British and Muslim?

Abdal-Hakim Murad
(Based on a lecture given to a conference of British converts on September 17 1997)
It is said that the 19th century French poet Mallarm can only be fully understood by those ho are not French! because they read him more slo ly" #on$erts to Islam! the sub%ect of this essay! can perhaps claim the same ambi&uous ad$anta&e in their readin& of the Islamic narrati$e" 'e$eral conse(uent (uestions impose themsel$es) can the clarity of $ision brou&ht by no$elty out ei&h the absence of a Muslim upbrin&in&? Is adoption a more culturally fertile condition than simple sonship? Has the dynamism of Islamic culture after the initial Arab era o ed e$erythin& to the ener&y of recent con$erts! ith their o n ethnic &enius) the *ersians! and then! pre-eminently! the +urks, and if so! mi&ht the appearance of con$erts in the -est presa&e a lar&er re$i$al of the fortunes of an a&ed and tired Islamic umma? I hope to return to these interestin& (ueries at a later date" Here! I shall confine myself to the issue that presents itself most sharply to those British people ho! like myself! ha$e boarded the lifeboat of Islam" +he issue is the (uestion of British Muslim identity" -ho is a British Muslim is an easy (uestion) it is anyone ho follo s Islam and holds a ."/" passport" +his is at once the easiest and probably the only orkable definition" +he more teasin& (uestion! hich I ish to raise in this article is) hat is a British Muslim? +he (uery raises t o problems related to belon&in&" -hat does it mean to be a British person ho belon&s to Islam? And! hat does it mean to be a Muslim person ho belon&s to Britain? Ho do e map the o$erlap 0one in a ay that makes sense! and is le&itimate! in terms of the co-ordinates of both of these terms? #learly! by $irtue of the first definition! the British Muslim population! all 1"1 million of it! di$ides into three &roups" Firstly! and least problematically! there are men and omen hose cultural formation as not British! but ho ha$e mi&rated to this country" +his essay ill not touch centrally on their o n particular stru&&le for self-definition! hich is (uite different to that addressed by con$erts" 'econdly! there are the children of the first &roup! and occasionally no their &randchildren" +hese people are usually seen to be torn bet een t o orlds! but in reality! the British orld has shaped their souls far more profoundly then they often reco&nise" Modern schoolin& is desi&ned for a culture that puts an increasin& share of acculturation and upbrin&in&! as opposed to the simple inculcation of facts! on the shoulders of schoolteachers rather than of parents" Muslims ho ha$e mo$ed to this country ha$e done so at precisely the time hen British education is also &oin& into the business of parentin&, most Muslim parents do not reco&nise the fact! but Muslim children in this country al ays ha$e a third parent) the 2ducation 'ecretary" 2$en those second-&eneration Muslims here ho claim to ha$e an&rily re%ected Britishness are in fact doin& so in terms of types of radicalism hich are deeply influenced by -estern styles of dissent" Most noticeably! they locate their radicalism not primarily in a spiritual! but in social and political re%ection of the oppressi$e order around them" +heir unsettled and a&itated mood is not al ays con&enial to the recent con$ert! ho may! despite the cultural distance! feel more comfortable ith the first rather than the second &eneration of mi&rants! preferrin& their 3od-centred reli&ion to hat is often the troubled! identity-seekin& Islam of the youn&" +hirdly! e ha$e the smallest &roup of all) the con$ert or so-called 4re$ert5 community" +his &roup is hi&hly disparate! and it is not clear that one can make any meanin&ful &eneralisations about it at all" Almost by definition! a British person ho is &uided to Islam is an eccentric of some kind) one of the $irtues! perhaps! of the British is that eccentrics ha$e al ays been nurtured or at least more or less tolerated here" But the o$erall pattern is confusin&" 6ne can offer certain sociolo&ical &eneralisations about British people ho become Buddhists! or e$an&elical #hristians! or Mar7ists" But the present riter5s e7perience ith ne Muslims is that no discernable patterns e7ist hich mi&ht shed li&ht on the routes by hich people a aken to the truth of Islam" +his failure to discern patterns can only be described as lamentable! for ere e to discern such patterns! they could immediately be e7ploited for da4 a purposes" +he most e can say is that a clear ma%ority of con$erts to Islam in Britain are from #atholic rather than *rotestant or 8e ish back&rounds" -ithin this &roup! in my e7perience the only cler&y that con$ert are 8esuits, I am not a are of a sin&le member of another reli&ious order that has become Muslim" 6ther than this $ery &eneral and not terribly helpful obser$ation! fe missionary efforts! ne$er $ery coordinated! flounder accordin&ly" *a&e 1 of 9 patterns are discernable! and our

But hate$er the processes! and e may be ise to accept traditional in$ocations of di$ine pro$idence and &uidance hich transcend and make irrele$ant any sociolo&ical pattern-findin&! this third &roup amon& British Muslims confronts certain sharp problems of self-definition" 2&yptian! or Indonesian! or Indian Muslims becomin& British do so slo ly! perhaps o$er t o or three &enerations" +he identity problems can be sharp) in particular! there can be painful challen&es to the hopes and e7pectations of parents" But the process is &entle in comparison ith the abrupt %olt! hich typically elcomes the con$ert" +he si&nposts of the uni$erse are not ad%usted slo ly! but all at once" +he initial and (uite understandable response of many ne comers is to become an absolutist" 2$erythin& &oin& on amon& pious Muslims is an&elic, e$erythin& outside the circle of the faith is demonic" +he appeal of this outlook lies in its simplicity" +he ne ly rearran&ed landscape upon hich the con$ert looks is seen in satisfyin& black and hite terms of +hem $ersus .s! &ood a&ainst e$il" +his mindset is sometimes called 4con$ertitis5" It is a common illness! hich can make those ho ha$e cau&ht it rather difficult to deal ith" Fortunately! it almost al ays ears off" +he only e7ceptions are those eak souls ho ima&ine that the bu00 of e7citement caused by their absolutist! Manichean di$ision of the orld as a necessary part of Islamic piety! or e$en that it has some spiritual si&nificance" 'uch people are often condemned to ander from faction to faction! al ays %oinin& somethin& ne ! in an attempt to re&ain the initial e7citement en&endered by their con$ersion" Most ne Muslims! ho e$er! soon see throu&h this" A ma%ority of people come to Islam for real spiritual or intellectual reasons! and ill continue ith their (uest once they are inside Islam" Becomin& Muslim is! after all! only the first step to felicity" +hose indi$iduals ho adopt Islam because they need an identity ill be condemned to ander the sectarian and factional hall of mirrors! constantly lookin& for the perfect &roup that ill &i$e them their desperately needed sense of specialness and superiority" But actions are by intentions" A hundred years a&o the founder of the An&lo-Muslim mo$ement! Imam Abdallah 9uilliam in :i$erpool! as ritin& that those British people ho con$ert for Allah and His Messen&er! ill! by the &race of 3od! be ri&htly &uided" +hose ho con$ert for any other reason are in serious spiritual trouble" 8ust as the nama0 ;salaat< prayer is in$isibly in$alidated if the niyya ;intention< at its outset is not correct! similarly! Islam ill not ork for us unless e ha$e entered it in faith! out of a sincere (uestin& for 3od5s &ood pleasure" If thin&s are not &oin& ri&ht for us! if e find no deli&ht in our prayers! if =amadan simply makes us hun&ry! if e cannot seem to find the ri&ht mos(ue or the ri&ht company to take us for ard! then e ould do ell to start by e7aminin& our intentions" >id e become Muslims only! and purely! to brin& our souls to 3od? 6ther reasons) solidarity ith the oppressed! admiration for Muslims e kno ! desire to %oin a &roup! the lo$e of a oman - none of these are ade(uate foundations for our li$es as Muslims deser$in& of Allah5s &race and &uidance" Imam al-9ushayri says that spiritual aspirants 4are only depri$ed of attainment hen they ne&lect the foundations"5 'o e need to look ithin! and if necessary! rene our faith! follo in& the *rophetic sunna" 4=ene your iman5! a celebrated hadith en%oins" 'o hat are e? 'tatistically! perhaps fifty thousand people" But once e ha$e taken the plun&e! and en%oyed the feel of Islam! and come to kno throu&h e7perience! rather than throu&h readin& books! that Islam is a ay of sobriety! di&nity! poise and re ardin& spirituality! hat e7actly is our self-definition? -hen e meet family and friends ho are not Muslim! ho do e carry oursel$es? >o e treat Islam as a &reat secret? A discreet eccentricity that e hope people ill not be so crude as to mention? 6r! on the contrary! somethin& e ear on our slee$es! feelin& that it is our duty constantly to steer the con$ersation back into sacred (uarters! confrontin& people ith Islam! that they mi&ht ha$e no ar&ument a&ainst us at the =esurrection? More &enerally! hat is our $ie of the ider orld of unbelief! hich! despite the breathless predictions of some of our co-reli&ionists! continues to &ro more po erful and more prosperous? Ho much of it can e affirm! and ho much of it must e publicly or pri$ately diso n? -e can! of course! take the easy ay out! and a$oid en&a&in& ith these (uestions! by retreatin& from the mainstream of society! and consortin& only ith Muslims" But this is not so easy" -e need to be employed! since this is pleasin& to 3od, and e need to maintain &ood ties ith our relations! since this is also en%oined in the 'unna" -a-sahibhuma fi5l-dunya ma4rufan - 4/eep company ith them both in the orld in keepin& ith &ood custom5! says the 9ur5an to con$erts ho ha$e unbelie$in& parents" And the 'unna e7plains that non-Muslim parents ha$e si&nificant ri&hts o$er their Muslim children" *a&e ? of 9

But more si&nificantly e$en than this! to sol$e the problems thro n at us and at our identity by the real orld outside the mos(ue &ates! e need to en&a&e re&ularly ith non-Muslim society" But for this! there ould be no effecti$e da4 a" *eople do not hear the ord of Islam! &enerally! by bein& shouted at by some dema&o&ue at 'peakers #orner! or by readin& some an&ry little pamphlet pushed into their hand by a anderin& distributor of tracts" +hey con$ert throu&h personal e7perience of Muslims" And this takes place! o$er helmin&ly! at the orkplace" 6ther social conte7ts are closed to us) the pub! the beach! the office party" But ork is a prime en$ironment for bein& noticed! and %ud&ed! as Muslims" +here is nothin& remotely ne in this" Islam has al ays spread primarily throu&h social interactions connected ith ork" +he early Muslims ho con(uered half the orld did not set up soapbo7es in the to n s(uares of Ale7andria! #ordoba or Fe0! in the hope that #hristians ould flock to them and hear their preachin&" +hey did business ith the #hristians, and their nobility and inte&rity of conduct on the #hristians o$er" +hat is the model follo ed by Muslims! particularly the 'ufis! do n the a&es, and it is the one that e must retain today! by interactin& honourably and respectfully ith non-Muslims in our places of ork! as much as e can" If this is clear! then my initial (uestion still be&s a response" -hat is a British Muslim? -hat manner of creature is he! or she? +he public consensus has clear ideas about other British identities) British An&lican! British 8e ! British Asian Muslim or Hindu) all these are reco&nised cate&ories and a certain community of e7pected response &o$erns interactions bet een the ma%ority and these &roups" +he An&lo-Muslim! ho e$er! is not a &enerally reco&nised type" My o n belief is that the future prosperity of the An&lo-Muslim mo$ement ill be determined lar&ely by our ability to ans er this (uestion of identity" It is a (uestion mainly for con$erts! but hich many of hose dimensions ill come to apply also to second-&eneration immi&rant Muslims here! ho ha$e their o n (uestions to ask themsel$es and this culture about hat! e7actly! they are" +o frame a response! I think it is useful to step back a little! and consider the lar&er picture of Islamic history of hich e form a $ery small part" I mentioned earlier that Islam usually spread throu&h the utilisation of commercial opportunities as opportunities for da4 a" +hat picture is one of the most e7traordinary success stories in reli&ious history" #ompare! for instance! the ay in hich the Muslim orld as Islamised to the ay in hich the Americas ere #hristianised" Islamisation proceeded ith remarkable &entleness! at the hands of 'ufis and merchants" #hristianisation used mass e7termination of the nati$e Americans! the baptism of uncomprehendin& sur$i$ors! and the baleful scrutiny by the In(uisition of any si&ns of backslidin&" A more e7treme contrast ould be impossible to find" *erhaps no less e7traordinary than this contrast is its interestin& concomitant) #hristianisation brou&ht 2uropeanisation" Islamisation did not brin& Arabisation" +he churches built by the *uritans or the #on(uistadors in the @e -orld ere deliberate replicas of churches in 2urope" +he mos(ues constructed in the areas &radually on for Islam are endlessly di$erse! and reflect and indeed celebrate local particularities" #hristianity is a uni$ersal reli&ion that has historically sou&ht to impose a uni$ersal metropolitan culture" Islam is a uni$ersal reli&ion that has consistently nurtured a particularist pro$incial culture" A church in Me7ico #ity resembles a church in 'alamanca" A mos(ue in @i&eria! or Istanbul! or >%akarta! resembles in key respects the patterns! no purified and uplifted by monotheism! of the indi&enous re&ional patrimony" @o less remarkable is the ability of the Muslim liberators to accommodate those aspects of local! pre-Islamic tradition hich did not clash absolutely ith the truths of re$elation" In enterin& ne lands! Muslims ere armed ith the &enerous /oranic doctrine of .ni$ersal Apostleship, as the /oran says! 4+o e$ery nation there has been sent a &uide5" +his conflicts sharply ith the classical #hristian $ie of sal$ation as hin&in& uni(uely on one historical inter$ention of the di$ine in history) the sal$ific sacrifice of #hrist on #al$ary" @on-#hristian reli&ions ere! in classical #hristianity! seen as demonic and under the si&n of ori&inal sin" But classical Islam has al ays been able and illin& to see at least fra&ments of an authentic di$ine messa&e in the faiths and cultures of non-Muslim peoples" If 3od has assured us that e$ery nation has recei$ed di$ine &uidance! then e can look ith some fa$our on the 6ther" Hence! for instance! e find popular Muslim poets in India! such as 'ayid 'ultan! ritin& poems about /rishna as a *rophet" +here is no final theolo&ical proof that he as one! but the assumption is nonetheless not in $iolation of the /oran"

*a&e A of 9

2$en amon& Muslim ulema ho had not been to India! e find interestin&ly positi$e appraisals of Hinduism" For instance! the &reat Ba&hdad theolo&ian al-'hahrastani! in his Book of =eli&ions and 'ects! had access to enou&h reliable information about India to de$elop a $ery sophisticated theolo&ical reaction to Indian reli&ion" He accepts that the hi&her forms of Hinduism are not polytheistic" He notes that that althou&h the Hindus ha$e no notion of prophecy! they do ha$e hat he calls ashab al-ruhaniyat) (uasi-di$ine bein&s ho call mankind to lo$e the =eal and to practice the $irtues" He names Bishnu and 'hi$a as e7amples! and speaks positi$ely of them" He focuses particularly on the $eneration of celestial bodies) the sun! the moon! and the planets" +he reason hy he fi7es on these practices is that they seem to situate Hinduism ithin a reco&nisably /oranic paradi&m" +he /oran mentions (uite fa$ourably a &roup kno n as the 'abeans! ho ere by the second century identified ith $arious star- orshippin& but still $a&uely monotheistic sects in Mesopotamia" +he 'abeans are tolerated in Islamic la ! althou&h they are less pri$ile&ed than the 8e s and #hristians! a position reflected in the rulin& in 'hari4a that a Muslim may not marry their omen or eat their meat" 'hahrastani e7plicitly assimilates many Hindus to this cate&ory of 'abeans" +hey are to be tolerated as belie$ers in 6ne 3od, and ill only be punished by 3od if! ha$in& been properly e7posed to Islam! they re%ect it" Another e7ample is supplied by the &reat Muslim epic in #hina" +hose ho belie$e that Muslim communities can only flourish if they &hettoise themsel$es and refuse to interact ith ma%ority communities ould do ell to look at #hinese history" Many of the leadin& mandarins of Min& #hina ere in fact Muslims" -an& >ai-Cu! for instance! ho died in 1DDE! as a Muslim scholar ho recei$ed the title of 4Master of the Four =eli&ions5 because of his complete kno led&e of #hina5s four reli&ions) Islam! Buddhism! +aoism and #onfucianism" Many of the leadin& admirals in the na$y of the Min& 2mpire ere practisin& Muslims" In #hina! mos(ues look $ery like traditional #hinese &arden-temples! e7cept that there is a prayer hall ithout idols! and the calli&raphy is /oranic" In some of the most beautiful! you ill find! as you enter! the follo in& ords in #hinese inscribed on a tablet) 'a&es ha$e one mind and the same truth" In all parts of the orld! sa&es arise ho possess this uniformity of mind and truth" Muhammad! the 3reat 'a&e of the -est! li$ed in Arabia lon& after #onfucius! the 'a&e of #hina" +hou&h separated by a&es and countries! they had the same mind and +ruth" In these e7amples from India and #hina! e see a practical confirmation of Islam5s proclamation of itself as the final! and hence uni$ersal! messa&e from 3od" In a hadith e learn) 46ther prophets ere sent only to their o n peoples! hile I am sent to all mankind"5 It is not that the /oranic orld$ie affirms other reli&ions as fully ade(uate paths to sal$ation" In fact! it clearly does not" But it allo s the Muslim! as he encounters ne orlds! to sift the heat from the chaff in non-Muslim cultures! re%ectin& some thin&s! to be sure! but maintainin& others" In Islamic la ! too! e find that shara4i man (ablana! the re$ealed la s of those ho came before us! can under certain conditions be accepted as $alid le&al precedent! if they are not demonstrably abro&ated by an Islamic re$ealed source" And Islamic la also reco&nises the authority of urf! local customary la ! so that a la or custom is acceptable! and may be carried o$er into an Islamic culture or %urisdiction! if no Islamic re$ealed principle is thereby $iolated" Hence! e find the administration of Islamic la $aryin& from country to country" If a ife complains of recei$in& insufficient do er from her husband! the (adi ;%ud&e< ill make reference to hat is considered normal in their culture and social &roup! and ad%ud&e accordin&ly" All of these historical obser$ations ha$e! I hope! ser$ed to make (uite a simple point) Islam! as a uni$ersal reli&ion! in fact as the only le&itimately uni$ersal reli&ion! also makes room for the particularities of the peoples ho come into it" +he traditional Muslim orld is a rainbo ! an e7traordinary patch ork of different cultures! all united by a common adherence to the doctrinal and moral patterns set do n in =e$elation" *ut differently! =e$elation supplies parameters! hudud! rather than a complete blueprint for the details of cultural life" :ocal mindsets are Islamised! but remain distinct" +his point is ob$ious to anyone ho has studied Islamic thou&ht or Islamic history" I reiterate it today only because some Muslims no adays re%ect it fiercely" +hose ho come to Islam because they ish to dra closer to 3od ha$e no problem ith a multiform Islam radiatin& from a sin&le re$ealed paradi&matic core" But those ho come to Islam seekin& an identity ill find the multiplicity of traditional Muslim cultures *a&e F of 9

intolerable" *eople ith confused identities are attracted to totalitarian solutions" And today! many youn& Muslims feel so threatened by the di$ersity of calls on their alle&iance! and by the sheer comple7ity of modernity! that the only form of Islam they can re&ard as le&itimate is a totalitarian! monolithic one" +hat there should be four schools of Islamic la is to them unbearable" +hat Muslim cultures should le&itimately differ is a species of blasphemy" +hese youn& people! ho haunt our mos(ues and shout at any si&n of disa&reement! are either i&norant of Muslim history! or dismiss it as a &i&antic mistake" For them! the &race and rahma of Allah has for some reason been ithheld from all but a tiny fraction of the .mma" +hese people are the elect, and all disa&reement ith them is a blasphemy a&ainst 3od" -e cannot hope easily to cure such people" 'imple proofs from our history or our scholarship ill not suffice" -hat they need is a sense of security! and that! &i$en the deterioratin& conditions of both the Muslim orld and of the &hettos in -estern cities! may not come readily" For no ! it is best to i&nore their shouts and their melodramatic but al ays ill-fated acti$ities" 6ur psychic problems are not theirs, and theirs can ne$er be ours" Islam is! and ill continue to be! e$en amid the miserable &lobalisation of modern culture! a faith that celebrates di$ersity" 6ur thinkin& about our o n position as British Muslims should focus on that fact! and (uietly but firmly i&nore the protests both of the totalitarian frin&e! and of the importers of other re&ional cultures! such as that of *akistan! hich they re&ard as the only le&itimate Islamic ideal" 'o far! ho e$er! e ha$e been too busy restatin& the initial (uestion ith hich this chapter opened! and defendin& its le&itimacy! to propose any substanti$e ans er" It is time no to attempt a brief sketch of hat I construe our cultural position and prospects to be" As I ha$e tried to emphasise! Islam5s presence in Britain is not an Islamic problem" Islam is uni$ersal! and can operate e$ery here" It is not an Islamic problem! but it may be a British problem" 2urope! alone amon& the continents! does not ha$e a lon&standin& tradition of plurality" In medie$al Asia or Africa! in #hina or the 'on&hai 2mpire! or 2&ypt! or almost e$ery here! one could usually practice one5s o n reli&ion in peace! hate$er it happened to be" 6nly in 2urope as there a consistent policy of enforcin& reli&ious uniformity" +he reason for this lay of course in the #hurch5s theolo&y) unless you had some part in #hrist5s redempti$e sacrifice! you ere in the &rip of ori&inal sin! and hence ere an instrument of the de$il" Medie$al #atholics ere e$en e7pected to belie$e that unbaptised infants ould be tormented in Hell fore$er" 3i$en that absolute $ie ! it as only natural that 2urope constantly stro$e for reli&ious uniformity" Britain! as part of the 2uropean orld! has traditionally suffered the same totalitarian entailments in its history" Hence! althou&h it has al ays been possible to be a #hristian in a Muslim country! it as a&ainst the la to be a Muslim in Britain until 1G1?! ith the passa&e throu&h parliament of the +rinitarian Act" @onetheless! three centuries before that! ith Henry BIII5s Act of 'upremacy! 2n&land cut itself off from formal submission to Batican doctrines, and from that time a type of reli&ious di$ersity has been! ithin se$ere constraints! at least a possibility" In fact! Britain as the first ma%or 2uropean country to break ith the medie$al 2uropean tradition of absolute reli&ious conformity" *erhaps it is because of this fact that e7clusi$ist and 7enophobic political manifestations are less common in Britain today than in most #ontinental countries" +he @ational Front is a lunatic frin&e party in the ."/"! hereas its e(ui$alents re&ularly scoop t enty percent of the $otes in some re&ions of France! Bel&ium! Italy! 3ermany and Austria" -hen 2n&land thre off the *apist yoke! opportunities arose for (uestionin& ancient errors of understandin& hich had been introduced into #hristianity by the #hurch Fathers" +hese opportunities! ho e$er! ere not properly &rasped" +he 2n&lish =eformation as an attempt not to e7tirpate bid4a in the Muslim sense! and return to the reli&ion of 8esus of @a0areth! hich had been distorted by the #hurch on the basis of the Hellenisin& a&endas of the anonymous &ospel authors! but to reform the doctrines and litur&y of the medie$al church" Hence the reformers did not attempt to return to the simple monotheistic orship of the Apostles! but! in the Book of #ommon *rayer published in 11F9! created a ne $ernacular litur&y based lar&ely on medie$al trinitarian and incarnationist precedents" +his 2n&lish illin&ness to challen&e tradition! ho e$er! as to ha$e immense repercussions" >espite the lack of a areness of the instability of the &ospel te7ts! as re$ealed by ?Eth century scholarship! for the first *a&e 1 of 9

time 2uropeans! and notably Britons! ere (uestionin& the inno$ations of the #hurch ma&isterium! and attemptin& to &rope back to ards the faith re$ealed by 3od to His prophet 8esus! upon hom be peace" 6ne repercussion of the =eformation on our ancestors as the re$i$al of a mystical tradition! hose most ob$ious manifestation as the #ambrid&e *latonists" 2n&lish mysticism has usually been of a moderate type) one thinks of the #loud of .nkno in&! or 8ulian of @or ich" 27treme feats of asceticism! or e7tra$a&ant and obsessi$e preoccupations ith $isions and miraculous happenin&s! ha$e ne$er been part of the 2n&lish style of spirituality" +he #ambrid&e *latonists dre on this moderate mysticism! but insisted that mystical inspiration must ork hand in hand ith rational %ud&ement! and ith sound doctrine deri$ed from the 'criptures" +his position! hich influenced 8ohn :ocke in particular! a&ain e$inces the 2n&lish style of reli&ion) profound but not $erbose! rational but not rationalistic! and scriptural but not literalistic" +his $ery 2n&lish approach to reli&ion in due course led to serious (uestions bein& asked about the centrepiece of medie$al #hristian do&ma) the +rinity" Milton! and later 8ohn :ocke himself! are kno n to ha$e held discreetly .nitarian beliefs! ha$in& been unable to find con$incin& %ustification for trinitarian and incarnationist $ie s in the 'criptures" :ocke5s close friend @e ton as e$en more frank! ritin& of the $ehement uni$ersal and lastin& contro$ersy about the +rinity """ :et them make &ood sense of it are able" For my part! I can make none" ho

+he period around the #i$il -ar thre up many 2n&lishmen ho ere like ise concerned about the distortion of the teachin&s of 8esus by the #hurch, and the term .nitarian comes into bein& sometime durin& this period" But side by side ith this tradition of dissent! and in often obscure ays interactin& ith it! ent an e$en more re$olutionary chan&e) impro$ed information about the Blessed *rophet of Islam" +he medie$als chose to remain in i&norance about Islam" For them! Muslims ere summa culpabilis) the sum of e$erythin& blame orthy" /ni&hts from Britain had been at the forefront of the #rusades" +he sack of the Muslim city of :isbon in 11FH durin& hich perhaps 11E!EEE Muslims ere massacred! as lar&ely the ork of soldiers from @orfolk and 'uffolk" But the same (uest for simplicity and honesty hich made the =eformation possible! also made of 2n&land the first country in 2urope here medie$al ima&es of Islam could be challen&ed" +o an e7tent hich e cannot no determine! lar&ely because an e7cess of sympathy ith either Islam or .nitarianism could result in the dissenter bein& hun&! dra n and (uartered! ne perspecti$es on Islam informed and reinforced the discreet .nitarian mo$ement" +his is implied by the title of Humphrey *rideau75s hate-filled book of 1D9H! hich he called! +he true nature of Imposture! fully displayed in the life of Mahomet """ offered to the consideration of the >eists of the present a&e" *rideau7 is clearly implyin& that some radical >issenters ere bein& dra n to ards Islam! and he is ritin& his polemic to hold back that tide" But a far clearer insi&ht into this process is supplied by another author! a certain Henry 'tubbe" 'tubbe is the first 2uropean #hristian to rite fa$ourably of Islam" In fact! he rites so fa$ourably that e can only conclude that he had thro n off the herita&e of #hristianity! and pri$ately adopted it" He as educated at -estminster and 67ford! and orked as a physician in -ar ick! and as personal physician to /in& 8ames" His bio&rapher Anthony -ood described him as 4the most noted person of his a&e that these late times ha$e produced"5 He died in 1DHD! after bein& accused of heresy! and spendin& some time in prison" 'tubbe as a child of the #i$il -ar! and the spiritual chaos of the Interre&num prompted him to (uestion the official tenets of his inherited An&licanism" He as also a scholar! ho had mastered :atin! 3reek and Hebre ! and as fully con$ersant ith the ne critical scholarship on the Bible" *uttin& all these &ifts to&ether! and thanks to his friendship ith *ococke! the :audian *rofessor of Arabic in 67ford! he rote a book! hich for the nineteenth century ould ha$e been ad$anced! but hich for the se$enteenth is positi$ely astoundin&" 8ust the title alone &i$es some hint of this) 4An Account of the =ise and *ro&ress of Mahometanism! and a Bindication of him and his =eli&ion from the #alumnies of the #hristians"5 +he book be&ins ith a chapter demonstratin& ho the messa&e of 8esus #hrist has been per$erted by the #hurch" He stresses the fact that 8esus! upon him be peace! had remained faithful to the Mosaic :a ! and ould ha$e been horrified by the idea that later &enerations mi&ht use his name to %ustify the eatin& of pork! *a&e D of 9

for instance" He says! of the >isciples) +hey did ne$er belie$e #hrist to be the natural 'on of 3od! by eternal 3eneration! or any tenet dependin& thereon! or prayed unto him! or belie$ed the Holy 3host! or the +rinity of persons in one >eity """ +he hole constitution of the primiti$e #hurch 3o$ernment relates to the 8e ish 'yna&o&ue! not to the Hierarchy" +he presbyters ere not *riests! but :aymen set apart to their office by imposition of hands " " " @or as the name of *riest then e$er heard of5" He concludes that the sacraments of the #hurch! particularly baptism and the 2ucharist! are pa&an rituals introduced into #hristianity se$eral decades after #hrist5s death" 'tubbe then pro$ides a chapter on 4a brief History of Arabia and the 'aracens5! follo ed by four on the *rophet" #hapter 2i&ht is a $indication of the *rophet, chapter 9 is a $indication of Islam! and chapter 1E e7plains the moral necessity of the doctrine of 8ihad" His polemical intentions throu&hout are clear) he constantly sho s Islam to be a purer and more rational form of reli&ion than #hristianity" Here is 'tubbe! for instance! summarisin& the *rophet5s teachin&) +his is the sum of Mahometan =eli&ion! on the one hand not clo&&in& Men5s Faith ith the necessity of belie$in& a number of abstruse notions hich they cannot comprehend! and hich are often contrary to the dictates of =eason and common 'ense, nor on the other hand loadin& them ith the performance of many troublesome! e7pensi$e and superstitious #eremonies! yet en%oinin& a due obser$ance of =eli&ious -orship! as the surest Method to keep Men in the bounds of their >uty both to 3od and Man" And a little further on he adds) :et us no lay aside our pre%udices """ +heir Articles of Faith are fe and plain! hereby they are preser$ed from 'chisms and Heresies! for altho5 they ha$e &reat di$ersity of opinions in the e7plication of their :a ! yet! a&reein& in the fundamentals! their differences in opinion do not reach to that breach of #harity so common amon& the #hristians! ho thereby become a scandal to all other =eli&ions in the orld" +heir @otions of 3od are &reat and noble! their opinions of the Future 'tate are consonant to those of the 8e s and #hristians" As to the moral part of their =eli&ion " " " e shall see that it is not inferior to that of the #hristians" And lastly! their reli&ious >uties are plainly laid do n! hich is the cause that they are duly obser$ed! and are in themsel$es $ery rational" He allocates an entire chapter to sho the moral si&nificance of the 8ihad" +his chapter is perhaps the most remarkable in the entire book! since it had lon& been a #hristian ide fi7e that Islam could only spread by the s ord" He &oes to some len&th! (uotin& tra$ellers to the 6ttoman 2mpire! to sho that #hristian minorities are usually protected better under Muslim rule than under the rule of their fello #hristians" He obser$es! for instance) It is manifest that the Mahometans did propa&ate their 2mpire! but not their =eli&ion! by force of arms " " " #hristians and other =eli&ions mi&ht peaceably subsist under their *rotection " " " it is an assured truth! that the $ul&ar 3reeks li$e in a better #ondition under the +urk at present then they did under their o n 2mperors! hen there ere perpetual murders practised on their *rinces! and tyranny o$er the *eople, but they are no secure from In%ury if they pay their +a7es" And it is indeed more the Interest of the *rinces I @obles! than of the *eople! hich at present keeps all 2urope from submittin& to the +urks" Ha$in& sun& Islam5s praises in these terms! 'tubbe could hardly e7pect to publish his book" He published se$eral others! but this one lan&uished discreetly in manuscript form until 1911! hen a &roup of 6ttoman Muslims in :ondon rescued it from obscurity and published it" At least si7 manuscripts did! ho e$er! circulate in a more or less clandestine fashion" @o fe er than three of them ere preser$ed in the pri$ate library of the =e$d 8ohn >isney! ho at the be&innin& of the 19th century shocked the established church by publicly con$ertin& to .nitarianism" 'ome historians ha$e su&&ested also that 3ibbon as familiar ith the ork" For instance! 'tubbe obser$es) -hen #hristianity became &enerally recei$ed! it introduced ith it a &eneral inundation of Barbarism and I&norance! hich o$er-run all places here it pre$ailed" And 3ibbon! se$eral decades later! closes his >ecline and Fall of the =oman 2mpire ith the ords) 4I ha$e described the triumph of barbarism and reli&ion"5 3ibbon himself as kno n for his pri$ate scepticism about +rinitarian do&ma" 'tubbe5s book! as I ha$e said! is the ork of a bra$e pioneer" But it is also a considered reflection upon the reli&ious instabilities of the interre&num period hich &enerated it" It sho s a sensiti$e and immensely culti$ated 2n&lish mind shakin& off the complications of old do&ma! usin& modern scholarship to reconstruct *a&e H of 9

the life and teachin&s of 8esus #hrist! and of the *rophet Muhammad" Instead of somethin& e7otic! e see here a $ery 2n&lish kind of reli&ion e7pressin& itself" 'tubbe is spiritual! but not superstitious" He likes simplicity) the blank! *uritan all of the mos(ue rather than the elaborate stone metaphors of #atholicism or of the di00yin&ly hi&h An&licanism of #harles" He $alues holesome morality that is pra&matic rather than irresponsibly idealistic) so he commends poly&amy! and sho s the moral dan&ers of le&ally imposed mono&amy" He re&ards ith distaste traditional #hristian strictures on 4the flesh5 - a century beforehand! 2n&lishmen had re%ected the ar&uments for a celibate cler&y and had firmly (uashed monkery as both unnatural and parasitic" For 'tubbe! the *rophet5s approach as in accord ith nature) the lo$e of oman is as natural as the lo$e of 3od" +he *rophet! like the &reat Hebre patriarchs! sho ed that sacred and profane lo$e can and indeed must &o to&ether" A &eneration earlier! 8ohn >onne had suffered passions for both oman and for 3od, and found his reli&ion finally unable to reconcile the t o" His early poems are amon& some of the most touchin&! and also sensual! lo$e poems in the 2n&lish lan&ua&e" :ater! as >ean of 't *aul5s! he realised that he must renounce the flesh as the instrument of the Fall and the perpetrator of ori&inal sin" Hence his a&onisin&! tra&ic spiritual career! renouncin& the flesh to ser$e 3od! composin& poems rapped in his indin& sheet) >onne5s &reat Muslim soul cau&ht in the fla ed dialectic of a theolo&y that re&arded spirit and body as eternally at ar" 'tubbe is also dra in& on a particularly 2n&lish pra&matism in his treatment of the 8ihad" Far from re&ardin& the Islamic institution of the %ust ar as a reproach! he e7tols it! contrastin& it ith hat he re&arded as the insipid and irresponsible pacifism of the unkno n @e +estament authors" 'tubbe is an 2n&lish &entleman of a &eneration that had kno n ar! and kne that there are some in%ustices in the orld that cannot be dissol$ed throu&h passi$e sufferin&! throu&h turnin& the other cheek" He had sided ith *arliament durin& the ci$il ar! holdin&! ith #rom ell! that the ri&hteous man may sometimes %ustly bear the burden of the s ord" An admirer of #rom ell! he became an admirer of the *rophet" For him! the *rophet as not a forei&n! e7otic fi&ure) his &enial $ision of human life under 3od e7actly conformed to hat a ci$ilised 2n&lishman of the se$enteenth century thou&ht necessary and proper" In 'tubbe5s ork! in other ords! e find a $indication of Muhammad as an 2n&lish prophet" +here is more that can be said about the con$er&ence of Islamic moderation and &ood sense ith the 2n&lish temper" +ra&ically! the rise of >issent in 2n&land coincided also ith the rise of nationalism and 7enophobia! hich reached its into7icatin& hei&hts ith the empire of 9ueen Bictoria and the 2d ardians" .nder such An&locentric and frankly racist banners! sympathy ith Islam became once more a recedin& possibility" But there ere e7ceptions" *erhaps the most celebrated as that most 2n&lish of intellectuals! #arlyle" #arlyle! like 'tubbe t o centuries before! as a free spirit! unhampered either by obsessions ith +rinity! or modern delusions about the ability of material pro&ress to secure human happiness" 6n May the Gth 1GFE! in a stuffy lecture room in *ortman '(uare! :ondon5s intellectual elite ere hearin& #arlyle speak about the *rophet" +hey had anticipated the usual in$ecti$e, and they ere astonished to atch him holdin& up the *rophet as a heroic! ad$enturous fi&ure! hose sacrifices had brou&ht a natural theism to his people! and had much to teach a materialistic Bictorian 2n&land" +he clima7 came hen the lecturer cried) Benthamee .tility! $irtue by *rofit and :oss, reducin& this 3od5s orld to a dead brute 'team-en&ine " " " if you ask me hich &i$es! Mahomet or they! the be&&arlier and falser $ie of Man and his >estinies in this .ni$erse! I ill ans er! it is not Mahomet" 'tun& to the (uick! 8ohn 'tuart Mill leaped to his feet! and cried out) 4@oJ5 #arlyle as lecturin& on 4+he Hero as *rophet5, and a&ain e see the 2n&lish realism to ards the use of force! hich had made possible the creation of the British 2mpire! inspirin& a more positi$e appreciation of the *rophet of Islam" +he &reat #hristian blindness to ards Islam has al ays been the belief that there can be only one type of perfection! namely the pacifist 8esus! ho tau&ht men to turn the other cheek! and ho said! 4=esist not him that is e$il"5 For minds nurtured on such an ima&e! the hero-*rophet is a difficult fi&ure to comprehend" In the Far 2ast! of course! there is no such mental block" 'pirituality and the culti$ation of the martial arts there ent hand in hand" +he lo$e of omen as also seen as a necessary part of this ethos" +he samurai tradition in particular! of the ri&hteous s ordsman! a meditator ho as also a &reat lo$er of omen! ensures that a 8apanese! for instance! ill ha$e fe difficulties ith the specific &enius and &reatness of the *rophet of Islam" But for #hristians! there is no such model! althou&h kni&htly ethics in the early Middle A&es! learned from Muslims in 'pain and *alestine! dimly su&&ested it" But e$en for the #rusader kni&hts! the ideal of celibacy as often accepted) the /ni&hts +emplar! for instance! a monastic arrior *a&e G of 9

order! ho ere influenced enou&h by Islam to comprehend the importance of a sacred ho ne$er (uite &ot the point about celibacy"

arriorhood! but

-ith #arlyle! the Hero as *rophet! or the *rophet as Hero! re$eals itself as a credible type for the 2n&lish mind" And #arlyle5s insistence on the moral e7altation of the *rophet ho transcended pacifism to take up arms to fi&ht for his people as understood by at least one later British riter) 3eor&e Bernard 'ha " For 'ha ! as for #arlyle! there as no doubt about the correct ans er to Hamlet5s (uestion -hether 4tis nobler in the mind to suffer the slin&s and arro s of outra&eous fortune! or to take arms a&ainst a sea of troubles and by opposin& end them" 2dmund Burke had already pointed out that 4for e$il to triumph! it is enou&h that &ood men do nothin&"5 'ha ! like #arlyle! reco&nised that this principle calls into (uestion the 3ospel ethic of passi$ity in the face of sufferin& and in%ustice" :et me read to you a fe ords from Hesketh *earson5s bio&raphy of the &enerally post-#hristian 'ha ) For many years Kthis as 19?HL! 'ha had been meditatin& a play on a prophet" +he militant saint as a type more con&enial to his nature than any other! a type he thorou&hly sympathised ith and could therefore portray ith unfailin& insi&ht" In all history the one person ho e7actly ans ered his re(uirements! ho ould ha$e made the perfect 'ha$ian hero! as Mahomet" In his diary for 191A! 'ha himself rote) 4I had lon& desired to dramatise the life of Mahomet" But the possibility of a protest from the +urkish Ambassador - or the fear of it - causin& the :ord #hamberlain to refuse to license such a play! deterred me"5 And so! as *earson records! he rote 'aint 8oan instead" *erhaps e can close this brief parenthetic summary of the con$er&ence bet een British martial theory and traditions and Islam! ith a final insi&ht, this time offered by #olin Morris! former head of the BB# in @orthern Ireland) 4+he false prophet is a moralist! he tells the orld ho thin&s ou&ht to be, the real prophet is a realist! he tells the orld ho thin&s really are"5 :et us try to sum up the abo$e ar&uments" Firstly! Islam is a uni$ersal reli&ion" >espite its ori&ins in Hth century Arabia! it orks e$ery here! and this is itself a si&n of its miraculous and di$ine ori&in" 'econdly! the British Isles ha$e for se$eral hundred years been the home of indi$iduals hose reli&ious and moral temper is $ery close to that of Islam" +o mo$e from #hristianity to Islam is hence! for an 2n&lish man or oman! not the &iant leap that outsiders mi&ht assume" It is! rather! simply the lo&ical ne7t step in the epic story of our people" #hristianity! formerly a 3reek mystery reli&ion ad$ocatin& a moral code a&ainst the natural la ! is in fact forei&n to our national temperament" It is an e7otic creed! and it is no fatally compromised by its positi$e $ie of secular modernity" Islam! once e ha$e become familiar ith it! and settled into it comfortably! is the most suitable faith for the British" Its $alues are our $alues" Its moderate! undemonstrati$e style of piety! still aters runnin& deep, its insistence on modesty and a certain reser$e! and its insistence on common sense and on pra&matism! combine to furnish the most natural and easy reli&ious option for our people" I should close by sayin& that nothin& in hat I ha$e said is intended in a %in&oistic sense" +hat the British ha$e a con$er&ence ith Islam is to the credit of our people! certainly" But I am not commendin& any smu& ethnocentrism, precisely because Islam itself came to abolish a tribal mentality" Islam is the true consan&uinity of belie$ers in the 6ne +rue 3od! the common bond of those ho seek to remain focussed on the di$ine 'ource of our bein& in this diffuse! i&norant and tra&ic a&e" But it is &enerous and inclusi$e" It allo s us to celebrate our particularity! the &enius of our herita&e, ithin! rather than in tension ith! the &reater and more lastin& fello ship of faith"

*a&e 9 of 9