DCMachineConstruction

ConstructionofDCmachine

Cutaway view of a dc motor

Stator with poles visible.

ConstructionofDCmachine Armature
segments

Rotor of a dc motor

brushes

Commutatorconnections

Commutatorconnections alongwithbrush

DCMachinecompletestructure

SimplifiedSchematicdiagram

schematicofaDCmachine

CompletestructureofaDCMachine

GeneralarrangementofadcmachineBrushesandcompensatingwinding

DCmachine..
The stator of the dc motor has poles, which are excited by dc current to produce magnetic fields. In the neutral zone, in the middle between the poles, commutating poles are placed to reduce sparking of the commutator. The commutating poles are supplied by dc current. Compensating windings are mounted on the main poles. These shortcircuited windings damp rotor oscillations.

Differentpartsofadcmachine
Yoke Polescores&poleshoe Fieldwinding Armaturecore Armaturewinding i)LapwindingII)Wavewinding Commutator brushesandbearings

Yoke
Mechanical strength Support the field poles It carries magnetic flux ( acts as return path for flux lines)

Statorframe

DCmachine
The poles are mounted on an iron core that provides a closed magnetic circuit. The motor housing supports the iron core, the brushes and the bearings. The rotor has a ringshaped laminated iron core with slots. Coils with several turns are placed in the slots. The distance between the two legs of the coil is about 180 electric degrees.

Polecore&poleshoe

Pole core is laminated to reduce core losses Pole shoe is in concave shape to maintain uniform airgap and to reduce the leakage flux

Fieldwinding

FIELDWINDINGS
MostDCmachinesusewoundelectromagnetsto providethemagneticfield.OrPermanentmagnets areusedinPMDCmachine Twotypesoffieldwindingsareused seriesfield shuntfield

FIELDWINDINGS(Cont)
Seriesfieldwindings Theyareconnectedinserieswiththearmature Theymadewithrelativelyfewwindingsturnsofverylarge wireandhaveaverylowresistance usuallyfoundinlargehorsepowermachineswoundwith squareorrectangularwire. Theuseofsquarewirepermitsthewindingstobelaidcloser together,whichincreasesthenumberofturnsthatcanbe woundinaparticularspace

FIELDWINDINGS(Cont)
Square and rectangular wire can also be made physically smaller than round wire and still contain the same surface area

Square wire contains more surface than round wire

Square wire permits more turns than round wire in the same area

FIELDWINDINGS(Cont)
Shunt field windings constructed with relatively many turns of small wire, thus, it has a much higher resistance than the series field. intended to be connected in parallel with, or shunt, the armature. high resistance is used to limit current flow through the field.

FIELDWINDINGS(Cont..)
When a DC machine uses both series and shunt fields, each pole piece will contain both windings. The windings are wound on the pole pieces in such a manner that when current flows through the winding it will produce alternate magnetic polarities.

ARMATURE
More loops of wire = higher rectified voltage In practical, loops are generally placed in slots of an iron core The iron acts as a magnetic conductor by providing a low-reluctance path for magnetic lines of flux to increase the inductance of the loops and provide a higher induced voltage. The commutator is connected to the slotted iron core. The entire assembly of iron core, commutator, and windings is called the armature. The windings of armatures are connected in different ways depending on the requirements of the machine.

Loops of wire are wound around slot in a metal core

DC machine armature

Armature laminations and slot shapes

Armaturecore

Armaturewinding

Armaturewinding
Lap Wound Armatures

are used in machines designed for low voltage and high current armatures are constructed with large wire because of high current The windings of a lap wound armature are connected in parallel. This permits the current capacity of each winding to be added and provides a higher operating current No of current path, C=2p ; p=no of poles

Lap wound armatures

 Wave Wound Armatures are used in machines designed for high voltage and low current their windings connected in series When the windings are connected in series, the voltage of each winding adds, but the current capacity remains the same No of current path, C=2

Wave wound armatures

 Frogleg Wound Armatures the most used in practical nowadays designed for use with moderate current and moderate armatures voltage the windings are connected in series parallel. Most large DC machines use frogleg wound armatures.

Frogleg wound armatures

Armaturewindingwithcommutatorconnections

Dcmachinewindingsoverview
Winding

armature

field Separately Excited

Self excited Wave C=2 Lap C=2p Frogleg series shunt compound

Commutatorconnections

Commutatorandcoilconnections

Commutator.
The coils are connected in series through the commutator segments. The ends of each coil are connected to a commutator segment. The commutator consists of insulated copper segments mounted on an insulated tube. Two brushes are pressed to the commutator to permit current flow. The brushes are placed in the neutral zone, where the magnetic field is close to zero, to reduce arcing.

Brushesandbearings
Brushesareusedtocollectthe currentfromcommutator. Materialsusedarecarbonor graphite.

Bearings

Bearings

GenerallyRollerbearingsare usedindcmachines.

MagneticcircuitofDCmachine

DismantledDCmachine
Statorwithfieldpoles

Bearings

Brushgearsystem

ArmatureandCommutator

PrincipleoperationofGenerator
Whenever a conductor is moved within a magnetic field in such a way that the conductor cuts across magnetic lines of flux, voltage is generated in the conductor. The Amount of voltage generated depends on:
i. the strength of the magnetic field, ii. the angle at which the conductor cuts the magnetic field, iii. the speed at which the conductor is moved, and iv. the length of the conductor within the magnetic field

Principleofoperation(Cont)

FlemingsRighthandrule(GeneratorRule)
To determine the direction of the induced emf/current of a conductor moving in a magnetic field. The POLARITY of the voltage depends on the direction of the magnetic lines of flux and the direction of movement of the conductor.

THEELEMENTARYGENERATOR
The simplest elementary generator that can be built is an ac generator. Basic generating principles are most easily explained through the use of the elementary ac generator. For this reason, the ac generator will be discussed first. The dc generator will be discussed later. An elementary generator consists of a wire loop mounted on the shaft, so that it can be rotated in a stationary magnetic field. This will produce an induced emf in the loop. Sliding contacts (brushes) connect the loop to an external circuit load in order to pick up or use the induced emf.

Elementary Generator

THEELEMENTARYGENERATOR(Cont)
The pole pieces (marked N and S) provide the magnetic field. The pole pieces are shaped and positioned as shown to concentrate the magnetic field as close as possible to the wire loop. The loop of wire that rotates through the field is called the ARMATURE. The ends of the armature loop are connected to rings called SLIP RINGS. They rotate with the armature. The brushes, usually made of carbon, with wires attached to them, ride against the rings. The generated voltage appears across these brushes. (These brushes transfer power from the battery to the commutator as the motor spins discussed later in dc elementary generator).

THEELEMENTARYGENERATOR(A)
An end view of the shaft and wire loop is shown. At this particular instant, the loop of wire (the black and white conductors of the loop) is parallel to the magnetic lines of flux, and no cutting action is taking place. Since the lines of flux are not being cut by the loop, no emf is induced in the conductors, and the meter at this position indicates zero. This position is called the NEUTRAL PLANE.

00 Position (Neutral Plane)

THEELEMENTARYGENERATOR(B)
The shaft has been turned 900 clockwise, the conductors cut through more and more lines of flux, and voltage is induced in the conductor. at a continually increasing angle , the induced emf in the conductors builds up from zero to a maximum value or peak value. Observe that from 00 to 900, the black conductor cuts DOWN through the field. At the same time the white conductor cuts UP through the field. The induced emfs in the conductors are series adding. This means the resultant voltage across the brushes (the terminal voltage) is the sum of the two induced voltages. The meter at position B reads maximum value.

900 Position

THEELEMENTARYGENERATOR(C)
After another 900 of rotation, the loop has completed 1800 of rotation and is again parallel to the lines of flux. As the loop was turned, the voltage decreased until it again reached zero. Note that : From 00 to 1800 the conductors of the armature loop have been moving in the same direction through the magnetic field. Therefore, the polarity of the induced voltage has remained the same

1800 Position

THEELEMENTARYGENERATOR(D)
As the loop continues to turn, the conductors again cut the lines of magnetic flux. This time, however, the conductor that previously cut through the flux lines of the south magnetic field is cutting the lines of the north magnetic field, and viceversa. Since the conductors are cutting the flux lines of opposite magnetic polarity, the polarity of the induced voltage reverses. After 270' of rotation, the loop has rotated to the position shown, and the maximum terminal voltage will be the same as it was from A to C except that the polarity is reversed.

2700 Position

THEELEMENTARYGENERATOR(A)
Afteranother900 ofrotation,theloop hascompletedonerotationof3600 and returnedtoitsstartingposition. Thevoltagedecreasedfromitsnegative peakbacktozero. Noticethatthevoltageproducedinthe armatureisanalternatingpolarity.The voltageproducedinallrotating armaturesisalternatingvoltage.

3600 Position

ElementaryGenerator(Conclusion)
Observes
The meter direction The conductors of the armature loop Direction of the current flow

THEELEMENTARYDCGENERATOR
Since DC generators must produce DC current instead of AC current, a device must be used to change the AC voltage produced in the armature windings into DC voltage. This job is performed by the commutator. The commutator is constructed from a copper ring split into segments with insulating material between the segments (See next page). Brushes riding against the commutator segments carry the power to the outside circuit. The commutator in a dc generator replaces the slip rings of the ac generator. This is the main difference in their construction. The commutator mechanically reverses the armature loop connections to the external circuit.

THEELEMENTARYDCGENERATOR (Armature)
The armature has an axle, and the commutator is attached to the axle. In the diagram to the right, you can see three different views of the same armature: front, side and endon. In the endon view, the winding is eliminated to make the commutator more obvious. We can see that the commutator is simply a pair of plates attached to the axle. These plates provide the two connections for the coil of the electromagnet.

Armature with commutator view

THEELEMENTARYDCGENERATOR (Commutator&Brushesworktogether)
The diagram at the right shows how the commutator and brushes work together to let current flow to the electromagnet, and also to flip the direction that the electrons are flowing at just the right moment. The contacts of the commutator are attached to the axle of the electromagnet, so they spin with the magnet. The brushes are just two pieces of springy metal or carbon that make contact with the contacts of the commutator. Through this process the commutator changes the generated ac voltage to a pulsating dc voltage which also known as commutation process.

Brushes and commutator

THEELEMENTARYDCGENERATOR
The loop is parallel to the magnetic lines of flux, and no voltage is induced in the loop Note that the brushes make contact with both of the commutator segments at this time. The position is called neutral plane.

00 Position (DC Neutral Plane)

THEELEMENTARYDCGENERATOR
As the loop rotates, the conductors begin to cut through the magnetic lines of flux. The conductor cutting through the south magnetic field is connected to the positive brush, and the conductor cutting through the north magnetic field is connected to the negative brush. Since the loop is cutting lines of flux, a voltage is induced into the loop. After 900 of rotation, the voltage reaches its most positive point.
900 Position (DC)

THEELEMENTARYDCGENERATOR
As the loop continues to rotate, the voltage decreases to zero. After 1800 of rotation, the conductors are again parallel to the lines of flux, and no voltage is induced in the loop. Note that the brushes again make contact with both segments of the commutator at the time when there is no induced voltage in the conductors

1800 Position (DC)

THEELEMENTARYDCGENERATOR
During the next 900 of rotation, the conductors again cut through the magnetic lines of flux. This time, however, the conductor that previously cut through the south magnetic field is now cutting the flux lines of the north field, and vice-versa. . Since these conductors are cutting the lines of flux of opposite magnetic polarities, the polarity of induced voltage is different for each of the conductors. The commutator, however, maintains the correct polarity to each brush. The conductor cutting through the north magnetic field will always be connected to the negative brush, and the conductor cutting through the south field will always be connected to the positive brush. Since the polarity at the brushes has remained constant, the voltage will increase to its peak value in the same direction.

2700 Position (DC)

THEELEMENTARYDCGENERATOR
As the loop continues to rotate, the induced voltage again decreases to zero when the conductors become parallel to the magnetic lines of flux. Notice that during this 3600 rotation of the loop the polarity of voltage remained the same for both halves of the waveform. This is called rectified DC voltage. The voltage is pulsating. It does turn on and off, but it never reverses polarity. Since the polarity for each brush remains constant, the output voltage is DC.
00 Position (DC Neutral Plane)

THEELEMENTARYDCGENERATOR
Observes Themeterdirection Theconductorsofthearmatureloop Directionofthecurrentflow

Effectsofadditionalturns
To increase the amount of output voltage, it is common practice to increase the number of turns of wire for each loop. If a loop contains 20 turns of wire, the induced voltage will be 20 times greater than that for a singleloop conductor. The reason for this is that each loop is connected in series with the other loops. Since the loops form a series path, the voltage induced in the loops will add. In this example, if each loop has an induced voltage of 2V, the total voltage for this winding would be 40V (2V x 20 loops = 40 V). Effects of additional turns

Effectsofadditionalcoils
When more than one loop is used, the average output voltage is higher and there is less pulsation of the rectified voltage. Since there are four segments in the commutator, a new segment passes each brush every 900 instead of every 1800. Since there are now four commutator segments in the commutator and only two brushes, the voltage cannot fall any lower than at point A. Therefore, the ripple is limited to the rise and fall between points A and B on the graph. By adding more armature coils, the ripple effect can be further reduced. Decreasing ripple in this way increases the effective voltage of the output.

Effects of additional coils

ThePracticalDCGenerator
The actual construction and operation of a practical dc generator differs somewhat from our elementary generators Nearly all practical generators use electromagnetic poles instead of the permanent magnets used in our elementary generator The main advantages of using electromagnetic poles are: (1) increased field strength and (2) possible to control the strength of the fields. By varying the input voltage, the field strength is varied. By varying the field strength, the output voltage of the generator can be controlled.
Four-pole generator armature) (without

 Topicstobecovered/notyetcompletedingenerators

principleofoperationofCommutator,Armature reaction,effectofinterpolesandcompensating winding.

WindingDiagrams
WindingDiagrams (i)DCWindingdiagrams

(ii)ACWindingDiagrams

Terminologiesusedinwindingdiagrams
Conductor:Anindividualpieceofwireplacedintheslotsinthe machineinthemagneticfield. Turn:Twoconductorsconnectedinseriesandseparatedfromeach otherbyapolepitchsothattheemf inducedwillbeadditive. Coil:Whenoneormoreturnsareconnectedinseriesandplacedin almostsimilarmagneticpositions.Coilsmaybesingleturnormulti turncoils. Coilgroup:Oneormorecoilsinglecoilsformedinagroupformsthe coilgroup. Winding:Numberofcoilsarrangedincoilgroupissaidtobea winding. PolePitch:Distancebetweenthepolesintermsofslotsiscalledpole pitch.

Coilsorturnsrepresentation

Schematicofmultiturnandsingleturn

Fullpitchedandshortpitchedcoils

Singleanddoublelayerwindings
Singlelayerwinding:Onlyonecoilsideplacedinoneslot. Doublelayerwinding:Twocoilsidesareplacedinasingleslot.Single anddoublelayerwindings

Singleanddoublelayerwindings

Definitions
PolePitch The pole pitch is defined as peripheral distance between center of two adjacent poles in dc machine. This distance is measured in term of armature slots or armature conductor come between two adjacent pole centers. This is naturally equal to the total number of armature slots divided by number of poles in the machine. If there are 96 slots on the armature periphery and 4 numbers of poles in the machine, the numbers of armature slots come between two adjacent poles centers would be 96/4 = 24. Hence, the pole pitch of that dc machine would be 24. pole pitch is equal to total numbers of armature slots divided by total numbers of poles, this can alternatively referred as armature slots per pole

CoilSpanorCoilPitch
Coil of dc machine is made up of one turn or multi turns of the conductor. If the coil is made up of single turn or single loop of conductor, it is called single turn coil. If the coil is made up of more than one turn of conductor, it is referred as multi turn coil. A single turn coil will have one conductor per side of the coil whereas in multi turns coil, there will be multiple conductors per side of the coil. Whatever may be the number of conductors per side of the coil, each coil side is placed inside one armature slot only. That means all conductors of one side of a particular coil must be placed in one single slot only. Similarly, all conductors of other side of the coil are placed in another single armature slot.

Coilspan

Coil span is defined as peripheral distance between two sides of a coil, measured in terms of number of armature slots between them. That means, after placing one side of the coil in a particular slot, after how many conjugative slots, the other side of the same coil is placed on the armature. This number is known as coil span. If the coil span is equal to the pole pitch, then the armature winding is said to be full - pitched. At this situation, two opposite sides of the coil lie under two opposite poles. Hence emf induced in one side of the coil will be in 180 phase shift with emf induced in the other side of the coil. Thus, total terminal voltage of the coil will be nothing but the direct arithmetic sum of these two emfs. If the coil span is less than the pole pitch, then the winding is referred as fractional pitched. In this coil, there will be a phase difference between induced emfs in two sides, less than 180. Hence resultant terminal voltage of the coil is vector sum of these two emfs and it is less than that of full pitched coil.

PitchofArmatureWinding

 Back Pitch (Yb)

A coil advances on the back of the armature. This advancement is measured in terms of armature conductors and is called back pitch. It is equal to the number difference of the conductor connected to a given segment of the commutator.
Front Pitch (Yf)
The number of armature conductors or elements spanned by a coil on the front is called front pitch. Alternatively, the front pitch may be defined as the distance between the second conductor of the next coil which are connected together at the front i.e. commutator end of the armature. In other words, it is the number difference of the conductors connected together at the back end of the armature. Both front and back pitches for lap and wave windings are shown in the figure below.

CommutatorPitch
Resultant Pitch (Y)
It is the distance between the beginning of one coil and the beginning of the next coil to which it is connected. As a matter of precautions, it should be kept in mind that all these pitches, though normally stated in terms of armature conductors, are also times of armature slots or commutator bars

Commutator pitch is defined as the distance between two commutator segments which two ends of same armature coil are connected. Commutator pitch is measured in terms of commutator bars or segment.

Classificationofwindings
Closed type and open type winding Closed type windings: In this type of winding there is a closed path around the armature or stator. Starting from any point, the winding path can be followed through all the turns and starting point can be reached. Such windings are used in DC machines. Open windings: There is no closed path in the windings. Such windings are used in AC machines.

Photographsofacoilorcoils

DCWindings
DCWindings:Twotypesofwindings(a)Lapwinding(b)Wavewinding Thesetwotypesofwindingsdifferintwoways(i)numberofcircuits betweenpositiveandnegative brushes,(ii)themannerinwhichthecoilendsareconnected. Howeverthecoilsofbothlapandwavewindingsareidentically formed.

WindingPitches
Back Pitch: The distance between top and bottom coil sides of a coil measured around the back of the armature is called back pitch and is designated as yb. Back pitch is approximately equal to number of coil sides per layer. Generally back pitch is an odd integer. Front Pitch: The distance between two coil sides connected to the same commutator segment is called the front pitch and is designated as yf. Winding Pitch: The distance between the starts of two consecutive coils measured in terms of coil sides is called winding pitch and is designated as Y. Y = yb yf for lap winding Y = yb + yf for wave winding Commutator pitch: The distance between the two commutator segments to which the two ends of a coil are connected is called commutator pitch and is designated as yc and is measured in terms of commutator segments

SchematicofaLapwinding

Lapwinding
The winding in which successive coils overlap each other hence it is called lap winding. In this winding end of one coil is connected to the commutator segment and start of the adjacent coil situated under the same pole as shown in fig. Lap winding is further divided as simplex and Duplex lap winding. Simplex lap winding: In this type of winding finish F1 of the coil 1 is connected to the start S2 of coil 2 starting under the same pole as start s1 of coil 1. We have back pitch yb = 2c/p k where c = number of coils in the armature, p = number of poles, k = an integer to make yb an odd integer.

ImportantrulesforLapwinding
Let Z = Number of conductors P = number of poles Yb = Back pitch Yf = Front pitch Yc = Commutator pitch Ya = Average pole pitch Yp = Pole pitch YR = Resultant pitch

 Yb (Back pitch) and Yf (Front pitch) must be approximately equal to Yp (Pole pitch) Yb (Back pitch) must be less or greater than Yf (Front pitch) by 2m where m is the multiplicity of the winding. When Yb is greater than Yf the winding progresses from left to right and is known as progressive winding. When Yb is lesser than Yf the winding progresses from right to left and is known as retrogressive winding. Hence Yb = Yf 2m. Yb and Yf must be odd. Yb and Yf may be equal or differ by 2. + for progressive winding, - for retrogressive winding Ya = (Yb + Yf ) / 2 = Yp YR ( Resultant pitch) is always even. Yc = m, m = 1 for simplex winding; m = 2 for duplex winding

Lapwinding

SchematicofaWavewinding

Wavewinding
Simplexwavewinding:Inthistypeofwindingfinish F1ofthecoil1isconnectedtothestartSx ofcoilx startingunderthesamepoleasstarts1ofcoil Inwavewindingtheendofonecoilisnotconnected tothebeginningofthesamecoilbutisconnectedto thebeginningofanothercoilofthesamepolarityas thatofthefirstcoilasshowninfig.

Importantrulesinwavewinding
Yb (Backpitch)andYf (Frontpitch)mustbeapproximatelyequaltoYp (Polepitch) Yb andYf mustbeodd. Yb andYf maybeequalordifferby2. +forprogressivewinding, forretrogressivewinding Yc =(Yb +Yf )/2andshouldbeawholenumber

Wavewinding..

Wavewinding..

Example1
DrawthewindingdiagramofaDCMachinewith4poles,14slots, progressive,doublelayerlapwinding.Showthepositionofbrushes anddirectionofinducedemf. Solution: Numberofpoles=4;Numberofslots=14,Numberofconductors= 14x2=28 Polepitch=Numberofconductors/pole=28/4=7 Wehavepolepitch=(Yb +Yf )/2=Yp

 (Yb +Yf)=14 (Yb Yf )=2 SolvingaboveequationsYb =8andYf =6 backpitchyb =2c/p k ForlapwindingbothYb andYf mustbeoddanddifferby2 SatisfyingtheaboveconditionYb =7andYf =5(Windingdiagramand ringdiagramsareshownbelow)

Windingtable

Ringdiagram

Example2 Drawadevelopmentdiagramofasimpletwolayerlapwindingforafour polegeneratorwith16coils.Discussthepropertiesoflapwinding. Solution: Noofcommutatorsegments=16 Noofcoilsides=32 Polepitch=32/4=8 Yb =(Z/P)+1=9 Yf =(Z/P)1=7(Yb =Yf2m)m=1simplelapwinding;m=2forduplex winding

Windingconnections

Windingconnection

Windingdiagram

Ringdiagram

Coilsidesconnections

Parallelpathsrepresentation

 Ex.3DevelopthesinglelayerwindingforaDCmachinehaving32 armatureconductorsand4poles. MarkthepolesDrawthesequencediagram,indicatethepositionof thebrushesandthedirectionofinducedemf andshowtheequiliser connections. Soln:Numberofconductors=32Polepitch=32/4=8; polepitch=(Yb +Yf )/2=Yp Hence (Yb +Yf)=16and(Yb Yf)=2henceYb =9andYf =7

Wavewindingexample
Develop a wave winding diagram for a DC machine having 30 armature conductors and 4 poles. Draw the sequence diagram indicate the position of the brushes, show the direction of induced emf. Soln: Number of poles = 4, No of conductors = 30 For wave winding (Yb + Yf)/2 = (Z 2)/p = 7 or 8 Taking Yb = Yf Yb = 7 and Yf = 7

Windingtable

Windingdiagram

Ringdiagram

Coilsideconnections

Armatureparallelpathrepresentation