2 - Lecture 27 First Order Logic Chs. 8 9 2

ICS-381 Principles of Artificial Intelligent Week 12 First-Order-Logic Inference in First-Order-Logic
Chapters 8-9
Dr.Tarek Helmy El-Basuny

DR. Tarek Helmy@KFUPM-ICS
First Order Logic / Predicate Logic

Problem of Propositional Logic FOL Syntax Universal Quantifiers Existential Quantifiers Connections between and Thinking in FOL Knowledge Engineering in FOL A Simple Family Tree KB by FOL Inference in FOL Universal Instantiation Existential Instantiation Universal Modus Ponens & Tollens Testing Validity with Diagrams Reducing First-Order Inference to Propositional Inference Quantified Inference Rules Resolution Refutation Converting FOL Sentences to CNF 2
FOL Inference
Inference rules for propositional logic apply to FOL as well

Modus Ponens, Resolution, etc.
Inference can be done by converting the knowledge base into propositional logic and using propositional logic inference methods. Every FOL KB can be propositionalized so as to preserve entailment. A ground sentence is entailed by new KB iff entailed by original KB. Universal Elimination Universal Instantiation Existential Elimination Existential Instantiation Generalized Modus Ponens (GMP)
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New (sound) inference rules for use with quantifiers:

Propositional Logic Inference Rules

p ( p q) p pq
Addition ( p) (q) ( p q) p q pq Conjunction
pq p pq p
Simplification
[ q ( p q ) ] p
q pq p Modus P.
[ ( p q ) (q r ) ] ( p r )
pq qr pr
[ ( p q ) p ] q
pq p q
Disjunctive
[ ( p q ) ( p r ) ] ( q r )
pq p r q r
Hypothetical
Resolution
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Examples
[p
It snows today If it snows today we go skiing Therefore: we go skiing
( p q )] q
p p q q
[( p q) (q r)] ( p r)
If it rains we do not have a barbeque today If we dont have a barbeque today, well have one tomorrow Therefore: If it rains today, well have a BBQ tomorrow.
p q q r p r
Resolution for Propositional Logic

Propositional resolution is a single sound inference rule that is applied to clauses. A clause is a disjunction of literals. i.e (p q r) is a clause.
Resolution:
(1 p), (2 p) (1 2)
Example,
(p q), (q r) ( p r)
Reduction to Propositional Inference

Suppose the KB contains just the following: x King(x) Greedy(x) Evil(x) King(John) Greedy(John) Brother(Richard,John) Instantiating the universal sentence in all possible ways, we have: King(John) Greedy(John) Evil(John) King(Richard) Greedy(Richard) Evil(Richard) King(John) Greedy(John) Brother(Richard,John) Propositionalization seems to generate lots of irrelevant sentences.
Universal Instantiation
If x P(x) is true, then P(c) is true, where c is any constant in the domain of x Example: x eats(Zead, x) eats(Zead, IceCream) The variable symbol can be replaced by any ground term,
A ground term is a term with no variables.
Universal Instantiation (UI)

We can infer any sentence obtained by substituting a ground term g for any variable v: v Subst({v/g}, ) x D, P(x); if aD; P(a).
If some property is true for everything in a domain, then it is true for any particular
thing in the domain. Example: All Italians are good cookers; If Tony is an Italian; Tony is a good cooker.
The variable symbol can be replaced by any ground term, i.e., any constant symbol or function symbol applied to ground terms only. E.g., x King(x) Greedy(x) Evil(x) yields:

King(John) Greedy(John) Evil(John) King(Richard) Greedy(Richard) Evil(Richard) King(Father(John)) Greedy(Father(John)) Evil(Father(John))
These three sentences are obtained with the substitution {x/John}, {x/Richard}, {x/Father(John))
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Existential Instantiation
If P(c) is true, then x P(x) is inferred. Example eats(Zead, IceCream) x eats(Zead,x) All instances of the given constant symbol are replaced by the new variable symbol. Note that the variable symbol cannot already exist anywhere in the expression.
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Existential Instantiation (EI)

For any sentence , variable v, and constant symbol k that does not appear elsewhere in the knowledge base: v Subst({v/k}, ) E.g., x Crown(x) OnHead(x,John) yields: Crown(C1) OnHead(C1,John) provided C1 is a new constant symbol, called a Skolem constant
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Existential Elimination

From x P(x) infer P(c) Example: x eats(Zead, x) eats(Zead, Stuff) Note that the variable is replaced by a brand-new constant not occurring in this or any other sentence in the KB. Also known as skolemization; constant is a skolem constant In other words, we dont want to accidentally draw other inferences about it by introducing the constant Convenient to use this to reason about the unknown object, rather than constantly manipulating the existential quantifier.

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Completeness of Inference Techniques

Truth Tabling
Is not complete for FOL because truth table size may be infinite Is not complete for FOL Generalized Modus Ponens is complete for KBs containing only Horn clauses Is complete for FOL
Generalized Modus Ponens

Resolution Refutation
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Generalized Modus Ponens

Apply GMP reasoning to generalized rules: Combines And-Introduction, Universal-Elimination, and Modus Ponens E.g, from P(c) and Q(c) and x (P(x) ^ Q(x)) => R(x) derive R(c) x, if P(x) then Q(x); P(a) for a particular a; then Q(a).
Ex-1: For any right triangle, if one of the acute angles is x then the other acute angle is 90-x; Ex-2: In a right triangle, one of the angles is 35; The other acute angle is 55. Universal Modus Tollens x, if P(x) then Q(x); ~Q(a) for a particular a; ~P(a)
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Example-1
Everyone in this AI class has takes the ICS 253 course Ahmed is in this class Therefore: Ahmed has takes the ICS 253 course
D(x) = x has takes a math class C(x) = x has takes a CS class. Premises:
x ( D ( x ) C ( x )) D ( Marla )
Conclusion: C ( Marla) Reasoning: x( D( x) C ( x))
D( Marla ) C ( Marla) D( Marla) C ( Marla)
Universal Instantiation Modus Ponens

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Example-2
All movies produced by John Sayles are wonderful John Sayles produced a movie about coal-miners Therefore: there a wonderful movie about coal-miners.
s(x) = x is a movie by John Sayles c(x) = x is a movie about coalminers w(x) = x is a wonderful movie.
x( s ( x) w( x)) s ( z ) w( z ) arbitrary z
w( y ) for some y w( y ) c( y ) for some y x( w( x) c( x))
s ( x) c( x)) s ( y ) c( y ) for some y s ( y ) for some y c( y ) for some y
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Example-3
If it does not rain or it is not foggy then the sailing race will go on and the lifesaving demonstration will go on. If the sailing is held, then the cup will be awarded and If the cup was not awarded imply it rained.
r = it rains f = it is foggy s = sailing race goes on l = lifesaving demonstration goes on. t = cup awarded.
(r f ) ( s l ) st t r
( r f ) ( s l ) ( s l ) (r f ) ( s l ) ( r f )
Want the conclusion r to be on the right side of the arrow
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t st s
s l r f r
Combine premises as much as you can

Testing Validity by Diagrams

Ex: All integers are rational numbers; 5 is an integer; 5 is a rational number.
Integers 5 Rational numbers
Ex: All logicians are mathematicians; John is not a mathematician; John is not a logician. Ex: All Math majors are taking Math306; Bill is taking Math306; Bill is a Math major.
Bill
Logicians
Mathematicians
John
Math majors
Math306 class
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Resolution Refutation/ Unification

Resolution refutation is an inferencing technique that requires a Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF) representation.

Any FOL KB can be converted into CNF. CNF: is a conjunction of clauses where:
a clause: is a disjunction of literals e.g. Hot(x) Warn(x) Cold(x)
Literal: an atom either positive or negative (negated) e.g. Happy(Sally), Rich(x)
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Resolution Refutation: Proofs

Resolution proofs are a refutation technique:

to prove KB show that KB is unsatisfiable Unsatisfiable: if there does not exist any interpretation under which the sentence is true: if it is false in all models e.g., AA
Resolution refutation repeatedly combines two clauses to make a new one until the empty clause is derived.

The new clauses are called resolvents Empty clause: False, unsatisfiable, a contradiction
Entailment in FOL is only semidecidable:

Can prove if KB Cannot always prove that KB doesn't

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Resolution Refutation: Short Example

KB: PhD(x) HighlyQualified(x) PhD(x) EarlyEarnings(x) HighlyQualified(x) Rich(x) EarlyEarnings(x) Prove: KB Rich(Me) 1. Negate query and convert to CNF. Rich(Me) 2. Add query to CNF KB. Must convert KB sentences above into CNF. 3. Infer a contradiction, i.e., False.
Rich(x)
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Resolution Refutation: Converting FOL-KB to CNF
Replace implications: PhD(x) HighlyQualified(x) PhD(x) HighlyQualified(x) PhD(x) EarlyEarnings(x) PhD(x) EarlyEarnings(x) HighlyQualified(x) Rich(x) HighlyQualified(x) Rich(x) EarlyEarnings(x) Rich(x) EarlyEarnings(x) Rich(x) becomes becomes becomes? becomes?
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Converting FOL-KB to CNF
1. Replace with equivalent (added step)

convert PQ to PQQP
Example:
x,y {Above(x,y) (OnTop(x,y) z{OnTop(x,z) Above(z,y)})}
Becomes?
x,y { [ Above(x,y) (OnTop(x,y) z{OnTop(x,z) Above(z,y)}) ] [ (OnTop(x,y) z{OnTop(x,z) Above(z,y)}) Above(x,y) ] }
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2. Replace with equivalent

convert PQ to P Q
x,y {
[ Above(x,y) (OnTop(x,y) z{OnTop(x,z) Above(z,y)}) ]
[ (OnTop(x,y) z{OnTop(x,z) Above(z,y)}) Above(x,y) ] }
Becomes?
x,y { [ Above(x,y) (OnTop(x,y) z{OnTop(x,z) Above(z,y)}) ] [ (OnTop(x,y) z{OnTop(x,z) Above(z,y)}) Above(x,y) ] }
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3. Reduce scope of to single literals convert P to P convert (P Q) to P Q convert (P Q) to P Q convert x P to x P convert x P to x P
(DNE) (de Morgan's) (de Morgan's)
x,y { [ Above(x,y) (OnTop(x,y) z{OnTop(x,z) Above(z,y)}) ] [ (OnTop(x,y) z{OnTop(x,z) Above(z,y)}) Above(x,y) ] } Highlighted part becomes in stages: (OnTop(x,y) z {OnTop(x,z) Above(z,y)}) (de Morgan's) z {OnTop(x,z) Above(z,y)} (x P to x P) { OnTop(x,z) Above(z,y)} (de Morgan's) Highlighted part result: (OnTop(x,y) z{ OnTop(x,z) Above(z,y)})
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4. Standardize variables apart each quantifier must have a unique variable name which avoids confusion in steps 5 and 6 e.g. convert x P x Q to x P y Q
x,y { [ Above(x,y)(OnTop(x,y) z{OnTop(x,z) Above(z,y)}) ] [ (OnTop(x,y) z{OnTop(x,z) Above(z,y)}) Above(x,y) ] } Becomes? x,y { [ Above(x,y) (OnTop(x,y) z{OnTop(x,z) Above(z,y)}) ] [ (OnTop(x,y) w{OnTop(x,w) Above(w,y)}) Above(x,y) ] }
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Converting FOL-KB to CNF 5. Eliminate existential quantifiers (Skolemize)

convert x P(x) to P(K) K must be a new constant (Skolem constant) convert x,y z P(x,y,z) to x,y P(x,y,F(x,y)) F() must be a new function (Skolem function) its arguments are all enclosing universally quantified variables
e.g. Everyone has a name. x Person(x) y Name(y) Has(x,y) wrong: x Person(x) Name(K) Has(x,K) Everyone has the same name K. Want everyone to have a name based on who they are. right: x Person(x) Name(F(x)) Has(x,F(x))
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Converting FOL-KB to CNF Eliminate existential quantifiers (Skolemize) convert x,y z P(x,y,z) to x,y P(x,y,F(x,y)) F() must be a new function (Skolem function) its arguments are all enclosing universally quantified variables x,y { [ Above(x,y)(OnTop(x,y) z{OnTop(x,z) Above(z,y)}) ] [ (OnTop(x,y) w{OnTop(x,w) Above(w,y)}) Above(x,y) ] } Becomes? x,y { [Above(x,y)(OnTop(x,y)(OnTop(x,F(x,y))Above(F(x, y),y)))] [ (OnTop(x,y) w{OnTop(x,w) Above(w,y)}) Above(x,y) ] }
5.
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Converting FOL-KB to CNF 6. Drop quantifiers after step 5. all variables are universally quantified e.g. convert x P(x) y Q(y) to P(x) Q(y) all variables in KB assumed to be universally quantified
x,y { [Above(x,y)(OnTop(x,y)(OnTop(x,F(x,y))Above(F(x, y),y)))] [(OnTop(x,y) w{OnTop(x,w) Above(w,y)}) Above(x,y)] } Becomes? [Above(x,y)(OnTop(x,y)(OnTop(x,F(x,y))Above(F(x, y),y)))] [(OnTop(x,y) (OnTop(x,w) Above(w,y))) Above(x,y)]
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7. Distribute over done to get conjunction of disjunctions convert (P Q) R to (P R)(Q R)
[Above(x,y)(OnTop(x,y)(OnTop(x,F(x,y))Above(F(x,y),y)) )] [ (OnTop(x,y) (OnTop(x,w) Above(w,y))) Above(x,y) ] Highlighted part becomes in stages: given A (B (C D)) converts to A ((B C) (B D)) converts to (A (B C)) (A (B D)) Highlighted part result: [ (Above(x,y) (OnTop(x,y) OnTop(x,F(x,y)))) (Above(x,y) (OnTop(x,y) Above(F(x,y),y))) ]
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7. Distribute over done to get conjunction of disjunctions convert (P Q) R to (P R)(Q R)
[Above(x,y)(OnTop(x,y)(OnTop(x,F(x,y))Above(F(x,y),y)) )] [(OnTop(x,y) (OnTop(x,w) Above(w,y))) Above(x,y)] Highlighted part becomes in stages: given (A B) C converts to (A C) (B C) Highlighted part result: [ (OnTop(x,y) Above(x,y) ) ((OnTop(x,w) Above(w,y)) Above(x,y) )
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Converting FOL-KB to CNF 8. Flatten nested conjunctions and disjunctions convert (P Q) R to (P Q R) convert (P Q) R to (P Q R) [ (Above(x,y) (OnTop(x,y) OnTop(x,F(x,y)))) (Above(x,y) (OnTop(x,y) Above(F(x,y),y))) ] (OnTop(x,y) Above(x,y)) ((OnTop(x,w) Above(w,y)) Above(x,y))
Becomes? (Above(x,y) OnTop(x,y) OnTop(x,F(x,y))) (Above(x,y) OnTop(x,y) Above(F(x,y),y)) (OnTop(x,y) Above(x,y)) (OnTop(x,w) Above(w,y) Above(x,y))
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9. Separate each conjunct (added step)

split at 's so each conjunct is now a CNF clause
(Above(x,y) OnTop(x,y) OnTop(x,F(x,y))) (Above(x,y) OnTop(x,y) Above(F(x,y),y)) (OnTop(x,y) Above(x,y)) (OnTop(x,w) Above(w,y) Above(x,y))
Becomes?
Above(x,y) OnTop(x,y) OnTop(x,F(x,y)) Above(x,y) OnTop(x,y) Above(F(x,y),y) OnTop(x,y) Above(x,y) OnTop(x,w) Above(w,y) Above(x,y)
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10. Standardize variables apart in each clause (added)

so each clause in KB contains unique variable names during unification the standardize apart step need only be done on deduced clauses (i.e. resolvents)
Above(x,y) OnTop(x,y) OnTop(x,F(x,y)) Above(x,y) OnTop(x,y) Above(F(x,y),y) OnTop(x,y) Above(x,y) OnTop(x,w) Above(w,y) Above(x,y) Becomes?: Above(a,b) OnTop(a,b) OnTop(a,F(a,b)) Above(c,d) OnTop(c,d) Above(F(c,d),d) OnTop(e,f) Above(e,f) OnTop(g,h) Above(h,i) Above(g,i)
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Summary
FOL is a more expressive language but inferencing is more complicated Inferencing in FOL can be done by:
Propositionalizing the FOL KB (universal and existential elimination rules) and using sound inference rules from PL
complete for FOL but impractical
Converting KB to Horn Normal Form and using Generalized Modus Ponens rule Converting KB to Conjunctive Normal Form and using Resolution Refutation
complete, all FOL KB can be converted to CNF
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Summary: Converting FOL Sentences to CNF
1. Replace with equivalent (added step)

convert P Q
to P Q Q P
2. Replace with equivalent: convert P Q 3. Reduce scope of to single literals

to P Q
convert convert convert convert convert
P (P Q) (P Q) x P x P
to to to to to
P P Q P Q x P x P
(DNE) (de Morgan's) (de Morgan's)
4. Standardize variables apart

each quantifier must have a unique variable name avoids confusion in steps 5 and 6 e.g. convert x P x Q to x P y Q
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Summary: Converting FOL Sentences to CNF 5. Eliminate existential quantifiers (Skolemize) convert x P(x) to P(C) (EE) C must be a new constant (Skolem constant) convert x,y z P(x,y,z) to x,y P(x,y,F(x,y)) F() must be a new function (Skolem function) with arguments that are all enclosing universally quantified variables 6. Drop quantifiers all variables are only universally quantified after step 5 e.g. convert x P(x) y Q(y) to P(x) Q(y) all variables in KB will be assumed to be universally quantified 7. Distribute over to get conjunction of disjunctions convert(P Q) R to(P R)(Q R)
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Summary: Converting FOL Sentences to CNF
8. Flatten nested conjunctions and disjunctions

convert (P Q) R to (P Q R) convert (P Q) R to (P Q R)
9. Separate each conjunct (added step)

split at 's so each conjunct is now a CNF clause
10. Standardize variables apart in each clause (added step)

each clause in KB must contain unique variable names now during unification the standardize apart step need only be done on deduced clauses (i.e. resolvents)
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The End!!
Thank you
Any Questions?
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ICS-381 Principles of Artificial Intelligent Week 12 First-Order-Logic Inference in First-Order-Logic

Dr.Tarek Helmy El-Basuny

First Order Logic / Predicate Logic

DR. Tarek Helmy@KFUPM-ICS

Inference rules for propositional logic apply to FOL as well

Modus Ponens, Resolution, etc.

New (sound) inference rules for use with quantifiers:

DR. Tarek Helmy@KFUPM-ICS

Propositional Logic Inference Rules

Resolution for Propositional Logic

DR. Tarek Helmy@KFUPM-ICS

Reduction to Propositional Inference

DR. Tarek Helmy@KFUPM-ICS

DR. Tarek Helmy@KFUPM-ICS

Universal Instantiation (UI)

King(John) Greedy(John) Evil(John) King(Richard) Greedy(Richard) Evil(Richard) King(Father(John)) Greedy(Father(John)) Evil(Father(John))

DR. Tarek Helmy@KFUPM-ICS

DR. Tarek Helmy@KFUPM-ICS

Existential Instantiation (EI)

DR. Tarek Helmy@KFUPM-ICS

DR. Tarek Helmy@KFUPM-ICS

Completeness of Inference Techniques

Generalized Modus Ponens

DR. Tarek Helmy@KFUPM-ICS

Generalized Modus Ponens

DR. Tarek Helmy@KFUPM-ICS

Conclusion: C ( Marla) Reasoning: x( D( x) C ( x))

D( Marla ) C ( Marla) D( Marla) C ( Marla)

Universal Instantiation Modus Ponens

DR. Tarek Helmy@KFUPM-ICS

s ( x) c( x)) s ( y ) c( y ) for some y s ( y ) for some y c( y ) for some y

DR. Tarek Helmy@KFUPM-ICS

Combine premises as much as you can

Testing Validity by Diagrams

Ex: All integers are rational numbers; 5 is an integer; 5 is a rational number.

Integers 5 Rational numbers

Resolution Refutation/ Unification

a clause: is a disjunction of literals e.g. Hot(x) Warn(x) Cold(x)

Literal: an atom either positive or negative (negated) e.g. Happy(Sally), Rich(x)

DR. Tarek Helmy@KFUPM-ICS

Resolution Refutation: Proofs

Resolution proofs are a refutation technique:

Entailment in FOL is only semidecidable:

Can prove if KB Cannot always prove that KB doesn't

DR. Tarek Helmy@KFUPM-ICS

Resolution Refutation: Short Example

Resolution Refutation: Converting FOL-KB to CNF

DR. Tarek Helmy@KFUPM-ICS

Converting FOL-KB to CNF

1. Replace with equivalent (added step)

x,y {Above(x,y) (OnTop(x,y) z{OnTop(x,z) Above(z,y)})}

x,y { [ Above(x,y) (OnTop(x,y) z{OnTop(x,z) Above(z,y)}) ] [ (OnTop(x,y) z{OnTop(x,z) Above(z,y)}) Above(x,y) ] }

DR. Tarek Helmy@KFUPM-ICS

Converting FOL-KB to CNF

2. Replace with equivalent

[ Above(x,y) (OnTop(x,y) z{OnTop(x,z) Above(z,y)}) ]

[ (OnTop(x,y) z{OnTop(x,z) Above(z,y)}) Above(x,y) ] }

DR. Tarek Helmy@KFUPM-ICS

Converting FOL-KB to CNF

(DNE) (de Morgan's) (de Morgan's)

Converting FOL-KB to CNF

DR. Tarek Helmy@KFUPM-ICS

Converting FOL-KB to CNF 5. Eliminate existential quantifiers (Skolemize)