary amount of
bandwidth required for each application. This mechanism allows an efficient and adapted
distribution of the existing resources. Therefore, a real-time application, such as a video
application, will have the priority in bandwidth allocation in comparison with FTP (File Transfer
3 - 24
WiFi
Protocol) or email applications. This is not the case; for example, with the presently used WiFi
(WLAN) system where all services have exactly the same level of QoS.
Scheduling services represent the data handling mechanisms supported by the MAC
scheduler for data transport on a given connection. Uplink request (grant) scheduling is
performed by the BS based on the scheduling service type, with the intent of providing each
subordinate SS with a bandwidth for uplink transmissions and opportunities to request this
bandwidth, when needed. As already mentioned in this book, each connection is associated
with a single data service flow and each service flow is associated with a set of QoS parameters.
These parameters are managed using the DSA and DSC MAC management messages dialogues
four scheduling services were defined in 802.16e:
Unsolicited Grant Service (UGS):

The UGS scheduling service type is designed to support real-time data streams
consisting of fixed-size data packets issued at periodic intervals. This would be the case, for
example, for TI/EI classical PCM (Pulse Coded Modulation) phone signal transmission and Voice
over IP without silence suppression.
In a UGS service, the BS provides fixed-size data grants at periodic intervals. This
eliminates the overhead and latency of SS requests. Figure 11.7 illustrates the UGS mechanism.
The BS provides Data Grant Burst IEs (UL-MAP_IEs) to the SS at periodic intervals based upon
the maximum sustained traffic rate of the service flow. The size of these grants is sufficient to
hold the fixed-length data associated with the service flow, taking into account the associated
generic MAC header and grant management sub header.
Figure3.14 UGS scheduling service uplink grants allocation mechanism
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Real-time Polling Service (rtPS):

The rtPS scheduling service type is designed to support real-time data streams
consisting of variable-sized data packets that are issued at periodic intervals. This would be the
case, for example, for MPEG (Moving Pictures Experts Group) video transmission. In this service,
the BS provides periodic unicast (uplink) request opportunities, which meet the flow's real-time
needs and allow the SS to specify the size of the desired grant. This service requires more
request overheads than UGS, but supports variable grant sizes for optimum real-time data
transport efficiency.
Figure3.15 rtPS scheduling service uplink grants allocation and request mechanismnon-real-time Polling Service (nrtPS)
Non-Real-Time Polling Service (nrtPS):

The nrtPS is designed to support delay-tolerant data streams consisting of variable-size
data packets for which a minimum data rate is required. The standard considers that this would
be the case, for example, for an FTP transmission. In the nrtPS scheduling service, the BS
provides unicast uplink request polls on a ‘regular’ basis, which guarantees that the service flow
receives request opportunities even during network congestion. The standard states that the BS
typically polls nrtPS CIDs on an interval on the order of one second or less. In addition, the SS is
allowed to use contention request opportunities, i.e. the SS may use contention request
opportunities as well as unicast request opportunities.
Figure3.16 Illustration of the nrtPS scheduling service uplink grants allocation and request mechanism. The SS may use
contention request opportunities as well as unicast request opportunities
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WiFi
Best Effort (BE):

The BE service is designed to support data streams for which no minimum service
guarantees are required and therefore may be handled on a best available basis. The SS may use
contention request opportunities as well as unicast request opportunities when the BS sends
any. The BS do not have any unicast uplink request polling obligation for BE SSs. Therefore, a
long period can run without transmitting any BE packets, typically when the network is in the
congestion state.
Figure3.17 Illustration of the BE scheduling service uplink grants allocation and request mechanism. The BS does not have
any unicast uplink request polling obligation for a BE SS
WiFi WiMAX
Standard cannot currently guarantee Designed to support Voice and Video
latency for Voice, Video from ground up
Standard does not allow for • Supports differentiated service levels:

differentiated levels of service on a per- e.g. T1 for business customers; best
user basis effort for residential.
802.11e (proposed) QoS is

Centrally-enforced QoS
prioritization only
Table3.7 WiMAX versus WiFi QOS
3.3.5 RANGE
WiMAX range:
In the early days of WiMAX it was common to see statements in the media describing WiMAX
multipoint coverage extending 30 miles. In a strict technical sense (in some spectrum ranges) this is
correct, with even greater ranges being possible in point to point links. In practice (and especially in the
license-free bands) this is wildly overstated especially where non line of sight (NLOS) reception is
concerned.
3 - 27
Due to a variety of factors explained in more detail in other FAQ answers, the average cell
ranges for most WiMAX networks will likely boast 4-5 mile range (in NLOS capable frequencies) even
through tree cover and building walls. Service ranges up to 10 miles (16 Kilometers) are very likely in
line of sight (LOS) applications (once again depending upon frequency). Ranges beyond 10 miles are
certainly possible, but for scalability purposes may not be desirable for heavily loaded networks. In
most cases, additional cells are indicated to sustain high quality of service (QOS) capability. For the
carrier class approach, especially in regards to mobility, cells larger than this seem unlikely in the near
future. The primary WiMAX focused US carrier Clear wire has stated that its cell sites are planned at
about 1.5 miles apart for mobile purposes. This choice is clearly one intended to meet NLOS
requirements. In licensed frequencies, expect similar performance or better for WiMAX than in
traditional cellular systems.
WiFi range:
Wi-Fi range is used for low-cost, unregulated point-to-point connections, as an alternative to

cellular networks, microwave or satellite links. The use of the term "long range WiFi" as depicted on this
page for extreme ranges is not in any way endorsed by the Wi-Fi Alliance and is not in any way tested or
certified by the WiFi Alliance for interoperability or performance.
The average range of WiFi is 100 meters. And it considers small range and this is disadvantage.
The advantage in this small range it avoid “near-far” compensation and the delay spread about 0.8μ
seconds and it is small.
Figure3.18 WiMAX versus WiFi range
3 - 28
WiFi
3.3.6 Coverage
WiMAX operates on the same general principles as WiFi -- it sends data from one computer to
another via radio signals. A computer (either a desktop or a laptop) equipped with WiMAX would
receive data from the WiMAX transmitting station, probably using encrypted data keys to prevent
unauthorized users from stealing access.
The fastest WiFi connection can transmit up to 54 megabits per second under optimal
conditions. WiMAX should be able to handle up to 70 megabits per second. Even once those 70
megabits is split up between several dozen businesses or a few hundred home users, it will provide at
least the equivalent of cable-modem transfer rates to each user.
The biggest difference isn't speed; it's distance. WiMAX outdistances WiFi by miles. WiFi's range
is about 100 feet (30 m). WiMAX will blanket a radius of 30 miles (50 km) with wireless access. The
increased range is due to the frequencies used and the power of the transmitter. Of course, at that
distance, terrain, weather and large buildings will act to reduce the maximum range in some
circumstances, but the potential is there to cover huge tracts of land.
IEEE 802.16 Specifications:
 Range - 30-mile (50-km) radius from base station
 Speed - 70 megabits per second
 Line-of-sight not needed between user and base station
 Frequency bands - 2 to 11 GHz and 10 to 66 GHz (licensed and unlicensed bands)
 Defines both the MAC and PHY layers and allows multiple PHY-layer specifications
Figure3.19 WiMAX vs. WiFi coverage
3 - 29
3.3.7 WiMAX Security
How do we establish a security environment for the use of the network and for the messages
exchanged in it? Base Stations perform authentication using credentials to control the access of users to
the network. Connections use security associations to indicate the way they will protect their messages.
Example: Line does a lot of Instant Messaging with her friends but there are a lot of impostors in
the network, trying to get identity information. She is afraid to talk to some people because of this. She
also wants to keep her messages confidential.
Context
Fixed or mobile stations in wireless networks distributed in relatively large geographic areas, where WiFi
cannot reach.
Problem
How do we establish a security environment for the use of the network and for the messages exchanged in
it? Subscribers need to exchange messages without exposing them to eavesdroppers. They also need to
know they are talking to authentic subscribers. The network company only wants to authorize legitimate
subscribers to use the links. The possible solution is constrained by the following forces:
 We need to restrict access to the network only to registered subscribers. Otherwise it would be
difficult to guarantee bandwidth and performance to legitimate users.
 Subscriber needs to exchange confidential messages, authenticated messages, and messages

with guarantees that they have not been modified in transit. These are important issues for
business use.
 The approach should be transparent or very easy for the users.
Solution
Base Stations perform authentication using credentials to control the access of users to the network.
Connections use security associations to indicate the way they will protect their messages. Security is
closely tied to connections and connection types. WiMAX defines two connection types, management
and data. Management connections are further subdivided into basic, primary, and secondary. Stations
perform authentication using credentials, X.509 certificates in the current standard. Once authenticated,
a user is given a token to access the system.
802.16 define a Privacy and Key Management (PKM) protocol to address the goals of subscriber station
confidentiality and preventing theft of provider service.
The PKM uses Security Associations (SAs), of which there are two types. A data SA specifies how
messages between the base station and subscriber station are to be encrypted, which algorithms will be
used, the keys to be used and related information. By using additional SAs different methods of
encryption may be used for different groups of messages. An authorization SA is used for management
and update.
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Comparison between Mobile and
Fixed WiMAX
3.4 Comparison between Mobile and Fixed WiMAX

To make a comparison between mobile and fixed WiMAX we should to know what’s WiMAX
rollout ?,what’s the type of WiMAX ?,what’s mobile WiMAX ? and what’s fixed WiMAX?
3.4.1 WiMAX Rollout
WiMAX Standards
Like most IEEE standards, the 802.16 standard families consists of the basic 802.16 standard, and
several, ever-increasing variations signified by adding a small alphabet to the basic specification name.
The first 802.16 standard was published on 8 April 2002 and was followed by three amendments
802.16a to address issue of radio spectrum, 802.16b to address the issue of quality of service and
802.16c to address the issue of interoperability.
In September 2003, a revision project called 802.16REVd commenced aiming to align the standard with
aspects of the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI)
HYPERMAN standard as well as lay down conformance and test specifications. This project concluded in
2004 with the release of IEEE 802.16-2004 and the withdrawal of the earlier 802.16 documents including
the a/b/c also an amendment to the standard, 802.16e, and addressing mobility was concluded in 2005.
This is sometimes called “Mobile WiMAX”. The latest revisions in progress are 802.16f and g.
These specifications try to address the management issues relating to 802.16 specifications, especially to
802.16e. The 802.16g defines the management plan procedures and services, and the 802.16f defines
the management information base.
3.4.1.1 Features of IEEE 802.16a
It was approved in January 2003.
It covers frequency band between 2GHz and11GHz (licensed and unlicensed).
Its lower frequencies make non-line of sight a possibility; hence, it makes the IEEE 802.16a
standard the appropriate technology for last-mile application where obstacles like trees and
buildings are often present and where base stations may need to be roofs of homes or buildings
rather than towers on mountains.
Total data rate can be up to 75 Mb/s in each 20MHz channel.
It has up to 30 miles of range with a typical cell radius of 4-6 miles.
It provides an ideal wireless backhaul technology to connect 802.11 wireless LANs and
commercial hotspots with the Internet.
It enables business to flexibly deploy new 802.11 hotspots in locations where traditional wired
connection may be unavailable or time consuming to provide and offers service providers
3 - 31
around the globe with a flexible new way to stimulate growth of the residential broadband
access market segment.
It will be mostly used for small businesses, residential users and for backhaul or hotspot.
The most common 802.16 configurations consist of base station mounted on building or tower
that communicates on a point to multi-point basis with subscriber station located in businesses
and homes.
3.4.1.2 General features of IEEE 802.16b
IEEE 802.16b aims at the needs of license-exempt (unlicensed) applications around 5-6 GHz.
3.4.1.3 General features of IEEE 802.16c
The IEEE Standards Board approved IEEE 802.16c in December 2002. The aim was to
develop 10-66 GHz system profiles to aid interoperability specifications for Line-of-Sight
broadband wireless access. Its peak (shared) data rate 70Mbits/s, with range up to 50km.
3.4.1.4 IEEE 802.16d-2004 “Fixed WiMAX”
IEEE 802.16a has all but been forgotten as the focus recently has been on IEEE 802.16-
2004, which is also known as 802.16REVd .802.16-2004 is an improvement to the 802.16a
Standard separately, 802.16-2004, was ratified in July 2004. 802.16-2004 is a wide-ranging
standard that includes previous versions and covers both LOS and NLOS applications in the 2-66
GHz frequencies. The changes introduced in 802.16-2004 were focused on fixed and nomadic
applications in the 2-11 GHz frequencies. Two multi-carrier modulation techniques are
supported in 802.16-2004: OFDM with 256 carriers and OFDMA with 2048 carriers. IEEE 802.16-
2004 is a fixed wireless access technology, meaning that it is designed to serve as a wireless DSL
replacement technology, to compete with the incumbent DSL or broadband cable providers or
to provide basic voice and broadband access in underserved areas where no other access
technology exists; examples include developing countries and rural areas in developed countries
where running copper wire or cable does not make economic sense.
802.16-2004 is also a viable solution for wireless backhaul for Wi-Fi access points or
potentially for cellular networks, in particular if licensed spectrum is used. Finally, in certain
configurations, WiMax Fixed can be used to provide much higher data rates and therefore be
used as a T1 replacement option for high-value corporate subscribers. 802.16- 2004 can also
support VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol), and assuming that the G.729 (8kbps) codec is used,
it reportedly supports up to 96 simultaneous voice calls in a 3.5MHz radio channel. The trade-off
is increased path losses at frequencies such as 5.8GHz. It is unlikely that an operator would use
2.4GHz to offer voice services due to the higher probability that interference could develop
(simple microwave ovens radiate RF in the 2.4GHz band).
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Fixed WiMAX
3.4.1.5 IEEE 802.16e “Mobile WiMAX”
IEEE 802.16e is the portable or mobile version of WiMAX, which promises to support
voice and data sessions at vehicular speeds of up to 120 kilo-meters per hour. The current
strategy within the WiMAX Forum is to launch 802.16e with portable features in order to
achieve rapid time to market. As the technology and market opportunity matures, the forum
intends to introduce full-scale mobility. The main features of mobile WiMAX are: Approved on
the 23th of September 2004. Covers "Physical and Medium Access Control Layers for Combined
Fixed and Mobile Operation in Licensed Bands. Optimized for and backwards compatible with
fixed stations. Work on Licensed bands from 2 to 6 GHz. The IEEE 802.16e introduces nomadic
capabilities which allow users to connect to wireless Internet Service Provider (WISP) when they
travel outside their home or business, or go to another city that also has a WISP. It is targeted at
mobile users, who will be able to keep their connection while moving or driving from 75 to 93
miles per hour. It has proved to be the most controversial standard, as it overlaps with the
authorization of the IEEE 802.20 group, which was establish before 802.16e. Typical Channel BW
< 5MHz.
Packet oriented architecture. Channelization and control for multimedia services with
QoS. High efficiency data uplinks and downlinks Technology. Low latency architecture.
3.4.2 Types of WiMAX
WiMAX Forum anticipates rollout of its technology in 3 phases:
 Phase 1: Fixed Location, Private Line Services, Hot Spot Backhaul.

 Phase 2: Broadband Wireless Access/Wireless DSL
 Phase 3: Mobile/Nomadic Users
The WiMAX family of standards concentrates on two types of usage models a fixed usage model
and a mobile usage model. The basic element that differentiates these systems is the ground speed at
which the systems are designed to manage. Based on mobility, wireless access systems are designed to
operate on the move without any disruption of service; wireless access can be divided into three classes;
stationary, pedestrian and vehicular.
A mobile wireless access system is one that can address the vehicular class, whereas the fixed
serves the stationary and pedestrian classes. This raises a question about the nomadic wireless access
system, which is referred to as a system that works as a fixed wireless access system but can change its
location.
3.4.2.1 Fixed WiMAX
Service and consumer usage of WiMAX for fixed access is expected to reflect that of
fixed wire-line service, with many of the standards-based requirements being confined to the air
interface. Because communications takes place via wireless links from Customer Premise
3 - 33
Equipment (CPE) to a remote Non Line-of-sight (NLOS) base station, requirements for link
security are greater than those needed for a wireless service. The security mechanisms within
the IEEE 802.16 standards are sufficient for fixed access service.
Another challenge for the fixed access air interface is the need to set up high
performance radio links capable of data rates comparable to wired broadband service, using
equipment that can be self installed indoors by users, as is the case for Digital Subscriber Line
(DSL) and cable modems. IEEE 802.16 standards provide advanced physical (PHY) layer
techniques to achieve link margins capable of supporting high throughput in NLOS environment
3.4.2.2 Mobile WiMAX
The 802.16a extension, refined in January 2003, uses a lower frequency of 2 to 11 GHz,
enabling NLOS connections. The latest 802.16e task group is capitalizing on the new capabilities
this provides by working on developing a specification to enable mobile WiMAX clients. These
clients will be able to hand off between WiMAX base stations, enabling users to roam between
service areas.
3.4.2.3 Backhaul
Backhaul is actually a connection system from the Access Point (AP) back to the provider
and to the connection from the provider to the network. A backhaul can set out any technology
and media provided; it connects the system to the backbone. In most of the WiMAX
deployments circumstances, it is also possible to connect several base stations with one another
by use of high speed backhaul microware links. This would also allow for roaming by a WiMAX
subscriber from one base station coverage area to another, similar to roaming enabled by
cellular phone companies
There can be two cases of portability; full mobility or limited mobility. The effortless
case of portable service involves a user transporting a WiMAX modem to a different location.
Provided this visited location is serve by wireless broadband service, in this scenario the user re-
authenticates and manually re-establishes new IP connections and is afforded broadband
service at the visited location.
In the fully mobile scenario, user expectations for connectivity are comparable to
facilities available in third generation (3G) voice/data systems. Users may move around while
engaged in a broadband data access or multimedia streaming session. Mobile wireless systems
need to be robust against rapid channel variation to support vehicular speeds.
There are significant implications of mobility on the IP layer owing to the need to
maintain rout-ability of the host IP address to preserve in-flight packets during IP handoff. This
may require authentication and handoff for uplink and downlink IP packets and Medium Access
Control (MAC) frames. The need to support low latency and low packet loss handovers of data
streams as users transition from one base station to another is clearly a challenging task. For
3 - 34
Fixed WiMAX
mobile data services, users will not easily adapt their service expectations because of
environmental limitations that are technically but not directly relevant to the mode of user. For
these reasons, the network and air interface must be designed to anticipate these user
expectations and deliver accordingly.
3.4.3 What is Fixed WiMAX?
IEEE 802.16a has all but been forgotten as the focus recently has been on IEEE 802.16- 2004,
which is also known as 802.16REVd .802.16-2004 is an improvement to the 802.16a Standard separately,
802.16-2004, was ratified in July 2004. 802.16-2004 is a wide-ranging standard that includes previous
versions and covers both LOS and NLOS applications in the 2-66 GHz frequencies. The changes
introduced in 802.16-2004 were focused on fixed and nomadic applications in the 2-11 GHz frequencies.
Two multi-carrier modulation techniques are supported in 802.16-2004: OFDM with 256 carriers and
OFDMA with 2048 carriers. IEEE 802.16-2004 is a fixed wireless access technology, meaning that it is
designed to serve as a wireless DSL replacement technology, to compete with the incumbent DSL or
broadband cable providers or to provide basic voice and broadband access in underserved areas where
no other access technology exists; examples include developing countries and rural areas in developed
countries where running copper wire or cable does not make economic sense. 802.16-2004 is also a
viable solution for wireless backhaul for Wi-Fi access points or potentially for cellular networks, in
particular if licensed spectrum is used. Finally, in certain configurations, WiMAX Fixed can be used to
provide much higher data rates and therefore be used as a T1 replacement option for high-value
corporate subscribers. 802.16- 2004 can also support VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol), and assuming
that the G.729 (8kbps) codec is used, it reportedly supports up to 96 simultaneous voice calls in a
3.5MHz radio channel. The trade-off is increased path losses at frequencies such as 5.8GHz. It is unlikely
that an operator would use 2.4GHz to offer voice services due to the higher probability that interference
could develop (simple microwave ovens radiate RF in the 2.4GHz band).
3.4.4 What is mobile WiMAX?
The IEEE 802.16 Working Group on broadband wireless access standards, established by the
IEEE Standards Board in 1999, prepared the formal specie actions for broadband wireless metropolitan
area networks (Wireless MAN, the 802.16 family of standards is the basis of Mobile WiMAX). IEEE
802.16-2004 (also called 802.16d) provides support for non-line-of-sight (NLOS) and indoor end-user
terminals for fixed wireless broadband. The IEEE 802.16e-2005 supports both time division duplexing
(TDD) and frequency division duplexing (FDD) modes. In 2005, the standard was amended (IEEE 802.16e-
2005 or 802.16e) to add support for data mobility. IEEE 802.16e or Mobile WiMAX improves on the
modulation schemes used in the original (Fixed) WiMAX standard by introducing scalable orthogonal
frequency-division multiple access (SOFDMA).The system profile in IEEE 802.16e-2005 is not backward
compatible with the Fixed WiMAX system profile. The charter of the WiMAX Forum, which has more
than 400 members, is to promote and certify the compatibility and interoperability of broadband
wireless access equipment that conforms to IEEE 802.16 and the ETSI Hyper MAN standard.
3 - 35
The WiMAX Forum defines and conducts conformance and interoperability testing to ensure
that different vendor systems work seamlessly with each other. WiMAX certification profile les specify
characteristics such as spectrum band, duplexing and channelization. Several profiles exist for Fixed and
Mobile WiMAX.
There are currently two waves of certification planned for Mobile
WiMAX equipment:
 Wave 1: Mobile WiMAX system profile with single-input single-output (SISO) terminals for the
2.3GHz and 3.5GHz bands
 Wave 2: Mobile WiMAX system profile with multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) terminals
and beam-forming support for the 2.6GHz band (sometimes referred to as the 2.5GHz band).
Because IEEE 802.16 standardization only covers basic connectivity up to the media access
(MAC) level, the WiMAX Forum also addresses network architecture issues for Mobile WiMAX networks.
The first network architecture specification (Release 1.0) focused on delivering a wireless internet
service with mobility.
Release 1.5 introduced support for telecom-grade mobile services, supporting full IMS
interworking, carrier-grade VoIP, broadcast applications, such as mobile TV, and over-the-air
provisioning. While Mobile WiMAX offers the promise of high-speed wireless broadband services, it is
still very much in its infancy and real-life performance has yet to be proved.
Figure3.20 Mobile versus Fixed data rate
3 - 36
Fixed WiMAX
Conclusion:
 It’s based on standard of IEEE 802.16e
 It’s cell radius from 2-7 km
 It’s range up to 20 km
 It’s bit rate up to 15 Mbps
 Full Mobility Access
3.4.5 Difference between Fixed vs. Mobile
3.4.5.1 Mobility Management and Handoff
The simplest explanation for the difference between the fixed and mobile variants of
WiMAX boil down to the fact that the mobile variant enables a hand-off from one base station
to another as the user, in one session, moves from the coverage zone of one base station to
another. This is also known as “mobility management”. To make this happen, vendors must
engineer the mobility management technology into their base stations at considerable cost over
the fixed WiMAX technology. Service providers should assess what portion of their target
market requires the mobility management piece when weighing fixed vs. mobile. From a high
view, “mobile” means the service functions at 70 MPH while performing competent hand-offs.
Service providers should assess what percentage of their subscribers will require that level of
service.
3.4.5.2 Technically both are based on OFDM
 Fixed WiMAX mostly 3.5 GHz FDD

 Mobile WiMAX mostly 2.5 and 3.5 GHz TDD
3.4.5.3 Mobile WiMAX adds
 Link adaptation and power control
 Paging
 Handover mechanisms
 Mobile IP architecture
 Scalable OFDMA
 Mobility
3 - 37
fixed mobile
Standard IEEE 802.16a-2004 IEEE 802.16e-2005

Spectrum 2 -11 GHz (3.5 GHZ,5.8 GHZ) < 6 GHz (2.5 GHZ,3.5 GHZ, 5.8 GHZ)
Channel Line of Sight, Non light of sight Line of Sight, Non light of sight
Conditions
Bit Rate Up to 75 Mbps Up to 15 Mbps
Modulation OFDM 256 sub-carriers SOFDMA 2048 sub-carriers
QPSK, 16QAM, 64QAM QPSK, 16QAM and 64QAM ,BPSK
Mobility Fixed, nomadic fixed , portable ,Nomadic, Mobility
Channel Scalable Scalable

Bandwidths 1.5 to 20 MHz 1.25 to 20 MHz
Typical Cell Radius 7 to 10 km 2-5 km
Max range 50 km Max range 20 km
Hard and soft No handoff Hand-off
handoff
FDD/TDD TDD Duplexing technique
OFDM/OFDMA TDM Multiplexing technique

OFDM
Yes No Sub-channeling
Turbo Coding CC Error correction
Yes (up to 6 times) No Repeating coding
Yes No H-ARQ
optional No Beam forming
21dBm 23dBm SS Tx power
-1dBi 2dBi SS Tx gain
YES NO Head body loss
Table3.8 Mobile versus Fixed
3 - 38
Conclusion
3.5 Conclusion
In this Chapter, we outlined a high-level overview of the different broadband access
technologies by presenting a brief overview of each and compare them according to spectrum usage,
capacity, coverage, and limitations.
Broadband technologies either fixed or wireless are developed to face the rapid growth
challenges in telecommunication industry. Broadband systems can be used to deliver a variety of
applications and services to both fixed and mobile subscribers. WiMAX could potentially deployed in a
variety of spectrum bands: 2.3GHz, 2.5GHz, 3.5GHz and 5.8GHz. WiMAX faces a number of competitive
challenges from both fixed line and third generation mobile broadband alternatives.
3 - 39
Chapter 4
Coverage analysis of mobile
WiMAX
4.1 Introduction
In order to investigate the feasibility of a WiMAX rollout, one has to be able to assess the
number of base stations that will be needed in a specific area, dependent on the offered services and
the number of active users. This is possible with the developed planning tool based on an accurate
technical model. The tool takes into account the major technical characteristics of Mobile WiMAX
together with the desired service specifications. It also has a certain degree of flexibility to introduce
adaptations like e.g. new hardware.
To start, we discuss the calculation of the link budget, which indicates to what extent the signal
may weaken (Figure 4.1). Then, a propagation model is proposed to determine the range, by taking into
account the link budget. Based on this range, we illustrate the calculation of the cell coverage area. In a
next step, we calculate the bit rate per cell sector and finally, the cell areas and bit rates are combined
to estimate the required number of base stations.
Figure4.1 Link-budget for downlink
4-1
Chapter 4 Coverage analysis of Mobile WiMAX
4.2 Link Budget

You are planning a vacation. You estimate that you will need $1000 dollars to pay for the hotels,
restaurants, food etc... You start your vacation and watch the money get spent at each stop. When you
get home, you pat yourself on the back for a job well done because you still have $50 left in your wallet.
We do something similar with communication links, called creating a link budget. The traveler is
the signal and instead of dollars it starts out with power. It spends its power (or attenuates, in
engineering terminology) as it travels, is it wired or wireless.
Just as you can use a credit card along the way for extra money infusion, the signal can get extra
power infusion along the way from intermediate amplifiers such as microwave repeaters for telephone
links or from satellite transponders for satellite links. The designer hopes that the signal will complete its
trip with just enough power to be decoded at the receiver with the desired signal quality.
In our example, we started our trip with $1000 because we wanted a budget vacation. But what
if our goal was a first-class vacation with stays at five-star hotels, best shows and travel by QE2? A $1000
budget would not be enough and possibly we will need instead $5000. The quality of the trip desired
determines how much money we need to take along.
With signals, the quality is measured by the Bit Error Rate (BER). If we want our signal to have a
low BER, we would start it out with higher power and then make sure that along the way it has enough
power available at every stop to maintain this BER.
A link budget is the accounting of all of the gains and losses from the transmitter, through the
medium (free space, cable, waveguide, fiber, etc.) to the receiver in a telecommunication system (Figure
4.2). It accounts for the attenuation of the transmitted signal due to propagation, as well as the antenna
gains, feed line and miscellaneous losses. Randomly varying channel gains such as fading are taken into
account by adding some margin depending on the anticipated severity of its effects. The amount of
margin required can be reduced by the use of mitigating techniques such as antenna diversity or
frequency hopping.
Figure4.2 illustration of link budget
4-2
Link Budget
The link budget depends on several parameters, which are discussed in this paragraph. Different
parameter values can be chosen in the planning tool, and for both the downlink and the uplink a
separate link budget is calculated. We also indicate which values are selected for the business modeling
study.
4.2.1 Why link budget?
To determine or calculate the maximum allowable (or available, or accepted) path loss (MAPL)
where communication is achieved reliably or that will provide adequate signal strength at the cell
boundary for acceptable voice quality over 90% of the coverage area it is flat or 75% if it is hilly. To
determine the radius of the cell, to determine the location of cell sites as well as the spacing between
them to ensure reliable uninterrupted communication as mobile station move through the coverage
area of interest.
The link budget is dependent on several parameters, which are discussed in this paragraph.
Different parameter values can be chosen in the planning, and for both the downlink and the uplink are
separate link budget is calculated.
There are two link budget: reverse link budget i.e.as signal is transmitted from subscriber station
(SS) and received by base station (BS) and forward link budget as signal is transmitted from the (BS) and
received by the subscriber station(SS)
4.2.2 What is a link?
A link consists of three parts:
1. Transmitter (is BS in FL communication and is CPE in RL communication).

2. Receiver (is BS in RL communication and is CPE in FL communication).
3. Media.
The very simplest form of a link equation is written as:
(4.1)
This equation of course only talks about the signal power. We have not accounted for noise yet.
4.2.3 Base Station
We consider a base station (BS) with three sectors, and there is a choice from three BS profiles:
 Standard BS.
 BS with 2 x 2 MIMO.
 BS with 2 x 2 MIMO and 2 element AAS.
Most base stations which are now entering the market belong to the category “BS with 2 x 2
MIMO” (which is considered in our study). Every profile contains the values for six different parameters
4-3
required for the link budget calculation. Table 4.1 gives an overview of them, where DL and UL stands
for downlink and uplink respectively, and Tx and Rx for transmitter and receiver.
Note that additionally a BS feeder loss of 0.5 dB is taken into account.
BS with 2 x 2 MIMO
Standard BS BS with 2 x 2 MIMO
and 2 element AAS
DL Tx power 35 dBm 35 dBm 35 dBm
DL Tx antenna gain 16 dBi 16 dBi 16 dBi
Other DL Tx gain 0 dB 9 dB 15 dB
UL Rx antenna gain 16 dBi 16 dBi 16 dBi
Other UL Rx gain 0 dB 3 dB 6 dB
UL Rx noise figure 5 dB 5 dB 5 dB
Table4.1 Base station parameters
There are several parameters affect on BS received power or transmitted power.
BS receiver cable feeder: The BS receiver feeder cable is dependent on the feeder type and the length
of the feeder run table 4.2 shows the typical feeder type used.
Frequency coaxial feeder cable model ( 7/8" ) diameter

1000 MHz 32 dB
2000 MHz 55 dB
Table4.2 Coaxial feeder cable model (7/8”) diameter
BS receiver cable and connector losses: Losses are nominally taken to be 3dB. When the cable length
and diameter (and hence attenuation/feet) are known, the actual cable losses may be substituted in the
link budget along with an additional margin of 0.5 dB for connector losses. Typically cable diameters
used are 7/8’ and 1 5/8” and corresponding attenuations are 6.15 dB /100 meters and 3.84 dB /100
meters.
4.2.4 Customer Premises Equipment (CPE)
With regard to the CPE, we can choose from two profiles:

 Portable CPE.
 Mobile CPE.
The first type is comparable with e.g. as usual cable modem: they are installed indoors, have their own
power supply and are usually connected via an Ethernet cable to the computer. They do not guarantee
any form of mobility. Solutions with PCMCIA cards and receivers integrated in e.g. a laptop belong then
to the second type. Every profile contains again six parameters (Table 4.3).
Portable CPE Mobile CPE
UL Tx power 27 dBm 27 dBm
UL Tx antenna gain 6 dBi 2 dBi
Other UL Tx gain 0 dB 0 dB
DL Rx antenna gain 6 dBi 2 dBi
Other DL Rx gain 0 dB 0 dB
DL Rx noise figure 6 dB 6 dB
Table4.3 CPE parameters
4-4
Link Budget
From the above six parameters for BS and CPE, we calculate Equivalent isotropically radiated power
(EIRP).
There is parameter called “body loss” may affect on CPE received power or transmitted power.
Body loss: Body loss or body proximity loss affects both uplink and downlink. A human body near the
mobile antenna affects the radiation pattern of the MS antenna. The loss measured against the best
direction depends on the MS antenna type, location of the antenna and frequency. For planning
purposes the loss of 4–6 dB could be used. However, in the worst direction the loss can be well over 10
dB.
4.2.5 What is EIRP?
In radio communication systems, Equivalent isotropically radiated power (EIRP) or, alternatively,
Effective isotropically radiated power is the amount of power that a theoretical isotropic antenna (that
evenly distributes power in all directions) would emit to produce the peak power density observed in
the direction of maximum antenna gain. EIRP can take into account the losses in transmission line and
connectors and includes the gain of the antenna. The EIRP is often stated in terms of decibels over a
reference power emitted by an isotropic radiator with equivalent signal strength. The EIRP allows
comparisons between different emitters regardless of type, size or form. From the EIRP, and with
knowledge of a real antenna's gain, it is possible to calculate real power and field strength values.
Figure4.3 illustration of EIRP
(4.2)
Then,
 For FL communication ,BS is the transmitter and its EIRP can be calculated from Table
4.1 as:
–
(4.3)
4-5
 For RL communication ,CPE is the transmitter and its EIRP can be calculated from Table
4.2 as:
– /
(4.4)
4.2.6 Receiver Sensitivity
The receiver sensitivity is defined by:
 The thermal noise.

 The receiver SNR.
 The noise figure (Table 4.1 and Table 4.2).
 The implementation loss.
Now, the receiver sensitivity can be calculated as:
(4.5)
4.2.6.1 The thermal noise
The thermal noise is dependent on the channel bandwidth and can be estimated as (in dBm):
(4.6)
Where Δf is the bandwidth in hertz over which the noise is measured. As physical
bandwidth (BW), there is a choice from 1.25 MHz, 5 MHz, 10 MHz and 20 MHz, where today 10
MHz is the most standard value. For the calculation of the thermal noise, the bandwidth Δf has
to be scaled to the effectively used bandwidth. So the value of BW has to be multiplied by the
ratio between the numbers of used subcarriers (NUsed) and the total number of OFDM
subcarriers or FFT size (NFFT), and the sampling factor (n). For each bandwidth, the model
contains different values for NFFT and NUsed (Table 4.4).
Note that NUsed is equal to the sum of the number of data subcarriers (NData) and pilot
subcarriers (NPilot), together with the DC carrier. Table 4.3 also shows NData (used to determine
the bit rates, Section 4.5) and the number of subchannels (NSubCh, used to calculate the
subchanneling gain, Section 4.2.7).
NFFT NUsed NDataDL NDataUL NSubChDL NSubChUL

1.25 MHz 128 85 72 56 3 4
5 MHz 512 421 360 280 15 17
10 MHz 1024 841 720 560 30 35
20 MHz 2084 1681 1440 1120 60 70
Table4.4 Parameters per channel bandwidth
The sampling factor n determines the subcarrier spacing (in conjunction with the
bandwidth and used data subcarriers), and the useful symbol time. This value is set to 28/25 for
4-6
Link Budget
channel bandwidths that are a multiple of any of 1.25, 1.5, 2 or 2.75 MHz (which is applicable in
our case). The thermal noise is then determined by:
(4.7)
1000 147
Where, K is Boltzmann constant in joule/Kelvin and T is the room temperature in Kelvin
4.2.6.2 The receiver SNR
The receiver SNR depends on the modulation scheme and the corresponding values are
shown in Table 4.5, for two different forward error correction (FEC) methods (convolution code
(CC) and convolution turbo code (CTC)) in an additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel at a
bit error rate (BER) of 10−6. As WiMAX adaptively selects the modulation scheme per user, the
appropriate SNR value used in the link budget calculation is dynamically adapted. The
modulation scheme also defines the number of data bits per symbol, but this parameter only
influences the bit rate per sector which will be discussed further in this chapter (Section 4.5).
SNR CC SNR CTC Data bit

Modulation scheme (AWGN, BER 10-6) (AWGN, BER 10-6) per symbol
QPSK 1/2 5 dB 2.5 dB 1
QPSK 3/4 8 dB 6.3 dB 1.5
16-QAM 1/2 10.5 dB 8.6 dB 2
16-QAM 3/4 14 dB 12.7 dB 3
64-QAM 1/2 16 dB 13.8 dB 3
64-QAM 2/3 18 dB 16.9 dB 4
64-QAM 3/4 20 dB 18 dB 4.5
Table4.5 Parameters per modulation scheme
4.2.6.3 The noise figure
Noise figure (NF) is a measure of degradation of the signal to noise ratio (SNR), caused
by components in the RF signal chain. The noise figure is the ratio of the output noise power of a
device to the portion thereof attributable to thermal noise in the input termination at standard
noise temperature T0 (usually 290 K). The noise figure is thus the ratio of actual output noise to
that which would remain if the device itself did not introduce noise. It is a number by which the
performance of a radio receiver can be specified.
(4.8)
Note: In our calculations, the assumed values of NF in Table 4.1 and Table 4.2.
4-7
4.2.6.4 The implementation loss
The implementation loss includes non-ideal receiver effects such as channel estimation errors,
tracking errors, quantization errors, and phase noise. The assumed value is 2 dB.
4.2.7 Uplink Subchanneling Gain
In the uplink direction, it will hardly occur that data is sent over all subcarriers simultaneously.
To set off this effect, an uplink subchanneling gain is taken into account, based on the number of used
subchannels per user and defined by:
10 (4.9)
NSubChUL is already given in Table 4.3 and NUsedSubChUL is based on the number of subchannels required for
the offered uplink data rate per user, and will also depend on the modulation scheme (Section 4.5).
4.2.8 Margins
Is defined as the amount by which a received signal level may be reduced without causing
system performance to fall below a specified threshold value.
To calculate the link budget, we have to consider several margins, such as the fade margin, the
interference margin and a Building penetration loss (BPL) factor.
1. Fading margin:
Fading covers the effect of the variation of the signal strength during the time on a fixed
location. In contrast to shadowing which takes into account the variation of the signal strength
between different locations on the same distance from the transmitter, fading is not
incorporated in the propagation model.
 Slow fading margin (lognormal fading margin):

Slow fading or log-normal fading is the variation of the local mean signal level over a
wider area, and has been observed by Young. The local mean is the mean value of
the Rayleigh or Rician fading signal amplitude. This log-normal fading is caused by
the obstacles (buildings, trees, etc.) that changes the average received signal level
and thus bring about shadowing. The variation of the signal amplitude local mean
value over the wider area is log-normally distributed and thus it is called lognormal
fading.
, , (4.10)
 Fast fading margin:

The mobile station or base station receives in one moment the same signal arriving via
different radio paths as mentioned in the previous section. The total received signal is a
4-8
Link Budget
contribution of all the arrived signal multipath components based on the superposition
principle. The different signal components, arriving via different radio paths, have
different amplitude and phase due to the different lengths of the radio path and
different reflection and diffraction properties. Thus, the sum of the received signals
can be constructive or a destructive depending on the phases of the multipath
components. The assumed value for fast fading margin is 3 dB.
2. Interference margin:
Due to co-channel interference (CCI) in frequency reuse deployments, users at the cell edge or
the sector boundaries may suffer degradation in connection quality. The assumed interference
margin is 2 dB for DL and 3 dB for UL respectively.
3. Building penetration loss (BPL):

Buildings obstruct the transmitted electromagnetic signals. Since the used propagation model
does not sufficiently take into account this effect, an extra correction on the link budget is
added. The different possibilities are summarized in Table 4.6.
Urban type Correction

Rural 12 dB
Suburban 15 dB
Urban 18 dB
Dense urban 20 dB
Table4.6 Urban corrections
4.2.9 Link Budget Calculation (Maximum Allowable Path Loss)
With the data discussed in the previous sections, it is possible to calculate the link budget.
 For the downlink communication MAPL is specified as:

/
(4.11)
 For uplink communication MAPL is specified as:
(4.12)
4-9
Figure4.4 Link analysis of a WiMAX system operating at 2.5 and 5GHz
4.2.10 Effect of Adverse Weather Conditions
It is important to research any unusual weather conditions that are common to the site location. These
conditions can include excessive amounts of rain or fog, wind velocity, or extreme temperature ranges.
If extreme conditions exist that may affect the integrity of the radio link, it is recommended that these
conditions be taken into consideration early in the planning process.
 Rain and Fog:

Except in extreme conditions, attenuation (weakening of the signal) due to rain does not require
serious consideration for frequencies up to the range of 6 or 8 GHz. When frequencies are at 11
or 12 GHz or above, attenuation due to rain becomes much more of a concern, especially in
areas where rainfall is of high density and long duration. If this is the case, shorter paths may be
required.
In most cases, the effects of fog are considered to be much the same as rain. However, fog can
adversely affect the radio link when it is accompanied by atmospheric conditions such as
temperature inversion, or very still air accompanied by stratification. Temperature inversion can
negate clearances, and still air along with stratification can cause severe refractive or reflective
conditions, with unpredictable results. Temperature inversions and stratification can also cause
ducting, which may increase the potential for interference between systems that do not
normally interfere with each other. Where these conditions exist, it is recommended to have
shorter paths and adequate clearances.
4 - 10
Link Budget
 Atmospheric Absorption:
A relatively small effect on the link is from oxygen and water vapor. It is usually significant only
on longer paths and particular frequencies. Attenuation in the 2 to 14 GHz frequency range,
which is approximately 0.01 dB/mile, is not very significant.
 Wind:
Any system components mounted outdoors will be subject to the effect of wind. It is important
to know the direction and velocity of the wind common to the site. Antennas and their
supporting structures must be able to prevent these forces from affecting the antenna or
causing damage to the building or tower on which the components are mounted. Antenna
designs react differently to wind forces, depending on the area presented to the wind. This is
known as wind loading. Most antenna manufacturers will specify wind loading for each type of
antenna manufactured.
 Lightning:
The potential for lightning damage to radio equipment should always be considered when
planning a wireless link. A variety of lightning protection and grounding devices are available for
use on buildings, towers, antennas, cables, and equipment, whether located inside or outside
the site that could be damaged by a lightning strike. Lightning protection requirements are
based on the exposure at the site, the cost of link down-time, and local building and electrical
codes. If the link is critical, and the site is in an active lightning area, attention to thorough
lightning protection and grounding is critical.
 Lightning Protection:
To provide effective lightning protection, install antennas in locations that are unlikely to receive
direct lightning strikes, or install lightning rods to protect antennas from direct strikes. Make
sure that cables and equipment are properly grounded to provide low-impedance paths for
lightning currents. Install surge suppressors on telephone lines and power lines. Lightning
protection is recommended for both coaxial and control cables leading to the wireless device.
The lightning protection should be placed at points close to where the cable passes through the
bulkhead into the building, as well as near the wireless device. All smart Bridges products
include grounding wires, so please make sure that the antenna is properly grounded.
4.2.11 Improving Coverage and Throughput
 Select data rate according to the actual utilization; with lower data rate allows longer distances
to be achieved.
 Selection of Autofall back mode.
 Keeping the transmit power of equipment low and using a higher gain antenna will improve the
data rate and coverage.
 Selecting equipment with RF interference mitigation capabilities.
 Selecting equipment that takes care of multi-path issues.
 Using MAC based authentication only for security and disabling a WEP/WPA/AES if higher end
security standards are not required. This will improve the throughput.
 Selection of sector can improve the range of coverage in a particular direction.
4 - 11
4.3 Propagation Model

Median pathloss in a radio channel is generally estimated using analytical models based on
either the fundamental physics behind radio propagation or statistical curve fitting of data collected via
field measurements. For most of the practical deployment scenarios, particularly nonline- of-sight
scenarios, statistical models based on empirical data are more useful. Although most of the statistical
models for pathloss have been traditionally developed and tuned for a mobile environment, many of
them can also be used for an NLOS fixed network with some modification of parameters. In the case of a
line-of-sight-based fixed network, the free-space radio propagation model can be used to predict the
median pathloss. Since WiMAX as a technology has been developed to operate efficiently even in an
NLOS environment, we focus extensively on this usage model for the remainder of the appendix. We
describe a few of the pathloss models that are relevant to NLOS WiMAX deployments.
One of the most important issues in the design, implementation and operation of land mobile
system is the knowledge of the received signal and its fluctuations. Propagation models take into
account the type of the environment, the materials. The propagation models can be broadly classified in
3 types:
 Statistical models.
 Theoretical models.
 Semi-empirical models.
Statistical model: Also named Empirical models, Empirical models are usually set of equations, the
model parameters are derived from extensive field measurements data. They are accurate for
environments with the same characteristics as those where measurements were made.
The input parameters for empirical models are usually qualitative and not very specific e.g. dense urban
(DU), urban (UR), suburban (SU) and rural (RU) areas and so on. One of the main drawbacks of empirical
models is that they cannot be used for different environment without modifications. The output
parameters are basically range specific. Empirical models examples are Okumura model and Hata
model.
Theoretical model: They are derived physically assuming some ideal conditions for example over roof
top diffractions model is derived using physical optics assuming uniform heights and spacing of
buildings. Theoretical models examples are Walfisch and Bertoni model, Ikegami model and free space
model.
Semi-empirical model: The parameters of the theoretical models are empirically corrected to fit
measurement data. Semi-empirical models examples are COST 231- Wolfish Ikegami model and COST
231 Okumura Hata model.
4 - 12
Propagation Model
4.3.1 Hata Model
The Hata model is an analytical formulation based on the pathloss measurement data collected
by Okumura in 1968 in Japan. The Hata model is one of the most widely used models for estimating
median pathloss in macrocellular systems. The model provides an expression for median pathloss as a
function of carrier frequency, BS and mobile station antenna heights, and the distance between the BS
and the MS. The Hata model is valid only for the following range of parameters:
 150MHz ≤ f ≤ 1500MHz
 30m ≤ hb ≤ 200m
 1m ≤ hm ≤ 10m
 1km ≤ d ≤ 20km
In these parameters, f is the carrier frequency in MHz, hb is the BS antenna height in meters, hm
is the MS antenna height in meters, and d is the distance between the BS and the MS in km. According
to the Hata model, the median pathloss in an urban environment is given by:
69.55 26.16 13.82 44.9 6.55 (4.13)
Where is expressed in the dB scale, and is the MS antenna-correction factor. For a large
city with dense building clutter and narrow streets, the MS antenna-correction factor is given by:
8.29 1.54 0.8 300 (4.14a)
3.20 11.75 4.97 300 (4.14b)
For a small- or medium-size city, where the building-clutter density is smaller, the MS antenna-
correction factor is given by:
1.11 0.7 1.56 0.8 (4.15)
For a suburban area, the same MS antenna-correction factor as used for small cities is applicable, but
the median pathloss is modified to be:
2 5.4 (4.16)
For a rural area, the same MS antenna-correction factor as used for small cities is applicable, but
the median pathloss is modified to be:
4.78 18.33 40.98 (4.17)
The model may also be generalized to any clutter environment, such that the median pathloss is
modified from that of a small urban city as:
(4.18)
4 - 13
Figure4.5 Correction factor in small and medium size area
Figure4.6 Correction factor in large size area
4 - 14
Propagation Model
Figure4.7 Path loss propagation in suburban area versus distance
4.3.2 COST-231 Hata Model
The Hata model is widely used for cellular networks in the 800MHz/900MHz band. As PCS
deployments begin in the 1,800MHz/1,900MHz band, the Hata model was modified by the European
COST (Cooperation in the field of Scientific and Research) group, and the extended pathloss model is
often referred to as the COST-231 Hata model. This model is valid for the following range of parameters:
 150MHz ≤ f ≤ 2000MHz
 30m ≤ hb ≤ 200m
 1m ≤ hm ≤ 10m
 1km ≤ d ≤ 20km
The median pathloss for the COST-231 Hata model is given by:
46.3 33.9 13.82 44.9 6.55 (4.19)
The MS antenna-correction factor, a(hm), is given by:
1.11 0.7 1.56 0.8 (4.20)
4 - 15
For urban and suburban areas, the correction factor CF is 3dB and 0dB, respectively. The WiMAX
Forum recommends using this COST-231 Hata model for system simulations and network planning of
macrocellular systems in both urban and suburban areas for mobility applications. The WiMAX Forum
also recommends adding a 10dB fade margin to the median pathloss to account for shadowing.
4.3.3 Walfish-Ikegami Model
The Hata model and its COST-231 extension are suitable for macrocellular environments, but
not for smaller cells that have a radius less than 1 km. The Walfish-Ikegami model applies to these
smaller cells and is recommended by the WiMAX Forum for modeling microcellular environments. The
model assumes an urban environment with a series of buildings as depicted in Figure 4.5, with the
building heights, interbuilding distance, street width, and so on, as parameters. In this model, diffraction
is assumed to be the main mode of propagation, and the model is valid for the following ranges of
parameters:
 800MHz ≤ f ≤ 2000MHz
 4m ≤ hb ≤ 50m
 1m ≤ hm ≤ 3m
 0.2km ≤ d ≤ 5km
Figure4.8 the Walfish-Ikegami model
The model is made up of three terms:
(4.21)
Where, Lfs is the free-space loss, Lrts is the rooftop-to-street diffraction loss, and Lmsd is the multiscreen
loss. The model provides analytical expressions for each of the terms for a variety of scenarios and
parameter settings. For the standard NLOS case, with BS antenna height 12.5m, building height 12m,
building-to-building distance 50m, width 25m, MS antenna height 1.5m, orientation 30° for all paths,
and in a metropolitan center, the equation simplifies to:
4 - 16
Propagation Model
.
65.9 38 24.5 (4.22)
This equation is recommended by the WiMAX Forum to be used for system modeling. The use of
an additional 10dB for fading margin is also recommended with this model.
The Walfish-Ikegami model also provides an expression for the urban canyon case, which has a
LOS component between the BS and the MS. For the LOS case, the median pathloss expression is:
31.4 26 20 (4.23)
4.3.4 Erceg Model
The Erceg model is based on extensive experimental data collected at 1.9GHz in 95 macrocells
across the United States. The measurements were made mostly in suburban areas of New Jersey,
Seattle, Chicago, Atlanta, and Dallas. The Erceg model is applicable mostly for fixed wireless
deployment, with the MS installed under the eave/window or on the rooftop. The model, adopted by
the IEEE 802.16 group as the recommended model for fixed broadband applications, has three variants,
based on terrain type.
1. Erceg A is applicable to hilly terrain with moderate to heavy tree density.

2. Erceg B is applicable to hilly terrain with light tree density or flat terrain with moderate to heavy
tree density.
3. Erceg C is applicable to flat terrain with light tree density.
The Erceg model is a slope-intercept model given by:
10 (4.24)
Where is the median pathloss, PL is the instantaneous attenuation, and X is the shadow fades, A is
the intercept and is given by free-space pathloss at the desired frequency over a distance of d0 = 100 m:
20 (4.25)
and α is the pathloss exponent and is modeled as a random variable with a Gaussian distribution around
a mean value of . The instantaneous value of the pathloss exponent is given by:
(4.26)
Where x is a Gaussian random variable with zero mean and unit variance, and σα is the standard
deviation of the pathloss exponent distribution. The parameters of the Erceg model, A, B, C, and σα for
the various terrain categories, are given in Table 4.7.
4 - 17
Parameters Erceg Model A Erceg Model B Erceg Model C

a 4.6 4 3.6
b 0.0075 0.0065 0.005
c 12.6 17.1 20
sa 0.57 0.75 0.59
μS 10.6 9.6 8.2
σS 2.3 3 1.6
Table4.7 Parameters of Erceg Model
Unlike the Hata model, which predicts only the median pathloss, the Erceg model has both a
median pathloss and a shadow-fading component, χ, a zero-mean Gaussian random variable expressed
as y σ, where y is a zero-mean Gaussian random variable with unit variance, and σ is the standard
deviation of χ. The standard deviation σ is, in fact, another Gaussian variable with a mean of μS and a
standard deviation of σS, such that σ = μS + z σS, z being a zero-mean unit variance Gaussian random
variable.
Strictly speaking, this base model is valid only for frequencies close to 1,900MHz, for an MS with
omnidirectional antennas at a height of 2 meters and BS antenna heights between 10 meters and 80
meters. The base model has been expanded with correction factors to cover higher frequencies, variable
MS antenna heights, and directivity. The extended versions of the Erceg models are valid for the
following range of parameters:
• 1900MHz ≤ f ≤ 3500MHz
• 10m ≤ hb ≤ 80m
• 2m ≤ hm ≤ 10m
• 0.1km ≤ d ≤ 8km
The median pathloss formula for the extended version of the Erceg model is expressed as:
10 log ∆ ∆ ∆ (4.27)
The various correction factors in previous Equation corresponding to frequency, MS height, and
MS antenna directivity are given by:
∆ 6 log (4.28)
∆ 10.8 log (4.29a)
∆ 20 log (4.29b)
∆ 0.64 ln 0.54 ln (4.30)
4 - 18
Propagation Model
Where ΔPLMS is often referred to as the antenna-gain reduction factor and accounts for the fact that the
angular scattering is reduced owing to the directivity of the antenna. The antenna-gain reduction factor
can be quite significant; for example, using a 20° antenna can contribute to a ΔPLMS of 7 dB.
4.3.5 Ecc-33 path loss model
Initial Experimental of Okumura model are done suburban areas at Tokyo. A partition of urban
areas has let authors reporting 2 categories for towns such:
 Large towns (like Tokyo, New York, etc...)
 Medium towns (like Berlin, Rome, etc...).
A correction factor for open and suburban’s areas was also defined. Even if the Okumura-Hata
model is well known for UHF frequency bands, it’s a validity for High Frequencies (HF) is however
discussable. The COST-231 model extends this to frequencies up to 2GHz, where mobile system is
supposed equipped with Omni-directional antenna installed more than 3 m above the ground.
ECC-33 model is an empirical model composed from four terms and known as following :
(4.31)
Where, , , , are, respectively the free space attenuation, the basic median path loss, the BS
height gain factor and the terminal (CPE) height gain factor. They are individually defined in (Erceg,
2003; Kabaou, 2006).
92.4 20 log 20 log (4.32)
20.41 9.83 log 7.894 log 9.56 log (4.33)
log . 13.958 5.8 log (4.34)
For medium city environment
42.57 13.7 log log 0.585 (4.35)
The medium city model is more appropriate for European cities whereas the large cities
environment should be used only for cities having tall buildings.
4.3.6 COMPARISON WITH SIMULATION RESULTS
After presented the different path loss models, we entered a comparative study to compare the
path loss model results obtained through appropriate parameters in rural, urban and suburban
environments. Figure 4.9 compares the path loss obtained in rural environment. It clearly shows that the
COST-231 Hata model predict a higher path loss than the Standard University Interim model (SUI).
4 - 19
Figure4.9 Comparison of path loss propagation for rural environments
Figure4.10 Comparison of path loss propagation for suburban environments
4 - 20
Cell Area
Figure4.11 Comparison of path loss propagation for urban environments
Note that the SUI model does not specifically have a classification for urban environment, but
terrain type B is considered the most appropriate.
The assumptions for urban and medium city are used for the COST-231 Hata model and the ECC-
33. The SUI model in comparison with the ECC-33 and COST-231 model are shown in Figure 4.10. The
SUI model shows the lowest path loss for a BS antenna height of 30 m in suburban environment.
The results of comparison between three path loss models in urban environment are shown in
Figure 4.11. The BS antenna height is considered equal to 20 m. The ECC-33 model grossly over predict
the path loss at 20 m, however the SUI model shows the lowest path loss.
4.4 Cell Area

Mobile WiMAX uses a cellular network structure and we consider a hexagonal cell area, defined as:
3 X d2 X sin(π/3), with d the coverage range as indicated in Figure 4.12.
Figure4.12 Illustration of cell area calculation
4 - 21
4.5 Bit Rate per Sector

Both the channel bandwidth and the modulation scheme have an important influence on the bit
rate, and these two parameters were already discussed above (Table 4.3 and Table 4.4). Besides, the bit
rate is also determined by the guard time, the overhead and the TDD down/up ratio. The guard time is
intended to overcome multi path effects and in the planning tool the user can select a fraction from a
particular set, specified in the standard (1/8 is used in our study). The overhead is defined as the
percentage of time that no data is sent and is the time used for e.g. initialization and synchronization,
and it also covers the headers (we assume an overhead of 20%). Finally, the ratio between the downlink
and uplink time is defined by a TDD down/up ratio parameter (fixed at 3:1 in our model). The downlink
bit rate is then given by:
/ (4.36)
4.6 Required Number of Sites and Sectors

The final goal of the planning tool is to deliver the number of sites and sectors required to cover
a particular region, and this information will then be used to formulate different business scenarios. The
area of the region, the user density and the desired downlink and uplink bit rate per user are additional
input parameters. Operators also take into account that not every user simultaneously uses his
connection, and for this purpose a parameter for simultaneous usage (overbooking) is introduced, which
defines the percentage of the users that effectively use the service (we assume 5%). As already
mentioned, WiMAX dynamically selects the best possible modulation scheme per user, which is
illustrated in Figure 4.13.
Figure4.13 Range of the different modulation schemes, indicated by different colors. The lighter the color, the less data bits
per symbol (cf. Table 4.4)
4 - 22
Planning Tool: Graphical User
Interface (GUI)
4.7 Planning Tool: Graphical User Interface (GUI)

Figure 4.14 shows the graphical user interface of the planning tool, and the main blocks are
discussed below.
Figure4.14 Graphical user interface of the planning tool
Our planning tool divided into 6 blocks:

 CPE parameters: it contains the parameters of CPE.
 BS parameters: it contains the parameters of BS.
 OFDM parameters: it contains parameters of OFDM for UL and DL connection.
 Margins: it contains all margin variables.
 System parameters: contains other system specification like MS antenna height an BS antenna
height.
 Results: after providing inputs from user and pressing Calculate button, the results will appears
for UL and DL in this block.
Note that user can type equations instead of numbers as input to the tool and he can change this
equation later.
Clear button is used to remove all inputs and results to reset the tool for new values.
4 - 23
4.8 Link budget sample

Table 4.8 shows a sample link budget for a WiMAX system for two deployment scenarios. In the
first scenario, the mobile WiMAX case, service is provided to a portable mobile handset located
outdoors; in the second case, service is provided to a fixed desktop subscriber station placed indoors.
The fixed desktop subscriber is assumed to have a switched directional antenna that provides 6 dBi gain.
Table4.8 Link budget sample
4 - 24
Conclusions
4.9 Conclusions
We have presented in this chapter a comparative study between different path loss models.
Each one of these models is described by an appropriate parameters and a specific environment of
propagation. The ECC-33 model showed quite large path loss in urban and suburban environment. The
COST-231 models predict a higher path loss in rural environment.
Finally, physical models (Walfish-Ikegami) can attain a greater degree of accuracy than a
statistical model (Okumura-Hata), because researcher can retain his electromagnetism’s laws knowledge
that he has. Statistical Models are easier to be used than the physical ones. They don’t need e.g.
geographic databases. However, validity domain is often limited: Okumura-Hata model can’t, e.g., be
used for distances less than 1Km.
4 - 25
Chapter 5
Numerical results of WiMAX
5.1 Introduction
Scenario Description Parameters
BW: 1.75, 7 MHz
A
Fc: 3.5 GHz
Nsubchannel: 16 (without sub channelization)
Licensed operation
Modulation technique: BPSK, QPSK, 16-QAM and 64-QAM
Coding rate: 1/2, 2/3 and ¾
Morphology classes: RU, SU, UR and DU
BW: 1.75, 7 MHz
B
Fc: 3.5 GHz
Nsubchannel: 4
Licensed operation
Modulation technique: BPSK, QPSK, 16-QAM and 64-QAM
Coding rate: 1/2, 2/3 and 3/4
BW: 10, 20 MHz
C
Fc: 5.8 GHz
Licensed-exempt Nsubchannel: 16 (without sub channelization)
operation Modulation technique: BPSK, QPSK, 16-QAM and 64-QAM
Coding rate: 1/2, 2/3 and ¾
BW: 10, 20 MHz
D
Fc: 5.8 GHz
Licensed-exempt Nsubchannel: 2
operation Modulation technique: BPSK, QPSK, 16-QAM and 64-QAM
Coding rate: 1/2, 2/3 and 3/4
Table5.1 Case studies
We study the effecting of eight parameters on the coverage prediction:
1. The BS antenna height.

2. The modulation technique and coding rate.
3. The different morphologies.
4. The operating frequency.
5. The channel bandwidth.
6. The sub channelization technique.
7. Comparison between Fixed and mobile WiMAX.
8. Comparison between Erceg.
5-1
Chapter 5 Numerical results of WiMAX
5.2 The BS antenna height and the modulation technique and coding rate
We observe that:
At operating frequency 3.5GHz, BW 1.75, without subchannelization, morphology Dense urban and link
direction is reverse link.
Hbs (m) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
BPSK 1/2 1.111794 1.553071 1.828066 2.047452 2.247144 2.442878 2.643326
QPSK 1/2 0.688743 0.900249 1.025857 1.123369 1.210331 1.294087 1.378489
QPSK 3/4 0.641124 0.829716 0.940909 1.026879 1.103313 1.176736 1.250548
16QAM 1/2 0.52126 0.655492 0.732996 0.792215 0.844402 0.894156 0.943824
16QAM 3/4 0.485221 0.604135 0.672299 0.724169 0.76974 0.813072 0.856225
64QAM 2/3 0.405651 0.492665 0.541645 0.578538 0.610703 0.641088 0.671166
6QAM 2/3 0.379111 0.456128 0.499184 0.53149 0.559575 0.58604 0.612177
Table 5.2 The Estimated downlink coverage radius for different BTS heights in Km with different modulation techniques
mobile reverse link

3
BPSK 1/2
QPSK 1/2
2.5 QPSK 3/4
16-QAM 1/2
16-QAM 3/4
2 64-QAM 2/3
cell radius
64-QAM 3/4
1.5
0.5
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
hbs
Figure5.1 Modulation technique effect
We conclude that:
 Cell radius increases as BS antenna height increases.
 Cell radius changes with different modulation techniques; BPSK has higher cell radius while 64-
QAM has lower cell radius.
 Each modulation type has a certain required S/N so, it has a certain receiver sensitivity which a
dominant factor in the MAPL so the cell radius changes among the modulation types.
5-2
Effect of different morphologies
5.3 Effect of different morphologies

We observe that:
At operating frequency 3.5GHz, code rate 0.5, BW 1.75, with subchannelization (N subchannel=2),
modulation type BPSK and link direction is reverse link.
hbs (m) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
rural 1.434794 2.076482 2.486716 2.818773 3.124331 3.426641 3.738904 4.070312
suburban 1.200201 1.694464 2.004851 2.253552 2.480668 2.703907 2.933113 3.174973
urban 1.15221 1.617523 1.908538 2.141175 2.353252 2.561398 2.774814 2.999715
denseurban 1.111794 1.553071 1.828066 2.047452 2.247144 2.442878 2.643326 2.854319
Table 5.3 The Estimated downlink coverage radius for different BTS heights in Km with different morphologies
mobile reverse link

4.5
Rural
Suburban
4
Urban
Denseurban
3.5
cell radius
2.5
1.5
1
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
hbs
Figure5.2 Morphology effect
We conclude that:
 Cell radius changes for different morphologies.
 Ruler has higher Cell radius due to have lower BPL ( lower standard deviation of lognormal ),
then suburban, urban, dense has lower cell radius.
5-3
5.4 Effect of operating frequency

We observe that:
At BW 1.75, code rate 0.5, no sub channel, modulation type BPSK and link direction is reverse link,
morphology Dense urban.
hbs (m) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
3.5 GHz 1.111794 1.553071 1.828066 2.047452 2.247144 2.442878 2.643326 2.854319
5.8 GHz 0.886004 1.199279 1.390107 1.54039 1.675863 1.807552 1.941385 2.08123
Table 5.4 The Estimated downlink coverage radius for different BTS heights in Km with different operating frequency
(licensed and license exempt)
mobile reverse link

3
F =3.5 GHz
F =5.8 GHz
2.5
cell radius
1.5
0.5
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
hbs
Figure5.3 Operating frequency effect
We conclude that:
 At higher operating frequency the coverage prediction is decreased.
Since:
1. The frequency correction factor of the model is increased.

2. Increasing frequency decrease the wave length which decrease the cell radius.
5-4
Effect of channel bandwidth
5.5 Effect of channel bandwidth

We observe that:
At operating frequency 3.5GHz, code rate 0.5, with subchannelization (N subchannel=4), modulation type
BPSK and link direction is reverse link, morphology Dense urban.
hbs(m) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
1.75 MHz 0.986252 1.354981 1.58202 1.761915 1.924826 2.083810 2.245967 2.415994
7 MHz 0.776096 1.031377 1.184819 1.304751 1.412255 1.516250 1.621469 1.730943
10 MHZ 0.734528 0.968707 1.108686 1.217754 1.315289 1.409451 1.504544 1.603308
20 MHz 0.651586 0.845151 0.959464 1.047927 1.126632 1.202282 1.278373 1.357096
Table 5.5 The Estimated downlink coverage radius for different BTS heights in Km with different channel BW
mobile reverse link

2.6
BW = 1.75 MHz
2.4 BW = 7 MHz
BW = 10 MHz
2.2
BW = 20 MHz
2
cell radius
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
0.8
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
hbs
Figure5.4 Channel bandwidth effect
We conclude that:
 As channel bandwidth increase, the coverage radius decreases.
Since: increasing the channel BW increases the receiver sensitivity (due to increasing of
effective channel BW).
5-5
5.6 Effect of subchannelization

5.6.1 The forward link versus reverse link cell radius in case of no
subchannelization
We observe that:
At operating frequency 3.5GHz, BW 1.75MHz, code rate 0.5, no sub channel, modulation type BPSK and,
morphology Dense urban.
hbs (m) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
RL 0.746424 0.986593 1.130385 1.242527 1.342879 1.439818 1.537769 1.639553
FL 1.06324 1.476069 1.732186 1.935993 2.121151 2.302343 2.48762 2.682362
Table 5.6 The Estimated downlink coverage radius for different BTS heights in Km at FL and RL without subchannelization
mobile reverse link

3
RL
FL
2.5
cell radius
1.5
0.5
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
hbs
Figure5.5 FL versus RL cell radius in case of no subchannelization
We conclude that:
 There is unbalance between forward link and reverse link.
Since:
1. Antenna gain of SS is low , but BS antenna gain is very high.

2. Transmitted power of SS is low.
3. SS antenna height is low.
4. SS is battery powered.
5-6
Effect of subchannelization
5.6.2 The forward link versus reverse link cell radius in case of
subchannelization
We observe that:
At operating frequency 3.5GHz, BW 1.75MHz, code rate 0.5, modulation type BPSK, morphology Dense
urban.
hbs 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
RL 1.069287 1.485634 1.74408 1.949807 2.136754 2.319735 2.506877 2.703616
Fl 1.06324 1.476069 1.732186 1.935993 2.121151 2.302343 2.48762 2.682362
Table 5.7 The Estimated downlink coverage radius for different BTS heights in Km at FL and RL with subchannelization
mobile reverse link

2.8
RL
2.6 FL
2.4
2.2
cell radius
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
hbs
Figure5.6 FL versus RL cell radius in case of no subchannelization
We conclude that:
By using the subchannelization technique there is balance forward link and reverse link.
5-7
5.7 Comparison between Fixed and mobile WiMAX

We observe that:
At operating frequency 3.5GHz, BW 1.75MHz, code rate 0.5, with subchannelization, modulation type
BPSK and link direction is reverse link, morphology Dense urban.
hbs 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
mobile WiMAX 1.05153 1.41847 1.61349 1.74531 1.84821 1.93635 2.01670 2.09317
fixed WiMAX 2.94367 4.58068 5.58647 6.34279 6.98928 7.58868 8.17451 8.76759
Table 5.8 The Estimated downlink coverage radius for different BTS heights in Km at mobile WiMAX and fixed WiMAX
mobile reverse link

9
Mobile WiMAX
8 Fixed WiMAX
7
cell radius
1
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
hbs
Figure5.7 Comparison between Fixed and mobile WiMAX cell radius
We conclude that:
 The cell radius of Fixed WiMAX is higher than the cell radius of the mobile WiMAX.
Since:
1. SS transmission and reception antenna gain in fixed WiMAX is high.

2. SS transmitted power in fixed WiMAX is high.
3. LOS capabilities in fixed WiMAX is more than mobile WiMAX .
4. Most fixed SS is AC powered.
5. SS in mobile WiMAX able to has a certain speed up to 120km/s, where in fixed WiMAX
it’s speed is zero , so in mobile WiMAX must have a robust connection.
5-8
Comparison between Erceg A, B
and C
5.8 Comparison between Erceg A, B and C

We observe that:
At operating frequency 3.5GHz, BW 1.75MHz, code rate 0.5, with subchannelization (N subchannel=2),
modulation type BPSK and link direction is reverse link, morphology Dense urban.
hbs 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Erceg A 1.069726 1.486327 1.744943 1.950809 2.137887 2.320997 2.508275 2.705159
Erceg B 1.134486 1.820447 2.296108 2.683837 3.035887 3.378423 3.727026 4.092648
Erceg C 1.418877 2.104684 2.795109 3.363212 3.871011 4.353209 4.831213 5.319809
Table 5.9 The Estimated downlink coverage radius for different BTS heights in Km at with different Erceg models
mobile reverse link

8
Erceg A
Erceg B
7
Erceg C
6
cell radius
1
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
hbs
Figure5.8 Comparison between Erceg A, B, C cell radius
We conclude that:
 The largest cell radius in Erceg C, then Erceg B, and the smallest cell radius Erceg A.
Since:
 Erceg A is applicable to hilly terrain with moderate to heavy tree density .

 Erceg B is applicable to hilly terrain with light tree density or flat terrain with moderate
to heavy tree density.
 Erceg c is applicable to flat terrain with light tree density.
5-9
Chapter 6
Performance analysis of mobile
WiMAX
6.1 Performance measures

We can evaluate the performance of mobile WiMAX system in terms of user capacity,
throughput, bit error rate (BER), and the maximum transmission data rate uplink data rate
 User capacity:
User capacity the maximum number of user that can be served simultaneously by the system
with predefined in a certain geographic area.
 Throughput and delay:

For transmission in communication networks, a packet communication schedule can be more
efficient than using a circuit switched protocol. In a packet network, throughput and delay are
appropriate parameters.
Throughput is the average rate of successful message delivery per time slot giving a certain
amount of traffic for a certain amount of throughput it is important to know what will be the
average of a packet Delay .The throughput is usually measured in bits per second (bit/s or bps),
and sometimes in data packets per second or data packets per time slot.
 Bit error rate (BER):

BER in telecommunication is defined as a ratio of the number of the bit incorrectly receives to
the total number of bit sent during a specified time interval is called BER.
The most commonly encountered ratio is the bit error rate (BER), also sometimes referred to as
a bit error ratio. Examples of bit error rate are transmission BER, i.e., the number of erroneous
bits received divided by the total number of bit transmitted.
 Maximum transmission data rate:

In telecommunication data rate is the number of bits that are conveyed or processed per unit of
time. The data rate is usually measured in “bits per second “(bit/s or bps).
6-1
Chapter 6 Performance analysis
The maximum transmission data rate is given by:
(6.1)
(6.2)
1 (6.3)
(6.4)
(6.5)
∆
∆ (6.6)
(6.7)
Where:
R is Maximum transmission data rate

Cr is code rate
bm is Number of bits per symbol
Nused is data subcarrier
Ts is sample duration
G: is the cyclic prefix rate
ΔF is the sub carrier spacing
NFFT is fast Fourier transform size
Fs is Sampling frequency
n is sampling frequency.
Modulation and coding schemes:

Modulation type Cr bm
BPSK 1/2 1
QPSK 1/2 2
3/4 2
16-QAM 1/2 4
3/4 4
64-QAM 2/3 6
3/4 6
Table6.1 Coding schemes
6-2
Performance measures
Flow chart of the maximum transmission data rate calculations:
Figure6.1 Maximum transmission data rate calculations
We study Effects of following Parameters on mobile WiMAX System:

 Effect of Modulation Type
 Effect of Cyclic Prefix Rate
 Effect of Channel Bandwidth
 Effect of Subchannelization (Case 1& Case 2)
 Effect of Subchannelization (Case 3 & Case 4)
 Comparison between Fixed and Mobile WiMAX
6-3
6.2 Effect of modulation type and code rate
We take case of F = 5.8GHz and BW = 20MHz but in different modulation types with different code
rates.
Modulation type BPSK QPSK 16QAM 64QAM
code rate 1/2 1/2 ¾ 1/2 3/4 2/3 3/4
Nsubcahnnel 16 16 16 16 16 16 16
Nused 1120 1120 1120 1120 1120 1120 1120
n( sampling factor) 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15
Fs 23.04 23.04 23.04 23.04 23.04 23.04 23.04
FFT size 2048 2048 2048 2048 2048 2048 2048
∆F 0.01125 0.01125 0.01125 0.01125 0.01125 0.01125 0.01125
Tb 88.88889 88.88889 88.88889 88.88889 88.88889 88.88889 88.88889
G 0.03125 0.03125 0.03125 0.03125 0.03125 0.03125 0.03125
TS 91.66667 91.66667 91.66667 91.66667 91.66667 91.66667 91.66667
bm 1 2 2 4 4 6 6
R 6.109091 12.21818 18.32727 24.43636 36.65455 48.87273 54.98182
Table6.2 Effect of modulation type in data rate
We observe that:
 At BPSK, r = 1/2 Data rate = 6.1 Mbps.
 At QPSK, r = 1/2 Data rate = 16.8Mbps.
 At QPSK, r = 3/4 Data rate = 36.6Mbps.
 At 16-QAM, r= 1/2 Data rate = 24.4Mbps.
 At 16-QAM, r=3/4 Data rate = 36.6 Mbps.
 At 64-QAM, r= 2/3 Data rate = 48.8Mbps.
 At 64-QAM, r=3/4 Data rate = 75.4Mbps.
6-4
Effect of modulation type and
code rate
Effective of modulation type & code rate

(f=5.8 GHz , BW=20MHz ,G=1/32,no
subchannelization)
60
54.98181818
48.87272727
50
maximum transmission data rate
36.65454545
40
(Mbps)
30
24.43636364
18.32727273
20
12.21818182
10 6.109090909
modulation type & code rate
Figure6.2 Effect of modulation type in data rate
We conclude that:
 The highest data rate is achieved for 64QAM, with rate ¾ since the 64QAM is the highest level of
modulation type.
 The lowest data rate is achieved for BPSK with rate ½, since BPSK is the lowest level of
modulation.
6-5
6.3 Effect of Cyclic prefix rate
We take case of F = 5.8GHz, BW = 20MHz and 64-QAM modulation type but with different G values.
G 0.03125 0.0625 0.125 0.25
code rate 3/4 3/4 3/4 3/4
Nsubcahnnel 16 16 16 16
Nused 1120 1120 1120 1120
n( sampling factor) 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15
Fs 23.04 23.04 23.04 23.04
FFT size 2048 2048 2048 2048
∆F 0.01125 0.01125 0.01125 0.01125
Tb 88.88888889 88.88888889 88.88888889 88.88888889
G 0.03125 0.0625 0.125 0.25
TS 91.66666667 94.44444444 100 111.1111111
bm 6 6 6 6
R 54.98181818 53.36470588 50.4 45.36
Table6.3 Effect of cyclic prefix in data rate
We observe that:
 The maximum data rate at G = 1/32 is 54.9 Mbps
 The maximum data rate at G = 1/ 4 is 45.3 Mbps
6-6
Effect of Cyclic prefix rate
Effect of Cyclic prefix rate

(64Qam,r=3/4,f=5.8GHz,without
subchannelization
54.98181818
60 53.36470588
50.4
50 45.36
40
(Mbps)
30
20
10
0
G=1/32 G=1/16 G=1/8 G=1/4
Cyclic prefix
Figure6.3 Effect of cyclic prefix in data rate
We conclude that:
The higher level cyclic prefix index (1/32), has over head occurs, the throughput is achieved.
6-7
6.4 Effect of nominal bandwidth and operating frequency
We take case of 64-QAM modulation type but with different bandwidth and operating frequency.
Nominal bandwidth 20 MHZ 10MHz 7 MHz 1.75MHz
code rate 3/4 3/4 3/4 3/4
F 5.8*10^9 5.8*10^9 3.5*10^9 3.5*10^9
Bandwidth 20 10 7 1.75
Nused 1120 560 280 56
Fs 23.04 11.52 8 2
FFT size 2048 1024 512 128
∆F 0.01125 0.01125 0.015625 0.015625
Tb 88.88888889 88.88888889 64 64
G 0.03 0.03125 0.03125 0.03125
TS 91.66666667 91.66666667 66 66
bm 6 6 6 6
R 54.98181818 27.49090909 19.09090909 3.818181818
Table6.4 Effect of Bandwidth and operating frequency in data rate
We observe that:
 At nominal channel bandwidth = 1.75MHz, Data rate = 3.8 Mbps.
 At nominal channel bandwidth = 7 MHz, Data rate = 19.09 Mbps.
6-8
Effect of nominal bandwidth and
operating frequency
Effect of nominal bandwidth & operating

frequency
(64QAM,r=3/4,no subchannelization)
60 54.98181818
50
40
(Mbps)
27.49090909
30
19.09090909
20
10 3.818181818
0
1.75 MHz 7 MHz 10 GHz 20 GHz
Channel bandwidth
Figure6.4 Effect of Bandwidth and operating frequency in data rate
We conclude that:
 The higher nominal channel bandwidth produce higher data rate.
 As the nominal channel bandwidth increase data rate increase.
 We conclude that that the operation in licensed band (3.5 GHz) has lower.
 Throughput than the licensed excepted band (5.8GHz) narrower channel bandwidth available
for licensed operation.
6-9
6.5 Effective subchannelization (Licensed operation)
We take case of 64-QAM modulation type but for two different case studies [case study A (without
subchannelization) and case study B (with subchannelization)]
Case Study Case study A Case study B
code rate 3/4 3/4 3/4 3/4
F 3.50 3.50 3.50 3.50
bandwidth 1.75 7 7 1.75
Nused 56 280 280 56
Fs 2 8 8 2
FFT size 128 512 512 128
∆F 0.015625 0.015625 0.00390625 0.00390625
Tb 64 64 256 256
G 0.03125 0.03125 0.03125 0.03125
TS 66 66 264 264
bm 6 6 6 6
R 3.818181818 19.09090909 4.772727273 0.954545455
Table6.5 Effect of subchannelization for licensed operation
We observe that:
 At nominal channel bandwidth 1.75 MHz case study A (without subchannelization), maximum
data rate 3.8 Mbps and Case study B (with subchannelization) maximum data rate is 0.95 Mbps.
 At nominal channel bandwidth 7 MHz case study A (without subchannelization), maximum data
rate 19.09 Mbps and Case study B (with subchannelization) maximum data rate is 4.7 Mbps.
6 - 10
Effective subchannelization
(Licensed operation)
Effective subchannelization (Case A& Case B )

(64-QAM , r=3/4)
19.09090909
20
18
16
14
12
(Mbps)
10
with no subchannelization
8
with subchannelization
4.772727273
6 3.818181818
4
0.954545455
2
0
1.75MHZ 7MHz
nominal channel bandwidth
(MHz)
Figure6.5 Effect of subchannelization for licensed operation
We conclude that:
The maximum data rate that can be achieved in case study two is significantly lower than that for case
study one by about 1/16 due to subchannelization.
6 - 11
6.6 Effective subchannelization (Licensed-exempt operation)
We take case of 64-QAM modulation type but for two different case studies [case study C (without
subchannelization) and case study D (with subchannelization)].
Case Study Case study C Case study D
code rate 3/4 3/4 3/4 3/4
F 5.8*10^9 5.8*10^9 5.8*10^9 5.8*10^9
bandwidth 20 10 20 10
Nused 1120 560 1120 560
Fs 23.04 11.52 23.04 11.52
FFT size 2048 1024 2048 1024
∆F 0.01125 0.01125 0.00140625 0.00140625
Tb 88.88888889 88.88888889 711.1111111 711.1111111
G 0.03 0.03125 0.03125 0.03125
TS 91.66666667 91.66666667 733.3333333 733.3333333
bm 6 6 6 6
R 54.98181818 27.49090909 6.872727273 3.436363636
Table6.6 Effect of subchannelization for licensed-exempt operation
We observe that:
 At nominal channel bandwidth 10 MHz case study one without subchannelization, maximum
data rate 27.4 Mbps and Case study tow with subchannelization maximum data rate is 3.4
Mbps.
 At nominal channel bandwidth 20 MHz case study one without subchannelization, maximum
data rate 54.9 Mbps and Case study tow with subchannelization maximum data rate is 6.8
Mbps.
6 - 12
Effective subchannelization
(Licensed-exempt operation)
Effective of subchannelization (Case 3 & Case 4)

(64QAM,r=3/4,f=5.8GHz.G=1/32)
54.98181818
60
50
40
27.49090909
(Mbps)
30
with no subchannelization
with subchannelization
20
6.872727273
3.436363636
10
0
10MHZ 20MHz
(MHz)
Figure6.6 Effect of subchannelization for licensed-exempt operation
We conclude that:
 The maximum data rate for case study four is significantly lower than that in case study three is
about 1/8 or 12.5%.
 The maximum data rate for case study four is about 1/8 or 12.5%.
 The maximum data rates achieved in case study three.
6 - 13
6.7 Comparison between fixed WiMAX and Mobile WiMAX
Here we study the effect of bandwidth on Data rate for Mobile WiMAX and Fixed WiMAX.
Bandwidth 1.75MHz 7MHz 10MHz 20MHz
Mobile WiMAX 3.818181818 19.09090909 27.49090909 54.98181818
Fixed WiMAX 6.647727273 26.59090909 37.70181818 75.40363636
Table6.7 Effect of bandwidth in Mobile and Fixed WiMAX
We observe that:
 At nominal channel bandwidth 1.75 MHz in maximum data rate in fixed WiMAX is 6.64Mbps and
in mobile WiMAX are 3.8Mbps.
 At nominal channel bandwidth 7 MHz in maximum data rate in fixed WiMAX is 26.5Mbps and in
mobile WiMAX are 19.09Mbps.
 At nominal channel bandwidth 10 MHz in maximum data rate in fixed WiMAX is 37.7 Mbps and
in mobile WiMAX are 27.4 Mbps.
 At nominal channel bandwidth 20 MHz in maximum data rate in fixed WiMAX is 75.4 Mbps and
in mobile WiMAX are 54.9 Mbps.
6 - 14
Comparison between fixed
WiMAX and Mobile WiMAX
Comparison between fixed WiMAX & Mobile

WiMAX
(no subchannelization,G=1/32,r=3/4,64QAM)
75.4036
80
70
60 54.9818
50
37.7018
(Mbps)
40
26.5909 27.4909 Mobile WiMAX
30 Fixed WiMAX
19.0909
20
6.6477
10 3.8181
0
1.75MHz 7MHz 10MHz 20MHz

(MHz)
Figure6. 7 Effect of bandwidth in Mobile and Fixed WiMAX
We conclude that:
 The maximum data rate can be achieved in Fixed WiMAX and it occur in Bandwidth 20MHz.
 The data rate in Mobile WiMAX less than in Fixed WiMAX (In different bandwidth).
6 - 15
Chapter 7
Practical part of mobile WiMAX
coverage
7.1 Introduction
When planning cellular structured WiMAX system, you have to determine:
 The minimum number of base stations (BSs) to cover the whole area of interest.
 The type of the base stations that includes choice of BS, antenna configuration cell type.
 The radius of each cell.
 The location of base stations as well as the spacing between them,
 The height of antenna at each base station.
Network planning is an ongoing process or a continuous process. It occurs periodically after certain
period of time. You have to make network planning in the following cases:
 When you install a new system.
 To meet a new requirement either to extend coverage to other areas or to increase the number
of subscribers.
 When the new techniques appear or are developed and become commercially available such as
smart antennas that will lead to increase in cell site capacity and it will reduce the number of
cell sites or new techniques that will lead to increase in data rate.
7.2 Cellular structured WiMAX Network planning processes

The cellular structured WiMAX network planning processes include the following:
7.2.1 Nominal or preliminary cell planning
A nominal or preliminary cell plan can be produced from the data compiled from
coverage and traffic analysis. The nominal cell plains a graphical representation of the network and
looks like a cell pattern on a map. During nominal cell planning, do not care about the position of the
sites taking only in consideration the separation distance between sites.
7-1
Chapter 7 Practical part of mobile WiMAX coverage
To simplify the network planning, hexagonal shaped cells are adopted although they are
artificial or fictitious and do not exist in real world but it have become a widely promoted symbols for
cellular structured system. Nominal cell plans are the first cell plans and forms the basis for further
planning.
In reality, each company has a planning tool which is a work station equipped with a software
package based on link budget calculations and using certain propagation model to determine the cell
radius and the results are displayed on the map using different colors. An up to date digital three
dimensional map with high resolutions for the area where the network is to be planned is used to
import the actual environment data that include the terrain fluctuations (height information), clutter
distribution, dense degree of the area of interest. The area of interest is divided into different sub
regions according to different environment definitions. Each sub region has its own characteristics. The
classification is based on the dense of buildings and their heights in the sub region.
Each sub region is classified into one of the four categories: dense urban (DU), urban (UR),
suburban (SU) and rural (RU).The planning tool determines the classification of each sub region. It is
possible to import data from site survey files. Data can also be imported from field measurements files
to tune the propagation model as will be explained in the following subsections.
The area where the network is to be planned to be covered with cellular structured system is used.
Two study cases are investigated:
 Coverage oriented environment represent suburban and rural environments.
 Capacity oriented environment represent dense urban and urban environments.
Using the software program developed by us the maximum allowable path loss (MAPL) is
calculated using reverse link budget and forward link budget and the link balance was made and the
least value was taken as an input to the propagation model. Thus, the cell radius was calculated using
coverage criterion.
The classification of sub regions according to their building density and heights is determined by us
during site survey by observing the area features, landmarks and terrain in each sub region.
7.2.2 Site surveys
Once the nominal cell planning has been completed, site surveys can be performed for all the
proposed site locations by the site survey team. The site survey includes: site search, candidate sites are
chosen, the site survey team check the validity of each location of the sites, contact with the site owner,
site location lease agreement, get permission of the new sites, and carry out the construction of the civil
works, tower erection, transmission and interconnection between the network entities. Finally site
acquisition.
The following items must be checked for each site:
7-2
Cellular structured WiMAX
Network planning processes
The space for the equipment including: antennas, cable runs and power facilities. The exact site
locations (with some shifts)are fed back to the network planning team to modify the network planning
by shifting the locations of the sites such that no dead zones were introduced and overlap between sites
were reduced as much as possible.
7.2.3 Field measurements
The purpose of the field measurements is to correct the propagation model to reflect the
propagation status of wireless signal in the environment of the area of interest, thus making the model
more practical meet the coverage requirement.
To conduct field tests, the following steps have to be followed:
1. You have to choose the frequency of the measurement. If there is interference on the frequency
point to be used, choose a frequency point without interference. The transmission
characteristics are almost the same when frequency difference is 10 MHz or so.
2. Field measurements site choice: You have to choose the field measurements site. The field
measurements site should not be too much higher than the surrounding buildings and 10
meters are suitable. To obtain as much data as possible for correcting various clutters, two or
three field measurements sites with similar surrounding clutters (building heights, site height,
and so on) can be chosen to carry out field measurements and data from several sites can be
synthesized to execute the correction of the various clutters.
3. Choose pertinent parameters of the field measurements site i.e. use omnidirectional antenna,
choose proper transmission power, no obstruction surrounding the field measurements site,
and clean the frequency point.
4. The tools for field measurements includes: transmitter or CW transmitter, scanner or field
strength meter and GPS handset.
5. Before field measurements, you have to span antennas, install transmitter, and adjust output
power and frequency point to proper values and transmitting signal.
6. After field measurements, the field measurements data is put into a form acceptable for the
planning tool load the field measurements file into the planning tool and correct the model.
7.2.4 System design (or final cell plan)
The actual and the exact site locations are used to produce the final cell planning which is used
for network installations, provided that no dead zones and overlap between sites is small as possible 2.5
System diagnosis The test team via the driving test and using test mobile system which is a testing tool.
The testing tool includes mobile test units (MTUs) in cars and fixed test units geographically distributed.
The testing tool consists of a MS with special software, a portable personal computer (PC) and a global
positioning system (GPS) receiver and mobile traffic recording (MTR) and cell traffic recording (CTR). The
7-3
MS is used in active and idle mode. The PC is used for presentation, control and measurement data
storage. The GPS receiver provides the exact position of the measurement site by utilizing satellites.
When the satellite signals are shadowed, the GPS system switches to dead reckoning. Dead reckoning
consists of a speed sensor and a gyro. This provides the position if satellite signals are lost temporarily.
The measurement data can be imported to the planning tool and can be displayed on a map to compare
the measured handoffs with the predicted cell boundaries for example to check the network
performance, to evaluate the customer complaints, to verify that the final cell planning was
implemented successfully.
7.2.5 System tuning
After installation of the network, it is continuously monitored to determine how well it meets
the coverage and capacity requirement using the measured data, parameters are changed. Other
measurements can be taken if necessary.
The parameters to be changed are such as BS transmitted power, BS antenna height, antenna
down tilting angle, antenna type (gain, horizontal HPBW, and so on). Change handoff parameters,
change, add or decrease channels.
7.2.6 System growth
Cell planning is an ongoing process. If the network needs to be expanded to extend coverage
due to increase in traffic of because or change in the environment. Starting with a new capacity or traffic
and coverage or power analysis.
7.3 BS site choice

When choosing BS site, the following rules should be obeyed:
1. Antenna height should be higher to some degree than the surroundings.
2. Ensure that there is no obvious obstruction in surrounding environments.
3. Ensure that there is no obstruction surrounding the position of setting the global positioning
(GPS) antenna.
4. Meet coverage goal requirement concerning the effective coverage of the BS.
5. Predict traffic distribution in the coverage area and set the BS sites on the places of real traffic
need.
6. Utilize existent sites such as telecom Egypt centrals in case of rural communication network and
use other communication resources as possible such as towers, buildings.
7. Guarantee necessary space separation concerning the interference from other systems.
7-4
Antenna configuration and cell
type choice
8. Avoid strong wireless transmitter, radar or other serious interference.
9. Choose places with convenient traffic, reliable electricity plant, if not available use generators or
solar cell panels.
10. Avoid being near the flammable or explosive buildings.
11. Avoid being near the industrial manufactories with poisonous gas or smoke and dust.
12. Avoid hospitals, educational buildings, military zones, church, mosques, and entertainment
areas.
7.4 Antenna configuration and cell type choice

The choice of BS antenna should concern with the following factors: site type, dense degree of BS
and relative positions between them and dense degree of the area and so on. The following rules b. d be
obeyed when choosing antennas:
1. In dense urban (DU) and urban (UR) areas i.e. in capacity oriented areas, sectorized cells or
directional antennas with narrow power beam width (HPBW) angle can be chosen and large gain
can be chosen to reduce the other cell interference and increase the capacity.
2. In suburban areas and rural areas with low capacity where user or population density is low i.e.
In coverage oriented areas, Omni cells with Omnidirectional antennas with high antenna height
can be chosen.
3. In suburban areas and rural areas, when the capacity increases, directional antennas with wide
half power beam width (HPBW) angle and large gain value can be chosen to increase coverage.
4. In highways, where there is no need to cover towns along the road, or at border area or at the
coast, 2 sector configuration is the optimal solution with two directional antennas with
narrower width and higher gain antennas.
5. Three sector cells is the optimum solution to meet both capacity and coverage in all
morphologies.
6. Dual polarization is usually used in dense urban (DU) and urban (UR) areas and space diversity is
usually used in suburban (SU) rural (RU) areas.
7.5 Antenna selection

Antenna selection is very important part of WiMAX network planning and is mainly based on
coverage and installation space. Table (7.1) shows the antenna selection for rural environment
representing coverage oriented case study and for dense urban (DU) environment representing capacity
7-5
oriented case study. It shows also the antenna type (Omni directional and directional) and typical
antenna height.
Half power
Antenna
band width Antenna
case study gain polarization Antenna type environment
(HPBW) height
(dBi)
(degrees
coverage
50
oriented 12 vertical 360 omnidirectional rural
meters
case
Capacity Dual
30 Dense
oriented 18 polarization 65 directional
meters urban
case 45
Table7.1 the antenna selection for rural environment and for dense urban environment
7.6 Uniform solution of cellular structured mobile WiMAX network

coverage
We consider two study cases and calculate the cell radius in each case study according to
coverage criterion.
Case study one: rural area.
Case study two: dense urban area
7.6.1 Case study one
Assume:
 All the region of interest to be covered by WiMAX system is rural (RU) environment.
 All the cells are omnicells
 The BS antenna used is omnidirectional
 The BS antenna used has gain 15dBi
 The BTS antenna height is 50 meters
We calculate the cell radius according to coverage criterion

 Covered area is 115.461Km2
 The cell radius is 2.90126443268447Km
 The cell area is 31.868878Km2
 Number of cells is 5.47 cells
7-6
Uniform solution of cellular
structured mobile WiMAX
network coverage
Figure7.1 Coverage of rural area
Cell site information of Case study one
Site ID Site name Site coordinates

Longitude(E) Latitude(N)
1 Burtus 31° 8'9.45"E 30°10'1.33"N

2 Ausim 31° 9'58.57"E 30° 7'3.37"N
3 Mansuirya 31° 2'5.44"E 30° 6'55.66"N

4 Mansuirya 31° 2'5.44"E 30° 6'55.66"N
5 Dhat al kwam 31° 3'29.12"E 30°10'2.06"N
7-7
7.6.2 Case study two
Assume:
 All the region of interest of the map to be covered by mobile WiMAX system is dense urban (DU)
environment
 All the cells are 3 sector cells
 The BS antenna is directional antenna with gain 15 dBi
 The BS antenna height is 30 meters
We calculate the cell radius according to coverage criterion
 The cell area is 7.560722584Km2
Figure7.2 Coverage of dense urban area
7-8
Non uniform solution of cellular
network coverage
Cell site information of Case study one
Site coordinates
Site ID Site name
Longitude(E) Latitude(N)
1 El hegaz 31°20'22.76"E 30° 6'44.69"N
2 El Matarya 31°18'41.07"E 30° 6'44.25"N
3 El Kablat 31°17'9.69"E 30° 6'43.80"N
4 El Hagan 31°15'33.45"E 30° 6'41.24"N
5 Shobra 31°14'24.41"E 30° 5'42.63"N
6 El Oboor 31°16'24.86"E 30° 5'41.00"N
7 Saraya el koba 31°18'8.33"E 30° 5'38.84"N
8 Haroun el Rasheed 31°19'37.88"E 30° 5'44.00"N
9 Almaza airport 31°21'17.15"E 30° 5'46.52"N
10 Kobry el nozha 31°20'21.36"E 30° 4'38.52"N
11 Nafaq el taiaran 31°18'54.85"E 30° 4'38.60"N
12 Sarya el zafaran 31°17'14.43"E 30° 4'37.11"N
13 Ahmed helmy 31°15'11.01"E 30° 4'36.12"N
14 El anteqkhana sq 31°14'9.23"E 30° 3'18.64"N
15 El tarabeshy 31°16'4.81"E 30° 3'25.95"N
16 Extended Ramses 31°17'59.74"E 30° 3'32.69"N
17 El Nahda 31°19'43.77"E 30° 3'33.12"N
18 Mostafa el nahas 31°21'21.19"E 30° 3'31.43"N
7.7 Non uniform solution of cellular structured mobile WiMAX network

coverage
7.7.1 Rural area (RU)
 The cell area is17.87954669Km2
 Number of cells is 6.4577cells
 Assume that the BS height is 40 meters
7-9
Figure7.3 Rural area coverage
7.7.2 Suburban area (SU)
 The cell radius is 2.097296742 Km
 The cell area is11.42803734 Km2
7 - 10
network coverage
Figure7.4 Suburban area coverage
7.7.3 Urban area (UR)
 Covered area is 6.8 Km2
 Number of cells is 1 cell
7 - 11
Figure7.5 Urban area coverage
7.7.4 Dense urban area (DU)
 Covered area is 115.461 Km2
7 - 12
network coverage
Figure7.6 Dense urban area coverage
7 - 13
Chapter 8
Hardware implementation of RF
Field strength meter
8.1 Introduction
Due to Field measurements in Network planning of WIMAX cellular structured system we make
measurements is to correct the propagation model to reflect the propagation status of wireless signal in
the environment of the area of interest, thus making the model more practical meet the coverage
requirement so we use RF field strength meter to do this measurement.
8.2 RF strength meter applications

1. Set up and adjust antennas.
2. Test the operation of remote control for garage door openers and other low-power
transmitters.
3. It is also useful for checking ham and CB antennas and low-power transmitters, in the FM and
AM bands.
4. It will also spot sources of RF and RF interference from devices such as light dimmers,
fluorescents, and switching supplies.
5. It even checks the electronic car “keys” used by many new cars for RF output.
6. It is also useful for checking small transmitters such as cell phones, amateur radio walkie-talkies,
family radio (UHF walkie-talkies), and CB transmitters.
7. It even checks microwave ovens for leakage and can detect an operating microwave oven 10–12
feet away.
8. Reveal the possible RF hazards from these devices as well.
9. It can check wireless computer peripherals such as mice and keyboards, and PCS devices
10. Detects small FM transmitters and other “bugs”.
11. And also detect 900-MHz wireless video cameras ,video transmitters, low-power FM stereo
transmitters and so on.
8.3 RF strength meter specifications

8.3.1 Antenna specification
Small, relatively high-power (1–5 watt) VHF and UHF transceivers are common. The high
operating frequency of these handheld devices allows small antennas of 5–20 cm length to be used. The
8-1
Chapter 8 Hardware implementation of RF Field strength meter
result of this is the generation of an intense RF field in close proximity to the antenna. The antenna may
be as close as a few centimeters from vital body structures, such as the brain or the eyes. This may be
the case when a cell phone or walkie-talkie is held close to your face, as is often done because the
microphone and speakers are integrated into these units. The allowable RF power density that might be
harmful is easily exceeded in such cases.
So in this project we use short (2-foot) adjustable whip antenna is used for pickup, and this
antenna can be removed via a BNC connector.
8.3.2 Frequency range
This system detects signals over a range of 500 kHz to 500 MHz, with usable sensitivity from 100
kHz to 3 GHz. As with any untuned broadband detector, the strongest signal in the area will dominate.
Hidden transmitters can be detected with this device, but their signals must be stronger than any other
signal or a false indication may occur. For optimum performance, two separate active preamplifiers are
used; one for LF and HF (100 kHz to about 30 MHz) and another for 30 MHz or higher VHF and UHF (30
MHz to 3GHz) A front panel switch select which preamplifier is used.
8.3.3 Power supply
Power is supplied from the circuit using two 6- or 9-volt batteries.
8.3.4 Power density
Assume that the antenna of a low-power transmitter in use is located 10 cm (4 inches) from the
body and that 500 milliwatts (mW) is being radiated from the antenna. Consider a sphere of 10-cm
radius around the antenna. The total area of this sphere is equal to
Area 4πr 4 3.14159 125.6 cm (8.1)
Because 500 mW is being radiated, the average power density crossing the surface of this sphere is:
Power Unit area 500 125.6 3.98 mW/cm (8.2)
This is almost four times the 1 mW/ that is thought to be hazardous, and this assumes an
ideal isotropic radiator. (In Australia, a power density level of 0.2 mW/ or more is considered
hazardous.) In practice, there are peaks and valleys in any antenna and ground (composed of the device
PC board and case assembly plus other metal parts), and at distances closer than about 0.159
wavelengths from the antenna, the near-field components must be considered. Note that this equals
1/2π wavelengths and is a mathematical approximation, and no real sharp boundary exists between
near- and far-field regions. Nevertheless, the radiated power still has to cross this spherical surface. In
addition, note that 5-watt VHF and UHF walkie-talkies are common, and antennas are often held closer
than 4 inches from the body. So you can see that it is easily possible to develop power density levels of
more than 1mW/ with any of these devices. The safe exposure limit is not known to any degree of
accuracy. The authors have seen various low-cost devices available to measure power density level.
8-2
Block diagram of RF strength
meter
An X-band (around 10 GHz) waveguide has a cross-sectional area of around 0.33 square inches
or 2.3 square centimeters. A transistor oscillator putting out 10 mW would produce a power density of
4.3 mW/ A 1-watt transmitter would produce 430 mW/ . As anyone who has been on the bench
has learned, 1 watt in a small area (for instance, a transistor with no heat sink, dissipating 1 watt of
power), can get very hot. Someone who would be foolish enough to look straight into this X-band
waveguide carrying 1 watt could definitely fry an eyeball. The moral of the story is obvious: Power
density, not power level, is the culprit.
8.4 Block diagram of RF strength meter
Figure8.1 Block diagram of RF strength meter
8-3
8.5 RF strength meter Circuit diagram
Figure8.2 Schematic of RF Field Strength Meter
8.6 Circuit Operation

8.6.1 Whip antenna
A 2-foot (60-cm), collapsible whip antenna connected to J1 picks up RF signal. This signal can be
anywhere in the 100 kHz to 3 GHz range. Higher-frequency signals (more than 30 MHz) tend to be
opposed by L1 and are coupled to preamplifier Q1 via C1. Lower-frequency signals see C1 as high
impedance in series with the low-input impedance of Q1, and L1 as low impedance. The low-frequency
signals are coupled to the gate of FET Q2 via C9. The gate of Q2 has very high-input impedance (more
than 100K Ωs) to lower-frequency signals, and C9, although small, has a negligible effect.
8-4
Circuit Operation
8.6.2 Preamplifier
8.6.2.1 VHF-UHF preamplifier
Figure8.3 VHF-UHF preamplifier
The VHF-UHF preamplifier consists of Q1 and a few bias resistors. R3, R1, and R2 bias
Q1, a BFR90 UHF bipolar, to about 3 volts and 5 mA collector current. The gain of the bipolar
preamplifier is approximately two to three times voltage gain. FB1 acts as an RF choke, and
signal is coupled to voltage doublers /detector diodes D1 and D2. These are hot carrier diodes
for better sensitivity. R5 provides a slight DC bias for improved sensitivity to low-level signals. C4
is an RF bypass, and the detected signal is taken off via R6 to be amplified by IC2.
8.6.2.2 LF-HF preamplifier
Figure8.4 LF-HF preamplifier
The low-frequency preamplifier is fed from source follower Q2. R22 returns the gate of
Q2 to ground, while R23 provides source bias. C10 couples signal into a feedback pair amplifier
consisting of Q3, Q4, and bias resistors R24, R26, and feedback resistor R25. The overall gain of
the LF preamplifier is about three to five times voltage gain (antenna to detector). C12 couples
RF signal to detector diode D3, which is also a hot carrier diode. Because the preamplifier gain is
higher than the Q1 stage, a voltage doublers configuration is not needed here. D3 is also a hot
carrier diode and is slightly forward biased by R27. Detected signal is taken off through R28.
8-5
Both preamplifiers are fed chopped from timer IC IC1, an ICM7555. This is a CMOS
version of the popular 555 timer IC. R19, R20, and C8 form an RC network to produce a nearly
symmetrical square wave. C7 is a bypass capacitor for noise suppression, and C6 is a bypass
capacitor also for noise suppression. is fed to pins 4 and 8, and chopped appears at pin
3.C3 is a despiking capacitor to reduce fast transients. R4 and C3 control wave shaping to
preamplifier Q1, and R21 and C11 do the same for the lower-frequency preamplifier. The effect
of using a chopped supply for both preamplifiers is to amplitude modulates their RF outputs.
This allows an AC component to appear on the detected signal, which is later amplified rather
than the DC component. The lower limit of delectability is about 5–10 mV at the detector, which
is limited by the presence of chopping noise spikes and the square law effect of the detector at
low levels.
8.6.3 Chopper amplifier
Figure8.5 Chopper amplifier
With the preamplifiers, this allows 2-mV input signal levels to be detected.IC2 is a TLO81 FET op-
amp that performs all of the amplification functions needed in this circuit. It is powered by two supplies:
a positive and a negative battery supply. This simplifies biasing, and battery life is long, approaching
shelf life for the negative battery supply BT2. The positive battery supply BT1 has to carry the
preamplifiers and LED display and must provide 20–30 mA, but for the intermittent nature of the use of
this device, the battery life should be long here also. S2 is the power switch for the battery supply. S1 is
a selector switch that connects one of the detector outputs to the AC amplifier IC2. This op-amp is
biased to 6–9 volts and is set for a gain of between 30 times and 600 times via gain control R7 and
limiting resistor R8.D4, D5, and R10 compensate for the nonlinearity of the rectifier diode D6. Amplifier
8-6
Circuit Operation
output is coupled to D6 via C15. DC output is fed to network R12, C16, and R13, which filter the output
and remove AC components and determine the ballistic characteristics of the “meter” formed by the
LED display.
8.6.4 Power supply
Power is supplied from the circuit using two 6- or 9-volt batteries. A voltage divider or active
splitter using an op-amp would permit only one battery to be used, but it was not really worth the extra
parts because large decoupling capacitors would be needed. Only a few milliamperes of negative supply
are needed, and the battery life will approach shelf life with such a light drain. The positive supply must
handle 20–30 mA. We used two sets of four AA batteries, which are cheap and simple and fit the case
perfectly. Alternately, two 9-volt batteries could also have been used. The circuit operates down to 3.5
volts or so. But In order to test the circuit board, a power supply of ±5 to 9 volts should be used.
8.6.5 Bar graph display
Figure8.6 Bar graph display
The meter acts like an analog mechanical movement. The meter has a full-scale deflection of
around 3 volts. At full gain setting, this allows an RF input signal of 5–10 mV to produce a full-scale
indication. This corresponds to maximum gain setting of R7 (minimum resistance).The meter consists of
IC3 and IC4, a pair of LM3914 LED segment drivers, and two 10-segment LED bar graph assemblies
cascaded to give a 20-segment meter This is sufficient resolution (5 percent full scale) for our purposes.
8-7
Red LEDs were used, but any other color or combinations of colors may be used as long as all LEDs are
driven with the same DC current levels. The use of separate, individual LEDs is permissible. R14 and R15,
with R16 set up the LM3914s for cascaded dot mode operation. Bar graph mode operation could be
used, but battery drain when 20 LEDs are lit (full scale) would approach 200 mA. Dot mode saves battery
drain because only one or two segments at a time are lit. R17 cuts off LED10 when any of the LEDs 11 to
20 are lit and C17 with R18 form a filter network to suppress a tendency for the display to be unstable
because of possible RF oscillation. In addition, R17 limits the maximum possible LED current in case of a
short circuit, avoiding damage to individual segments.
A voltage divider or active splitter using an op-amp would permit only one battery to be used,
but it was not really worth the extra parts because large decoupling capacitors would be needed. Only a
few milliamperes of negative supply are needed, and the battery life will approach shelf life with such a
light drain. The positive supply must handle 20–30 mA. We used two sets of four AA batteries, which are
cheap and simple and fit the case perfectly. Alternately, two 9-volt batteries could also have been used.
The circuit operates down to 3.5 volts or so before beginning A magnifier is helpful to see certain color
codes and small part numbers. Check any dubious items with a VOM to be sure. Low-profile DIP sockets
can be used to facilitate experimentation and replacement of ICs and LED bar graph displays. Sockets are
recommended if you prefer to avoid directly soldering IC chips in the board. The long lead on Q1 is the
collector. When trimming it to length, it is a good idea to cut the end diagonally to distinguish it from the
other leads. The center lead is the emitter, and this lead is soldered directly to the ground plane, with
the lead as short as possible. If you like, you may mount the board in a case with batteries and jacks
before testing; however, if any assembly errors are found, access to the circuit board will be more
difficult.
8.7 Parts Placement of RF Field Strength Meter
Figure8.7 Parts Placement of RF Field Strength Meter Component Side
8-8
PC Board Pattern for Solder Side
of RF Field Strength Meter
Figure8.8 Parts Placement of RF Field Strength Meter Solder Side
8.8 PC Board Pattern for Solder Side of RF Field Strength Meter
Figure8.9 PC Board Pattern for Solder Side of RF Field Strength Meter
8-9
8.9 Test Procedure of RF strength meter

In order to test the circuit board, a power supply of ±5 to 9 volts should be used. Note that this
is actually two separate supplies of the same voltage but with opposite polarity.
Connect the power supplies to the circuit board at the points shown in the parts placement
diagrams. Make sure S2 is in the OFF position when connecting the power supplies. After checking your
wiring, turn on S2. The LED display should flash briefly and return to 0. Rotate R7 fully counter clockwise
(minimum gain).
Check for the following voltages:
 Pin 7 IC2: +5 to +6 volts
 Pin 4 IC2: –5 to –6 volts
 Pin 6 IC2: 0–1 volt
 Pins 4 and 8 IC1: +5 to +6 volts
 Pin 3 IC1: +2.2 to +3.0 volts
 Collector Q1: +1.1 to +1.7 volts
 Base Q1: +0.3 to +0.4 volt
 Drain Q2: +1.3 to +1.8 volts
 Source Q2: +0.7 to +1.3 volts
 Collector Q4: +1.3 to +1.8 volts
 Base Q3: +0.3 to +0.4 volt
 Emitter Q4: +0.35 to +0.5 volt
 Pins 6, 7 of IC4: +1.2 to +1.5 volts
 Pin 4 IC4: +0.6 to +0.8 volt
 Pin 6 IC3: +0.6 to +0.8 volt
 Pin 7 IC3: +1.25 volts
 Pin 3 IC3: +4.5 to +5.7 volts
Note that this test was made with 5–6 volts. You may later use a 9-volt battery supply for both
batteries if desired, but the meter should work with somewhat less than 5 volts, to allow for gradual
battery exhaustion.
8 - 10
RF Strength Meter parts List
8.10 RF Strength Meter parts List

Component Item name VALUE Quantity
Integrated IC1 ICM7555 1
Circuits IC2 TLO81N 1
IC3,IC4 LM3914N 2
Transistors Q1 BFR90 1
Q2 MPf107 1
Q3 2N3565 1
Q4 2N3565 1
Diodes D1 through D3 3
HP 5082-2800 or 5082-2835
D4 through D6 3
1N914B or 1N4148
Capacitors C1, C12 10 pf NPO 2
C2, C9 4.7 pf NPO 2
C3, C11 .1 Mylar 50V 2
C4 47 pf NPO 1
C7, C10, C14 .01 μf 50V ceramic 3
C13 .022 μf Mylar 50V 1
C15,C6 1 μf 35V elec 2
C16, C17 10 μf 16V elec 2
C5 Not used 1
C8 .001 Mylar 1
Resistors 1/4W R1, R25 6.8 KΩ 2
5% R2 3.3 KΩ 1
R3, R4, R21 470 Ω 3
R5, R9, R27 3.3 MΩ 3
R6, R28 22 KΩ 2
R7 PT10 pot 100 KΩ 1
R8 4.7 KΩ 1
R10, R12, R17 10 KΩ 3
R11, R20, R22 1 MΩ 3
R14, R15 1 KΩ 2
R16 1.2 KΩ 1
R18 33 Ω 1
R19 100 KΩ 1
R23, R24 2.2 KΩ 2
R26 330 Ω 1
R13 33 KΩ 1
Miscellaneous Ferrite bead (FB) 1
S1, S2 DPDT slide switch 2
J1 BNC Jack-or other 1
L1 4 T #22 Bare wire 1/4 inch dia 1
BT1, BT2 6 to 9 volts 2
Table8.1 RF Strength meter parts list
8 - 11
8.11 Packaging of RF field strength meter

It is recommended to package the meter in a plastic or metal case. Use a 1:1 size layout of the
PC board to locate the holes for the display and the switches and R7. A BNC jack can be mounted on top
of the meter to use as an antenna connection. A 2-foot, collapsible whip antenna is recommended, and
this should be fitted with a BNC connector to mate with J1. A suitable antenna can be purchased from
the source shown at the end of this chapter. A case and a complete kit of parts and a drilled and etched
board are also available from the same source. Packaging is not critical, and you can do this to suit your
own preferences. Battery supplies (6–9 volt) are required, and you can use AA, AAA, or 9-volt alkaline
types with suitable holders. The battery holders can be mounted inside the case, in the rear half, with
the circuit board mounted as shown to the front half of the case. Three wires are needed from the
battery pack to the circuit board, and a lead from the antenna jack J1 should run to the preamplifier
inputs. A short length of coaxial cable is used to connect the VHF-UHF preamplifier directly to J1, and a
length of #20 wire is used to both form L1 (not critical) and connect to the LF-HF preamplifier input as
shown in the figures. If a plastic case is used, this wire will form an adequate UHF pickup antenna for
400–3000 MHz A metal case will shield this pickup, so an external antenna will be needed at J1. If you
prefer, a plastic filter can be used over the LED display (use red for red LEDs, or a matching color for
other LEDs you may use, for best visibility). We did not use a filter because none was found necessary
Figure8.10 Packaging of RF field strength meter
8 - 12
Packaging of RF field strength
meter
Figure8.11 Photo of Completed RF Field Strength Meter with Matching Antenna
Figure8.12 Photo of inside Completed RF Field Strength Meter Showing Battery Pack
8 - 13
8.12 Conclusions
Among the newer RF devices on the consumer market are a wide variety of low power
transmitters. These include more application.
The meter in this project uses an active antenna preamplifier and Schottky barrier diodes for
improved sensitivity. A chopper system converts the detected signal to a 700-Hz AC signal. This is
amplified with a high-gain op-amp AC amplifier (up to 600 times), and the AC signal is rectified and used
to drive a 20-segment LED bar graph display in the dot mode for reduced battery drain. Diodes in the
feedback loop compensate for rectifier nonlinearity. This system detects signals as low as –40 dBm (2.2
mV into 50 ohms) over a range of 500 kHz to 500 MHz, with usable sensitivity from 100 kHz to 3 GHz. As
with any untuned broadband detector, the strongest signal in the area will dominate. Hidden
transmitters can be detected with this device, but their signals must be stronger than any other signal or
a false indication may occur. For optimum performance, two separate active preamplifiers are used, one
for LF and HF (100 kHz to about 30 MHz) and another for 30 MHz or higher. A front panel switch selects
which preamplifier is used. A gain control allows optimum adjustment of sensitivity.
8 - 14
Chapter 9
Mobility Management in WiMAX
9.1 Introduction
The IEEE 802.16 standard, the Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX), is a
broadband wireless technology that offers all packet-switched services for fixed, nomadic, portable, and
mobile accesses. The first specification (i.e., IEEE 802.16-2004) that was ratified by IEEE in 2004 targets
fixed and nomadic accesses in line-of-sight (LOS) and non-line-of-sight (NLOS) environment. With the
amendment of IEEE 802.16e-2005, IEEE 802.16e, also called Mobile WiMAX, further provides handover,
sleep mode, idle mode, robust security, and roaming functions for mobiles. Similar to other IEEE 802
standards, IEEE 802.16 only specifies media access control (MAC) and physical (PHY) layer functions and
lacks networking support. To address the demands for establishing an interoperable WiMAX network,
the WiMAX Forum was formed to promote WiMAX and certify WiMAX products, and also proposed an
end-to-end network architecture and service operations for WiMAX and Mobile WiMAX. With these
efforts from IEEE 802.16 and other organizations, WiMAX and Mobile WiMAX are not only PHY and MAC
layer technologies, but also a complete network solution for a broadband wireless access system
beyond third generation (3G).
Mobility management is one of the essential functions for a mobile network. In Mobile WiMAX,
mobility management schemes that handle link and network layer handover have been jointly
developed by IEEE 802.16e and the Network Working Group (NWG) of the WiMAX Forum. This chapter
provides an overview of mobility management in a Mobile WiMAX network.
Based on the network architecture, location management of a mobile station (MS) in idle mode,
link layer mobility management (also called access service network [ASN]- anchored mobility
management), and network layer mobility management (i.e., connectivity service network [CSN]-
anchored mobility management) are presented. Finally, mobility management in Mobile WiMAX is
summarized.
9.2 Channel acquisition

The MAC protocol includes an initialization procedure designed to eliminate the need for
manual configuration. In other words, the subscriber takes the SS out of the box, plugs in power and
Ethernet, and connects almost immediately to the network. The following paragraphs describe how that
is possible without laborious user setup or service provider truck roll.
Upon installation, the SS begins scanning its frequency list to find an operating channel. It may
be preconfigured by the service provider to register with a specified BS. This feature is useful in dense
9-1
Chapter 9 Mobility Management in WiMAX
deployments where the SS might hear a secondary BS due to spurious signals or when the SS picks up a
sidelobe of a nearby BS antenna. Moreover, this feature will help service providers avoid expensive
installations and subsequent truck rolls.
After selecting a channel or channel pair, the SS synchronizes to the DL transmission from the BS
by detecting the periodic frame preambles. Once the PHY is synchronized, the SS will look for the
periodically broadcasted DCD and UCD messages that enable the SS to determine the modulation and
FEC schemes used on the BS’s carrier.
9.3 Initial Ranging and Negotiation of SS Capabilities

Once the parameters for initial ranging transmissions are established, the SS will scan the UL-
MAP messages present in every frame for ranging information. The SS uses a backoff algorithm to
determine which initial ranging slot it will use to send a ranging request (RNG-REQ) message. The SS will
then send its burst using the minimum power setting and will repeat with increasingly higher
transmission power until it receives a ranging response. Based on the arrival time of the initial RNG-REQ
and the measured power of the signal, the BS adjusts the timing advance and power to the SS with the
ranging response (RNG-RSP). The response provides the SS with the basic and primary management
CIDs. Once the timing advance of the SS transmissions has been correctly determined, the ranging
procedure for fine-tuning the power is done via a series of invited transmissions. WiMAX transmissions
are made using the most robust burst profile.
To save bandwidth, the SS next reports its PHY capabilities, including which modulation and
coding schemes it supports and whether, in an FDD system, it is half-duplex or full duplex. The BS, in its
response, can deny the use of any capability reported by the SS. It should be noted here how complex
this setup procedure is. The purpose thus far is to ensure a high quality connection between the SS and
the BS.
Figure9.1 Channel Acquisition, Ranging, and Negotiation of Subscriber Station Capabilities
9-2
Authentication and Registration
9.4 Authentication and Registration

Wi-Fi has been dogged with a reputation for lax security. Perhaps the best “horror story” deals
with a computer retailer who installed a wireless LAN. A customer purchased a Wi-Fi equipped laptop
and, anxious to enjoy it, powered it up in the parking lot of the retailer.
The new laptop owner was immediately able to tap into the retailer’s Wi-Fi network and was
able to capture some customer credit card information. Fortunately, the new laptop owner was a
journalist, not a con artist. The story, much to the chagrin of the national retailer and the Wi-Fi industry,
made the national news. The Wi-Fi industry has had to work hard to shake the reputation of having
loose security measures. A similar story will not easily, if ever, occur with WiMAX.
Each SS contains both a manufacturer-issued factory-installed X.509 digital certificate and the
certificate of the manufacturer. The SS in the Authorization Request and Authentication Information
messages sends these certificates, which set up the link between the 48-bit MAC address of the SS and
its public RSA key, to the BS. The network is able to verify the identity of the SS by checking the
certificates and can subsequently check the level of authorization of the SS. If the SS is authorized to join
the network, the BS will respond to its request with an authorization reply containing an authorization
key (AK) encrypted with the SS’s public key and used to secure further transactions.
Upon successful authorization, the SS will register with the network. This will establish the
secondary management connection of the SS and determine capabilities related to connection setup
and MAC operation. The version of IP used on the secondary management connection is also
determined during registration.
9.5 IP Connectivity
After registration, the SS attains an IP address via DHCP and establishes the time of day via the
Internet Time Protocol. The DHCP server also provides the address of the TFTP server from which the SS
can request a configuration file. This file provides a standard interface for providing vendor-specific
configuration information.
Figure9.2 Subscriber Station Authentication, Registration and IP connectivity
9-3
9.6 Idle mode management.

While an MS does not have any connection for a period, an MS might want to turn off its
WiMAX interface to save power and switches to idle mode. Similar to other mobile communication
systems, Mobile WiMAX also defines its own idle-mode operations and a paging network architecture.
Four logical entities for idle-mode and paging operations are defined in a Mobile WiMAX network. First,
a paging controller (PC) is associated with a paging group (PG) which comprises one or several paging
agents (PAs) in the same NAP. The major task of a PC is to administer the activities of all idle-mode MSs
situated in the PG managed by the PC. A PC can function as an anchor PC, which is in charge of the
paging and idle-mode management, or a relay PC, which only forwards paging-related messages
between PAs and an anchor PC. A PC could either collocate with a PA (i.e., a PC is implemented on a BS)
or a PC can be implemented on a network node such as an ASN-GW and uses the R6 interface to
communicate with its PAs. PAs which are normally implemented on BSs interact with the PC to perform
paging functions. Finally, a PC can access a distributed database, called a location register (LR), which
contains information such as paging parameters for idle-mode MSs. When an MS decides to switch to
the idle mode, it first sends a deregistration message (DREG-REQ) to the ASN-GW. The serving BS/PA
and ASN-GW/PC release resources such as the data path occupied by the MS and update the
information of the MS to the LR. Meanwhile, the PA and PC negotiate, configure, and inform the paging
parameters, such as paging cycle, paging offset, paging interval length, anchor PC identifier, and paging
group identifier for the MS. Based on the paging cycle (PAGING CYCLE), paging offset (PAGING OFFSET),
and paging interval length, the MS derives the BS paging listening interval. A BS paging listening interval
begins from the PAGING OFFSET frame in every paging cycle and each paging listening interval lasts for
the paging interval length. The MS has to stay awake during the entire BS paging listening interval in
order to receive BS broadcasting paging messages (MOV PAG-ADV). An MS performs a location update
(LU) based on four LU evaluation conditions (i.e., paging group update, timer update, power-down
update, and MAC hash skip threshold update). The paging group update is activated when an MS
detects a change in the paging group. The timer update is a periodic LU, and an MS performs an LU
when the idle-mode timer expires. When an MS turns off or the MS MAC hash skip counter exceeds the
MAC hash skip threshold, the MS also has to perform LUs. After a BS receives LU messages, the BS/PA
updates the MS information to the PC/LR. While receiving an incoming packet sent to an idle MS, the
ASN-GW/FA first obtains information of the MS from the LR and informs the PC to page the MS. Then
the PC generates a paging announcement message and sends it to the relay PC or PA. Based on the
paging parameters of the MS, PAs/BSs send BS broadcasting paging messages (MOV PAG-ADV) to the
MS. Once an MS is paged, the MS exits idle mode, performs ranging with the serving BS, and completes
network (re)entry procedures.
9.7 Call procedure.

The IEEE 802.16 standard simply addresses the air interface specification between BS and SS,
the WiMAX Forum defines an end-to-end WiMAX network architecture, based on an all-IP platform.
9-4
Call procedure.
9.7.1 VoIP
The emergence of VoIP raises a wide range of possibilities. By virtue of transporting voice over a
data stream, VoIP frees the voice stream from the confines of a voice-specific network and its associated
platforms. VoIP can be received and transmitted via PCs, laptops, IP, and Wi-Fi handsets. Where there is
IP, there can be VoIP.
Here we explain how VoIP call is done .thus we need to identify what is called the SIP.
9.7.2 Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)
is a signaling protocol, widely used for setting up and tearing down multimedia communication
sessions such as voice and video calls over Internet Protocol (IP). Other feasible application examples
include video conferencing, streaming multimedia distribution, instant messaging, presence information
and online games. The protocol can be used for creating, modifying and terminating two-party (unicast)
or multiparty (multicast) sessions consisting of one or several media streams. The modification can
involve changing addresses or ports, inviting more participants, adding or deleting media streams, etc.
9.7.3 SIP network elements
A SIP user agent (UA) is a logical network end-point used to create or receive SIP messages and
thereby manage a SIP session. A SIP UA can perform the role of a User Agent Client (UAC), which sends
SIP requests, and the User Agent Server (UAS), which receives the requests and returns a SIP response.
These roles of UAC and UAS only last for the duration of a SIP transaction.
A SIP phone is a hardware-based or software-based SIP user agent, that provides call functions
such as dial, answer, reject, hold/unhold, and call transfer. Examples
include softphones like Ekiga, KPhone, Twinkle, Windows Live Messenger, X-Lite, and hardware
phones from vendors like Avaya, Cisco, Leadtek, Polycom, Snom, and Nokia.
Each resource of a SIP network, such as a User Agent or a voicemail box, is identified by a
Uniform Resource Identifier (URI), based on the general standard syntax also used in Web services and
e-mail. A typical SIP URI is of the form: sip:username:password@host:port. The URI scheme used for SIP
is sip:. If secure transmission is required, the scheme sips: is used and SIP messages must be transported
over Transport Layer Security (TLS).
In SIP, as in HTTP, the User Agent may identify itself using a message header field 'User-Agent',
containing a text description of the software/hardware/product involved. The User-Agent field is sent in
request messages, which means that the receiving SIP server can see this information. SIP network
elements sometimes store this information[8], and it can be useful in diagnosing SIP compatibility
problems.
9-5
SIP also defines server network elements. Although two SIP endpoints can communicate
without any intervening SIP infrastructure, which is why the protocol is described as peer-to-peer, this
approach is often impractical for a public service.
RFC 3261 defines these server elements:
A proxy server "is an intermediary entity that acts as both a server and a client for the purpose
of making requests on behalf of other clients. A proxy server primarily plays the role of routing, which
means its job is to ensure that a request is sent to another entity "closer" to the targeted user. Proxies
are also useful for enforcing policy (for example, making sure a user is allowed to make a call). A proxy
interprets, and, if necessary, rewrites specific parts of a request message before forwarding it."
"A registrar is a server that accepts REGISTER requests and places the information it receives in
those requests into the location service for the domain it handles."
"A redirect server is a user agent server that generates 3xx responses to requests it receives,
directing the client to contact an alternate set of URIs. The redirect server allows SIP Proxy Servers to
direct SIP session invitations to external domains."
The RFC specifies: "It is an important concept that the distinction between types of SIP servers is
logical, not physical."
Other SIP related network elements are:
Session border controllers (SBC), they serve as "man in the middle" between UA and SIP server,
see the article SBC for a detailed description.
Various types of gateways at the edge between a SIP network and other networks (as a phone network)
Figure9.3 SIP Establishment of a peer to peer Call
9-6
Call procedure.
SIP Messages
SIP is a text-based protocol with syntax similar to that of HTTP. There are two different types of
SIP messages: requests and responses. The first line of a request has a method, defining the nature of
the request, and a Request-URI, indicating where the request should be sent. The first line of a response
has a response code.
For SIP requests, RFC 3261 defines the following methods:
 REGISTER: Used by a UA to notify its current IP address and the URLs for which it would like to
receive calls.
 INVITE: Used to establish a media session between user agents.
 ACK: Confirms reliable message exchanges.
 CANCEL: Terminates a pending request.
 BYE: Terminates a session between two users in a conference.
 OPTIONS: Requests information about the capabilities of a caller, without setting up a call.
The SIP response types defined in RFC 3261 fall in one of the following categories:
 Provisional (1xx): Request received and being processed.
 Success (2xx): The action was successfully received, understood, and accepted.
 Redirection (3xx): Further action needs to be taken (typically by sender) to complete the
request.
 Client Error (4xx): The request contains bad syntax or cannot be fulfilled at the server.
 Server Error (5xx): The server failed to fulfil an apparently valid request.
 Global Failure (6xx): The request cannot be fulfilled at any server.
9.7.4 SIP in WiMAX
A specific Connectivity Service Controller (CSC) is located in each NRM entity (MS, ASN and CSN)
in order to coordinate and to process the QoS signaling, and to perform the resource reservation in the
related segment.
SIP Proxy handles SIP signaling, intercepts Session Description Protocol (SDP) messages and
interacts with the CSC_ASN to request resource reservation for SIP applications.
AAA (Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting) Server provides functionalities for user
authentication and QoS authorization, interacting with the SIP Proxy and the CSC_ASN.
9-7
SIP signaling is initiated by a standard SIP User Agent (UA) on the MS and is intercepted and
processed by the Application Function (AF) of the SIP Proxy located in the CSN.
9.8 Radio Link Control (RLC)

RLC runs simultaneously to channel acquisition and service flow to maintain a steady link. The
WiMAX PHY requires equally advanced RLC, particularly the capability of the PHY to transition from one
burst profile to another. The RLC controls this capability as well as the traditional RLC functions of power
control and ranging.
RLC begins with periodic BS broadcast of the burst profiles that have been chosen for the UP
and DL. The particular burst profiles used on a channel are chosen based on a number of factors, such as
rain region and equipment capabilities. Burst profiles for the DL are each tagged with a Downlink
Interval Usage Code (DIUC). Those for the UL are each tagged with an UIUC.
During initial access, the SS performs initial power leveling and ranging using RNG-REQ messages
transmitted in initial maintenance windows. Adjustments to the SS’s transmit time advance and power
adjustments are returned to the SS in RNG-RSP messages.
For ongoing ranging and power adjustments, the BS may transmit unsolicited RNG-RSP
messages commanding the SS to adjust its power or timing.
During initial ranging, the SS also requests to be served in the DL via a particular burst profile by
transmitting its choice of DIUC to the BS. The SS performs the choice before and during initial ranging
based on received DL signal quality measurements. The BS may confirm or reject the choice in the RNG-
RSP. Similarly, the BS monitors the quality of the UL signal it receives from the SS. The BS commands the
SS to use a particular UL burst profile simply by including the appropriate burst profile UIUC with the
SS’s grants in UL-MAP messages.
After initially determining UP and DL burst profiles between the BS and a particular SS, RLC
continues to monitor and control the burst profiles. Harsher environmental conditions, such as rain
fades, can force the SS to request a more robust burst profile. Alternatively, exceptionally good weather
may allow an SS to temporarily operate with a more efficient burst profile. The RLC continues to adapt
the SS’s current UL and DL burst profiles, always striving to achieve a balance between robustness and
efficiency.
As the BS controls and directly monitors the UL signal quality, the protocol for changing the UL
burst profile for an SS is simple: the BS specifies the profile’s UIUC whenever granting the SS bandwidth
in a frame. This eliminates the need for an acknowledgment, as the SS will always receive both the UIUC
and the grant or neither. This negates the possibility of UL burst profile mismatch between the BS and
SS.
In the DL, the SS monitors the quality of the receive signal and knows when to change its DL
burst profile. The BS still has ultimate control of the change. The SS has two available methods to
9-8
Radio Link Control (RLC)
request a change in DL burst profile, depending on whether the SS operates in the grant per connection
(GPC) or grant per SS (GPSS) mode .The first method would apply (based on the discretion of the BS
scheduling algorithm) only to GPC SSs. In this case, the BS may periodically allocate a station
maintenance interval to the SS. The SS can use the RNG-REQ message to request a change in DL burst
profile. The preferred method is for the SS to transmit a DL burst profile change request (DBPC-REQ). In
this case, which is always an option for GPSS SSs and can be an option for GPC SSs, the BS responds with
a DBPC-RSP message confirming or denying the change. Because messages may be lost due to
irrecoverable bit errors, the protocols for changing an SS’s DL burst profile must be carefully structured.
The order of the burst profile change actions is different when transitioning to a more robust burst
profile than when transitioning to a less robust one. The standard takes advantage of the fact that an SS
is always required to listen to more robust portions of the DL as well as the profile that was negotiated.
Figure9.4 Radio Link Control
9-9
9.9 Hand over

The handover in WiMAX can be a hard handover, a hard handover with fast base station
switching (FBSS) support, or a microdiversity handover (MDHO).
9.9.1 Hard Handover
During hard handover the MS communicates with only just one BS in each time. Connection
with the old BS is broken before the new connection is established. Handover is executed after the
signal strength from neighbor’s cell is exceeding the signal strength from the current cell. This situation
is shown in the figure. Red thick line at the boarder of the cells presents the place where the hard
handover is realized.
Figure9.5 Hard Handover realization
9 - 10
Hand over
9.9.2 Macro Diversity Handover
When MDHO is supported by MS and by BS, the “Diversity Set” is maintained by MS and BS.
Diversity set is a list of the BS’s, which are involved in the handover procedure. Diversity set is defined
for each of MS’s in network. MS communicates with all BS’s in the diversity set (see the figure). For
downlink in MDHO, two or more BS’s transmit data to MS such that diversity combining can be
performed at the MS. For uplink in MDHO, MS transmission is received by multiple BS’s where selection
diversity of the received information is performed. The BS, which can receive communication among
MS’s and other BS’s, but the level of signal strength is not sufficient is noted as “Neighbor BS”.
Figure9.6 Macro Diversity Handover
9.9.3 Fast Base Station Switching
In FBSS, the MS and BS diversity set is maintained similar as in MDHO. MS continuously monitors
the base stations in the diversity set and defines an “Anchor BS”. Anchor BS is only one base station of
9 - 11
the diversity set that MS communicates with for all uplink and downlink traffic including management
messages (see the figure). This is the BS where MS is registered, synchronized, performs ranging and
there is monitored downlink channel for control information. The anchor BS can be changed from frame
to frame depending on BS selection scheme. This means every frame can be sent via different BS in
diversity set.
Figure9.7 Fast Base Station Switching
Handover in a Mobile WiMAX network can be further classified into ASN-anchored and CSN-anchored
handover.
ASN-anchored handover, also called micromobility, implies that an MS moves from one BS and another
BS without a need to update its care-of address (CoA).
CSN-anchored handover, on the other hand, defines macro mobility, which involves MSs to change its
serving ASN-GW/FA and their CoAs. CSN-anchored handover facilitates network-layer mobility in both
IPv4 and IPv6 networks.
9.10 Simulation
Here we simulate the previous concepts by animation
First we have a welcome page where we can choose the simulation type
9 - 12
Simulation
Figure 9.8 Welcome page
An example for simulation:
If we choose the “HO” simulation the following window will appear:
Figure 9.9 First view of HO simulation
9 - 13
Using the controls to go to the next and the previous step .also to back to the welcome page, go to the
next procedure and control the time line(play, pause and stop)
Figure 9.10 the first step in HO procedure
Figure 9.11 the last step in HO procedure:
Also we can choose “one scenario” from the welcome page to play all procedures for a MS in the order
each one.
9 - 14
Chapter 10
Conclusions and suggestions
for future work
10.1 Introductions
In this project we studies the "mobile WiMAX" that is based on IEEE 802.16e and target mobile and
nomadic subscribers in wireless metropolitan area (WMAN) and studied the effect of the main
parameters on its performance and coverage.
10.2 Conclusions
The fixed version of the WiMAX standard, 802.16-2004, addresses a particular market need, that
being the availability of a low-cost, standards-based solution that can provide basic voice and broadband
access in regions of the world where the economics of a fixed wire line service do not make sense.
Additionally, the fixed standard can help drive the proliferation of Wi-Fi access points while at the same
time reducing operating [backhaul] costs and improving the user experience through higher data rates.
While these market opportunities are readily available and worth pursuing, much of the industry
focus is on the portable/mobile standard, 802.16e, and its potential to offer mobile broadband wireless
service. At this juncture, there is still a large amount of work remaining to be done before the .16e
standard is commercially ready and before operators can seriously consider utilizing the technology. To
the extent that WiBro can be considered within the WiMAX family [it arguably is], South Korea could
have the first network available in early 2006, although the availability of end-user devices is a major
uncertainty. In that regard, it is important to recognize that even after the portable/mobile standard is
ratified, there remains much work to be done as chipsets, followed by base stations and CPEs, still need
to be developed, the network architecture still needs to be defined, security issues need to be
addressed, and the technology still needs to be proven in a field trial. After successful field trials by the
equipment providers, the technology will then be ready for extensive operator trials which could then
lead to broader-scale commercial deployments. It goes without saying that operator trials don't always
lead to commercial rollouts.
The jump to full mobility is still a bit tenuous, even after the .16e standard is ratified. In all
probability it will take far longer than currently predicted for the technology to be commercially and
economically feasible - the timing depends to a large degree on the final complexity of the network
architecture. In the absence of compelling content and services, consumers who already utilize 3G and
Wi-Fi services will be hard pressed to abandon their cellular service provider and adopt WiMAX. Those
10 - 1
that do adopt WiMAX as a broadband data pipe will likely continue using their cellular service provider,
which at best indicates that WiMAX complements 3G while trying to compete with already inexpensive
Wi-Fi services. To some extent, WiMAX wi also have to compete with the 3G/Wi-Fi combination in order
to find room in next-generation notebook computers. Those non-traditional operators that currently
lack a mobile offering are the most likely candidates to use the portable/mobile capabilities of WiMAX.
However, they will still be challenged by the requisite need for WiMAX-enabled user equipment and in
some instances by their lack of suitable spectrum. Further, these operators will be challenged by the
technical hurdles that are inherent in deploying any new wireless technology and by the economic
challenges associated with offering a service that must attract interest from consumers that are already
familiar with the 3G/Wi-Fi combo of services. Ultimately, the technical challenges can be addressed and
the market opportunity for a portable/mobile WiMAX service can then begin to develop. WiMAX
success in the market, given its high dependence upon the need for successful operator-driven business
models, is a bit more suspect and could in the end prove to be the single biggest detriment.
In this project we studied the coverage prediction and performance evaluation of WiMAX.
The following parameters were discussed:
1. The effect of different channel bandwidth.
2. The effect of licensed and license-exempted operating frequency bands.
3. The impact of the type of adaptive modulation and coding schemes.
4. The effect of BTS antenna height.
5. The effect of using sub-channelization.
6. The effect of different terrains
We conclude that:
 As the channel bandwidth increases the coverage radius decreases since the channel bandwidth
increases, the effective channel bandwidth increases, the receiver sensitivity increases i.e. it
degrades.
 Without sub-channelization, the links are unbalanced. The reverse link coverage radius is always
smaller than the forward link coverage radius. With sub-channelization, the reverse link
coverage radius is increased thus mitigates link unbalance but at the expense of reduction of the
data rate that can be achieved.
 In license-exempt frequency band, coverage radius is degraded due to higher frequency (5.8
GHz) and larger channel bandwidth while license frequency band (3.5 GHz) provides better
coverage radius due to narrower channel bandwidth.
10 - 2
Suggestions for future work
 As the BTS antenna height increases the coverage radius increases in all scenarios. The highest
data rate is achieved for 64-QAM and coding schemes but provides the worst coverage radius.
The lowest data rate is achieved for BPSK and coding schemes but provides wider coverage
radius.
 The coverage cell radius in Erceg A model is the largest while is lower in Erceg B. The lowest
coverage cell radius is Erceg C due to terrain as obstacles.
10.3 Suggestions for future work

10.3.1 WiMAX future
IEEE 802.16d(fixed WiMAX) and IEEE 802.16e(mobile WiMAX) available in USA, UK, Spain,
France, Germany, South Korea and many countries. But the expectable to implement in the next years is
IEEE 802.16m which will achieve the IMT-Advanced 2000.
10.3.1.1 IMT-2000 & IMT-Advanced
IMT-Advanced, also known as “systems beyond IMT-2000” is expected to offer constant

higher data rates with high mobility to assure likely growing need for mobile WiMAX services
that goes beyond what IMT-2000 can afford to provide. IMT- Advanced is awaiting technology
that will require 3 to 5 years in the future with target maximum data rates, for research and
examination, of up to 100 Mbits/sec in high mobility applications and up to 1 Gbit/sec in low
mobility or nomadic applications. The capacity expected by IMT-Advanced is often referred to as
4G. It is commonly acknowledged that Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA)
technology will be integrated in IMT-Advanced in near future to get more the maximum benefits
from the WiMAX.
IMT-Advanced is a continuing effort. The full criteria, being extended within ITU-R
Working Party 8F, are not expected until 2008. The specification of IMT-Advanced technologies
will probably not be completed until at least 2010. In preparation for IMT-Advanced, the IEEE
802.16 Working Group has moved to initiate a new project designated as “802.16m” with the
intent of developing enhancements to IEEE STD 802.16 to ensure suitability as an IMT-Advanced
proposal.
Figure 10.1 IMT-2000 & IMT-Advanced
10 - 3
10.3.1.2 IEEE 802.16m goals
 Increase system capacity
 Coverage improvement (at cell edge)
 Reduce MAC overhead
 Mobile client power efficiency
 Enhance mobility
 Improve Quality of Service
 Meet IMT-Advance Standard requirements (not yet defined)
 It will also be 4G compatible with the future wireless networks offering much higher
speeds.
10.3.1.3 802.16m specifications.
 Amendment for advanced air interface.
 Looking to the future.
 It is anticipated that it will provide:
 Data rates of 100 Mbps for mobile applications and 1 Gbps for fixed
applications.
 Cellular, macro and micro cell coverage.
 16m and 16e shall be able to operate on the same RF carrier, with the
same/different channel bandwidth
 Operating frequencies: less than 6 GHz
 Operating bandwidths: 5 to 20 MHz and more.
 Duplex schemes: TDD and FDD, HFDD
 Modulation (OFDMA - downlink and uplink), support smart antennas
10.3.1.4 IEEE 802.16m & LTE
LTE stands for long term evolution.
10 - 4
Suggestions for future work
LTE is a set of enhancements to the Universal Mobile Telecommunications System

(UMTS) which will be introduced in 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) Release 8 in
March 2009.
Much of 3GPP Release 8 will focus on adopting 4G mobile communications technology.
 Both LTE and IEEE 802.16m are all IP networks based on OFDM technology.
 Both support FDD and TDD.
 Both support higher order MIMO antenna solutions.
 In contrast to the forthcoming first generation LTE
 there have already been two releases of WiMAX profiles:
 the IEEE 802.16d fixed WiMAX standard released in 2004
 the IEEE 802.16e mobile WiMAX standard released in 2005
Both of those standards have been implemented and there are compliant networks and
devices/ products available.
 As for speeds, LTE will be faster than the current generation of WiMax, but 802.16m
that should be ratified in 2009 is fairly similar in speeds.
 New spectrum required for either LTE or WiMAX to support wider channel BW Multi-
Band/Multi-Mode subscriber devices required in either case for internetwork
connectivity and global roaming
Figure 10.2 3GPP & Mobile WiMAX Timeline
10 - 5
10.3.2 Mobility management suggestions
Ability to make the user to put the MS in any part and the program can detect the appropriate action
and execute it.
10.3.3 Hardware suggestions
 Improving sensitivity of circuit by replacing some components by other has a low tolerance and
adding some circuits to decrease noise.
 Design a selectivity system to select a certain band of frequency by adding band pass filter.
 Changing display by LCD to add some features and information.
10 - 6
References
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R1- 03-1370, November 2003.
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‫ﻳﺼﻒ اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻷول أﺳﺎس ﻣﻌﺎﻳﻴﺮ ﺗﻘﻨﻴﺔ واي ﻣﺎآﺲ ‪ ،‬و ﺷﻜﻞ اﻟﺸﺒﻜﺎت اﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ‪ ،‬وﺑﻨﻴﺔ اﻟﻨﻈﺎم ‪ ،‬و ﻣﻮاﺻﻔﺎت اﻟﻨﻈﺎم واﻟﺠﻮاﻧﺐ‬
‫اﻟﺮﺋﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﻟﻬﺬﻩ اﻟﺘﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ‪.‬وﻳﻌﺮض اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻟﺜﺎﻧﻲ أﺳﺎﺳﻴﺎت ‪ .OFDM‬وﻳﺒﻴﻦ اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻟﺜﺎﻟﺚ اﻟﻔﺮوق اﻟﺮﺋﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ اﻟﻮاي ﻣﺎآﺲ‬
‫اﻟﻤﺘﻨﻘﻞ وﻏﻴﺮهﺎ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺘﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎت ذات اﻟﻨﻄﺎق اﻟﻌﺮﻳﺾ‪ .‬اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻟﺮاﺑﻊ ﻳﺸﺮح آﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﺗﻐﻄﻴﺔ اﻟﻮاي ﻣﺎآﺲ اﻟﻤﺘﻨﻘﻞ‪ .‬وﻳﻨﺎﻗﺶ اﻟﻔﺼﻞ‬
‫اﻟﺨﺎﻣﺲ ﻣﻌﺎﻳﻴﺮ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻣﻤﺎ ﻳﺆﺛﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻐﻄﻴﺔ اﻟﻮاي ﻣﺎآﺲ اﻟﻤﺘﻨﻘﻞ واﻟﻨﻮاﺗﺞ اﻟﻌﺪدﻳﺔ‪ .‬وﻳﻨﺎﻗﺶ اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻟﺴﺎدس ﻣﻌﺎﻳﻴﺮ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻣﻤﺎ‬
‫ﻳﺆﺛﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷداء ﻓﻲ واي ﻣﺎآﺲ اﻟﻤﺘﻨﻘﻞ واﻟﻨﻮاﺗﺞ اﻟﻌﺪدﻳﺔ‪ .‬وﻳﻌﺮض اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻟﺴﺎﺑﻊ ﺣﻞ ﻣﻮﺣﺪ ﻟﻠﺘﺨﻄﻴﻂ ﻟﺸﺒﻜﺔ اﻟﻮاي ﻣﺎآﺲ‬
‫اﻟﻤﺤﻤﻮل‪ .‬وﻳﺘﻀﻤﻦ اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻟﺜﺎﻣﻦ ﻋﺮض ﺟﻬﺎز ﻟﺤﺴﺎب ﻗﻮة اﻻﺷﺎرة ﻻﺳﻠﻜﻴﺎ‪ .‬وﻳﻨﺎﻗﺶ اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻟﺘﺎﺳﻊ ﻳﻨﺎﻗﺶ اﻟﻤﻬﺎم اﻟﻤﻤﻜﻨﻪ‬
‫ﻟﺘﺤﻮﻳﻞ اﻟﻮاي ﻣﺎآﺲ اﻟﺜﺎﺑﺖ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻮاي ﻣﺎآﺲ اﻟﻤﺘﻨﻘﻞ‪ .‬وﻳﺘﻀﻤﻦ اﻟﻔﺼﻞ اﻟﻌﺎﺷﺮ اﺳﺘﻨﺘﺎﺟﺎت واﻗﺘﺮاﺣﺎت ﻟﻠﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﻤﻠﺨﺺ‬
‫ﺗﻘﻨﻴﺔ اﻟﻮاي ﻣﺎآﺲ ﻓﻲ اﻵوﻧﺔ اﻷﺧﻴﺮة اآﺘﺴﺒﺖ اهﺘﻤﺎم ﻣﺘﺰاﻳﺪ ﺑﺴﺒﺐ ﺗﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺗﻬﺎ وﻣﺰاﻳﺎهﺎ‪ .‬واي ﻣﺎآﺲ اﺑﺮزت ﺣﻞ ﻟﻤﺸﻜﻠﺔ اﻟﻤﻴﻞ‬
‫اﻻﺧﻴﺮ وﺗﻜﻨﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺎ اﻟﻨﻄﺎق اﻟﻌﺮﻳﺾ‪ .‬واﻟﻮاي ﻣﺎآﺲ ﺗﻌﻨﻰ اﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴﻞ اﻟﺒﻴﻨﻰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻄﺎق واﺳﻊ ﻋﺎﻟﻤﻴًﺎ ﻟﻠﻨﻔﺎذ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﻮﺟﺎت اﻟﺪﻗﻴﻘﺔ و هﻰ‬
‫ﺗﻌﺘﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﻮاﺻﻔﺎت اﻟﻘﻴﺎﺳﻴﺔ ‪ . IEEE 802.16‬ﻓﻬﻰ واﺟﻬﺔ ﻟﺨﺪﻣﺎت اﻟﻨﻔﺎذ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺨﻄﻮط اﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻴﺔ ذات اﻟﻨﻄﺎق اﻟﻌﺮﻳﺾ‬
‫)‪ (FBWA‬ﻓﻲ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺷﺒﻜﺎت اﻟﻌﺎﺻﻤﺔ )‪ (MAN‬واﻟﺤﺰﻣﺔ اﻟﻌﺮﻳﻀﺔ اﻟﻼﺳﻠﻜﻴﺔ اﻟﻨﻘﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﻮﺻﻮل )‪ (MBWA‬ﻟﺘﻜﻮن ﺟﺰءا ﻻ‬
‫ﻳﺘﺠﺰأ ﻣﻦ اﻷﺟﻬﺰة اﻟﻤﺤﻤﻮﻟﺔ ﻣﺜﻞ أﺟﻬﺰة اﻟﻜﻤﺒﻴﻮﺗﺮ اﻟﻤﺤﻤﻮل‪.‬‬
‫اﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ اﻟﺮﺋﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﻟﺘﻨﺒﺆ اﻟﺘﻐﻄﻴﺔ ﺑﻤﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺴﺎب اﻟﻤﻴﺰاﻧﻴﺔ ‪ ,‬ﺗﺆﺧﺬ ﻓﻲ اﻻﻋﺘﺒﺎر ﺧﺼﺎﺋﺺ اﻟﻮاي ﻣﺎآﺲ ‪ ،‬وﺟﺮى اﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ‬
‫اﻻﻓﺘﺮاﺿﺎت ‪.‬وﺗﻢ ﺗﺸﻐﻴﻞ ﺳﻴﻨﺎرﻳﻮهﺎت ﻣﺤﺪدة ﺗﻘﻮم ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ اﻟﻮاﻗﻌﻲ و اﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺸﺮوط واﻟﻘﻮاﻋﺪ اﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻤﻴﺔ ﻻﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﻃﻴﻒ‬
‫اﻟﺘﺮددات اﻟﻤﺮﺧﺺ و اﻟﻤﻌﻔﻰ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺘﺮﺧﻴﺺ واﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﻨﻤﻮذج اﻟﻤﻨﺎﺳﺐ ﻟﺤﺴﺎب ﻗﻄﺮ اﻟﺨﻠﻴﺔ ‪ .‬و اﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﻋﺪة ﻧﻤﺎذج اﻟﺘﻨﺒﺆ ﻣﺜﻞ‬
‫اﻟﻔﻀﺎء اﻟﺤﺮ ‪ ،‬ﻧﻤﻮذج ‪ COST231 Okumura Hata‬ﻧﻤﻮذج ‪ COST231 Walfisch‬وﻧﻤﻮذج ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺳﺘﺎﻧﻔﻮرد اﻟﻤﺆﻗﺖ‬
‫)‪ (SUI‬وﻟﻜﻦ ﺳﻨﺮآﺰ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻤﻮذج اﻟﻔﻀﺎء اﻟﺤﺮ ﻓﻰ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺧﻂ اﻟﺒﺼﺮ )‪ (LOS‬وﻧﻤﻮذج ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺳﺘﺎﻧﻔﻮرد اﻟﻤﺆﻗﺖ )‪ (SUI‬ﻓﻰ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ‬
‫ﻻ وﺟﻮد ﻟﺨﻂ اﻟﺒﺼﺮ )‪ (NLOS‬و ﺗﺮدد ﻳﺼﻞ إﻟﻰ ‪ ٦‬ﻏﻴﻐﺎهﺮﺗﺰ‪ .‬وأﺧﻴﺮا ‪ ،‬ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻘﻴﻴﻢ أداء اﻟﻨﻈﺎم ﻣﻦ ﺣﻴﺚ اﻟﺤﺪ اﻷﻗﺼﻰ ﻟﻤﻌﺪل‬
‫اﻟﺒﻴﺎﻧﺎت‪.‬‬ ‫ﻧﻘﻞ‬
‫ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ اﻟﻤﻌﺎﻟﻢ اﻟﺮﺋﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻨﻈﺎم ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﻄﺎق اﻟﺘﻐﻄﻴﺔ و اﻻداء ﻣﺜﻞ‪:‬‬

‫ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﻧﻮع ﻣﻌﺪة اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﺪم‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﻧﻮع اﻟﻤﺤﻄﺔ اﻟﻘﺎﻋﺪﻳﺔ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﻋﺮض ﻗﻨﺎة اﻻﺗﺼﺎل‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﺣﻴﺰ اﻟﺘﺮدد اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﺪم ﺳﻮاء اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺤﺘﺎج اﻟﻰ ﺗﺮﺧﻴﺺ او اﻟﻤﻌﺎﻓﺎﻩ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺘﺮﺧﻴﺺ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﻧﻮع اﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ اﻟﻤﺘﻮاﻓﻖ وﻣﻌﺪل اﻟﺘﻜﻮﻳﻦ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﻴﻦ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ارﺗﻔﺎع اﻟﻤﺤﻄﺔ اﻟﻘﺎﻋﺪﻳﺔ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﻗﺪرة اﻻرﺳﺎل و اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﺳﻠﻮب ﻗﻨﻮات اﻻﺗﺼﺎل اﻟﻔﺮﻋﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻈﺎم اﻟﻮاي ﻣﺎآﺲ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ارﺗﻔﺎع ﻣﻌﺪة اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﺪم‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﻣﻘﺎرﻧﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ اﻟﻨﻤﺎذج اﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﺛﻢ ﺗﻢ ﺗﻘﻴﻴﻢ أداء ﻧﻈﺎم اﻟﻮاى ﻣﺎآﺲ ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ دراﺳﺔ ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ اﻟﺨﺼﺎﺋﺺ اﻷﺗﻴﺔ‪:‬‬
‫ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﻧﻮع اﻟﺘﻌﺪﻳﻞ وآﺬا ﻣﻌﺪل اﻟﺘﻜﻮﻳﺪ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﺪﻣﻴﻦ‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ال ‪.Cyclic Prefix‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﻋﺮض ﻧﻄﺎق اﻹﺗﺼﺎل اﻟﺮﻣﺰى و ﺣﻴﺰ اﻟﺘﺮدد‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫ﺗﺄﺛﻴﺮ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﻗﻨﺎة اﻹﺗﺼﺎل إﻟﻰ ﻋﺪة ﻗﻨﻮات اﻹﺗﺼﺎل‪.‬‬ ‫‪‬‬

Coverage and Performance Evaluation of Mobile Cellular Structured WiMAX

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Coverage and Performance Evaluation of Mobile Cellular Structured WiMAX

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All praise is for ALLAH for his gracious & grants upon us.

We wish to express our sincere gratitude to the person

To our teacher Dr.Hamed El Shenawy.

We cannot forget to thank Head of Communication and

The influence of the key system parameters on coverage and

 Effect of type of BTS.

 The effect of different channel bandwidth

 licensed and license exempted frequency bands

 The impact of type of adaptive modulation and coding rate

 The effect of BTS height.

 Comparison among different model.

 Effect o CPE height.

 Effect of cyclic prefix rate.

 Effect of nominal channel bandwidth and operating frequency.

This project is organized as follows:

Chapter two: presents the basis of OFDM.

Chapter four: explains how the coverage of mobile WiMAX is done.

Chapter eight: contains a hardware implementation of RF Field strength meter.

1.2.1 What is WiMAX?

WiMAX is stand for (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is an emerging

Figure1.1 WiMAX network

1.2.2 WiMAX Standard

In addition there are amendments at pre-draft stage:

 802.16 – Improved coexistence mechanisms for license-exempt operation.

Figure1.2 WiMAX Standards

1.2.3 What is a Standard?

1.2.4 Benefits of standardized WiMAX

 Fewer product variants through a common subset of capabilities.

 Less risk, lower system costs and greater return on investment.

 Faster, cheaper access to more widely available, higher quality service.

 Significant growth potential for broadband wireless deployment in underserved markets.

 Equivalent delivery of services vs. wire line or fiber.

 Guaranteed minimum performance levels.

 Consistent levels of voice, video and data flow quality.

1.2.5 General features of IEEE 802.16

 Supports multiple services simultaneously with full QOS.

 Bandwidth on demand (frame by frame).

 MAC designed for efficient use of spectrum.

 Comprehensive, modern, and extensible security.

 Supports frequency allocations from <1 to 66 GHz.

 TDD and FDD (TDD dominates lately).

 Link adaptation: Adaptive modulation and coding.

 Point-to-multipoint topology, with mesh extensions.

 Support for adaptive antennas and space-time coding.

1.2.6 General features of IEEE 802.16a

It was approved in January 2003.

 It covers frequency band between 2GHz and11GHz (licensed and unlicensed).

 Total data rate can be up to 75 Mb/s in each 20MHz channel.

 It has up to 30 miles of range with a typical cell radius of 4-6 miles.

1.2.7 General features of IEEE 802.16b

1.2.8 General features of IEEE 802.16c

1.2.9 General features of IEEE 802.16d-2004 Fixed WiMAX

1.2.10 General features of IEEE 802.16e Mobile WiMAX

 Approved on the 23th of September 2004.

 Mobile Operation in Licensed Bands.

 Optimized for and backwards compatible with fixed stations.

 Work on Licensed bands from 2 to 6 GHz.

 Typical Channel BW < 5MHz.

 Packet oriented architecture.

 Channelization and control for multimedia services with QOS.

 High efficiency data uplinks and downlinks Technology.

 Low latency architecture.