west asiatic architecture

West asiatic or mesopotamian architecture started on 4000 to 2100 B.C. present day iraq and iran, The fertile land between the ti ris and euphrates ri!er who is been named "#esopotamia or the land between two ri!ers". The #esopotamian cultures did reat thin s by e$ploitin their ri!ers. They re ulated them as best as they could and that made possible, a fertile and e!en %denesque landscape. Within this landscape, they culti!ated sufficiently abundant crops to permit the lar e&scale stora e of surplus of food, in turn, permitted the rowth of lar e urban populations and that corollary of urbanism' speciali(ation. )%*+*),C-+ ,./+0%.C%1' -llu!ial district of thic2 mud and clay deposited by the two reat ri!ers. 1uch soil, in which no stone was found and no trees would row, was eminently suitable for the ma2in of bric2s, which thus became the usual buildin material in Babylonia. 3Chaldeaa & Walls were made from crude, sun&dried bric2 faced with 2iln&burnt and la(ed bric2s of different colors. 3-ssyria & 4lenty of stone in the mountains but followed Babylonians in the use of bric2. They enerally faced the walls internally and e$ternally, not with la(ed bric2s, but with alabaster or limestone slabs car!ed with low bas&reliefs and inscriptions, which are of reat historic importance. 34ersia & 5ard, colored limestones which were used in the buildin of 1usa and 4ersepolis, and roof&timbers were obtained from %lam on the west, while 4ersian tiles ha!e always been world& famous for their beauty of te$ture and color. C+,#-T,C ,./+0%.C%1' 3Chaldea &rain fells for wee2s at a time &lon summer &swarms of insects 3-ssyria &had a similar climate &fewer swamps 34ersia &dry, hot climate &country of sunshine and deserts &e$treme of heat and cold 6%+,),*01 ,./+0%.C%1' 3Babylonia and -ssyria &polytheism 3Chief )ods &-nu&s2y od &%lil&earth od &%a& od of water &etc. 34ersia 7 betrays the influence of Babylon

& incorporated in the reli ion of 8oroaster & monotheism & belief in the final triumph of ood -6C5,T%CT06-+ C5-6-CT%6' 3B-B9+*.,-. -6C5,T%CT06% : B.C. 4000&12;<= &8i urat&most important structure >Temple towers, obser!atories built of mud bric2 and faced with ba2ed bric2s and bitumen. > -lso called as holy mountains where sacred fire is 2ept burnin . >*rientation of the four corners are towards the four cardinal points. 8i urat ?e!elopment' 1. -rchaic 8i urat 2. Two or more sta es type (i urat& multi story @. -ssyrian type or se!en sta es (i urat& no stairs but a continuous ramp. ; sta es symboli(es ; hea!enly planet. 3-1196,-. -6C5,T%CT06% : B.C.12;<&<@A= >Chief structure 7 4alaces >Temples were with or without a (i urat. >,ntroduction of polychrome, ornamental bric2wor2 and hi h fleets or pedestals, made of reat stone slab. >4resence of decorati!e continuous stone found in their interiors. 34%61,-. -6C5,T%CT06% : B.C.<@A&@@@= >4ersian palaces and tombs were deri!ed from old ci!ili(ations. 4alaces and tombs at 1usa and 4ersepolis su est that the 4ersians adopted certain features from the conquered -ssyrians, such as raised platforms, sculptured monsters, slabs of bas&relief, besides la(ed and colored bric2wor2 :polychrome bric2s= which it is their lory to ha!e brou ht to perfection

efore Civilization
Between B000 B.C. and the be innin of the Christian era, western ci!ili(ation came into bein in % ypt and in what historians call -ncient Western -sia :modern&day Cyprus, 1yria, +ebanon, ,srael, Cordan, Tur2ey, southwestern 6ussia, ,raq and ,ran=. The earliest permanent settlements occurred between B000&D000 B.C. and were accompanied by the domestication of plants and animals. Between 4000&@000 B.C., the first cities appeared in response to the pressures of population rowth, the or ani(ational requirements of irri ation and the demands of more comple$ trade patterns. -ccordin to our pre!ious definitions, these societies of % ypt and -ncient Western -sia correspond to what we would call ci!ili(ation :see +ecture 1=. -round 10,000 B.C., many hunter& atherers li!in alon the coastal plains of modern 1yria and ,srael and in the !alleys and hills near the 8a ros #ountains between ,ran and ,raq be an to de!elop special strate ies that led to a transformation in the human community. 6ather than constantly tra!elin in search of food, people stayed in one re ion and e$ploited the seasonal

sources of food, includin fish, rain, fruits and ame. -t a community such as Cericho, people built and rebuilt their mud bric2 and stone huts rather than mo!in on as had their ancestors. ,n eneral, these communities be an to focus on seasonal food sources and so were less li2ely to lea!e in search of new sources. Cust why hunters and atherers in this re ion of the ancient world turned to a riculture is difficult to say. -nd there are a !ariety of problems associated with this transformation. /or one thin , speciali(ation in a relati!ely small number of plants or animals could spell disaster durin times of famine. 1ome scholars ha!e ar ued that a riculture de!eloped out of an increased population and the de!elopment of a political hierarchy. ,n settled communities, infant mortality decreased and life e$pectancy rose. This chan e may ha!e occurred since life in a fi$ed community was less demandin . The practice of infanticide decreased since children could now be used in rudimentary a ricultural tas2s. -nd as population rowth put pressure on the local food supply, atherin acti!ities required more coordination and or ani(ation and led e!entually to the de!elopment of political leadership. 1ettlements be an to encoura e the rowth of plants such as barley and lentils and the domestication of pi s, sheep and oats. 4eople no lon er loo2ed for their fa!orite food sources where they occurred naturally. .ow they introduced them into other locations. -n a ricultural re!olution had be un. The ability to domesticate oats, pi s, sheep and cattle and to culti!ate rains and !e etables chan ed human communities from passi!e har!esters of nature to acti!e partners with it. The ability to e$pand the food supply in one area allowed the de!elopment of permanent settlements of reater si(e and comple$ity. The people of the .eolithic or .ew 1tone - e :A000&<000 B.C.= or ani(ed fairly lar e !illa es. Cericho rew into a fortified town complete with ditches, stone walls, and towers and contained perhaps 2000 residents. Catal 5EyE2 in southern Tur2ey may ha!e been substantially lar er. -lthou h a riculture resulted in a stable food supply for permanent communities, the re!olutionary aspect of this de!elopment was that the community could brin what they needed :natural resources plus their tool 2it= to ma2e a new site inhabitable. This de!elopment made it possible to create lar er communities and also helped to spread the practice of a riculture to a wider area. /armers in Catal 5EyE2 culti!ated plants that came from hundreds of miles away. The presence of tools and statues made of stone not a!ailable locally indicates that there was also some tradin with distant re ions. - ricultural society brou ht chan es in the or ani(ation of reli ious practices as well. 1anctuary rooms decorated with frescoes and sculptures of the heads of bulls and bears shows us that structured reli ious rites were important to the inhabitants of these early communities. -t Cericho, human s2ulls were co!ered with clay in an attempt to ma2e them loo2 as they had in life su estin that they practiced a form of ancestor worship. Bonds of 2inship that had united hunters and atherers were bein supplemented by reli ious or ani(ation, which helped to re ulate the social beha!ior of the community.

-round 1<00 B.C., a new theme appears on the cliff walls at Tassili&n&-FFer. We see men herdin horses and dri!in horse&drawn chariots. These practices had emer ed more than fifteen hundred years earlier in #esopotamia, a desert plain stretchin to the marshes near the mouths of the Ti ris and %uphrates 6i!ers. Chariots symboli(ed a dynamic and e$pansi!e phase in western culture. Constructed of wood and bron(e and used for transport as well as for warfare, the chariot is symbolic of the culture of early ri!er ci!ili(ations, the first ci!ili(ations in -ncient Western -sia.

Mesopotamian Civilization
The history and culture of #esopotamian ci!ili(ation is ine$tricably connected to the ebb and flow of the Ti ris and %uphrates 6i!ers :see map=. The earliest communities de!eloped to the north but since rainfall in that area was so unpredictable, by <000 B.C. communities had spread south to the rich allu!ial plain. The economy of these communities was primarily a ricultural and appro$imately 100&200 people li!ed in these permanently established !illa es. The allu!ial plain in southern #esopotamia :"land between the ri!ers"= was far more fertile than the north but because there was little rainfall, irri ation ditches had to be constructed. /urthermore, the ri!er beds of the Ti ris and %uphrates rise and fall with the seasons and they chan e their course unpredictably. 1outhern #esopotamia also had its share of flash floods which could destroy crops, li!estoc2 and !illa e homes. /loods and torrential rains were a si nificant theme in #esopotamian literature as depicted in the EPIC OF GILGAMESH. The rampant flood which no man can oppose, hich sha!es the hea"ens and ca#ses earth to trem$le, In an appallin% $lan!et folds mother and child, &eats down the cane$ra!e's f#ll l#(#riant %reener), And drowns the har"est in its time of ripeness* +isin% waters, %rie"o#s to e)es of man, All,powerf#l flood, which forces the em$an!ments And mows down mi%ht) trees, Fren-ied storm, tearin% all thin%s in massed conf#sion ith it in h#rlin% speed* Ci!ili(ation emer ed in #esopotamia because the soil pro!ided a surplus of food. With this surplus, people could settle down to !illa e life and with these new settlements, towns and cities be an to ma2e their appearance, a process 2nown as urbani(ation. With settlements and a surplus of food came an increase in the population, a well&defined di!ision of labor, or ani(ation, cooperation and 2in ship. The emer ence of cities in!ol!ed interaction between people. #ost cities e!ol!ed from smaller farmin !illa es and with the practice of irri ation, which was necessary for !illa es distant from the Ti ris and %uphrates, a stable food supply was produced. This, in turn, allowed increases in the number of people who inhabited each settlement. Because the land closest to the ri!er was the most fertile, there was a !ariation in terms of the wealth of these early farmers, which led to distinct social classes. -t the same time, the construction of canals, ditches and di2es essential to irri ation

demanded cooperation between different social roups. ?ecision&ma2in , re ulation and control of all food production and herdin meant cooperation. -nd because more food could be produced by less people, some people a!e up farmin and became craftsmen, laborers, merchants and officials and this too required cooperation. The #esopotamians built massi!e temples or (i urats which housed the priestly class, the human representati!es of the ods. The priests controlled the reli ious life of the community, the economy, land ownership, the employment of wor2ers as well as the mana ement of lon distance trade. #esopotamian !illa es and towns e!entually e!ol!ed into independent and nearly self&sufficient city&states. -lthou h lar ely economically dependent on one another, these city&states were independent political entities and retained !ery stron isolationist tendencies. This isolationism hindered the unification of the #esopotamian city&states, which e!entually rew to twel!e in number. By @000 B.C., #esopotamian ci!ili(ation had made contact with other cultures of the /ertile Crescent :a term first coined by Cames Breasted in 1B1D=, an e$tensi!e trade networ2 connectin #esopotamia with the rest of -ncient Western -sia. - ain, it was the two ri!ers which ser!ed as both trade and transportation routes. The achie!ements of #esopotamian ci!ili(ation were numerous. - riculture, than2s to the construction of irri ation ditches, became the primary method of subsistence. /armin was further simplified by the introduction of the plow. We also find the use of wheel&made pottery. Between @000 and 2B00 B.C. craft speciali(ation and industries be an to emer e :ceramic pottery, metallur y and te$tiles=. %!idence for this e$ists in the careful plannin and construction of the monumental buildin s such as the temples and (i urats. ?urin this period :rou hly @000 B.C.=, cylinder seals became common. These cylindrical stone seals were fi!e inches in hei ht and en ra!ed with ima es. These ima es were reproduced by rollin the cylinder o!er wet clay. The lan ua e of these seals remained un2nown until to 20th century. But, scholars now a ree that the lan ua e of these tablets was 1umerian.

Ancient Sumer
The 1umerians inhabited southern #esopotamia from @000&2000 B.C. The ori ins of the 1umerians is unclear && what is clear is that 1umerian ci!ili(ation dominated #esopotamian law, reli ion, art, literature and science for nearly se!en centuries. The reatest achie!ement of 1umerian ci!ili(ation was their C0.%,/*6# :"wed e&shaped"= system of writin . 0sin a reed stylus, they made wed e&shaped impressions on wet clay tablets which were then ba2ed in the sun. *nce dried, these tablets were !irtually indestructible and the se!eral hundred thousand tablets which ha!e been found tell us a reat deal about the 1umerians. *ri inally, 1umerian writin was picto raphic, that is, scribes drew pictures of representations of obFects. %ach si n represented a word identical in meanin to the obFect pictured, althou h pictures could often represent more than the actual obFect.

The picto raphic system pro!ed cumbersome and the characters were radually simplified and their picto raphic nature a!e way to con!entional si ns that represented ideas. /or instance, the si n for a star could also be used to mean hea!en, s2y or od. The ne$t maFor step in simplification was the de!elopment of phoneti(ation in which characters or si ns were used to represent sounds. 1o, the character for water was also used to mean "in," since the 1umerian words for "water" and "in" sounded similar. With a phonetic system, scribes could now represent words for which there were no ima es :si ns=, thus ma2in possible the written e$pression of abstract ideas. The 1umerians used writin primarily as a form of record 2eepin . The most common cuneiform tablets record transactions of daily life' tallies of cattle 2ept by herdsmen for their owners, production fi ures, lists of ta$es, accounts, contracts and other facets of or ani(ational life in the community. -nother lar e cate ory of cuneiform writin included a lar e number of basic te$ts which were used for the purpose of teachin future enerations of scribes. By 2<00 B.C. there were schools built Fust for his purpose. The city&state was 1umerGs most important political entity. The city&states were a loose collection of territorially small cities which lac2ed unity with one another. %ach city&state consisted of an urban center and its surroundin farmland. The city&states were isolated from one another eo raphically and so the independence of each city&state became a cultural norm with important consequences. /or instance, it was held that each city&state was the estate of a particular od' .annar :moon= was said to ha!e watched o!er the city&state of 0rH 0ru2 had -n :s2y=, 1ippar had 0tu :sun= and %n2i :earth= could be found at %ridu. .ippur, the earliest center of 1umerian reli ion, was dedicated to %nlil, od of wind :%nlil was supplanted by #ardu2 at Babylon=. %ach city&state was sacred since it was carefully uarded by and lin2ed to a specific od or oddess. +ocated near the center of each city&state was a temple. *ccupyin se!eral acres, this sacred area consisted of a (i urat with a temple at the top dedicated to the od or oddess who "owned" the city. The temple comple$ was the true center of the community. The main od or oddess dwelt there symbolically in the form of a statue, and the ceremony of dedication included a ritual that lin2ed the statue to the od or oddess and thus harnessed the power of the deity for the benefit of the city&state. Considerable wealth was poured into the construction of temples as well as other buildin s used for the residences of priests and priestesses who attended to the needs of the ods. The priests also controlled all economic acti!ities since the economy was "redistributi!e." /armers would brin their produce to the the priests at the (i urat. The priests would "feed" and "clothe" the ods and then redistribute the remainder to the people of the community. With its rather lar e pantheon of ods and oddesses animatin all aspects of life, 1umerian reli ion was polytheistic in nature. By far, the most important deities were -n, %nlil, %n2i and .inhursa a. -n was the od of the s2y and hence the most important force in the uni!erse. 5e was also !iewed as the source of all authority includin the earthly power of rulers and fathers ali2e. ,n one myth, the ods address them in the followin manner'

hat )o# ha"e ordered comes tr#e. The #tterance of Prince and Lord is $#t what )o# ha"e ordered, do a%ree with* O An. )o#r %reat command ta!es precedence, who co#ld %ainsa) it/ O father of the %ods, )o#r command, the "er) fo#ndations of hea"en and earth, what %od co#ld sp#rn it/ %nlil, od of wind, was considered the second reatest power of the uni!erse and became the symbol of the proper use of force and authority on earth. -s the od of wind, %nlil controlled both the fertility of the soil and destructi!e storms. This dual nature of %nlil inspired a Fustifiable fear of him' hat has he planned/ * * * hat is in m) father's heart/ hat is in Enlil's hol) mind/ hat has he planned a%ainst me in his hol) mind/ A net he spread0 the net of an enem)1 a snare he set0 the snare of an enem)* He has stirred #p the waters and will catch the fishes, he has cast his net, and will $rin% down the $irds too* %n2i was od of the earth. 1ince the earth was the source of life& i!in waters, %n2i was also od of ri!ers, wells, and canals. 5e also represented the waters of creati!ity and was responsible for in!entions and crafts. .inhursa a be an as a oddess associated with soil, mountains, and !e etation. %!entually she was worshipped as a mother oddess, a "mother of all children," who manifested her power by i!in birth to 2in s. -lthou h these four deities were supreme, there were numerous ods and oddesses below them. *ne roup included the astral deities, who were all randchildren and reat& randchildren of -n. These included 0tu, od of the sun, the moon od .annar, and ,nanna, oddess of the mornin and e!enin star as well as of war and rain. 0nli2e humans, these ods and oddesses were di!ine and immortal. But they were not all&powerful since no one od had control o!er the entire uni!erse. /urthermore, humans were capable of de!isin ways to disco!er the will of the ods and to influence them as well. The relationship of human bein s to the ods was based on subser!ience since, accordin to 1umerian myth, human bein s were created to do the manual labor the ods were unwillin to do for themsel!es. -s a consequence, humans were insecure since they could ne!er be sure of the odGs actions. But humans did ma2e attempts to circum!ent or relie!e their an$iety by disco!erin the intentions of the odsH these efforts a!e rise to the de!elopment of the arts of di!ination, which too2 a !ariety of forms. - common form, at least for 2in s and priests who could afford it, in!ol!ed 2illin animals, such as sheep or oats, and e$aminin their li!ers or other or ans. 1upposedly, features seen in the or ans of the sacrificed animals foretold of e!ents to come. 4ri!ate indi!iduals relied on cheaper di!inatory techniques. These included interpretin patterns of smo2e from burnin incense or the pattern formed when oil was poured into water. The 1umerian art of di!ination arose from a desire to disco!er the purpose of the ods. ,f people could decipher the si ns that foretold e!ents, the e!ents would be predictable and humans could

act wisely. But the 1umerians also de!eloped cultic arts to influence ood powers : ods and oddesses= whose decisions could determine human destiny and to ward off e!il powers :demons=. These cultic arts included ritualistic formulas, such as spells a ainst e!il spirits, or prayers or hymns to the ods to win their positi!e influence. 1ince only the priests 2new the precise rituals, it is not difficult to understand the important role they e$ercised in a society dominated by a belief in the reality of spiritual powers.

The Code of Hammurabi

#esopotamian men and women !iewed themsel!es as subser!ient to the ods and belie!ed humans were at the mercy of the odGs arbitrary decisions. To counter their insecurity, the #esopotamians not only de!eloped the arts of di!ination in order to understand the wishes of their ods, but also relie!ed some an$iety by establishin codes that re ulated their relationships with one another. These law codes became an inte ral part of #esopotamian society. -lthou h there were early 1umerian law codes, the best&preser!ed #esopotamian collection of law codes was that of 5ammurabi :fl.1Ath century B.C.=. The C*?% */ 5-##06-B, re!eals a society of strict Fustice. 4enalties for criminal offenses were se!ere and !aried accordin to the wealth of the indi!idual. -ccordin to the code, there were three social classes in Babylonia' an upper class of nobles : o!ernment officials, priests, and warriors=, the class of freemen :merchants, artisans, professionals, and wealthy farmers=, and a lower class of sla!es. -n offense a ainst a member of the upper class was punished with more se!erity than the same offense a ainst a member of a lower class. The principle of retaliation :"an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth"= was fundamental. ,t was applied in cases where members of the upper class committed criminal offenses a ainst their own social equals. But for offenses a ainst members of the lower classes, a money payment was made instead. #esopotamian society, li2e any other society, had its share of crime. Bur lary was common. ,f a person stole oods belon in to the temples, he was put to death, and so was the person who recei!ed the stolen oods. ,f the pri!ate property of an indi!idual was stolen, the thief had to ma2e a tenfold restitution. ,f he could not do so he was put to death. -n offender cau ht attemptin to loot a burnin house was to be "thrown into that fire." 4ri!ate indi!iduals were often responsible for brin in char es before a court of law. To insure that accusations were not brou ht li htly, the accuser in cases of murder was responsible for pro!in his case a ainst the defendant. ,f the accuser could not, he was put to death. 4ro!idin false testimony in a murder case meant the same fate. 5ammurabiGs code too2 seriously the responsibilities of all public officials. The o!ernor of an area and city officials were e$pected to catch bur lars. ,f they failed to do so, public officials in which the crime too2 place had to replace the lost property. ,f murderers were not found, the officials had to pay a fine to the relati!es of the murdered person. 1oldiers were also e$pected to fill their duties. ,f a soldier hired a substitute to fi ht for him, he was put to death, and a substitute was i!en control of his estate.

The law code also e$tended into the daily life of the ordinary citi(en. Builders were held responsible for the buildin s they constructed. ,f a house collapsed and caused the death of its owner, the builder was put to death. )oods destroyed by the collapsed must also be replaced and the house itself rebuilt at the builderGs e$pense. 1la!ery was a common feature of #esopotamian society. 1la!es were obtained by warH others were criminals. Crimes such as stri2in oneGs older brother and 2ic2in oneGs mother were punished by condemnation to sla!ery. - man could pay his debts by sellin both his children and wife into sla!ery for a specified len th of time. *ne could become a sla!e simply by oin into debt. 1la!es were used in temples, in public buildin s, and in the homes of pri!ate indi!iduals. #ost temple sla!es were women who did domestic chores. 6oyal sla!es were used to construct buildin s and fortifications. 1la!es owned by pri!ate citi(ens performed domestic chores. The laws were harsh for those sla!es who tried to escape or who were disobedient. ",f a male sla!e has said to his master, G9ou are now my master,G his master shall pro!e him to be his sla!e and cut off his ear." ?espite such harsh measures, sla!es did possess a number of pri!ile es' they could hold property, participate in business, marry free man or women, and e!entually purchased their own freedom. The number of laws in 5ammurabiGs code dedicated to land and commerce re!eal the importance of a riculture and trade in #esopotamian society. .umerous laws dealt with questions of landholdin , such as the establishment of conditions for rentin farmland. Tenant farmin was the basis of #esopotamian a riculture. Ten farmers paid their annual rent in crops rather than money. +aws concernin land&use and irri ation were especially strict. ,f a landowner or tenant failed to 2eep di2es in ood repair he was required to pay for the rain that was destroyed. ,f he could not pay he was sold into sla!ery and his oods sold, the proceeds of which were di!ided amon the inFured parties. 6ates of interest on loans were watched carefully. ,f the lender raised his rate of interest after a loan was made, he lost the entire amount of the loan. The Code of 5ammurabi also specified the precise wa es of laborers and artisans. The lar est number of laws in the Code of 5ammurabi were dedicated to marria e and family. 4arents arran ed marria es for their children. -fter marria e, the party si ned a marria e contract. Without this contract, no one was considered le ally married. While the husband pro!ided a bridal payment, the womanGs parents were responsible for a dowry to the husband. ?owries were carefully monitored and o!erned by re ulations. #esopotamian society was a patriarchal society, and so women possessed far fewer pri!ile es and ri hts in their marria e. - womanGs place was at home and failure to fulfill her duties was rounds for di!orce. ,f she was not able to bear children, her husband could di!orce her but he had to repay the dowry. ,f his wife tried to lea!e the home in order to en a e in business, her husband could di!orce her and did not ha!e to repay the dowry. /urthermore, if his wife was a " adabout, . . . ne lectin her house IandJ humiliatin her husband," she could be drowned. Women were uaranteed some ri hts, howe!er. ,f a woman was di!orced without ood reason she recei!ed the dowry bac2. - woman could see2 di!orce and et her dowry bac2 if her

husband was unable to show that she had done anythin wron . The mother also chose a son to whom an inheritance would be passed. 1e$ual relations were strictly re ulated as well. 5usbands, but not wi!es, were permitted se$ual acti!ity outside marria e. - wife cau ht committin adultery was pitched into the ri!er. ,ncest was strictly forbidden. ,f a father committed incestuous relations with his dau hter, he would be banished. ,ncest between a son and his mother resulted in both bein burned. /athers ruled their children as well as their wi!es. *bedience was e$pected' ",f a son has struc2 his father, they shall cut off his hand." ,f a son committed a serious enou h offense, his father could disinherit him. ,t should be clear that the Code of 5ammurabi co!ered !irtually e!ery aspect of an indi!idualGs life. -lthou h scholars ha!e questioned the e$tent to which these laws were actually employed in Babylonian society, the Code of 5ammurabi pro!ides us an important limpse into the !alues of #esopotamian ci!ili(ation.