In addition to the bars/rods under axial loads as discussed in Chapters 1 to 3, there are other loading cases in engineering practice. In this chapter we will discuss the effects of applying a torsional loading to a long straight circular member such as a shaft or tube, as extracted from the machine showing in Fig. 4.1. We are going to show how to determine both the Shear strain and shear stress The angle of twist
A Turbine Machine Wires Shaft Transmit mechanical power F.B.D. Driven Torque TD Resistant Torque TR B Generator Transmit electrical power
Fn F Ft
Cross section A
Fig. 4.2 Definition of shear stress and shearing in torsion The shear stress equation was defined in section 2.1 as: Ft (4.1) = lim A0 A which is a shear force intensity that acts parallel to the material cross sectional plane as shown in Fig. 4.2. It is worth pointing out that the shear stress in an element always comes with pairs to maintain equilibrium as shown in Fig. 4.3.
Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 4 1
Shear Deformation We call the deformation created by shear stress as Shear Strain, given the symbol (gamma). It is defined as the change in angle of the element, it is a non-dimensional quantity. Unit of shear strain is radian
Fig. 4.3 Element of material with applied shear stress and shear strain Hookes Law for Shear By conducting a similar material testing to normal stress (Section 2.4), there is a linear relationship (for most engineering materials) between the shear stress and shear strain, as shown in Fig. 4.4.
Gradient = G 1
Fig. 4.4 Relationship of shear stress shear strain for linear elastic material
This relationship is called Hooke's law for Shear and is represented by equation Eq. (4.2). = G (4.2) where: G = Shear Modulus of Elasticity (for short, Shear Modulus) or Modulus of Rigidity. As the shear modulus is a material property (determined by material shear testing), it is related to the Young's Modulus E and Poison's ratio v by the following equation (we are going to prove this late), E G= (4.3) 2(1 + v ) Now that we have these relationships we can examine the effect of an applied torque to the shaft of circular cross section.
Shear Strain/Stress Distribution Examine the deformation of a length dx between two transverse planes of a shaft with an applied torque T. For this differential element, assume the left end is fixed and the right end rotates by d due to the applied torque T, where d is termed as Angle of Twist of the element
Twisted End x T
Fix End
da
dx
Fig. 4.5 Small transverse element with applied torque T rotated by an amount d The surface of radius rotates through angle , which is shear strain. The arc is defined as length da, which is equal to: da = d = dx which gives that: d = (4.4) dx d where: = Rate of Twist (4.5) dx which is constant for the cross-sectional plane. Eq. (4.4) states that the magnitude of shear strain for any of these elements varies only with its radial distance . By using Hookes law: = G (4.2) and by substituting for shear strain , Eq. (4.4), Eq. (4.2) becomes that: d (4.6) = G dx which relates the shear stress linearly to the distance away from the centre of the section. As a result, the shear stress distribution then looks as Fig. 4.6.
Distribution of shear stress
Fig. 4.6 Shear stress distribution in circular section with applied torque T Torque T and Rate of Twist We now equate the applied torque T to the torque generated in the section by the shear stress distribution. To do this, look at a small circumferential section dA, as shown in Fig. 4.7.
dA
Fig. 4.7 Shear stress distribution in elemental section d of cross section The elemental torque of a thin circular strip of thickness d is given by dT = (dA) Integrating over the area of the circular beam gives T = dA = (2d)
A
(4.7)
Substituting for shear stress as Eq. (4.6): d T = 2 G (4.8) d dx Since the rate of twist d dx is constant through the section, it is not a function of radius . If we assume a homogeneous material, G is also constant, so: d d 2 3 d = G J (4.9a) T =G dx dx d T (4.9b) or = dx GJ Polar Moment of Inertia J We represent the integral term as the geometric rigidity of the cross section. We call this term the Polar (Second) Moment of Inertia, J. J = 23 d (4.10)
This term indicates the cross sectional properties to withstand the applied torque.
Since this applies to circular bars, the standard terms for J are:
Solid Shaft of radius R, diameter D :
R
J =
D
R 0
23 d =
R 4 D 4 = 2 32
(4.11)
J =
Di Do
Ro Ri
23 d =
4 4 Ro Ri4 Do Di4 = 2 32
) (
(4.12)
Rm
Rm = mean radius of the thin walled tube Rm Ro Ri and t = Ro Ri From Eq. (4.12), 2 3 (2 Rm )t = 2Rm J = Ro2 + Ri2 Ro + Ri Ro Ri = 2 Rm t 2 2 3 J = 2Rm t (4.13)
)(
)(
Engineer's Theory of Torsion ( ETT ) When we equate Eq. (4.9) with the shear stress term, Eq. (4.6), gives that: T d =G = J dx T or = J where T = the internal torque at the analyzed cross-section; J = the shafts polar moment of inertia; G = shear modulus of elasticity for the material = radial distance from the axis (centre). This is called Engineer's Theory of Torsion ( ETT ). The Maximum Shear Stress The maximum shear stress can be computed as T max = Ro J where Ro is the radius of the outer surface of circular shaft.
(4.14) (4.15)
(4.16)
Example 4.1 Compare the weight of equal lengths of hollow and solid shafts to transmit a torque T for the same maximum shear stress. For hollow shaft, the inner and outer diameters have relationship Di = 2/3 Do = 2/3 DH. From ETT (Eq. 4.15): T J 2J = cons tan t = = D For Solid Shaft: 4 DS J Solid = 32 For Hollow Shaft: 4 4 2 65 4 J Hollow = DH DH = D 32 81 H 32 3 If we then equate the RHS of the above equation (due to the same T and ), we get: 2J 2J 2 J Solid 2 J Hollow = , i.e. = D D DS DH S Solid H Hollow
3 DS 65 3 = DH 16 16 81 which gives that: DH 3 81 = = 1.075 or DH = 1.075 DS, an increase in size by 7.5% DS 65 Comparing the weight ratio: 2 2 2 DH DH 4 3 VH AH = 0.642 = = 2 VS AS DS 4 which is a reduction in weight of 35.8 % if the hollowed shaft is used!
B T3 L T2 T1
According to Hookes law, = G , and substituting Eq. (4.15) i.e. = T ( x ) J ( x ) , we have T (x ) d = dx GJ ( x ) Integrating over the entire length L of the shaft, we obtain the angle of twist for the whole shaft as L T (x ) = dx (4.17) o GJ ( x ) where
Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 4 6
= the angle of twist of one end with respect to other end, measured in radian T(x) = the internal torque at arbitrary position x, found from the method of sections and equation of moment equilibrium J(x) = the shafts polar moment of inertia expressed as a function of position x. G = shear modulus of elasticity for the material
Single Constant Torque and Uniform Cross-Section Area T
GJ T
Usually in engineering practice, the material is homogeneous and the shafts cross-sectional area and applied torque are constant as shown in Fig. 4.9. Eq. (4.17) becomes TL = (4.18) GJ
Multiple Torque and Cross-Section Areas If the shaft is subjected to several different torques, or consists of a number of different the cross-sectional areas or shear moduli, Eq. (4.18) can be applied to each segment of the shaft where these quantities are all constant. TL = i i (4.19) i Gi J i
In order to apply the above equation (Eq. (4.18)), we must develop a sign convention for internal torque and angle of twist of one end with respect to the other end. To do this, we will use the right-hand rule, whereby both the torque and angle will be positive, provided the thumb is directed outward from the shaft when the fingers curl to give the tendency for rotation, as illustrated in Fig. 4.10.
Example 4.2: a) Determine the maximum shear stress and rate of twist of the given shaft if a T = 10kNm torque is applied to it; b) if the length of the shaft is 15 m, how much would it rotate by? c) if restrict the maximum shear stress level within allow = 60MPa, what is the maximum torque that the shaft can transmit? Let G = 81GPa, D = 75 mm.
T=10kNm D=75mm
L=15m
a) The maximum shear stress: 4 D 4 (0.075) J= = = 3.106 10 6 m 4 32 32 TR T (D / 2 ) 10 10 3 (0.075 / 2 ) max = o = = = 120.7 MPa J J 3.106 10 6 The rate of twist: d T 10 10 3 = = = 0.03974rad / m dx GJ 81 10 9 3.1063 10 6 which equates to : d 180 (0.03974) = = 2.277 o / m dx b) If the shaft is 15 m long, the angle of rotation at the free end is d = L = 2.277 15 = 34.155 dx or directly from Eq. (4.18) TL 10 10 3 15 = = = 0.596rad = 34.155(= 0.596 180 / ) GJ 81 10 9 3.1063 10 6
( )(
( )
)(
c) The maximum shear stress must be less than the allowable stress; max =
Tmax J allow 3.106 10 6 60 10 6 = = 4.97kN m Ro 0.0375
)(
M x = 0 = T T1 T2 = 0
(4.19) (4.20)
Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 4 8
Compatibility: = 1 = 2
z T J1
Fully bonded
T1 T2
y J2
Substituting Eq. (4.18) into Eq. (4.20) and equating with Eq. (4.19), we can find T1 and T2, hence the rate of twist and shear stresses carried by each material. TL TL GJ = 1 = 2 , i.e T1 = 1 1 T2 G1 J 1 G2 J 2 G2 J 2 G2 J 2 G1 J 1 T2 = T ; T1 = T (4.21) G1 J 1 + G2 J 2 G1 J 1 + G2 J 2 G2 G1 (4.22) T ; 1 = T 2 = (G1 J 1 + G2 J 2 ) (G1 J 1 + G2 J 2 )
Indeterminate Shafts
A
T C LAC L B
TA
LBC
T C
Ro B TB
= 0 = T T A TB = 0
(4.23)
Since only one equilibrium equation is relevant and there are two unknowns, this problem is statically indeterminate. However, the angle of twist of one end of the shaft with respect to other end is zero. We can give compatibility condition as TL Compatibility: A B = i i = 0 i Gi J i and note that the internal torque in segment CB is negative by using the right-hand rule. T A L AC ( TB )LBC (4.24) + =0 JG JG From Eqs. (4.22) and Eq. (4.23), we have L L (4.25) T A = BC T ; TB = AC T L L Therefore, L R L R max = BC o T ; max = AC o T (4.26) A B LJ LJ
COMPARISON OF TORSIONAL SHAFTS WITH AXIALLY LOADED BARS/RODS Axial Loaded Bar/Rod Torsional Shaft (Chapters 1, 2&3) (Chapters 4) Force F (N) Torque T (Nm) Load Type
Tension or Compression
+F
+T
+F
Right-Hand Rule
+
Sign Convention
-F
Tension
+
+T
Compre
ssion
-T
-F
-T
Stress
Normal strain: =
Deformation
L (ms) L
Single uniform: =
FL EA
i
Multi-segments: =
Work Strain Energy Work-Strain Energy Method
Fi Li Ei Ai
Castigilinaos Method
1 1 P p W = T T 2 2 2 F L T 2L U = i i (for a Truss) U = i i (Multi-segments) i 2 E i Ai i 2Gi J i 2U 2U T = P = P T T Li F Li T = (Ti ) i P = (Fi ) i G J P E A T i i i i i i By introducing a virtual force Q: By introducing a virtual torque S: Fi Li T Li Q = (Fi ) S = (Ti ) i Q E A S Ei Ai S =0 i i Q =0 i i W =
Lecture Notes of Mechanics of Solids, Chapter 4 10
11