MAIN CAMPUS SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL AND PROCESS ENGINEERING

NAME:

SIBUCHI DENNIS KISAKA

REG NO.:

CPE/26/09

DEPT:

CHEMICAL & PROCESS ENGINEERING

CORSE CODE:

CHP 392

TASK: PRESENTED TO:

LAB REPORT-DOUBLE PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER MR. DENNIS OTIENO.

DATE:

12/04/2012

SIGN:

.........................

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Contents
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 4 BACKGROUND INFORMATION .................................................................................................. 4 Organizations structure.................................................................................................................... 5 INSPECTION AND WEIGHING...................................................................................................... 7 PRE-MILLING ..................................................................................................................................... 8 MILLING .............................................................................................................................................. 9 JUICE TREATMENT......................................................................................................................... 12 Juice clarification............................................................................................................................. 15 Evaporators ..................................................................................................................................... 16 Function of parts ......................................................................................................................... 17 Operation..................................................................................................................................... 18 Cleaning of the evaporators ....................................................................................................... 20 Sulfur preparation .......................................................................................................................... 22 SUGAR HOUSE ................................................................................................................................ 23 Pan boiling ...................................................................................................................................... 24 A pan boiling ............................................................................................................................... 25 B-massecuite pan boiling............................................................................................................ 26 C-massecuite pan boiling ........................................................................................................... 26 Centrifugals ..................................................................................................................................... 27 Batch centrifugal ......................................................................................................................... 27 Continuous centrifugal............................................................................................................... 29 EFFLUENT WATER TREATMENT ................................................................................................ 31 Dosing room ................................................................................................................................ 31 Ponds ........................................................................................................................................... 31 Clarifier ........................................................................................................................................ 32 Constructed water lands ............................................................................................................ 32 WATER TREATMENT ..................................................................................................................... 33 Clarification ................................................................................................................................. 33 Bed filtration and decolourising ................................................................................................ 33 Domestic water treatment .............................................................................................................. 33 P age |2

Boiler water treatment.................................................................................................................... 33 Removal of ions and dissolved gases ........................................................................................ 33 BOILER ............................................................................................................................................... 35 Flow of water in the boiler ............................................................................................................. 36 Flow of flue gases ........................................................................................................................... 36 Flow of air ....................................................................................................................................... 37 Flow of bagasse ............................................................................................................................... 37 LABORATORY .................................................................................................................................. 37 Test carried out in the laboratory .................................................................................................. 37 Sugar moisture test ..................................................................................................................... 37 Sugar colour test ......................................................................................................................... 38 pH determination ....................................................................................................................... 38 Determination of water insoluble matter in sugar ................................................................... 39 Determination of moisture in bagasse....................................................................................... 39 Determination of sugar trace ..................................................................................................... 40 Determination of sugar ash ........................................................................................................ 40 Determination of brix ................................................................................................................. 41 Determination of pol/sucrose content ...................................................................................... 41

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WEST KENYA SUGAR COMPANY REPORT INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Company policy statement: we are committed to production and distribution of high quality sugar and allied products at optimum cost without compromising the integrity of our products and service in an attempt to satisfy our short term objectives. Also, we are committed to long term profitability and employment of qualified personnel and shall achieve this by utilizing business approach that makes our business more competitive and continuously improving effectiveness of our quality management system that takes to account and exceeds the needs of all our stakeholders expectations. This encompasses the attitude of quality first. Mission: to emerge as the premier producer of finest sugar and allied products whilst continually striving to achieve long term sustainable growth and profitability. We aim at rewarding our stakeholders by undertaking technological development, offering competitive pricing focusing on diversification, providing safe, harmonious and challenging working environment, and improving our relations with farmers by working alongside the farming community and maximizing their produce ability. Vision: to establish our self a market leader in the sugar industry in Kenya by producing high quality sugar which meets international standards.

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Organizations structure
Board of directors

Managing director

General Manager

Human resource and administration manager

Roads engineer

Chief project engineer

Purchasing manager

Stores manager

Transport manager

Financial coordinator

Chief engineer

Chief process manager

Head of agriculture

Autoworkshop manager

Financial accountant

Software engineer

Duty chief engineer

Process manager

Agriculture Cane service manager P a g development e |5 manager

General overview of the production process Cane Weighing and Inspection Sugarcane Pre-mills Sugar cane fiber Milling

Bagasse

juice
Juice treatment

Boiler

Evaporation

Transportation

Storage Crystallization

Molasses

Molasses & Sugar Separation of sugar and molasses

Bagging

Drying Sugar

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INSPECTION AND WEIGHING Inspection: Sugar cane from out growers has to be first inspected before it is certified for milling. This is done in order to maintain the quality of the sugar produced as well as to ensure there is maximum derivation of sugar and its by products from the crop. Parameters taken into account during the inspection are; age, that is used to determine the maturity of the crop, roots, disease, tops, trash and staleness. If the sugar cane does not satisfy the minimum required conditions it is not allowed to proceed for processing (i.e it is rejected). For instance age of the crop is calculated by the formula:

= +

Note; This formula only applies if the roots and tops have been cut off, if they are not then six is not added in the equation and if only one has been cut off, three instead of six is added in the equation. Its important to check for the staleness of the sugar since it affects other production processes as milling. The sugar cane should also have less trash for it to proceed in the production process. Weighing: Is done on a weighing bridge by an automatic weighing machine. Weighing of the trucks is done twice; when the truck is empty and when it is filled with cargo which includes sugar cane, sugar, molasses, fertilizer baggasse et cetera. Net weight= Gross Weight (total) Weight of the Truck- 160Kg (trash weight)

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For trucks carrying sugar cane, weight of the trash is also subtracted which was a constant of 160kgs.

PRE-MILLING Cane which has been weighed is carried to the cane yard. It is then unloaded from the tracks to feed table by three different means which include; by use of a winch, by use of a grabber and by use of a crane. Cane loaded into the feed table is carried forward to the cane carrier by means of conveyer. The conveyers are fitted with a hook that helps hold the sugar cane while its being carried through the feed table. The amount of sugar cane being carried into the cane carrier is specified (three quarters full) and therefore has to be controlled in order not to stall the cane carrier. If there is too much cane being carried into the carrier by the feed table a kicker is employed that pushes the cane back allowing only a moderate required amount through. Also, to moderate the amount of cane entering the carrier, speed of the feed table conveyers is moderated by the feed table operators. The feed table operators are in constant communication with the cane carrier operators to prevent overloading of the cane carriers. The cane carrier carries the sugar cane forward into the pre-milling zone. Here they go through a quick rotating chopper. The chopper moderates the amount of cane entering to the other knives. It contains blades on a shaft that rotate backwards which throw excess sugar cane backwards, maintaining the required level. They also cut the cane to small pieces. The cane then proceeds to a first rotating leveler. The levelers work is to chop the long cane stalks to shorter ones to allow for better processing.

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The short cane stalks are then carried forward to the heavy duty. The heavy duty crushes the cane stalks to fibers, though not very fine fibers since bits of trash can still be observed. The cane fibers are then moved to the shredders. The shredders further pound the fibers to finer fiber that is almost powdery. The cane fibers are then moved to a belt conveyer. Note: The product is of pre-milling is referred to as sugar fiber and not bagasse. This is because it still contains the sugar juice in it.

MILLING
The cane in carried to the milling section by means of conveyer a belt. Before the cane fibers are milled, metal impurities are removed from it by use of an electro-magnet situated at the top of the conveyer. Milling is done by means of rollers. A mill contains four rollers namely, top roller, discharge roller, feed roller and underfeed roller. The rollers are corrugated to prevent the sugar fibers from sticking onto their surface.

Feed roller Top roller motion of sugar fibers

Underfeed

Discharge roller.

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The feed roller is the driver roller and it moves all the other rollers. The rollers are coupled together using gears connected at the ends. The top gear is hydraulically operated. High pressure water is the fluid used to press the roller down. The water is applied to a piston which then presses the roller. The pressure applied by the steam is contained by accumulaters. The rollers are held into position by bearings. The bearings are lubricated to slow wear and tear of the gears as well as to prevent overheating and burning. The bearings are water cooled to prevent them from expanding and overheating which would stall the mills. The complete milling process contains five mills. In the first mill no water or juice is added to the sugar fiber during the milling process and its juice is moved directly to the storage tank. In the second mill juice from the third mills is added to it and juice from it is stored in the storage tank. In the third mill juice from the fourth mill is added to it and fourth mill juice from the fifth mills is added to it. In the fifth mill hot water is added to its sugar fiber before milling. The process of recirculation of juice of one mill to the other is called imbibition. The bagasse is carried from one mill to the next by an intercarrier. The product of milling is raw juice and the by product is bagasse. The raw juice is pumped to the process house while the bagasse is carried by a hook conveyer to the bagasse store to be later used in the boiler. The bagasse is first sieved to remove small fine particles called bagacillo. The bagacillo is not a viable fuel and extinguishes the fire in the boiler. The bagacillo is lifted by a vacuum to the process house where it is used as a filter aid.

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Separation of roller lubrication oil and water At times the cleaning water mixes with the lubricating oil and therefore need to separate them. A displacer system is employed in which the difference in densities of the two liquids is used as the principle of separation. It contains three chambers connected to each other by pipes as shown. Water oil mixture entering the displacer first passes through a sieve that removes solid materials. Water which is denser occupies the lower position and it therefore carried forward to the next chamber by the pipe. Oil is collected from the chambers on a weekly basis.

Sieved water+oil in

Oil

connecting pipes

Oil out Water. Water out

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JUICE TREATMENT
Layout of juice treatment
Raw juice tank

Raw juice /primary heaters Liming tank

Pans

Limed juice receiver tank

Flocculation chamber

Phosphoric acid tank

Limed juice/Secondary heater Flash tank Flocculation chamber Scum chamber

Syrup storage tank

Telescopic valve

Syrup clarifier

Clarifier

Clarified juice tank

Evaporator

Syrup heater

Mud juice tank

Mud mixer

Continuous vacuum rotary drum filter

Cyclone with bagacillo

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Juice from the mills is pumped to the raw juice tank. This juice is unprocessed. The pH of the juice is about 5.0. The raw juice tank is contains two sensors used to detect the level of juice in the tank. If the juice reaches the level of the first sensor an alarm goes off giving off a warning of critical level. If the juice level reaches the second sensor, it indicates a critical warning level and hence automatically switches off the pumps at the milling point stopping further intake of juice to the tank. The juice is then pumped to the primary raw juice heaters. The juice heaters are heat exchangers of the shell and tube design containing tubes two meters long. They are in pairs. The first heater heats the juice to temperatures of 60 to 650c. It uses hot water 70o Celsius as the heating fluid. The second heater uses third body vapor to heat the juice (called third body because it comes from the 3rd evaporator). It heats the juice to temperatures 75-80oC. The heat exchangers have a capacity of up to 120 m3/hr. The heaters also contain a nozzle pipe that is used to test for leakage. This is done by closing the outlet and passing cold water under pressure through the tubes. Cold water is also used to clean the pipes through the nozzle by removing scales that may have accumulated in the pipes. The process of cleaning is called brushing. The purpose of heating the juice is to speed up the reactions with the chemicals (lime and R300) that would be added to it in latter stages of processing. The juice is then pumped to the mond/raw juice receiver. It then flows under gravity to the liming tank. The liming tank is where lime is added to raise the pH level of the juice to between 7.3 and 7.5. The liming tank contains a stirrer that mixes the juice and lime to form an even mixture. An overflow pipe is connected the liming tank at a height where there is satisfactory mixing is achieved and therefore a satisfactory pH. The lime addition system is automatic but control of how much lime is to be added is set by the operators depending on the conditions. The tank also has pH sensors to detect the pH of the juice.

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The limed juice is then moved to the limed juice receiver tank then pumped to the secondary heaters/ limed juice heaters. Here their temperature is raised to 100 -1050c. The heating fluid is second body vapor (that is from the second evaporator). Elevated temperatures promote the process of flocculation and therefore improve juice clarification. The juice is then pumped to the flash tank. At the flash tank volume is increased causing the liquid under high pressure to be flashed to liquid and vapor. The vapor is let out through a vapor vent via a vapor box to the atmosphere. The purpose of flashing is to reduce the pressure which may cause disturbance during clarification. The remaining juice then leaves through a pipe which is connected with a flocculation chamber via a valve. The valve controls the amount of flocculants added to the juice. The juice and flocculants then mix co-currently. Flocculants used include R300. The flocculants form nucleus that other suspended particles in the juice can grow, and therefore they increase in mass and a settle in the clarifier. The ratio of juice to flocculants is about one to a thousand by mass. Mixing of flocculants is done in the flocculants chamber. A stirrer is employed to ensure sufficient mixing of the flocculants with water. The juice mixed with flocculants then moves to the scum chamber. The purpose of the scum chamber is to reduce juice velocity so as it does not cause juice disturbance

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Juice clarification

Metal scrapers

Clear juice tank Central rotating pipe Mud drum

Mud remover pipe Juice from the scum chamber flows into the clarifier through a central duct. The juice flows downwards to the bottom most chamber of the clarifier and begins to rise. As the juice level rises, flocs in it settle by sedimentation to the bottom. The juice rises through the chambers. Also inside the chambers is a mud scraper. The mud scraper sweeps the settled mud flocs on the floor of the chambers to the center where it flows down to the next chamber. Clean clarified juice is removed from the top of each chamber via a clean juice remover pipe situated at a point of satisfactory clarification. The clean juice is then stored in the clear juice tank. Each chamber has a clean juice remover that is connected with a valve to the clear juice tank. Flow through the pipes is controlled depending on the level of clarity. Also at the bottom of each chamber is a mud remover pipe that is connected to a mud tank. Its purpose is to remove juice filled with the settled mud. Juice from the mud tank is transferred to the mud tank where it is stored momentarily before being transferred to the mud mixer tank. At the mud mixed tank it is mixed with bagacillo from the mills. The purpose of the bagacillo is to act as a filter aid during the filtration in the rotary drum vacuum filter.
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The mud and bagacillo mixture is then pumped to the mud tank of the rotary drum vacuum filter. Here the suspensions are kept in solution by an agitator to avoid settling. The rotary drum is a horizontal slow rotating cylinder covered with a screen, with radially separated compartments in which vacuum is applied. It is usually partially submerged in the mud mixture. The vacuum absorbs both the juice and the suspension in the juice. The juice passes through the screen into the radial compartments while the mud does not. The absorbed juice is then passed out through outlet manifolds in the compartments by action of vacuum. As the part of the drum which was submerged moves out of the mud, water is sprayed on it with continued action of vacuum to wash out any juice that may have remained on the cake that forms on the filter medium. The cake is then scraped off using a knife onto a conveyer belt and transferred to a mud boot. The filtrate is transferred to the filtrate storage tank and later pumped to the limed juice tank to undergo processing again. The clear juice from the clarifier is transferred to the clear juice heaters after which it is transferred to the evaporators for concentration.

Evaporators
An evaporator is a vessel used to reduce the water content of juice to high concentration of brix (both sugar and non-sugar soluble constituent). Evaporators receive juice from the secondary juice heaters.

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Evaporator diagram

Brick like material

Sweet juice remover Sight glass Steam/vapor in Tubes Deflector plate Juice intake

catch hole boiling space

Calandria Saucer

Condensate remover

Juice outlet

Function of parts Catcher: its made up of brick like material that prevents spurting boiling juice from escaping through the vapor vent incase it jumps too high. Calandria: is where the heating vapor or steam passes through the evaporator tubes. The vapor then heats the tubes which intern heat the juice in the tubes causing it to boil. Saucer: is where the juice is taken into the evaporator and where it remains while being heated. It is also where the outlet pipe is situated. Inlet pipe: allow entry of juice into the evaporator.

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Outlet pipe: It takes out already evaporated juice that has boiled and whose moisture content has been reduced. It is connected to an outlet line with a valve that controls the amount of juice leaving the evaporator. Tubes: they provide a point of interaction between the heating vapor and the juice hence maximum heat transfer between the two. They conduct the heat in the heating vapor to the juice. Non condensing gas remover: is to remove the non condensed gas from the boiling space. This gas is removed from the evaporator since it reduces thermal conductivity which is only by conduction and convection. Deflector plate: It spreads the juice in brought in by the intake through the evaporator. Condensate remover: it removed the condensed vapor or steam and directs it to the condenser tank. Sweet juice remover: removes sucrose containing water that has been condensed by the catcher bricks. It is called sweet juice because it contains sucrose in it. It is usually pumped to the pans where it is used for heating purposes. Sight glass: it is used to view the level of juice in the evaporator as well as to monitor the development of brix. Operation Juice from the secondary juice heaters is taken into the evaporators juice intake. This intake juice contains about 15% brix and 85% water. The juice is then spread to the walls of the saucer using the deflector plate that is of hemispherical shape. Steam is also passed through the calandria simultaneously and is used to heat the juice. Hot boiling juice is passes through the tubes depending on the level of boiling. The boiled juice looses some of its vapor that is carried out through the vapor vent where it is carried forward to be used in the next evaporator as the heating fluid. As it

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leaves some of it condenses. The condensate is transferred to the condenser tank where it is then pumped to the boiler to top up the boiler water. On heating the juice the steam looses some of its latent heat. It is then released to the atmosphere to avoid build up of pressure. There are a total of five evaporators; all operate under the same principle. The first evaporator is of the semi Krestner type (does not have a downtake) and the other four are Robert evaporators. The quantity of brix in the syrup leaving from the fifth evaporators is between 60-65% Table of summary of evaporator variables VARIABLE Exhaust steam pressure 0.9 to 1.2 kg/cm3 Exhaust steam temperature 1150c to 1200c 1 body vapor pressure 0.3 to 0.5 kg/cm3 1 body juice level boiling level half glass 1body outlet valve kept fully open 1 body boiling temperature 105 -108 2 body boiling temperature 103-105 2 body vapor pressure 0.2 -0.3 2 body juice level- boiling just at 1 glass level 2 body cut over valve fully open 2 body vapor temperature 93 -98

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3 body vapor vacuum 100 -150 mm (4-6 inches) 3 body juice level at 1 glass level 4 body temperature 80 -85 4 body vacuum 300-400mm (12 -16 inches) 5 body vapor temperature 60 65 5 body vacuum 500 600mm (22 24 inches) Syrup brix 60 -65 % Cleaning of the evaporators The main purpose of cleaning is removal of scales that are formed in the evaporator tubes during boiling as well as the evaporator inside. Scales are formed from evaporated water containing lime juice that is they are lime salts that were in solution. The evaporator is first filled with caustic soda which is heated to boiling by steam or vapor for a period of four hours. Since the caustic soda is corrosive it softens the scales from inside the tubes while eroding less of the metal tubes since they have a higher corrosion resistance. The caustic soda is then drained and the evaporator s downtake closed before it is steamed. After the caustic soda has been drained, cold water is introduced into the evaporator. The cold water not only serves the purpose of washing but also due to its low temperature causes sudden contraction of the evaporator tubes. Sudden contraction causes the scales in the tubes to crack. The cold water is then drained. This is repeated three times. After draining the tubes are cleaned by a rotating skatascola tool head connected to a rotating motor by a rotating flexible shaft. Cold water is then again flashed through the tank and then drained.
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Notes The first second and third evaporators are operated under pressure while the four and fifth evaporators are operated on vacuum. This is because the third fourth and fifth evaporators are operated under vapor to reduce the evaporation temperature of the juice or syrup. This is to prevent decomposition of the sucrose. Also as the temperatures reduce through the adjacent (that is from evaporator 1 to 5) evaporators reduce. This is to prevent dissociation of sucrose in the sugar to fructose and glucose. It also prevents caramolisation which is the burning of sugar to form black carbon. Also, the volume of the evaporators reduces from the first through to the fifth. This is because of reduces quantity due to loses by evaporation. The evaporators are insulated with thick cotton material covered with shiny aluminum sheets to prevent heat losses to the environment. From the evaporator the juice is transferred to the syrup heaters where its temperature is further raised, it is then mixed with flocculants as R300. This helps to coagulate any small suspensions in the syrup. Also phosphoric acid is added to reduce its viscosity. The syrup is then pumped to the syrup clarifier. Its principle of separation is by floatation, that is, the suspensions float on top of the syrup. The suspensions are then removed by slow rotating scrapper at the top onto a side vent. The clarified syrup moves to the bottom of the clarifier where there is a coiled pipe with orifices where it is removed through a telescopic valve. The telescopic valve controls the level of the clarifier. If the syrup coming in is clean the telescopic valve is opened more. This lowers the juice level in the clarifier further away from the metal scrapper, hence no scrapping but if there are many suspensions floating on the syrup the valve is closed reducing the flow from the clarifier hence increasing its level to where they can be scraped.

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Sulfur preparation
Sulfur is prepared in order to be used in bleaching the sugar juice to produce white sugar during the crystallization process. Sulfur powder is added to the sulfur melting tank and moved to the sulfur melter tank. Here steam is passed through the sulfur causing it to melt The sulfur melt is then allowed to flow the sulfur burner tank and enclosed. Compressed air is then added to the sulfur in presence of a hot metal catalyst causing reaction between sulfur and oxygen in the air to occur. The product of the reaction is sulfur dioxide. Sulfur + oxygen sulfur dioxide

The reaction is exothermic and raised the temperature to 3500c. The sulfur dioxide fumes are then passed through scrubbers. The scrubbers contain an arrangement of bricks. The fumes are introduces from below and flow upwards. Sulfur particles in the fumes are attracted and stick on the surface of the bricks by surface adsorption. The fumes are then water cooled by passing them through a heat exchanger reducing the temperature from 3500c to 600c. Sulfur not only causes bleaching of the juice but it also enhances crystallization by bringing the pH down The sulfur can either be applied directly to the syrup or to the limed juice. Sulphur is applied from below and it rises upwards while bleaching the syrup or juice.

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SUGAR HOUSE
Sugar house overall layout
A-massecuite pan boiling Syrup storage tank

Crystallizer

Pug mill

A-centrifugal machine

A molasses receiver tank

A wash receiver tank

A-sugar

B-massecuite Pan boiling B-massecuite crystallizer

Hopper

B-molasses receiver tank

Re-melter tank

Drier

Pug mill C- Massecuite pan boiling

For lump and powder sugar

Grader

B-centrifugal C-sugar massecuite receiver tank

Sugar bin for commercial sugar Weighing and bagging

B-sugar receiver Vertical crystallizer C-sugar receiver

C-massecuite crystallizer tank

C-centrifugal

Storage Pug mill P a g e | 23 Molasses storage

Pan boiling
It involves boiling of mother liquor with the aim of crystal growth to the required for commercial consumption and increasing the brix. It is usually done in a pan boiler. The heating fluid used is 2nd body vapor for B and C massecuite boiling and 3 rd body vapor for A massecuite. All the three pans are operated on vacuum to reduce the boiling temperature of the massecuite and hence preventing caramalisation. There are three types of pan boiling operations operating under the same principle. They include A-massecuite pan boiling, B-massecuite pan boiling and C-massecuite pan boiling. The difference between the three is the product and the mother liquor. Diagram Stirrer driver motor Vapor body vapor vent

Catcher Stirrer mother liquor intake boiling NCG remover Heating vapor in Calandria tube calandria space

Condensate remover Downtake

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A pan boiling It involves evaporation of water from A-massecuite with addition of mother liquor. The sugar crystals in the massecuite then grow by absorbing sucrose from the mother liquor till they reach the required size. The heating fluid used is 3rd body vapor and on heating it is injected into the pan boiling space to enhance temperature. It is divided into three stages which include; a) Graining: it involves the introduction of B-magma into the pan A to the 350hl level. The seed is then heated with continued controlled addition of hot water and syrup. The purpose of the hot water is to dissolve tiny grains in the massecuite called false grains, while the syrup provides other grains with syrup for further growth. This is done for a period of about fifteen minutes to increase the grain size to standard required size. b) Boiling: it involves addition of mother liquor slowly to the massecuite while boiling it. Mother liquor is a mixture of A-wash, remelt and syrup. Addition of mother liquor causes the crystals to grow while at the same time increasing the volume of the pan contents. The rate of addition of mother liquor should be almost equal to the rate of absorption of sucrose from the mother liquor for maximum growth of the sugar crystals. If the addition rate is too fast there will be dissolution of the crystals and hence formation of false grains. On the other hand if the addition is too low the crystals may overbrix and dissociate to carbon or create disruptions during striking. After the massecuite grow to a volume of 750HL the flow of mother liquor is stopped and the massecuite heated for a while for it to brix. c) Striking: it involves removal of massecuite from the pan to the receiver or crystallizer. Depending on the level of growth of crystals, the massecuite may be striked once twice or thrice. If the crystals grow to the required size they are immediately dropped onto the crystallizer. This is called one strike. On dropping the pan downtake is closed and vapour passed through it. This helps
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remove massecuite that might have stuck on the pan surface. The downtake is then opened and massecuite allowed to flow out. This is done three times. If the crystals grow to a slightly large but not expected level, half of it is sent to a receiver tank. This is done by removing vacuum in the pan and applying vacuum to the receiver then opening the valve between the two. The other half left on the pan is retaken through the boiling stage before being dropped then the other half is returned to the pan and taken through the boiling stage before being dropped. This is called two strike. However, if growth of the crystals during the first boiling is too small, a third is separated from the pan to another pan. The remainder in the pan is boiled to the top with addition of mother liquor till it fills then 2 strike process is performed to it. The third transferred to the other pan is taken through the boiling process and on filling it is dropped. This is called three strike. B-massecuite pan boiling Pan operations are similar to pan A. the difference is that A-heavy molasses is used instead of mother liquor. Also the heating fluid is second body vapor. The magma used is C-sugar and graining is done using hot water circulation (sweet water from evaporators). The product is B-massecuite. C-massecuite pan boiling Operation is similar to pan B boiling. The difference is that B-molasses is used during the boiling process. The magma used during seeding process is a mixture of slurry and A-molasses. Slurry is microscopic crystals of sugar that provide nucleation site for growth of sugar crystals. Its product is C-massecuite. Massecuite is stored in the crystallizer momentarily before curing though A-massecuite is can be cured immediately. The massecuite cools in the crystallizer from temperatures
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of about 610C. This further enhances formation of sugar crystals. Also, in the crystallizer is a slow rotating stirrer that prevents the massecuite from settling and hardening. C-massecuite is however passed through the vertical crystallizer where it is stored for a minimum of 21 hours while water cooled before being moved to the C crystallizer. This enhances further crystal formation in the C-massecuite which forms crystals slower. The massecuite is then moved to the pug mill where it is also stored momentarily with continued stirring before entering the centrifugals.

Centrifugals
Centrifugal is a fast rotating vessels containing a screen as the inner chamber. Fast rotation of the centrifugal causes the massecuite to be thrown onto the screen. Since the crystals are of larger size they are trapped on the screen and molasses passes through the screen hence separation. There are two types of centrifugals; batch centrifugal and continuous centrifugals. Batch centrifugal It is called batch because massecuite addition into it is not continuous. It is majorly used in the separation of A-massecuite to A-sugar A-wash and A-heavy molasses.

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Diagram Driver motor Motor brake Pug mill

Charge sensor Plough

Steam inlet pipe

water inlet pipe

bottom valve molasses duct

The batch centrifugal is automatic and works as follow The valve is closes and massecuite is let into the centrifuge. The machine then accelerates and run for a while a speed of 200rpm. This causes the massecuite to spread evenly to the side of the screen. Also, excess molasses is separated via the screen to the molasses storage tank.
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It then accelerates to a speed of 1500rpm and void molasses in between the sugar crystals is separated and moves to the molasses tank. Water of temperature of 110 0C is then sprayed on the sugar and removes molasses on the surface of sugar crystals called A-wash. The bottom valve then opens and let the sugar onto the sugar hopper. Also while the bottom valve is open the plough moves close to the screen and scrapes of the sugar crystals that tend to stick on the screen while the centrifuge still rotates slowly.

Continuous centrifugal It is referred to as continuous centrifugal because massecuite is added to it continuously. Diagram Funnel water jet funnel pipe

Screen

distributor

rotating motor connecting belt molasses chamber motion of sugar

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Massecuite is mixed with water at the funnel and flows into it from through the central funnel duct into the distributor. The distributer distributes massecuite evenly around the centrifugal as well as retains foreign material around the basket as nuts and bolts. The molasses is then separated via the conical screens and moves to the molasses chamber while the magma is retained and moves upward the conical screen. Magma from the B and C centrifugal is stored in receiver tanks and used as seed in A and B sugar growth respectively. A-sugar at the hopper is moved forward by shaking motion to the bucket elevators where it is carried to the drier. The drier is a slow rotating horizontal cylinder. Inside it there are hook like arms that mix the sugar while hot air form the radiator is being blown into it hence reducing the water content. From the drier cold air is blown into the sugar reducing its temperature to 40 degrees which is the required temperature for bagging. The sugar is then carried with a belt conveyer to the grader via an electromagnet which traps the metal impurities in the sugar. The grader contains three screens which first separate lump sugar, then commercial sugar and finally fine powdery sugar. The lump and powdery sugar is not suitable for consumption and is therefore sent to the dissolution tank where water is added to it. It is then pumped to the re-melter tank where its temperature is boosted which further enhances dissolution then to the A-pan boiler. The commercial sugar is carried by bucket elevators to the sugar bins where it is stored momentarily while awaiting bagging. Weighing and bagging is done by an automated system. The bag is placed into position by the bagging operator. It is held to position by arms that employ a pressure system and filled with sugar to the required weight. Pressure is the released which intern releases the arms and the filled bag. Pressure release is done by a weight sensor, that is, it releases only if the required weight has been reached. The bags are then carried by a manually controlled conveyer and sewed, then carried by hand to a convey to the storage room where it is stored before being transported to the market for sale.

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EFFLUENT WATER TREATMENT

Effluent water from the factory needs to be treated to return to its initial state as when it was harvested from the river before it is released back into the river. This is one to prevent harmful effects that may be caused by the water to the environment and the people living around the factory. Effluent water includes cleaning water, juice spillages, oil mixed with water et cetera. Dosing room All effluent water from the factory is directed to the dosing room where its velocity is reduced and it is directed to pits which it feels slowly. The heavy suspensions in the water settle by and are separated by sedimentation. Also lime is added to the water to boost its pH to neutral. Urea is also added to boost the phosphates in the water which enhance the growth of bacteria in the latter stages of treatment. The water then flow through an open gutter for a distance of about 500meters. This reduces its temperature to room temperature since most water from the factory is usually hot. Ponds Water from the gutter is then directed to pond 1. Pond 1 is an anaerobic pond, that is it contains anaerobic bacteria which operate under low oxygen conditions. The anaerobic bacteria digest the sludge in the water to harmless by products as methane and carbon dioxide. The gases produced are acidic and therefore boost the pH of pond 1 to 5.0. also the bacteria perform optimumly under the acidic medium. They include methanogenic and acetogenic bacteria. The water remains in this pond for a minimum of fifteen days. The water then moves to the second pond. It also operates under the same conditions but since some of the nutrients have been digested by the bacteria from pond 1, there is less bacterial action. Due to less bacterial action the pond is less acidic. Water stays here for a minimal fifteen days then moves to pond 3 where it undergoes same but reduced action like pond two. It is less acidic than pond one and two.

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The water then moves to pond four. Pond four is aerated by a fast rotating motor with blades. It contains aerobic bacteria which digest the sludge with use of oxygen. This increases the pH of the water to 6.5-7.0.

Clarifier Water then moves to the clarifier tank where particles settle by the sedimentation process. The clarifier has a slow rotating metal rod fixed with brushes on it that sweep the settled mud to a central outlet. The mud is pumped to pond 3 and 4 to increase the number of bacteria as well as to balance the pH. If there is too much mud it is directed to the drying plates to be dried. The water then moves to pond 6 and is stored for about 15 days. The pond contains algae. This indicates the ability of the water to sustain life. The level of green colour in the water shows the amount of nutrients in the water which have to be absorbed before release to the river. If the water is very green, nile cabbage is cultivated in this pond to absorb some of the nutrients. Constructed water lands The water then moves to constructed water lands. They are six in number and contain plants growing in them as water hyacinth. They are shallow to allow light to penetrate through the water and allow growth of plants in the water. The plants also have long fibrous roots that trap suspended particles and hence reduce the turbidity of the water. Some of the plants also absorb heavy metals from the water. The water is carried by meandered paths to reduce its velocity and increase the retention time. The water is then tested at the end of the water lands for pH, turbidity and total dissolved solids. Also, the river water is tested at the upstream and compared with the conditions at the end of the water lands. This is to ensure the water from the factory is not affecting the river water

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WATER TREATMENT
Water from the river is not suitable for use as it is, it therefore needs to be treated before use both in the boiler and for domestic use. The water is pumped from the river into the raw water storage tank for storage. Clarification: It is then pumped to the clarifier, a flocculants called floquat is added to it before entry into the clarifier. It coagulates the small suspensions in the water and settles them at the bottom. It is preferred to alum because it is an organic polymer and does not affect the pH of the water. The settled particles are then swept to a central outlet pipe with a slow rotating scraper. The sediments at the bottom are removed momentarily through a discharge valve at the bottom of the clarifier. On the other hand clean water is removed from the top to a storage tank. Bed filtration and decolourising: It then moves through a sand bed filter that traps other smaller particle in the water that cannot be separated in the clarifier. It then moves to an activated carbon filter that removes colour and chlorine.

Domestic water treatment

From here domestic water is treated with calcium hypochlorite which disinfects the water as well as removing colour that is in it. It is then stored in the domestic water storage tank.

Boiler water treatment

Removal of ions and dissolved gases Boiler water on the other hand is further treated to remove the reactive components in it. First it is taken to the cationic unit where it is passed through a hydrogen ion exchange unit. This unit removes magnesium and calcium ions by exchanging them with hydrogen ions to form an insoluble salt thus removing the water hardness. The water then moves to the anionic unit that mainly removes chloride ions from the solution and replaces it with hydroxide ions using a hydroxide exchange resin.
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The water is then moved to the degaser unit. This unit employs a pump rotating in an opposite direction with the water. This removes gases in the water as oxygen. Oxygen is removed since it reacts with the boiler tubes causing corrosion. The water then moves to the mixed bed unit which contains a mixture of both cation and anion exchange resins that remove any remaining cations or anions. The water then moves to the service tank while caustic soda is added to it to boost its pH to about 9.5 before use in the boiler.

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BOILER
A boiler is a vessel used for steam generation. The boiler here was a water tube boiler, where water flowing in tubes is heated by flue gases flowing on the outer tube surface. Water used in the boiler has to have minimal reactivity and also contain less dissolved solids and therefore is treated in the dimineralisation plant or condensate water is used from the process house.

Steam drum

Primary superheater

Secondary superheater

Flue gases to Economizer and air heaters

Bagasse feeder

Downcomers

Mud drum

Blow down valve

furnace

Raisers

Common header Grate Motion of flue gases

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Flow of water in the boiler: water in the boiler is gotten from the service tank and
moves to the economizer where partly used flue gases are used to heat it to temperatures of 1200C. The water then moves to the steam drum and if it contains any vapor it evaporates due to increase in volume. The water then moves out through the downcomer tubes, located at the bottom of the steam drum, where it is heated by flue gases from the superheater region while flowing downward. The water then moves to the mud drum. The mud drum has a blow down valve which serves the purpose of, removing excess water in the boiler if its level is high, bleeding of water is has a high TDS( total dissolved solutes), and draining the water out during maintenance. Also soot scum is added to the water which serves several purposes as trapping any escaped oxygen and keeping any scum in fluid state to enable easy removal through the blowdown valve. The water then moves to common headers which are connected to tubes on the furnace walls called raisers. While it moves upwards it is heated by radiated heat from the furnace to form a mixture of water and steam. This mixture is carried to another common header before moving to the steam drum. Water being denser settles at the bottom of the steam drum while steam removed upwards to a common header then to the primary superheaters and secondary superheaters which are directly above the furnace, where it is heated to temperatures of 4500C and a pressure of 45 psi and transferred to the turbines through an outlet line. The line has a pressure controlled spring valve that open to let out steam to the atmosphere when it rises above 45psi.

Flow of flue gases: flue gases from the furnace first move to the superheat region
where they are used to superheat steam. They then move to the downcomers where they heat water in the downcomer tubes, then they are sucked by the induced draft fun to the economizer where they heat the water to temperatures of 120 0C. They are then flowed into tubes where they are used to heat air flowing in the outside in the air preheat region. The flue gases then flow to the main dust collector (MDC) region

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where dust particle in the gases are removed before being let out to the atmosphere via a chimney.

Flow of air: air from the outside is by use of fast rotating forced draft (FD) fans. The air
then moves to the air preheaters to be heated in order not to reduce the temperature in of the furnace. Some of the heated air is let into the furnace from below while some is let in via the secondary air fans near the point of entry of bagasse and is used to spread the bagasse in the furnace. The ratio of air to bagasse in the furnace is 14:1 by mass.

Flow of bagasse: bagasse is moved from the bagasse storage via a chain conveyer to
the bagasse feeds. It is then spread to small pieces by the bagasse spreader which employs the use of high speed rotating rollers before being fed into the furnace where it is spread in the furnace by the secondary air fans. Combustion is controlled by the rate of air flow into the boiler since most of the other factors are kept constant. Note: The boiler is started using firewood as the fuel before addition of bagasse.

LABORATORY
The work of the laboratory was to prepare reagents as well as to measure parameters of various samples for quality control purposes. This was done by comparing the parameters with the set values.

Test carried out in the laboratory

Sugar moisture test Procedure 20 grams of sugar was accurately measured in an aluminum dish. It was then placed in an oven for 4 hours. The sample was the removed and placed in a desiccator.

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( )

Sugar colour test Procedure 50% sugar solution was made by weighing 50grams of sugar and it in water in a 100ml volumetric flask. Part of the sample was taken and its brix read from a refractometer. The solution was then filtered under vacuum through a membrane filter of pore size 0.45mm The first filtrate was discarded and the rest was covered to avoid evaporation. The spectophotmeter was switched on for about 30minutes It was then set at 420 nanometer wavelength and also zero absorbency was set using a clean tube cell filled with distilled water. The same cell was rinsed with the filtrate and filled, inserted and the absorbance read.

pH determination The electric method was used. This was carried out for the raw juice, limed juice, syrup, boiler water, service water and the condensate. Procedure The pH meter was calibrated using a buffer solution. The sample was then cooled to room temperature.

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 The electrodes were then rinsed with the sample to be tested. The beaker was filled with enough sample to cover the bulb of the glass electrode. The system was then left to come to equilibrium and the pH read and recorded. On reading the electrode was washed with distilled water and left in the distilled water or buffer. Determination of water insoluble matter in sugar Procedure Filter membranes of pole size 8 micrometers were prepared by boiling them in distilled water for a period of 30 minutes, put in a dish, dried in a hot air oven at 1050C for 1hour and cooled for 30 minutes in a dessicator and weighed. Weight was recorded as W. 100 grams of sugar sampled was then weighed in 1000ml glass beaker, 700ml of distilled water added and boiled while stirring to dissolve completely. Solution was then filtered through vacuum filtration apparatus fitted with the above membranes. The residue on membranes shall be dried in hot air oven at 1050C for 1hour cooled for 30 minutes in a dessicator and its weight was recorded as X /

Determination of moisture in bagasse Procedure Weight of the tray was taken and recorded as M. 100grams of bagasse or filter cake sample was measured while on the tray. The tray with bagasse or filter cake was then placed in an oven at 105 0C for 3 hours. The sample was then removed and weighed immediately and recorded as P. Calculation
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Weight of tray=M Weight of sample on tray=N Weight of sample dry=P-M=V Weight loss=N-V =

Determination of sugar trace This was done on the condensate water to be used in the boiler. Procedure The sample was taken in a test tube and cooled. 5 drops of 1-naphtol were added and shaken well. Concentrated sulphuric acid was then slowly added from the side and checked for the colour of the ring. If it was purple then there were sugar traces else if it was green there were no sugar traces.

Determination of sugar ash Procedure 5 grams of sugar were weighed in a platinum dish then moistened with 0.5ml of conc. H2SO4. The sample was then gently heated avoiding overflow of froth by heating both below and above the dish until the sample is carbonized. The sample was then place carbonized sample in muffled furnace at 6500C for 3hours. The sample was then removed, cooled and moistened again with conc. H2SO4, put in a furnace at 6500C and removed to cool in a dessicator to room temperature.

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% =

Determination of brix Sample preparation Sample was taken and weighed. Water equal to its weight was added to it. Samples included A-massecuite, B-massecuite, C-massecuite, B-molasses and final molasses. Procedure The prepared whose brix was to be measured was used to clean the brixometer by rinsing it then it was wiped. The sample was the put on the brixometer and the brix was read and the value gotten was multiplied by two and recorded.

Determination of pol/sucrose content Procedure 26 grams of sample prepared above was measured in a volumetric flask and the flask filled to mark. The flask was then shaken well to mix. The mixture was then placed in a beaker and two spatulas of lead acetate added to it. The lead acetate acts as a coagulant. The mixture was then filtered by a filter paper onto a beaker and the residue disposed. The filtrate was first used to clean the pol tube then it was filled into the pol tube to be used in the polarimeter The pol meter is calibrated by distilled water to the zero level using distilled water. The flap was then replaced and rotated positively/negatively until the full moon was reached.
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 The pol reading was read multiplied by two and recorded. % =

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