VOLUME 20 ISSUE 1

The International Journal of

Technologies in Learning

tHElEARNER.COM

The International Journal of Technologies in Learning

The Learner Collection VOLUME 20 ISSUE 1 March 2014

THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGIES IN LEARNING www.thelearner.com First published in 2014 in Champaign, Illinois, USA by Common Ground Publishing LLC www.commongroundpublishing.com ISSN: 2327-0144 2014 (individual papers), the author(s) 2014 (selection and editorial matter) Common Ground All rights reserved. Apart from fair dealing for the purposes of study, research, criticism or review as permitted under the applicable copyright legislation, no part of this work may be reproduced by any process without written permission from the publisher. For permissions and other inquiries, please contact cg-support@commongroundpublishing.com. The International Journal of Technologies in Learning is peer-reviewed, supported by rigorous processes of criterionreferenced article ranking and qualitative commentary, ensuring that only intellectual work of the greatest substance and highest significance is published.

EDITOR(S)
Bill Cope, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, USA Mary Kalantzis, University of Illinois, Urbana Champaign, USA

EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD

Michael Apple, University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA David Barton, Lancaster University, Milton Keynes, UK Mario Bello, University of Science, Cuba Manuela du Bois-Reymond, Universiteit Leiden, Leiden, The Netherlands Bill Cope, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, USA Robert Devillar, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, USA Daniel Madrid Fernandez, University of Granada, Spain Ruth Finnegan, Open University, Milton Keynes, UK James Paul Gee, University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA Juana M. Sancho Gil, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain Kris Gutierrez, University of California, Los Angeles, USA Anne Hickling-Hudson, Queensland University of Technology, Kelvin Grove, Australia Roz Ivanic, Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK Paul James, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia Carey Jewitt, Institute of Education, University of London, London, UK Mary Kalantzis, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, USA Andeas Kazamias, University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA Peter Kell, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia Michele Knobel, Montclair State University, Montclair, USA Gunther Kress, Institute of Education, University of London, London, UK Colin Lankshear, James Cook University, Cairns, Australia Kimberly Lawless, University of Illinois, Chicago, USA Sarah Michaels, Clark University, Worcester, USA Jeffrey Mok, Miyazaki International College, Miyazaki, Japan Denise Newfield, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa Ernest ONeil, Ministry of Education, Sanaa, Yemen Jos-Luis Ortega, University of Granada, Granada, Spain Francisco Fernandez Palomares, University of Granada, Granada, Spain Ambigapathy Pandian, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia Miguel A. Pereyra, University of Granada, Granada, Spain Scott Poynting, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK Angela Samuels, Montego Bay Community College, Montego Bay, Jamaica Michel Singh, University of Western Sydney, Sydney, Australia Helen Smith, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia Richard Sohmer, Clark University, Worcester, USA Brian Street, University of London, London, UK Giorgos Tsiakalos, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece Salim Vally, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa Gella Varnava-Skoura, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece Cecile Walden, Sam Sharpe Teachers College, Montego Bay, Jamaica

Nicola Yelland, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia Wang Yingjie, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China Zhou Zuoyu, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China

ASSOCIATE EDITORS
Theo J. Bastiaens Julia Stewart Clark Patrick Dougherty Konstantinos Giannopoulos Janette Michelle Hughes Tomayess Issa Namon Jeerungsuwan Stylianos Mystakidis Abir Hassan Naqvi Annop Piyasinchart Lesley Procter Wenceslao Garcia Puchades Stephanie Thompson John Thompson Roy Thurston David Walker

Scope and Concerns

LEARNING AND EDUCATION: THEIR BREADTH AND DEPTH
Learning is bigger than education. Humans are born with an innate capacity to learn, and over the span of a lifetime learning never stops. Learning simply happens as people engage with each other, interact with the natural world and move about in the world they have constructed. Indeed, one of the things that makes us distinctively human is our enormous capacity to learn. Other species learn, too, from the tiniest of insects to the smartest of chimpanzees. But none has practices of pedagogy or institutions of education. As a consequence, the main way in which other species develop over time is through the incremental, biological adaptations of evolution. Change is natural. It is slow. Education makes human learning unlike the learning of any other creature. Learning allows humans to escape the strict determinations of nature. It gives humans the resources with which to understand themselves and their world, and to transform their conditions of living, for better or for worse. Education is a peculiarly human capacity to nurture learning in a conscious way, and to create social contexts that have been specially designed for that purpose: the institutions of education. Everyday learning happens naturally, everywhere and all the time. Education encompassing institutions, its curricula and its pedagogies is learning by design.

THE ART AND SCIENCE OF TEACHING

Teaching happens everywhere. Many people are naturally quite good at teaching. They explain things clearly. They are patient. And they have the knack of explaining just enough, but not too much, so the learner gains a sense that they are gradually mastering something, albeit with a more knowledgeable persons support. You can find the practice of teaching in action everywhere in everyday life. In fact, it is impossible to imagine everyday life without it. Teaching and learning are integral to our nature as humans. Teaching is also a vocation, a profession. People in the business of teaching are good at their job when they have developed and apply the dispositions and sensibilities of the person who is a good teacher in everyday life. But there is much more to the teaching profession than having a natural knack, however well practised. There is also a science to education, which adds method and reflexivity to the art of teaching, and is backed up by a body of specialist knowledge. This science asks and attempts to answer fundamental and searching questions. How does learning happen? How do we organize teaching so it is most effective? What works for learners? And when it works, how do we know it has worked? The science of education attempts to answer these questions in a well thoughtthrough and soundly analyzed way.

LEARNING PRACTICES
Learning is how a person or a group comes to know, and knowing consists of a variety of types of action. In learning, a knower positions themselves in relation to the knowable, and engages. Knowing entails doingexperiencing, conceptualizing, analysing or applying, for instance.

A learner brings their own person to the act of knowing, their subjectivity. When engagement occurs, they become a more or less transformed person. Their horizons of knowing and acting have been expanded. Learning can be analyzed at three levels: pedagogy, or the microdynamics of moments of teaching and learning; curriculum , or the learning designs for particular areas of knowledge; and education or the overall institutional setting in which pedagogy and curriculum are located. Pedagogy is a planned and deliberate process whereby one person helps another to learn. This is what First Peoples did through various formalized rites of passage, from child to adult to elder learning law, spirituality and nature. It is also how teachers in the era of modern, mass, institutionalized education have organized the learners in their classrooms and their learning. Pedagogy is the science and practice of the dynamics of knowing. Assessment is the measure of pedagogy: interpreting the shape and extent of the knowers transformation. Curriculum is the substantive content of learning and its organization into subjects and topics mathematics, history, physical education and the like. In places of formal and systematic teaching and learning, pedagogy occurs within these larger frameworks in which the processes of engagement are given structure and order. These often defined by specific contents and methodologies, hence the distinctive disciplines. Well might we ask, what is the nature and future of literacy, numeracy, science, history, social studies, economics, physical education and the like? How are they connected, with each other, and a world in a state of dynamic transformation? And how do we evaluate their effectiveness as curriculum? Education has traditionally been used with reference formal learning communities, the institutions of school, college and university that first appeared along with the emergence of writing as a tool for public administration (to train, for instance, mandarins or public officials in imperial China, or the writers of cuneiform in ancient Mesopotamia/Iraq); to support religions founded on sacred texts (the Islamic madrasa , or the Christian monastery); and to transmit formally developed knowledge and wisdom (the Academy of ancient Athens, or Confucian teaching in China). Learning happens everywhere and all the time. It is an intrinsic part of our human natures. Education, however is learning by design, in community settings specially designed as suchthe institutions of early childhood, school, technical/vocational, university and adult education. Education also sometimes takes informal or semiformal forms within settings whose primary rationale is commercial or communal, including workplaces, community groups, households or public places.

TOWARDS A SCIENCE OF EDUCATION

What is this overarching institution, education? In its most visible manifestation it consists of its institutional forms: schools, colleges and universities. But, more broadly conceived, education is a social process, a relationship of teaching and learning. As a professional practice, it is a discipline. The science of education analyzes pedagogy, curriculum and educational institutions. It is a discipline or body of knowledge about learning and teaching about how these practices are conceived and realized Science or discipline refers to a privileged kind of knowledge, created by people with special skills who mostly work in research, academic or teaching jobs. It involves careful experimentation and focused observation. Scientists systematically explore phenomena, discover facts and patterns and gradually build these into theories that describe the world. Over time, we come to trust these and ascribe to them the authority of science. In this spirit, we might create a science of education that focuses on the brain as a biological entity and the mind as a source of behaviors (cognitive science). Or we might set up experiments in which we carefully explore the facts of learning in order to prove what works or doesnt work. Like the medical scientist, we might give some learners a dosage of a certain kind of educational

medicine and others a placebo, to see whether a particular intervention produces better test resultssuch are the formal experimental methods of randomized, controlled trials. Often, however, we need to know more. It is indeed helpful to know something of how the mind works, but what of the cultural conditions that also form the thinking person? We need good proofs of which kinds of educational interventions work, but what if the research questions we are asking or the tests we are using to evaluate results can only measure a narrow range of capacities and knowledge? What if the tests can prove that the intervention works scores are going up but some learners are not engaged by a curriculum that has been retrofitted to the tests? What if the tests only succeed in measuring recall of the facts that the tests expect the learners to have acquired simple, multiple-choice or yes/no answers? A critic of such standardized testing may ask, whats the use of this in a world in which facts can always be looked up, but problem solving and creativity are now more sought-after capacities, and there can be more than one valid and useful answer to most of the more important questions? For these reasons, we also need to work with a broader understanding of the discipline of education, based on a broader definition of science than experimental methods.

AN INTERDISCIPLINARY SCIENCE
The discipline of education is grounded in the science of learning, or how people come to know. It is a science that explores what knowing is. It focuses on how babies, then young people, then adults, learn. Education-as-science is a specially focused form of knowing: knowing how knowing happens and how capacities to know develop. It is, in a sense, the science of all sciences. It is also concerned with the organization of teaching that supports systematic, formal learning and the institutions in which that learning occurs. Too often, education is regarded as a poor cousin of other disciplines in the university the natural sciences, the humanities and the other professions, for instance. It is regarded as something that enables other disciplines, rather than being a discipline in its own right. This is often reflected in reduced levels of research funding, lower student entry requirements and the destination salaries of graduates. Education seems to be less rigorous and derivative. Its disciplinary base borrowed from other, apparently more foundational disciplines sociology, history, psychology, cognitive science, linguistics, philosophy and the substantive knowledge of various subject areas, such as literature, science and mathematics. For sure, education is broader-ranging and more eclectic than other disciplines. Education draws on a number of disciplinary strands the philosophy of knowledge (epistemology), the cognitive science of perception and learning, developmental psychology, the history of modern institutions, the sociology of diverse communities, the linguistics and semiotics of meaning to name just a few of educations disciplinary perspectives. These and other strands come together to make the discipline of education. In this sense, education is more than a discipline it is an extraordinarily interdisciplinary endeavor.

EDUCATION AS THE SCIENCE OF SCIENCES

Education is also the soil in which all the other disciplines grow. You cant do any of the other disciplines in a university or college except through the medium of education. No other discipline exists except through its learning. A novice can only enter a discipline physics, or law, or history, or literature through education, learning the accumulated knowledge that has become that discipline. In this sense, education is more than just interdisciplinary. It does more than just stitch together other disciplines. It is a metadiscipline, essential as the practical grounding of all disciplines. Education is the discipline of disciplines.

Education is the systematic investigation of how humans come to know. It focuses on formal, institutionalized learning at all its levels from preschool to school, college and university. Education is also concerned with the processes of informal learning how babies learn to speak at home, or how children and adults learn to use an interface or play a game. It is concerned with how organizations and groups learn, collecting and acquiring knowledge that is applied in their communities, professions and workplaces. In fact, as knowledge is needed and used everywhere, learning happens everywhere. There is no part of our lives to where the discipline of education cannot provide a useful perspective. Maybe, then, education is more than just an interdisciplinary place that ties together shreds and patches from other disciplines a bit of psychology here, a bit of sociology there, a bit of management there. Education should be regarded as the metadisciplinary foundation of all disciplines. Its focus is the science of knowing, no less. The metadiscipline of education inquires into learning, or how we come to know and be. Education-as-metadiscipline explores knowing and being. It analyzes how people and groups learn and come to be what they are. As such, it is a specially expansive exploration of knowing. It is interested to know how knowing happens and how capacities to know develop.

EDUCATION IS THE NEW PHILOSOPHY

What if we were to think of education in these more expansive and more ambitious ways? If we are to think in these terms, then the intellectual and practical agenda of education is no less than to explore the bases and pragmatics of human knowledge, becoming and identity. Education asks this ur -disciplinary question: How is it that we come to know and be, as individuals and collectively? If this is educations central question, surely, then, we can argue that it is the source of all other disciplines? It is the means by which all other disciplines come into being. Philosophy used to claim a metadisciplinary position like this. It was the discipline where students not only thought, but thought about thinking. However, for decades, philosophy has been making itself less relevant. It has become too word-bound, too obscure, too formal and too disconnected from practical, lived experience. But philosophys metaquestions still need to be asked. Education should perhaps take the former position of philosophy as the discipline of disciplines, and do it more engagingly and relevantly than philosophy ever did. Education is the new philosophy.

INVESTING IN EDUCATION FOR A KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY

Add to these expanded intellectual ambitions, widened ambitions for education in public discourse and everyday social realityand these should be good times to be an educator. Politicians and captains of industry alike tell us that knowledge is now a key factor of production, a fundamental basis of competitiveness at the personal, enterprise and national levels. And as knowledge is a product of learning, education is more important than ever. This is why education has become such a prominent topic in the public discourse of social promise. The expectations of education have been ratcheted up. More than ever before, people are saying that education is pivotal to social and economic progress. This does not necessarily translate immediately into greater public investment in education (a businesslike approach, one would think). But todays rhetoric about the importance of education does give educators greater leverage in the public discourse than we had until recently. Stated simply, in a knowledge economy in which more and more jobs require greater depths of knowledge, schools must do what they can to bridge the knowledge gaps. If they can achieve this, they are at least doing something to ameliorate the worst systemic material inequalities. Schools, in other words, have a new opportunity, a new responsibility and a new challenge to

build societies that are more inclusive of social classes whose access to material resources was historically limited. Despite this, educators struggle to find the resources to meet increasing expectations, despite all talk of a knowledge society and new economy. We may have listened to this rhetoric with a great deal of skepticism given the struggles we educators face. Nevertheless, we need to grasp what is rhetorically or genuinely new in our times. We must seize the drift of contemporary public discourse, and position ourselves centrally. Here is our chance: the stuff of knowledge is no more and no less than the stuff of learning. Surely too, this new kind of society requires a new kind of learning and that a new social status is ascribed to education. It is our role as educators to advocate for education, to make a claim for the allocation of the social resources required in order to meet expanding expectations.

DESIGNS FOR SOCIAL FUTURES: TOWARDS NEW LEARNING

How might we imagine a better society which locates education at the heart of things? This heart may well be economic in the sense that it is bound to material self-improvement or personal ambition. Equally, however, education is a space to re-imagine and try out a new and better world which delivers improved material, environmental and cultural outcomes for all. Education must surely be a place of open possibilities, for personal growth, for social transformation and for the deepening of democracy. Such is the agenda of New Learning, explicitly or implicitly. This agenda holds whether our work and thinking is expansive and philosophical or local and finely grained. If we were to choose a single word to characterize the agenda of the New Learning, it is to be transformative. New Learning is thus not simply based on a reading of change. It is also grounded in an optimistic agenda in which we educators can constructively contribute to change. If knowledge is indeed as pivotal in contemporary society as the new economy commentators and politicians claim, then educators should seize the agenda and position themselves as forces of change. We have a professional responsibility to be change agents who design the education for the future and who, in so doing, also help design the future. You might see this as a sensible conservatism, sensible for being realistic about the contemporary forces of technology, globalization and cultural change. Or you could see it to be an emancipatory agenda that aspires to make a future that is different from the present by addressing its many crises of poverty, environment, cultural difference and existential meaning, for instance. In other words, the transformation may be pragmatic (enabling learners to do their best in the given social conditions) or it may be emancipatory (making the world a better place) or it may be both. At its best, transformative New Learning embodies a realistic view of contemporary society, or the kinds of knowledge and capacities for knowing that children need to develop in order to be good workers in a knowledge economy; participating citizens in a globalized, cosmopolitan society; and balanced personalities in a society that affords a range of life choices that at times feels overwhelming. It nurtures the social sensibilities of a kind of person who understands that they determine the world by their actions as much as they are determined by that world. It creates a person who understands how their individual needs are inextricably linked with their responsibility to work for the common good as we become more and more closely connected into ever-expanding and overlapping social networks. The issue is not merely one of quantity. It is not simply a matter of providing more education for more people. While many nations persevere with educational structures founded in the 19th century or earlier, the knowledge economy demands different and creative approaches to learning. Schools, at least in their traditional form, may not dominate the educational landscape of the 21st century. Neat segregations of the past may crumble. Givens may give.

LEARNER DIVERSITY


No learning exists without learners, in all their diversity. It is a distinctive feature of the New Learning to recognize the enormous variability of lifeworld circumstances that learners bring to learning. The demographics are insistent: material (class, locale, family circumstances), corporeal (age, race, sex and sexuality, and physical and mental characteristics) and symbolic (culture, language, gender, affinity and persona). This conceptual starting point helps explain the telling patterns of educational and social outcomes. Behind these demographics are real people, who have always already learned and whose range of learning possibilities are both boundless and circumscribed by what they have learned already and what they have become through that learning. Here we encounter the raw material diversity of human experiences, dispositions, sensibilities, epistemologies and world views. These are always far more varied and complex than the raw demographics would at first glance suggest. Learning succeeds or fails to the extent that it engages the varied identities and subjectivities of learners. Engagement produces opportunity, equity and participation. Failure to engage produces failure, disadvantage and inequality. The questions we face as educators today are big, the challenges sometimes daunting. How do we, for instance, ensure that education fulfills its democratic mission, through quality teaching, a transformative curriculum and dedicated programs that address inequality? Targeting groups who are disadvantaged and at risk is an essential responsibility of educators, not on the basis of moral arguments alone but also because of the economic and social dangers of allowing individuals and groups to be excluded.

EDUCATIONS AGENDAS
In this time of extraordinary social transformation and uncertainty, educators need to consider themselves to be designers of social futures, to search out new ways to address the learning needs of our society, and in so doing to position education at an inarguably central place in society. Professional educators of tomorrow will not be people who simply enact received systems, standards, organizational structures and professional ethics. Indeed, powerful educational ideas about how people act and build knowledge in context and in collaboration with others, for instance could well become leading social ideas in currently more privileged areas of endeavor, such as business and technology. Perhaps, if we can succeed at putting education at the heart of the designs for societys future, we might even be able to succeed in our various campaigns to ensure that education is innovative, empowering, just and adequately resourced. Education in all its aspects is in a moment of transition today. The idea of New Learning contrasts what education has been like in the past, with the changes we are experiencing today, with an imaginative view of the possible features of learning environments in the near future. What will learning be like, and what will teachers jobs be like? Are we educators well enough equipped to answer the questions we encounter and address the challenges we face? Does our discipline provide us with the intellectual wherewithal to face changes of these proportions? It could, but only if we conceive education to be a science as rigorous in its methods and as ambitious in its scope as any other. Educations agenda is intellectually expansive and practically ambitious. It is learnertransformative, enabling productive workers, participating citizens and fulfilled persons. And it is world-transformative as we interrogate the human nature of learning and its role in imagining and enacting new ways of being human and living socially: shaping our identities, framing our ways of belonging, using technologies, representing meanings in new ways and through new media, building participatory spaces and collaborating to build and rebuild the world. These are enormous intellectual and practical challenges.

Transformative education is an act of imagination for the future of learning and an attempt to find practical ways to develop aspects of this future in the educational practices of the present. It is an open-ended struggle rather than a clear destination, a process rather than a formula for action. It is a work-in-progress. The science of education is a domain of social imagination, experimentation, invention and action. Its big. Its ambitious. And its determinedly practical. The Learning Conference, journals, book imprint and online community provide a forum for dialogue about the nature and future of learning. They are places for presenting research and reflections on education both in general terms and through the minutiae of practice. They attempt to build an agenda for a new learning, and more ambitiously an agenda for a knowledge society which is as good as the promise of its name.

Table of Contents
Student-Teacher Relationships on Social Networks .....................................................1 Tsafi Timor Incorporating Web 2.0 into Greek Schools .................................................................11 Ifigenia Kofou and Sofia D. Anastasiadou Technoholic: Impact of Student-Initiated Technology on College Students Learning Behaviors .......................................................................................................25 Dengting Boyanton The Influence of Interactive Context on Avatar Appearance in Second Life ..........37 Mark Mabrito Enhancing Students' Reasoning by Utilizing a Virtual Learning Environment .....47 Aharon Yadin E-Learning through Virtual Reality Applications: The Case of Career Counseling .........................................................................................................................................57 Kostopoulos Konstantinos Panagiotis, Gianopoulos Konstaninos, Mystakidis Stylianos, and Chronopoulou Kiriaki Videoconferencing and Learning in the Classroom: The Effects of Being an Orphan Technology? .....................................................................................................69 Tony Lawson and Chris Comber Use of Technology as an Innovative Approach to Non-Linguistic Cognitive Therapy ..........................................................................................................................81 Manon Robillard and Chantal Mayer-Crittenden

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Student-Teacher Relationships on Social Networks

Tsafi Timor, The Kibbutzim College of Education, Technology and the Arts, Israel
Abstract: Teachers' roles in the 21st century have become more complex because of today's changing world where knowledge is almost unlimited. The topic of "friendships" between students and teachers on Social Networks (SN) is considered to be a "hot" topic in educational systems worldwide, and whilst teachers are expected to become technologically oriented, the on-going debate on SN in educational settings revolves around issues of benefits and dangers embedded in them, such as maintaining teachers' relevance and meaningfulness to their students without being "friends" on SN. In addition, issues of professional ethics and the contribution of SN to effective teaching are equally considered. The aim of the study was to gain insights about would-be teachers' perceptions of cyber "friendships" and teachers' role in a world of technological changes. The study was conducted among students of a Masters program who participated in an online forum of an academic course. A content analysis was conducted on the student's posts. Findings yielded a controversy in the students' opinions. Opponents expressed concerns of privacy, "double" identity, issues of teachers' responsibility outside of school premises, and borders in teachers-pupils' relationships. Most students were aware of the need to adapt their teaching methods to the New Age of the Internet, and are willing to use SN for teaching purposes under some reservations. However, they strongly emphasized the need to maintain the "Spirit of Education" which relates to explicit teaching of values, developing human relations and social skills, enhancing creativity and curiosity, and developing a holistic view of learners. The main conclusion of the study is that would-be teachers present a balanced approach which incorporates the old (values) and the new (technology) rather than totally abandoning the old for the sake of the new. For them, SN certainly cannot replace the role of a meaningful teacher in class. Keywords: Social Networks, Student-teacher Relationships, Technologies in Education

Introduction
ccording to a recent national poll completed by the Harvard Institute of Politics (2011), over 90% of students at four-year colleges reported having Facebook profiles. In another study of a national sample of 456 four-year accredited U.S. institutions, 100% report using some form of social media, with Facebook (used by 98%) and Twitter (used by 84%) being the most prominent (Barnes & Lescault, 2011). According to these soaring numbers of users of social network sites (SNS) among college and university students, it is assumed that studentteachers (who are also students) would favor the use of SNS in their teaching and not only in their private lives. The goal of this study is to examine the student-teachers' perceptions of the issue of student-teachers relationships on SNS and to analyze their arguments, as these would-be teachers will eventually determine practically whether SNS will be embedded in education and to what extent.

Literature Review
Educational Policies Worldwide
Ministries of Education all over the world express concern with regard to the negative impact of student-teacher relationships on social networks (SNS). In recent years there have been numerous legislative and administrative initiatives in the Western World to monitor these relationships. This issue is subject to controversies among professionals (Estrada, 2010). Whereas some believe that SNS might enhance learning, others contend that placing limitations on teachers' use of SNS is breaching their basic Right of Expression (Public Employee First Amendment Right). For example, the State of Missouri is currently the only state in the US which implements an Act (The Amy Hestir Student Protection Act, dated 1.1.2009) that monitors students-teachers' relationships on SNS. Section 162.069 of the Act states:
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THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGIES IN LEARNING

Teachers cannot establish, maintain, or use a work-related website unless it is available to school administrators and the childs legal custodian, physical custodian, or legal guardian. Teachers also cannot have a non work-related website that allows exclusive access with a current or former student. In the State of Wisconsin, communication between students and teachers is permitted only when sponsored by the State. The Louisiana Legislative Session (2009) determines that electronic communication between students and teachers has to be approved by school for educational purposes only. More recently (May 2013), Pennsville School District introduces a policy for school staff. This policy does not restrict teachers or staff from having a Facebook account or using similar sites, however the guidelines prevent teachers from being "friends" with current Pennsville students and clearly list what material is inappropriate to post : items with sexual content or exhibiting or advocating the use of drugs and/or alcohol. It states that periodic Internet searches will take place to detect whether teachers might post inappropriate materials online. In Israel, the first attempt to regulate this issue was made in the Ministry of Education Circular 2011. It requires educators to minimize the communication between parents-teachers and students-teachers on personal matters, and to limit the communication to issues of teaching and learning. Teachers are not allowed to initiate or approve "friendships" on SNS with students or parents, and are expected to be careful about posting personal data on SNS. This policy is an attempt to avoid ethical issues that may arise when the parties deviate from a purely professional relationship. This policy has been subject to disagreement by those who believe that keeping teachers away from SNS is a missed opportunity with regard to improving student-teacher relationships and classroom climate. However, another circular that was issued in 2013 favors the use of SNS in education. It emphasizes the following points: The use of SNS for teaching purposes should be encouraged while maintaining clear-cut regulations A professional community of teachers on SNS is advantageous A learning community of teachers and students on SNS is advantageous

Student-Teacher Relationships in the Digital Age

The problems that derive from the mutual influence between reality and virtual space have been discussed in depth in numerous studies (e.g. Maranto & Barton, 2010). However, the difficulty teachers experience in maintaining their private identity on the Net calls for a re-definition of student-teacher relationships. Whereas in the past these relationships were limited to school premises and had clear-cut limits, in the digital age with children and adults equally populating SNS, this blurring of boundaries have become vague and may lead to ethical problems with regard to acceptable behaviors. Rotem and Avni (2010) rely on the "Theory of Connectivity" which contends that a child needs a meaningful relationship with at least one adult in order to develop social skills, and the presence of a teacher online may supply this need. This contention is not clear enough because there is lack of evidence as to what extent feelings can be represented in the cyberspace. Rotem and Avni list the advantages of student-teacher relationship on SNS, such as creating trust and openness, exposure to students' world, empowerment of the status of teachers in the eyes of students and parents. Indeed, relationships between students and teachers contribute to the learning process and to students' personal growth. Nevertheless, lack of boundaries of time and place on SNS may cause damage to student-teacher relationship.

TIMOR: STUDENT-TEACHER RELATIONSHIPS ON SOCIAL NETWORKS

The Right to Freedom of Speech and Expression

In the past, US Court policy with regard to public servant meant renunciation of one's rights (Edward, 2009). In recent years Legal Authorities have enlarged the rights of public servants including teachers, by relying on the Pickering Test (1968) whose main goal is to defend the public interest while maintaining the basic right of teachers as citizens to express their opinion in different media. Pickering Test refers to a private case of a teacher (Pickering) who was fired from his job after having reported financial irregularities at school and in the Municipal Department of Education. The Supreme Court advised that the freedom of expression did not cause any damage to the public interest, nor did it damage Pickering's performance as an educator. Since then this test has been used to measure the balance between public interest and personal rights. The issue of privacy on SNS has also become a concern for users. Lewis, Kauffman and Christakis (2008) have examined the mechanism of privacy on SNS and found that when a new technology is introduced, users tend to shift from excitement and ambiguity to precaution and implicit and internal self-regulation. Avni and Rotem (2011) claim that the perception of privacy is currently undergoing change. They quote Gavison (1984: 421) whose definition of privacy is denying access to three elements of personal data: secrecy (the right not to advertise personal information), anonymity (the right to avoid unwanted attention), and to be alone (the right to avoid physical proximity). In a more updated attitude Birnhak (2010) defines the right to privacy as the right to advertise what one finds suitable, and deny the use of one's data by others. Avni and Rotem (ibid.) view the issue of privacy as an issue of digital ethics, as one's wish to limit the use of personal data should be respected and no use can be done without one's consent.

Teachers' Identity in Cyberspace

Ethical dilemmas regarding SNS may derive from gaps between the teacher's conduct in class and conduct in private life. It is quite obvious that one cannot be an educator in the morning and a drug dealer in the evening because of a serious clash between the moral values. Similarly, an educator who is responsible for the welfare of children (his/her students) in the morning cannot act as a pedophile on the Net. Indeed, these two extreme cases show that the possibility of adopting a false identity on the Net exists and causes serious ethical dilemma. However, even in less extreme cases ethical issues may arise. For example, a teacher who does belly-dancing as a hobby may find herself in an unpleasant situation if she uploads photos which can be seen by parents and students on SNS. Avni and Rotem (ibid.) recommend taking some measures by which teachers can maintain their privacy on the Net. They discuss the danger of blurred identities between the private and the professional, and state that teachers should prioritize their professional identity over the private one. An example for this clash can be seen in the report on Channel 2 of the Israeli Television (2012) in which students of the 6th grade found photos of their teacher in the nude which were uploaded by her to a SNS. Faller (2011) reports another example from the UK of 6 Elementary School teachers who celebrated in a Bachelorette Party and have posted photos without defining them as private. Naturally, this created much discomfort at school.

Research Questions
1. 2. What are the student-teachers' perceptions of the issue of student-teacher relationships on SNS? What arguments have the student-teachers presented with regard to the issue of studentteacher relationships on SNS?

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Methodology
The methodology that was used in this study was the qualitative paradigm which seeks to understand the subjective world of human experience (Cohen et al., 2000). More specifically, the subjective meanings of the participants were explored by means of 'emic', whereas the insights that were gained by the researcher were explored by means of 'etic'. The research population comprised 50 student-teachers who study in a program of 2nd degree in education coupled with a teaching certificate in a College for Teacher Education. Their ages range from 28-45. Seven of them already teach but all of them have done practice teaching in schools as part of the program. The research method was a Content Analysis of an online Forum which was part of the contents of an academic course. The preliminary requirement for joining the Forum was reading of an article entitled "If you were a bit less of a teacher for me" which demonstrates the problematic issues of teachers' privacy with regard to SNS (Magen, in Globes, Supplement G, 22.3.2012), and watching a YouTube movie which presents the need for changes in education, entitled "I teach, therefore you learnor do you?". Then they were asked to relate to the article and movie freely in their posts. Most student-teachers have participated on the Forum more than once. The Content Analysis was conducted on all the student-teachers' posts which addressed a variety of topics. These were the stages of the analysis: 1. An attempt to gain understanding of each student-teacher's overall perception, even when he expressed reservations or counter-arguments 2. Categorization of the arguments into content categories which contain arguments in favor and against student-teacher relationships on SNS The data was validated in two ways: 1. Responses to the two prompts (article and movie) were compared. 2. Interviews were conducted with twelve student-teachers, in which they were asked to express their opinion on the issue of SNS in education with regard to the movie and article and explain their opinion.

Findings
Research question 1: What are the student-teachers' perceptions of the issue of student-teacher relationships on SNS? The findings yielded that 50% of the student-teachers have expressed an objection and 50% have supported it. However, the posts are multi-angled and provided a lot of data. Research questions 2 & 3 present the full picture of the findings. Research question 2: What arguments have the student-teachers presented with regard to the issue of student-teacher relationships on SNS? Some of the arguments support student-teachers relationship on SNS while others argue against it. Items 2.1-2.4 argue against while Items 2.5 and 2.6 advocate the use of SNS in education: 2.1 The right for privacy: the right for privacy serves as a key argument among those who expressed an objection to student-teacher relationship of SNS. They perceive such a relationship as an intrusion to their lives and to the lives of their students. Some quotes are presented here: "A teacher should avoid publishing personal data which is inappropriate for his position as a public servant and a model for imitation"; "I believe that the virtual proximity of students and teachers on SNS is voyeurism. A teacher who sees in SNS a tool which facilitates being 'A Big Brother', is a teacher that takes his responsibility towards his

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students one step too far. Even when this teacher believes that this is helpful, it means an inappropriate intervention"; "At this stage I tend to agree with the Ministry's guidelines against relationships on SNS. I believe that a class forum is an excellent substitute which prevents causing damage to the teachers' privacy on SNS"; In addition, student-teacher relationship on SNS is asymmetrical: "Whereas the student has a legitimacy to express his opinion freely and upload any pictures, the teacher does not have this privilege and needs to consider carefully any post"; The student-teachers support taking precautions against unmonitored posts of teachers: "Personally, I try to maintain my privacy and separate as much as possible my work and my private-family-social life"; "When I started teaching I blocked my students' access to my SNS accounts by creating a different identity, because I do not want my students to be part of it. Although I have opened a designated group on SNS with my students I'm not 'friends' with them but rather a friend for designated learning activities". 2.2 Boundaries in student-teacher relationship on SNS: This issue of the boundaries of their responsibility as beginner teachers seems to preoccupy the students' thoughts even beyond the question of relationships on SNS. Here are some of their quotes: "A novice teacher who is still unaware of the intricacies of teaching will prefer to be more careful about maintaining a distance with his students and will not confirm 'friendship' with them that easily"; "We should bear in mind that teaching is a role and a role has boundaries. Relationships among students on SNS are just another form of the relationships we had with our teachers as children, and they have never been part of our social life as children"; The student-teachers seem to be aware of the phenomenon of blurred identities on the Net and claim that they should neither be 'friends' with their students on SNS, nor at school: "I tend to believe with the Head of National Parents Council that boundaries become blurred between students and teachers nowadays, and that students address their teachers as if they are their friends. That is why the separation between the virtual life on SNS and at school is so important, because boundaries are so much easier to be trespassed in the virtual world". The student-teachers perceive their responsibility in the development of a meaningful dialogue with their students, which is based on respect and openness but equally on clear-cut boundaries: "It is possible to obtain knowledge with the tip of your fingers nowadays, but it is impossible to establish a fruitful dialogue with a computer. This meaningful and attentive human resource such as a teacher cannot be replaced in the lives of children and adolescents". Yet, the student-teachers do not see the Net as advantageous in providing a sense of care to their students: "I not a friend of my students. My position as a teacher serves as the basis for the relationship with my students. The young learners examine boundaries constantly, and without being their friend on SNS they know well that I care and I'm there for them in the real (as opposed to virtual) world". One of the recurring points in the student-teachers' posts was the issue of teachers' responsibility on SNS. The student-teachers believe that policing on SNS is not teachers' role or responsibility: "This is not at all teachers' responsibility, in the same way that no one would ever consider sending a teacher to the public garden on out-ofschool hours to monitor students' behaviors. However, while on SNS, if the teacher observes an exceptional behavior, he is expected react as any other adult (not necessarily a teacher) and to demonstrate human responsibility"; "Teachers have to

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be teachers. The interaction student-teacher takes place at school, and students must understand that their teachers are not available for them everywhere and at all times". 2.3 The contribution of student-teacher relationship on SNS: The student-teachers' posts expressed concern for teachers' ability to maintain their authority in class while being 'friends' with their students on SNS: "I do not believe that a teacher who corresponds with his students and use their language can manage his classroom on the following day at school because the boundaries of this dialogue have already been trespassed". Furthermore, concern was expressed whether the presence of teachers on SNS can fulfill the emotional needs of students: "The students perceive the use of SNS as an integral part of their lives, and attribute social and emotional importance to it. Pertaining to SNS may address the need to belong and be accepted, the need to feel in control of one's life, and sometimes frustration when access is denied. The question is whether a teacher can fill these needs Via SNS". Sometimes relationships on SNS may create emotional problems and misunderstandings: "When a student and a teacher become 'friends' on SNS the student may mistake this 'friendship' for a real friendship, whereas the teacher understands it in a different way. This situation may lead to a feeling of discomfort ". 2.4 Teaching Methods in the Era of SNS: The student-teachers support the need to leave the comfort zone of traditional teaching methods and replace them for new methods which include advanced technologies. Here are some of the student-teachers' posts: "Some teachers are 'stuck' with irrelevant teaching methods when the world around us has changed. In order to remain relevant teachers need to provide the new tools and skills and stop putting off these changes. The old method as 'romantic' as it may be leaves the teaching behind"; "When I deliver a lesson in class I do it like in the 'old times'as they say in the YouTube, because it feels safe and familiar. However, we should not forget that once the students leave school premises and go home they reattach to the virtual reality, which is their 'real' reality". The student-teachers seem to be aware of the fact that teachers should be updated and become digitally literate given the virtual reality most students are involved with: "The current curricula are still more appropriate for frontal teaching, and the whole concept of school is still associated with something antique, boring and irksome in the eyes of students. I also believe that digital methods are not always preferred to traditional methods, and that learning through the senses should be encouraged. However, certain Internet sites facilitate watching animals via cameras in almost real-life ways. In other words, digital methods can also present nice learning experiences and are not necessarily alienated". Part of the student-teachers favor SNS as a pedagogical and digital tool: "For me SNS is a tool which allows a diversity in teaching methods. It creates new boundaries for the classroom beyond the physical ones. It is up to me when and how to use it". 2.5: Digital literacy of teachers: Most of the student-teachers (97%) have expressed a positive attitude with regard to digital literacy as a tool for learning and teaching, and agreed that teachers should attempt to be involved in the virtual culture as much as possible, in order to become updated with their students' world: "As mentioned in the YouTube movie, today's students are not aliens, but they experience the world differently as this is a world of unlimited knowledge. Of course, the attachment to the students via their preferred SNS is a key factor in student-teacher

TIMOR: STUDENT-TEACHER RELATIONSHIPS ON SOCIAL NETWORKS

relationship. It is high time that teacher ceased to object to changes, and start listening to their students and to their expectations". 2.6 Acceptance of Changes: The majority of the student-teachers' posts yielded that a perceptual change on the part of teachers is obligatory. For example: "Indeed, technology is a tool and not an end, and it is not worth to bring it into the classroom with no accompanying perceptual change on the part of teachers. However, it would be wrong to ignore the new tools which are at our disposal"; "This whole discussion about accepting or not accepting the new technologies sounds a bit ridiculous: it is similar to questioning whether to allow children take a ride in a car or not when it was first inventedTeachers must adjust to reality, and if children's reality today is SNS then teachers should make all attempts to understand their world better. Indeed, today reality keeps changing fast and we as teachers should change accordingly".

Conclusions
This study helped to gain a number of insights: Student-teachers' attitudes on the issue of studentteacher relationship on SNS were controversial: 50% supported and 50% claimed against. Opponents mentioned the fear of teachers to lose their privacy on the Net. They claimed that teachers should not be held responsible for their students' whereabouts and activities on SNS, and stated that boundaries between students and teachers should be maintained. Yet, the studentteachers are aware of the need to introduce changes to education in the 21st century and half of them are willing to use SNS in teaching. Proponents claim that teachers should become digitally literate and demonstrate readiness to accept changes because of the benefits of SNS and the Open Internet. However, the posts have revealed that the student-teachers expect teachers to become (or remain) meaningful figures in the eyes of the learners. Indeed, teachers should use a variety of teaching methods (including SNS) in order to encourage creativity and higher-order thinking. Teachers should encourage the use of intuition and learning through the senses. They should consider the developmental needs of the learners, encourage curiosity and social experiences, and develop the self-confidence of learners. It may be concluded that the student-teachers' posts revealed a tendency to the Humanistic Approach in Education, and their attitude towards SNS reflected their attitude towards technologies in general: on the one hand they acknowledge their benefit, but on the other hand they will not allow to be over-powered by them. Perhaps the fact that the student-teachers' ages ranged from 28-45, helped them develop a more balanced approach: they respect "old" values in education and do not refute traditional teaching methods, but on the other hand they welcome the introduction of SNS into the educational system. It is important to consider the findings of this study in the context of teacher education programs. Although the use of ICT and technologies in education has become a trend in the past decade, this study shows that would-be teachers are not willing to give up the more conservative teaching methods which they still consider as relevant. Therefore, the use of SNS and other technologies in education should be considered as a gradual process of change, and teachers' attitudes towards the implementation of this change should be considered as a factor in decisionmaking as well.

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REFERENCES
Avni, A. and Rotem, A. (2011) Ethical Literacy in Digital Era from skills to perception, Online Teaching site (translated from Hebrew) http://ianethics.com/wpcontent/uploads/2011/06/Ethical-Literacy-AI.pdf Barnes, N.G. & Lescault, A.M. (2011). Social media soars as higher-ed experiments and reevaluates its use of new communications tools. Retrieved online August 10, 2013, http://www.umassd.edu/media/umassdartmouth/cmr/studiesandresearch/higherEd.pdf Birnhak, M. (2010) Private space: the right for privacy between law and technology. Nevo Publishing (translated from Hebrew). Channel 2, Israeli TV (report on 12.2.2010) Sixth graders found photos of their teachers in nude on Facebook (translated from Hebrew) http://reshet.tv/%D7%97%D7%93%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%AA/News/Domestic/Educ ationSociety/Article,37661.aspx Estrada, A. W. (2010) Saving face from Facebook: arriving at a compromise between schools' concerns with teacher social networking and teachers' first amendment rights, Thomas Jefferson Law Review, 32(2), pp. 283-312. Faller, G. Irish Times [Dublin, 18 Oct 2011], pp. 15-21. First Amendment Rights of Public Employees, http://www.workplacefairness.org/index.php?page=retaliationpublic Gavison, R. (1984) Privacy and the Limits of the Law, The Yale Law Journal, 8. Harvard Institute On Politics (2011). IOP youthpolling: Spring 2011 survey. Cambridge: Harvard University Kennedy School of Government. I teach, therefore you learn... or do you? YouTube movie, http://www.yoYouTube.com/watch?v=6AWYIit1uNk&feature=player_embedded Lewis, K. Kaufman, J., & Christakis, N. (2008). The taste for privacy: An analysis of college student privacy settings in an online social network. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 14, 79-100. Louisiana Legislative Session (2009). Electronic Communications between Employees and Students Policy. http://www.iberia.k12.la.us/departments/administration/forms/Electronic%20Communic ation%20Policy.pdf Magen, H. "If you were a bit less of a teacher for me" (Globes, Supplement G, from Hebrew) 22.3.2012).(translated http://www.globes.co.il/news/article.aspx?did=1000735047 Maranto G., Barton M. (2010) Paradox and Promise: MySpace, Facebook, and the Sociopolitics of Social Networking in the Writing Classroo. Computers and Composition 2, 3647. Ministry of Education Circular (2011) Education to values: ethics and safety on cyberspace (translated from Hebrew) http://cms.education.gov.il/EducationCMS/Applications/Mankal/EtsMedorim/9/94/HoraotKeva/K-2012-4-1-9-4-10.htm Ministry of Education Circular (2013) (6.1, 6.1-1) Teaching Methods: the use of SNS and collaborative communities on the Net in the educational system (translated from Hebrew) http://cms.education.gov.il/EducationCMS/Applications/Mankal/EtsMedorim/6/61/HodaotVmeyda/H-2013-8-6-1-1.htm Pennsville School District introduces policy for staff use of social media (May 6, 2013). http://www.nj.com/salem/index.ssf/2013/05/pennsville_school_district_int.html (retrieved August 10, 2013). The "Pickering Balancing Test, Pickering v. Board of Education, 391 U.S. 563 (1968)

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Dr. Tsafi Timor: Dr. Tsafi Timor is a lecturer in the Kibbutzim College of Education in the Program for Postgraduate Diploma for Teaching, Faculty of Education. Her main research interests are teacher education and pedagogy, class management, the inclusion of students with learning disabilities in mainstream education, and language education. Tsafi is also a psychoeducational diagnostician of learning disabilities, with a special expertise in learning disabilities in EFL.

Incorporating Web 2.0 into Greek Schools

Ifigenia Kofou, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece Sofia D. Anastasiadou, University of Western Macedonia, Greece
Abstract: Information and communication technology has brought many changes in teaching and learning such as removal of obstacles set by time and place; learner autonomy; realistic communication environments; quick access to digital teaching material; individualized learning; and experiential acquisition of knowledge, motivation, feedback, and language skill improvement (EACEA, 2007/09: 66). At the same time, young peoples attitudes, behaviors , and expectations are different, and include freedom to express their views; customization and personalization; integrity and openness in their interactions; entertainment integrated into learning; collaboration; and innovation. In regards to modern digital tools, they are also changing the way learners interact with the rest of the world for the reason that learners have to be adaptable and analytic, and have the skills to use these tools in order to connect, cooperate, share information, and solve problems (Solomon & Schrum, 2007: 1). For this reason, schools should teach students how to use them in education. In this framework, the present research, conducted in a model experimental school in Thessaloniki, Greece, attempts to examine learners expectations and familiarization with Web 2.0 tools; the contribution of Web 2.0 tools to learning and development of 21st century skills; the requirements of their integration into education; and learners attitudes toward technology integration into school. The results show that the specific students are quite familiar with digital tools and positive to them being integrated in education since they believe that these tool will advance learning. Keywords: 21st Century Skills, Technology, Web 2.0 Tools, Education, Learning

Theoretical Background

he introduction of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in education has brought significant change to the data of teaching and learning. More specifically, it has removed the obstacles caused by space and time, given greater autonomy to the student, changed communication environments, and affected feedback and motivation (EACEA, 2007/09: 66). Other changes concern content updating, quick access to digital educational materials, personalized learning (Thompson, 2007, Jimoyiannis & Siorenta, 2007: 363-366), an active and experiential approach to learning and its connection with society and everyday life, realistic learning environments (PI, 2009) and language skills improvement (EACEA, 2007/09: 55 -56). Regarding modern digital tools, they are changing the way people, including students, interact with the world. The challenges of the new millennium require students to be adaptable and analytical and have the skills to recognize and use the best tools in a rapidly changing environment (Solomon & Schrum, 2007: 1), in a "flat world" changing from "command and control" to connection and cooperation (Friedman, 2005). At the same time, we observe a change in attitudes, behaviors and expectations, which, according to recent research, are summarized in the following: freedom of choice and expression of ones personal views; customization and personalization, i.e., the ability to change things to meet ones needs; thorough testing and analysis; integrity and honesty in dealing with others (also with businesses, government and educational institutions); integration of entertainment and gaming at work, learning and social life; collaboration and building relationships vital to what one does; speed of communication, information and respond to questions and messages; innovation in products, services, employers and schools, and generally in life (Trilling & Fadel, 2009: 29-30).

The International Journal of Technologies in Learning Volume 20, 2014, www.thelearner.com, ISSN 2327-0144 Common Ground, Ifigenia Kofou, Sofia D. Anastasiadou, All Rights Reserved Permissions: cg-support@commongroundpublishing.com

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In education, these tools can be very useful to learning, in fields such as: in-depth learning (even outside the classroom), visualization of data, expression and exchange of ideas, creation of learning communities, implementation of a quality project (Boss & Krauss, 2007: 61), and reflection (Boss & Krauss, 2007: 54-56). They require, however, skills (Solomon & Schrum, 2007: 1) and a more flexible approach to teaching than following the syllabus and memorizing (Solomon & Schrum, 2007: 21, 34). After all, students have changed, as they represent the generations to grow up with the new technology; they are the ones who will use the most powerful tools to change society and will form the digital mentors, even for their teachers and parents (Trilling & Fadel, 2009: 27). This is due to the fact that they are also the speakers of the digital language of computers and the innovative users of videogames and the Internet, and they integrate new technologies in communication, learning (e.g., homework, projects) and generally in their life (Solomon & Schrum, 2007: 26-30). The era of web 1.0 enabled online information search and writing reports using a word processor or Powerpoint, publications on the Internet, storing files on the school server, and creating websites (Solomon & Schrum, 2007: 2). Web 2.0 tools allow students to become publishers on their own (Luckin et al, 2009), have immediate feedback (Salpeter, 2008), comment on others work, assume new roles and responsibilities, and create opportunities for digital literacy. Thus, students are not only able to look for, retrieve, and evaluate information (Boss & Krauss, 2007: 110, Solomon & Schrum, 2007: 2, Tsakarestou & Papadimitriou, 2011), but, by capitalizing collective intelligence (Solomon & Schrum, 2007: 46), they can create social networks and collaborate (Thompson, 2007). Therefore, schools should teach students how to use these tools in order to prepare them for new challenges, motivate them, and learn to use them in appropriate educational ways (Solomon & Schrum, 2007: 8). This is evident from research conducted in the field of digital tools. More than a decade ago, Windschitl (1998) and others (Hartley & Bendixen, 2001; Owston, 1997; Roschelle & Pea, 1999), writing in Educational Researcher, outlined opportunities and contemporary practices in the use of the Web as an educational tool in classrooms. For example, in regard to the Webs role in classrooms, Windschitl advocated for a stronger research focus on three topics: using the Web for student inquiry, studying student communication via the Web, and invoking qualitative research methods to illuminate Web-based learning. Windschitl described the Webs potential to function as an information repository that could promote richer inquiry experiences for learners, and he argued for more research that examined students inquiry processes with the Web and the teachers role in guiding and evaluating such processes. Later, Lenhart, Madden, Macgill, and Smith (2007) suggest that many teenagers actually prefer multichannel communication, such as text messaging, instant messaging, and communication through social network sites, to traditional e-mail and face-to-face communication. Indeed, 55% of online teenagers are using Web 2.0 technologies, such as social network sites, outside of school and visit their social network sites daily or several times a day, devoting an average of 9 hours per week to the network (Lenhart & Madden, 2007; National School Boards Association, 2007). A recent national survey of college undergraduates (ages 18 to 24) indicated similar trends (Salaway, Borreson, & Nelson, 2008). Through such sites, youth share media (e.g., photos, music, videos), exchange messages, form groups, request information, articulate or develop their personal connections, post or remix digital content, and create or comment in blogs (Lenhart & Madden, 2007). Contrary to most assumptions, youths online social activities are not devoid of substantive intellectual activity. A survey from the National School Boards Association (2007) reported that students online sharing in social network sites involves education and learning.Sixty percent of students surveyed reported using their social network sites to talk about education topics, and 50% reported talking specifically about schoolwork (National School Boards Association, 2007). DeGennaro (2008) describes an example of education-oriented Web 2.0 use by a group of students who persuaded their advisors to use instant-messaging technologies, leading to homeschool activities in which students and advisors negotiated goals, co-constructed solutions, and argued

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KOFOU AND ANASTASIADOU: INCORPORATING WEB 2.0 TOOLS INTO GREEK SCHOOLS

to learn (p. 12). Despite the current lack of research, these and other emerging studies, and the emergent technological competencies in the field, indicate movement toward and projections of Web 2.0 activities with potential educational value (Greenhow et al., 2009: 246-248). There are a lot of ways that web 2.0 tools can be used in education. For example, a wiki is a website, accessible to anyone with a browser and Internet connection. It allows writing, editing, correcting and changing content (collectively and individually), and it is a useful collaborative tool for designing a project and organizing action (Boss & Krauss, 2007: 45, 56, 88; Solomon & Schrum, 2007: 81; Thompson, 2007). Other applications include group collaboration and problem solving, peer editing, and electronic portfolios. Students can work from anywhere and contribute according to their own schedule. The wiki monitors changes, so that teachers can see the successive versions of documents in the electronic portfolios, comment, edit, and evaluate stud ents work (Solomon & Schrum, 2007: 58, 109). Another tool that offers a lot of possibilities is the blog. A blog can act as a personal diary or journal, on which students reflect their thinking, broadcast news, comment on posts, elicit alternative views, communicate their progress (Boss & Krauss, 2007: 56, 88, Solomon & Schrum, 2007: 80; Thompson, 2007), and invite an expert to help them in their project. Knowing that there is an authentic audience watching, reading, listening and connecting, students are strongly motivated to participate in a collaborative project (Boss & Krauss, 2007: 127-128). In general, blogs promote open dialogue, and encourage community building and communication. They also help students to share knowledge, and teachers upload activities post announcements, and create an interactive learning community (Hoyle, English & Steffy, 1998, Solomon & Schrum, 2007: 112, 120, 161). Other tools which can also be used effectively in student-centered learning, and promote critical thinking are podcasts (Boss & Krauss, 2007: 121, Solomon & Schrum, 2007: 57, Popova & Edirisingha, 2010). Podcasts are audio or video digital media that are distributed on the Internet and play on mobile devices or PCs. With podcasts students could watch the video multiple times, reflect on it, share knowledge and opinions (Anderson, 2007), take notes and watch others activities. The podcast enables students, who are used to listening to music on iPods and MP3 players, to have portable information, accessible twenty four hours a day and selected by the user (Solomon & Schrum, 2007: 57). Motivation is achieved by using the iPod as a "language lab" while applying the theory of multiple intelligences using text, audio and video files, and applying research, reading, writing and presentation skills (Luckin et al, 2009; Solomon & Schrum, 2007: 95). Moreover, language teachers can share original content (music, literature etc.) with their students, so that they are able to control learning through repetition. They can also participate in professional development training sessions, and lectures (Solomon & Schrum, 2007: 113, 162). Additional tools which can be used in learning and which students may be familiar wit include the following: Drupal (http://drupal, org) and Textpattern (http://textpattern.com) can function as collaboration, discussion and survey forums (Boss & Krauss, 2007: 87-88) while ProfilerPRO (www. profilerpro.com) is an online survey tool that allows a teacher to identify the learning characteristics (interests, strengths, and weaknesses) of an individual student or of a group of students, and use this information as you guide learning. Moreover, tools like SurveyMonkey (www.surveymonkey.com) and Zoomerang (http://info.zoomerang, com) allow online surveys and help students see how their self-assessment compares to a larger group (Boss & Krauss, 2007: 96). As for Big6, it is an information and technology-literacy model, which includes a wide range of resources (presentations, lesson plans, blogs), and offers students strategies to help them find, organize and evaluate information, and solve problems Digital (Boss & Krauss, 2007: 111). A tool that can be used as a tutorial apart from podcasts is the screencast. A screencast, a digital recording of computer screen output, often with audio narration, can be used as a tutorial, which students can watch repeatedly from anywhere as feedback. Students digital slideshows can be turned into screencasts, accompanied by narration and music to be posted on the internet, thereby forcing students to improve the quality of their work (Boss & Krauss, 2007: 104). On the

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other hand, a digital camera enables students to document activities and track project progress (Boss & Krauss, 2007: 112). In the same way, a mobile phone is a collaborative tool with which students are familiar. The benefit of a mobile data terminal, such as a mobile phone connected to other online technologies, offers the possibility to go where the students go. (Boss & Krauss, 2007: 59). Thus they can record videos, take photos, and upload them later or connect with other students and collaborate. Similarly, the online photo management tools (Photo Sharing) enable students to upload photos, organize them into albums, add notes, captions and labels to publish their digital album online and connect with groups with similar views and interests. These websites may also be linked to other internet tools such as blogs and wikis. One of them is Flickr, which can be used by students to post digital photos and illustrate narratives (Boss & Krauss, 2007: 151, Solomon & Schrum, and 2007: 60). Digital Storytelling fosters communication and lifelong learning by updating students knowledge and skills, and digital diplomacy helps students share their experiences, lives and opinions with other students on the other side of the world (Solomon & Schrum, 2007: 83-84), while Photo editing allows image composition, and graphics creating and editing (Solomon & Schrum, 2007: 60). Students collaboration and creativity can be also developed by tools, such as social bookmarking and Video Showcasing. Social bookmarking is a web-based service, which displays internet bookmark lists created and shared by users. Students can organize their URLs into folders, add tags, and be notified when sites are updated (Anderson, 2007). Using online bookmarking sites means that favorites are available from any computer at any time. Students can search information using keywords to make lists of relevant web pages collected by others, find information that may not have thought to search, and share (Solomon & Schrum, 2007: 59). On the other hand, Video Showcasing (e.g., YouTube) allows students to create video clips, which can be used for digital stories and inserted into presentations and projects. Other tools that can be used as web 2.0 versions include the word processor (word processing) to share ideas and collaborate in real time or asynchronously, and spreadsheets to create and present slides. In education, the following tools can also be used: Mapping (Google Earth), 3D Modeling (to create three-dimensional drawings, http://sketchup.google.com), Social Networking (My Space, imeem.com, whyville.net) (Thompson, 2007), information organizing on the web (www.google.com / notebooks, surveys and polls, http://zohopolls.com), eHub (web applications and services), instant messaging, Internet Telephony-Voice over internet (e.g. Skype), Think.com (use interactive tools for collaborative learning), Google Education, moodle, calendars (Solomon & Schrum, 2007: 61 - 70). The tools mentioned above combine image, sound and text, i.e. they offer multimodality. Multimodality allows students to learn according to their own learning pace, while applications can be particularly useful at work, and in life. Equally important is their contribution to assessing students skills, abilities and knowledge, and creating a digital portfolio (ePortfolio 2.0). Progress in technology makes many schools adopt new methods to improve communication, teaching and learning. Although great sums have been spent on teacher training, there has been no significant difference in integrating technology in the classroom, mainly because of teachers reluctance (Solomon & Schrum, 2007: 100). Therefore, we should promote learning communities which foster interaction, cooperation and improved practice. In this context, the federal government of America published the National Educational Technology Plan, which proposes (Solomon & Schrum, 2007: 100) seven major steps of technology integration into schools: (1) strengthen leadership; (2) innovative budget; (3) improve teacher training; (4) support e-learning and virtual schools; (5) broadband access; (6) transit to digital content; (7) data integration systems. Since leadership is one step of technology integration into schools and teachers are changing, school leaders need new skills and vision to help teachers use new technologies and new methods, and prepare schools for the future (Hoyle, English & Steffy, 1998, Solomon & Schrum, 2007: 117119). This is necessary because at the school of tomorrow (school 2.0), technology knocks down walls and allows entry to the real world. Thus, the "learning ecosystem" incorporation is everyone's

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responsibility (of students, teachers, parents and policy makers), and it is built on communication, cooperation, content evaluation, creation and innovation. Not many of the above steps have been taken in Greece, which is now making an effort to integrate new technologies in teaching and learning, The effort toward the the new digital school includes actions, such as: building up infrastructure to support digital class; digital learning content (e-books); teacher training; electronic education administration; horizontal support actions (promote excellence and innovation in ICT, assess experimental and innovative actions, etc.).

Methodology
In the context described above, the present study, a case study in one of the best schools in Greece, i.e., the 2nd Model Experimental School of Thessaloniki, examines students familiarity with web 2.0 tools, their expectations and attitudes to them. The survey is necessary for teachers to know the extent to which students can use these tools, as well as their expectations before integrating them into their lessons or projects. A questionnaire was used as a survey tool. A questionnaire is considered the most appropriate tool for primary research, and most researchers are familiar with using one (Javeau, 1988). When it is well constructed and used properly, it can provide very useful and important results (Mucchielli, 1968, Cohen et al., 1994). The internal consistency of the questionnaire statements was measured with alpha reliability. The alpha coefficient (Crondach's a) is the average of all possible reliability values for the questionnaire, and it was preferred because it does not depend on the order of the statements. The questionnaire was constructed to examine students attitudes to web 2.0 tools diffusion and use in their life and education. The final version of the questionnaire consisted of 65 questions-statements. The first 2 questions asked about the demographics of the respondents, i.e., students gender and age. The rest of the 63 questions assessed students' views on web 2.0 tools diffusion and use in the educational process. Items on the questionnaire used a Likert scale, ranging from 1 for not at all to 5 for very much. Based on the literature review these 63 questions were divided into six groups: 1. Familiarity with web 2.0 tools. 2. Contribution of web 2.0 tools to learning. 3. 21st century skills. 4. Expectations from web 2.0 tools. 5. Requirements of technology integration in school. 6. Attitudes and views of technology integration in school.

The Survey Sample

The questionnaire was anonymous to assure confidentiality, and was administered by one of the authors, a school teacher, to assess students familiarity with web 2.0 tools, their expectations and attitudes to them in order to integrate them into school projects during the school year 2012-13. The students were asked to respond spontaneously to the survey questionnaire, and were given explanations about the tools they did not know. The sample of our study was 150 students from the 2nd Model Experimental Senior High School of Thessaloniki, one of the most advanced schools in Greece, according to the evaluation conducted by the Ministry of Education for all the Experimental Schools in Greece. Sixty (40%) out of the respondents were male, eighty (53.3%) were female, and ten (6.7%) gave no answer about their gender. As regards their age 2 (1.3%) were 14 years old, 40 (26.7%) were 15 years old, 45 (30%) were 16, 49 (32.7%) were 17, 1 (0, 7%) was 18 years old, and 13 (8.7%) did not respond.

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Results
To process the data, we used the total scores of the groups of questions mentioned above, so as to get the level of agreement and standard deviation of each group. In addition, by using the statistical tests t-test and ANOVA with post-hoc tests for independent samples and with the values of the groups as dependent variables, we examined whether the variable s of students gender and age affected views on web 2.0 tools diffusion and use in the learning process. The reliability coefficient (Crobach's a) for all the statements-questions of the questionnaire is statistically significant and equal to 0.925, which proves the quality of the questionnaire and the reliability of the respondents answers. The first group, consisted of 15 questions, measured familiarity with web 2.0 tools, and they are presented in Table 1. Table 1: Familiarity with web 2.0 tools I am familiar with the use of the following web 2.0 tools: 3a.wiki 3b.blog 3c.podcast 3d.screencast 3e.Photo sharing & editing 3f.Social bookmarking 3g.Video Showcasing (e.g. You Tube) 3h.Mapping (e.g. Google Earth) 3i.3D Modelling 3j.Social Networking (e.g. My Space) 3k.instant messaging (e.g. Skype) 3l.Think.com 3m.moodle 3m.digital camera 3n.mobile phone M=45.01 3.73 2.90 2.56 2.17 3.26 2.76 4.37 3.42 2.20 3.59 3.70 1.71 1.62 3.85 4.48 sd=11.695 1.329 1.339 4.429 1.252 1.322 1.448 1.099 1.350 1.269 1.461 1.364 1.064 1.058 1.381 1.277

The reliability (Crobach's a) of the first group is a = 0.737 (satisfactory, because is above 0.60). The subjects of this study expressed agreement on the degree of importance of the first group (M = 45.01, sd = 11,695) (Table 1). More specifically, in terms of familiarity with the wiki, the students say it's much on the Likert scale (M = 3.73, sd = 1.329) (3a). According to the students responses it becomes evident that the greatest degree of familiarity is with the mobile phone (3n.) (M = 4.48, sd = 1.277) and with Video Showcasing (e.g. You Tube) (3g .) (M = 4.37, sd = 1.009). Furthermore, students familiarity with Social Networking (e.g. My Space) (3j.) ( M = 3.59, sd = 1.461), instant messaging (e.g. Skype) (3k.) (M = 3.70, sd = 1.364) and a digital camera (3m.) (M = 3.85, sd = 1.381) is also much. The students are quite familiar with the blog (3b.) (M = 2.90, std = 1.339), the podcast (3c.) (M = 2.56, std = 4.429), Photo sharing & editing (3e.) (M = 3.26, std = 1.322), Social bookmarking (3f.) (M = 2.76, std = 1.448) and Mapping (e.g. Google Earth) (3h.)

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(M = 3.42, std = 1.350). On the other hand, the students are a little familiar with the screencast (3d.) (M = 2.17, std = 1.252), 3D Modelling (3i.) (M = 2.20, std = 1.269), and moodle (3m.) (M = 1.62, std = 1.058). By using the statistical tests t-test and ANOVA with post-hoc tests for independent samples and with the values of the groups as dependent variables, we found that the variables that deal with gender (t = 0,316, p = 0,752> 0,05) and age (F = 0,348, p = 0,845> 0,05) did not affect students views on web 2.0 tools diffusion and use. The second group consisted of 15 questions related to the contribution of web 2.0 tools to learning, and are presented in Table 2. Table 2: Contribution of web 2.0 tools to learning I think that the following tools contribute to students effective learning : 4a.wiki 4b.blog 4c.podcast 4d.screencast 4e.Photo sharing & editing 4f.Social bookmarking 4g.Video Showcasing (e.g. You Tube) 4h.Mapping (e.g. Google Earth) 4i.3D Modelling 4j.Social Networking (e.g. My Space) 4k.instant messaging (e.g. Skype) 4l.Think.com 4m.moodle 4n.digital camera 4o.mobile phone M=31.17 4.14 3.24 2.57 2.58 2.92 2.97 3.56 3.30 2.38 2.99 3.20 2.65 2.38 2.97 2.97 Sd=9.778 4.403 1.279 1.282 1.239 1.354 1.396 1.269 1.331 1.248 1.469 1.432 2.686 1.346 1.345 1.518

The reliability (Crobach's a) of the second group is a = 0.891 (satisfactory, because is above 0.60). The survey results regarding the second group of statements show that students expressed a moderate agreement with the statements of that group, because the average level of this group is M= 31.17 (sd= 9.778) (Table 2). More specifically, the respondents point to the wiki (4a.) as the "heaviest variable 'i.e. the most important tool that helps students networking, collaboration and effective learning (M = 4.14, sd = 4.403). An equally important tool is Video Showcasing (e.g. You Tube) (4g.) (10) (M = 3.56, sd = 1.269). On the contrary, the blog (4b.) (M = 3.24, sd = 1.279), the Podcast (4c.) (M = 2.57, sd = 1.282), the screencast (4d.) (M = 2.58, sd = 1.239), Photo sharing & editing (4e.) (M = 2.92, sd = 1.354), Social bookmarking (4f.) (M = 2.97, sd = 1.396), Mapping (e.g. Google Earth) (4h.) (M = 3.30, sd = 1.331). Social Networking (e.g. My Space) (4j.) (M = 2.99, sd = 1.469), instant messaging (e.g. Skype) (4k.) (M = 3.20, sd = 1.432). Think.com (4l.) (M = 2.65, sd = 2.686). the digital camera (4n.) (M = 2.97, sd = 1.345) and the mobile phone (4o.) (M = 2.97, sd = 1.518) are not considered to be equally important for students networking , collaboration and effective

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learning. Finally, there is little contribution of 3D Modelling (4i.) (M = 2.38, sd = 1.248) and moodle (4m.) (M = 2.38, sd = 1.346). Using the statistical tests t-test and ANOVA with post-hoc tests for independent samples and with the values of the groups as dependent variables, we found that the variables of gender (t = 0.585, p = 0.560> 0.05) and age (F = 0.244, p = 0.913> 0.05) did not affect students' views on the contribution of web 2.0 tools to learning. The third group consisted of 10 questions related to 21st Century Skills, the development of which is assisted by web 2.0 tools, and they are presented in Table 3. Table 3: 21st Century Skills I believe that web 2.0 tools help: 5a. literacy in the digital age 5b. inventive thinking 5c. effective communication 5d. high productivity 5e. life and career skills (e.g.. adaptability. responsibility. intercultural interaction. etc.) 5f. creation and innovation 5g. research and information use 5h. digital citizenship (e.g. moral behavior) 5i.problem solving 5j. conflict management M=33.51 3.61 3.27 3.85 3.39 3.45 3.63 4.06 3.11 3.42 2.30 sd=7.714 1.164 1.047 1.050 1.098 1.087 1.111 .963 1.211 1.053 1.072

The reliability (Crobach's a) of the third group is a = 0.856 (satisfactory, because is above 0.60). The results concerning the third group of the questions show that students expressed a moderate agreement with the statements of that group because the average level of this group is M = 33.51 (sd = 7.714) (Table 3). More specifically, the respondents highlight the contribution of web 2.0 tools to research and information use (5g.) as the "heaviest variable (M = 4.06, sd = 0.963). Also great is the contribution of web 2.0 tools to effective communication (5c.) (M= 3.85, sd = 1.050), literacy in the digital age (5a.) (M = 3.61, sd = 1.164), and creation and innovation (5f.) (M = 3.61, sd = 1.111). Quite significant is the contribution of web 2.0 tools to inventive thinking (5b.) (M = 3.27, sd = 1.047), high productivity (5d.) (M = 3.39, sd = 1.098), life and career skills (e.g. adaptability. responsibility. intercultural interaction. etc.) (5e.) (M = 3.45, sd = 1.087), digital citizenship (e.g. moral behavior) (5h.) (M = 3.11, sd = 1.211), and problem solving (5i.) (M = 3.42, sd = 1.053). Finally, there is little contribution of web 2.0 tools to conflict management (5j.) (M= 2.30, sd = 1.072). Using the statistical tests t-test and ANOVA with post-hoc tests for independent samples and with the values of the groups as dependent variables, we found that the variables regarding gender (t = -0.203, p = 0.840> 0.05) and age (F = 0.522, p = 0.720> 0.05) did not affect the students' views on the contribution of web 2.0 tools to the development of 21st century skills. The fourth group consisted of 8 questions related to the expectations from web 2.0 tools, which are presented in Table 4.

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Table 4: Expectations of web 2.0 tools 6.What I expect from the web 2.0 tools: freedom of choice and expression of my personal views customization and personalization thorough testing and analysis integrity and honesty in dealing with others integration of entertainment and gaming at work. learning and social life collaboration and building relationships speed of communication and information innovation in products, services, employers and schools, and generally in life M=28.83 3.59 3.49 3.32 3.42 3.97 3.83 4.21 3.58 sd=6.940 1.222 1.182 1.186 1.326 1.013 1.089 1.013 1.079

The reliability (Crobach's a) of the fourth group is a = 0.883 (satisfactory, because is above 0.60). The results of the study concerning the fourth group of statements show that students expressed a moderate agreement with the statements of that group because the average level of this group is M = 28.83 (sd = 6.940) (Table 4). Students expectations, in hierarchical order, is speed in communication and information (M = 4.21, sd = 1.013), cooperation and relation building (M = 3.83, sd = 1.089), integration of entertainment and gaming at work, learning and social life (M=3.97, sd=1.013), freedom of choice and self-expression (M = 3.59, sd = 1.222), innovation in products, services, employers, schools and life (M = 3.58, sd = 1.079), customization and personalization (M = 3.49, sd = 1.182), integrity and honesty in dealing with others (M = 3.42, sd = 1.326), and finally thorough testing and analysis (M = 3.32, sd=1.186). Using the statistical tests t-test and ANOVA with post-hoc tests for independent samples and with the values of the groups as dependent variables, we found that the variable that examines gender (t = -2.469, p = 0.015 <0.05) affects the students views on their expectations from web 2.0 tools, with female students expressing a more positive attitude than male students (Mg = 29.98 and Mb = 27.13), in contrast to the age variable (F = 0.233, p = 0.919> 0.05), which does not affect the students' views on their expectations from web 2.0 tools. The fifth group consisted of 7 questions related to the requirements of technology integration in schools, and they are presented in Table 5. Table 5: Requirements of technology integration in schools 7. The application and use of technology in schools depends on: leadership strengthening innovative budget improvement of teachers training support of e-learning and virtual schools encouragement of broadband access transition to digital content integration of data systems M=24.03 3.03 3.55 3.90 3.66 3.51 3.63 3.44 Sd=5.572 1.135 1.089 .962 1.053 1.061 1.061 1.095

The reliability (Crobach's a) of the fifth group is a = 0.802 (satisfactory, because is above 0.60). The results of the study concerning the fifth group of statements show that the students expressed their agreement with the statements of that group because the average level of this group

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is M = 24.03 (sd = 5.572) (Table 5). The requirements of technology integration into school according to the students views, in hierarchical order, depends on improvement of teacher training (M = 3.90, sd = 0.960), support of e-learning and virtual schools (M = 3.66, sd = 1.053), transition to digital content (M = 3.63, sd = 1.061), innovative budget (M = 3.55, sd = 5.572), encouraging broadband access (M = 3.51, sd = 1.061), integrating data systems (M = 3.44, sd = 1.095) and finally, strengthening leadership (M = 3.03, sd = 1.135). Using the statistical tests t-test and ANOVA with post-hoc tests for independent samples and with the values of the groups as dependent variables, we found that the variables concerning gender (t = -0.263, p = 0.793> 0.05) and age (F = 0.261, p = 0.902> 0.05), did not affect the students' views on the requirements of technology integration into schools. The sixth group consisted of 8 questions, related to the attitudes and views of technology integration into schools, and they are presented in Table 6. Table 6: Attitudes and perceptions of technology integration into schools. As regards integration of technology and web 2.0 tools into schools, I believe: Learning communities (teachers. students. and experts) help to improve teaching and learning. On-line libraries give students the opportunity to search for ideas and share their work. Digital portfolios offer reflections on learning and evaluation On-line assessment tools offer feedback and help students improve their performance. Web 2.0 tools are attractive to students. Projects are more effective by using web 2.0 tools. Teachers are responsible for the failure to integrate technology into teaching. Political leadership is responsible for the failure to integrate technology into teaching M=27.93 3.47 3.70 3.18 3.29 4.16 3.74 3.11 3.65 Sd=6.539 1.186 1.116 1.040 1.022 2.685 1.140 1.196 1.200

The reliability (Crobach's a) of the sixth group is a = 0.621 (quite satisfactory, because is above 0.60). The results of the study concerning the sixth group of statements show that students expressed agreement with the statements of that group, because the average level of this group is M = 27.93 (sd = 6.539) (Table 6). Students views on technology and web 2.0 tools integration into schools relate to web 2.0 tools attractiveness (M = 4.16, sd = 2.685), projects effectiveness by using web 2.0 tools (M = 3.74, sd = 1.140), on-line libraries which give students the opportunity to search for ideas and share their work (M = 3.70, sd = 1.116), political leadership responsibility for the failure to integrate technology into teaching (M = 3. 65, sd = 1.200). The respondents believe that integrating technology into teaching at school contribute considerably to the improvement of teaching and learning (M = 3.47, sd = 1186), On-line assessment tools offer feedback and contribute to improving student performance (M = 3.29, sd = 1.002); digital portfolios offer reflection on learning and assessment (M = 3.18, sd = 1.040). Finally, teachers are quite responsible for failing to integrate technology into teaching (M = 3.11, sd = 1.196). Using the statistical tests t-test and ANOVA with post-hoc tests for independent samples and tests for independent samples and with the values of the groups as dependent variables, we found that the variables concerning gender(t = -0.488, p = 0.626> 0.05) and age (F = 1.067, p = 0.375> 0.05), did not affect the students' views on technology integration in schools.

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Conclusions/Discussion
We mentioned above that technology tools for learning have not been always effectively used in the classroom. Levin et al. (2002), in surveying 3,000 public school students, also identified a digital disconnect between students and their schools, with students claiming their teachers had not yet shifted their teaching to respond to the new ways students communicate and use the Web beyond their classrooms. Thus research should continue examining learners online inquiry practices (often referred to as information literacy or media literacy), especially how they navigate, understand, trust, and critically evaluate multiple types and sources of data. However, if we as researchers and educators seek to develop in all students the aforementioned digital-age competencies that prepare them for a knowledge-based global economy, cultivate their interestdriven activities, and help them shape a democratic culture, we ought to expand lines of research to focus on students use of Web 2.0 for participation, invention, and knowledge building in and beyond school settings. Researchers are just beginning to inquire into young peoples participation patterns and creative acts with newer Web technologies in formal and informal learning environments. Currently, there is little published empirical work on the subject (Greenhow et al., 2009: 247, 249-250). Within this trend, the present study tried to examine students familiarity and att itudes to digital tools before integrating them into learning environments. The research tool can be used by teachers to explore their students familiarity and attitudes to these tools, and examine if their students can use them in the classroom or outside the classroom while implementing a project. The results showed that the participants of this study are familiar with web 2.0 tools, such as the mobile phone, video showcasing (You Tube), instant messaging (Skype), and social networking (My Space), and quite familiar with blogs, podcasts, photo sharing, social bookmarking and mapping. They also think that these tools contribute to networking, collaboration and learning, mainly wikis and video showcasing, and less blogs, podcasts, screencasts, photo sharing, social bookmarking, mapping, social networking, instant messaging, think.com, digital cameras and mobile phones. In their opinion, these tools contribute to 21st century skills, such as digital literacy, inventive thinking, research and information use, creativity and innovation. What they expect from web 2.0 tools is speed in communication and information, cooperation and building relations, integration of entertainment and gaming at work, learning and social life, freedom of choice and self-expression, innovation in products, services, employers, schools and life, customization and personalization, integrity and honesty in dealing with others, and finally, thorough testing and analysis. As for web 2.0 tools integration into school, several things are required, such as improvement of teacher training, support of e-learning and virtual school, transition to digital content. Innovative budget, encouraging broadband access, integrating data systems, and strengthening leadership. If these requirements are fulfilled, they believe that learning will be more attractive, projects will be more effective, online libraries will give students the opportunity to seek ideas and share their work, and online assessment tools will offer feedback and improve student performance. Therefore, the necessity of designing various courses for students or pre-service students to teach them how to use different types of Web 2.0 technologies is crucial if we want them to use Web 2.0 technologies effectively and efficiently in their cl asses. As todays world is the world of technology in order to catch the latest developments in technology and to be updated, they should be aware of different types of Web 2.0 technologies, and being competent in using Web 2.0 technologies is very important (Eyyam. Menevis & Dogruer. 2011). This is a challenge for the 21st century school. Thus future research could examine the results of web 2.0 tools integration into the educational process, and assess the outcomes of their use.

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Popova, A, Edirisingha, P. (2010). How can podcasts support engaging students in learning activities?. www.sciencedirect.com Roschelle, J., & Pea, R. (1999). Trajectories from todays WWW to a powerful educational infrastructure. Educational Researcher, 28(5), 2225. Salaway, G., Borreson, J., & Nelson, M. R. (2008). The ECAR study of undergraduate students and information technology, 2008 (Vol. 8). Boulder, CO: EDUCAUSE. Salpeter, J. (2008). 21st Century Skills: Will Our Students Be Prepared?. Tech & Learning. (http://www.techlearning.com/article/13832). Solomon, G., Schrum, L. (2007). Web 2.0: new tools, new schools. International Society for Technology in Education. Washington. Thompson, J. (2007). Is Education 1.0 ready for Web 2.0 students?. http://www.innovateonline.info Trilling, B., Fadel, C. (2009). 21st Century Skills. Jossey-Bass. San Francisco. Tsakaretsou, M, Papadimitriou, S (2011). Educational Television 2.0: The experiment of digital transmission. 6th International Conference in Open & Distance Learning. Loutraki. Greece. Tzimogiannis, A, Siorenta, A. (2007). Internet as a tool of developing critical and creati ve thinking, in Modern Teaching Approaches for developing Critical Creative Thinking, Teacher Training Organization, Athens, Greece. Windschitl, M. (1998). The WWW and classroom research: What path should we take? Educational Researcher, 27(1), 2833.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Dr. Ifigenia Kofou: Ifigenia Kofou holds a PhD in language teaching and language communication, which she received from Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece. She holds an MA in sciences of language and communication at the new economic environment, and is a graduate from the English department of the School of Philosophy, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. She works as an English language teacher for secondary education in Greece, and is member of the Secondary Education EL Teachers Association of Northern Greece. Dr. Sofia D. Anastasiadou: Assistant Professor, University of Western Macedonia, Greece.

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Technoholic: Impact of Student-Initiated Technology on College Students Learning Behaviors

Dengting Boyanton, Long Island University, USA
Abstract: Technology has become an increasingly important part of our daily life in almost every aspect. Much research has been conducted on the impact of technology on education such as instructional technology and online learning. Most research findings in this area focus on the impact of teacher-initiated technology (TIT) on learning. Little, however, is known about what kind of impact student-initiated technology (SIT) has on college students daily life and how much it affects their learning behaviors both inside and outside of the school context. This study addressed this limitation by identifying the possible problems that student-initiated technology (SIT) has on college students learning behaviors. Findings of this research revealed at least three negative impacts of SIT on students learning behaviors: 1) timeconsuming, 2) distracting, and 3) addictive. Keywords: Technology, Student-initiated Technology (Sit), Learning, College Student, Grounded Theory

Introduction
echnology has become an increasingly important part of our daily life in almost every aspect. As computers become more commonplace, the use of information technology has become pervasive in many peoples lives. For most of us, it is hard to imagine daily life without the influence of technological devices, be it handheld video games, personal digital assistants, cell phones or any sort of computers. This is especially true for younger generations. A survey conducted in 2003 found that 87% of the children regularly played computer (Gentile, Lynch, Linder, & Walsh, 2004). In the education field, using technology to enhance classroom instruction has become a trend or even a fashion, and classrooms across the nation have become "wired" with technology (Lavin, Korte, & Davies, 2011). This trend has escalated quickly during the past five years as students have become increasingly tech-savvy. In fact, it has reached to the point where the use of technology is almost expected in the classrooms by students, teachers, and administrators. The proliferation of technology in the educational setting has sparked considerable interest on the part of researchers (Lavin, Korte, & Davies, 2011). In general, most research findings on the impact of technology on learning have been positive and beneficial (Apperson, Laws, & Scepansky, 2006; Atkins-Sayre, Hopkins, Mohundro, & Sayre, 1998; Lavin, Korte, & Davies, 2011; Li, Finley, Pitts & Guo, 2011; Mantei, 2000.) While most research on technology in the education field focuses on the instructional aspect within the school context, or to be more exact, on the impact of teacher-initiated technology, it is believed that technology has also dramatically changed students learning behaviors occurring outside of the classroom setting where technology is not initiated by the teachers but by the students themselves (Lavin, Korte, & Davies, 2011), which is called student-initiated technology (SIT) in this study. Little, however, is known about exactly what kind of impact student-initiated technology (SIT) has on college students on daily basis and how it affects their learning behaviors both inside and outside of the classroom context. Questions like what kind of effects student-initiated technology has on college students on daily basis and how it affects their learning behaviors are yet to be answered. This study addressed this limitation by investigating the impact of studentinitiated technology on college students learning behaviors both inside and outside of the classroom contexts on daily basis.

The International Journal of Technologies in Learning Volume 20, 2014, www.thelearner.com, ISSN 2327-0144 Common Ground, Dengting Boyanton, All Rights Reserved Permissions: cg-support@commongroundpublishing.com

THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGIES IN LEARNING

Literature Review
Much research has been conducted on the impact of technology in education. These studies often focus on five areas: 1) technology usage such as how technology is being used, who uses it, and in what ways; 2) instructional technology such as how certain technology can be used to enhance teaching certain subject (Apperson, Laws, & Scepansky, 2006; Atkins-Sayre, Hopkins, Mohundro, & Sayre, 1998; Lavin, Korte, & Davies, 2011; Mantei, 2000); 3) online learning (Li, Finley, Pitts & Guo, 2011); 4) impact or instructional effectiveness such as how certain technology impacts student classroom learning; and 5) attitudes or perceptions of either the students or the teachers toward computer technology. Because of the purpose of this research, this literature review will mostly focus on the impact of technology on student learning. Early studies related to the impact of technology on learning typically relied on comparisons of student achievement (e.g. test scores) in a class using technology and in a class with the traditional instructional method teaching the same unit or content area. These studies have yielded three types of results ranging from positive, neutral to negative with the positive results being most commonly found.

Positive Impact of Technology on Learning

Technology has been reported to have a positive impact on students in at east four areas: attitudes towards school, learning behaviors, instruction, and communication. First of all, technology is found to have a positive impact on students academic motivation and their attitudes towards school as well as particular content areas. Early research findings show that students who experienced computer-based instructions tend to be more positive about the quality of the learning experience (Kulik & Bangert-Drowns, 1983-1984), about the quality of the course (Kulik & Bangert-Drowns, 1983-1984), about the content area (Krendl & Lieberman, 1988), about school in general (Roblyer, 1988), about themselves (Roblyer, 1988), about computers (Krendl & Clark, 1994), and about the instructors (Lavin, Korte, & Davies, 2011). Secondly, these positive attitudes towards school generated by technology usage have an impact on students learning behavior in the classroom. It is found that instructional technology tends to have a meaningful impact on student learning behaviors such as preparation for class, attentiveness, quality of notes taken, participation in class, student learning, desire to take additional classes from the instructor or in the subject matter, and the overall evaluation of the course and the instructor (Lavin, Korte, & Davies, 2011). Technology is found to have the potential to transform the learning environment from passive to active, make learning more subject to the control of the learner, and enable the learners to be more actively involved in their own learning (Lowerison et al., 2006). Thirdly, technology has also been reported to have a positive impact on instruction especially differentiated instruction (Hall, Watkins, & Eller, 2003). Technology helps to individualize learning by accommodating learner differences in the areas of prior knowledge, preferences, and learning styles. Online learning, for example, may enable flexible pacing, sequencing, and timing of assessment, while adapting to user differences in motivation, learning style, cognitive style, and personal knowledge (Hall, Watkins, & Eller, 2003). In this regard, technology may better support diverse needs and capacities of students, thus provide the potential for deeper processing and understanding of information (McCombs, 2000). Besides differentiated instruction, technology is also believed to make teaching and learning much more efficient. Some studies show that students often learn faster and more efficiently with computer-mediated instruction than with the conventional instructional methods (Coley, Cradler,

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& Engel, 1997; Fletcher, Hawley, & Piele, 1990; Kulik, Kulik, & Bangert-Drowns, 1990). This is because computer-assisted drill and practice of basic skills significantly reduces the required learning time across educational settings (Kosakowski, 2000). Kulik and Kulik (1991) found that college students receiving computer-based instruction required only two-thirds of the instructional time needed by students in conventional instruction. Green and Bavelier (2003) found that students who received technology-facilitated instruction showed better attention to cues across the visual field and also attended to more visual cues overall. Rosser and his colleagues (2004) also found that surgeons who had some experience playing video games performed laparoscopic surgery faster and made fewer mistakes. Lastly, technology has positive impact on communication in the learning community. For example, e-mail and online discussion tools have improved access and communication among participants (Poole, 2000). Web-based learning environments have increased students access to rich learning resources independent of time and space constraints (Naidu, 2003). It is believed that the impact of instructional technology on postsecondary education has been and will be nothing less than revolutionary (Savage & Vogel, 1996) and transformative (Matthews, 1998).

Neutral Impact of Technology on Learning

While most research findings about the impact of technology on learning have been positive, some researchers found that technology has neutral impact on student learning, meaning that technology has neither positive nor negative impact on student learning. In other words, it makes no difference whether technology is used or not; student learning outcome seems to remain the same. Lavin, Korte, and Davies (2011) found that removing technology from courses that already use it would not appear to have a negative impact on all aspects of student behavior. Specifically, they found that certain aspects of student behavior such as the amount of time that students study, the quantity of notes they take, their attendance, and their interaction with the instructor appear to be technology neutral.

Negative Impact of Technology on Learning

Interestingly, negative impacts of technology on student learning have also been reported. However, this negative impact is not caused by technology itself but the incorrect usage or improper application of technology in actual practice (Burbules & Callister, 2000; Lowerison et al., 2006). Several factors that minimize the impact of technology on education have been identified ranging from the traditional school structures, time constraints, competing educational priorities (Peck, Cuban, & Kirkpatrick, 2002), to consistently limited use of technology even when available (Cuban, Kirkpatrick, & Peck, 2001). Cuban (2001) found that when college and public school teachers use technology, they tend to sustain rather than transform existing teaching practices. The findings of negative impacts of technology on learning show that while technology has the potential to enhance the classroom and engage today's students more effectively, we also need to change our conceptual framework regarding teaching through incorporating a more structured, content-driving learning process grounded in theory. Therefore, whether technology has a positive or negative impact on learning actually depends on how well or how poorly it is used, by whom, and for what purpose (Burbules & Callister, 2000). In order for technology to be effective, technology-based tools must accompany appropriate pedagogy (Laurillard, 2002).

Statement of the Problem

While most research on technology in the education field has focused on the instructional technology within the classroom context, it is believed that technology has also dramatically changed students learning behaviors occurring outside of the classroom (Lavin, Korte, &

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Davies, 2011). One of the most popular social networking platforms, Facebook, has attracted many researchers interest. Much research has been done on Facebook (Calvi et al., 2010; Dba & Karl, 2008; Hew, 2011; Mazman & Usluel, 2010; Pempek et al., 2009; Roblyer et al., 2010; Scale, 2008). Similarly, much research has been conducted on video games and their impact on student learning as well (Koedinger, & Corbett, 2001; Fery & Ponserre, 2001). Although much research has been conducted in the area of social networking sites and video games, these studies remain focused on instructional aspects of the issue such as how to incorporate these resources as an instructional tool in the classroom setting (Akyildiz & Argan, 2012) As meaningful and important this focus on teacher-initiated technology is in terms of education, this line of research has two limitations. First, it neglects the possible negative impacts and problems that technology can have on students learning on a daily basis. Second, it neglects the area of student-initiated technology and learning. Compared to the large amount of studies conducted on teacher-initiated technology, relatively few studies have been conducted to examine the impact of student-initiated technology. Little is known about what kind of impact student-initiated technology has on college students on a daily basis and how it affects their learning behaviors both inside and outside of classroom contexts. In addition, despite of all the well-intended programs and interventions which focus on incorporating technology in teaching and learning for the instructional purposes, research shows that in reality technology for the most part is still used for non-instructional purposes such as the social, personal, and emotional reasons (Akyildiz & Argan, 2012). As children grow, they spend more time playing entertainment games and less playing educational games (Scantlin, 2000). When all purposes are evaluated together, non-instructional purposes such as having fun, contacting friends and following news on Facebook come to the fore as Facebook usage purposes (Akyildiz & Argan, 2012). Furthermore, most of these studies on the impact of technology employed a quantitative research method, using questionnaires, surveys, or self-reports to collect data. This data collected in a one-shot manner neither provide an in-depth understanding of the impact of technology nor accurately reflect the actual usage of technology of students. Developing a deep understanding on how much, why, and how students use technology and how it impacts them on daily basis is an urgent need.

Methodology
To address the limitation posed by the quantitative research methods, this study employed a qualitative research method called grounded theory with an emergent design. Because the researchers goal was to develop an original theory about the impact of technology on learning, a qualitative approach with a grounded theory method best suited this purpose. The grounded theory research method allows the researcher to study the contextual and individualized nature of students behavior (Cohler, Stott, & Musick, 1995). More importantly, the grounded theory method makes it possible to build themes and, ultimately, a theory rooted in common technological usage patterns (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). This research also used an emergent design research method where the researcher entered the field with few or no specific hypotheses or concepts. In an emergent design, A researcher does not begin a project with a preconceived theory in mind (unless his purpose is to elaborate and extend an existing theory). Rather, the researcher begins with an area of study and allows the theory to emerge from the data (Strauss & Corbin, 1998, p. 12).

Research Question
Specifically this study addressed the following research questions: 1. What impact does student-initiated-technology (SIT) have on college students learning on the daily basis both inside and outside of the classroom context?
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Research Site
This research was conducted in the Curriculum & Instructional Department in the College of Education at a private university located on the east coast of the U.S. This university had approximately 68,000 students including both undergraduate and graduate students.

Research Participants
This research included one undergraduate course titled Psychology of Adolescent Students. There were a total of twenty-four students including seven males and seventeen females. These students were 100% Caucasians, aged between twenty and thirty-four, and were predominantly middle to upper class students coming from affluent neighborhoods.

Data Collection
This course was selected for this study based on convenience sampling method. Three major research methods were used for this study: participant observation, focus interviews, and also journal reflections. Naturalistic/descriptive classroom observation was conducted on a weekly basis for three hours each week, fourteen weeks for the whole semester. As a participant observer, the researcher attended every class meeting and participated in most activities. While observing the behavior of the participants, the researcher kept an anecdotal record of the behaviors and incidents that seemed significant. After each observation, the researcher immediately wrote observation field notes describing and summarizing the many significant behaviors and incidents of each observation. Due to the nature and focus of this research, significant behaviors were any behavior related to self-initiated technology usage and student learning (either enhancing or inhibiting). For example, the researcher noticed on her first observation that student Mary brought her laptop to class as a means of taking notes. However, the researcher found that Mary was not really paying attention to the class but in fact Facebooking. Marys behaviors in class immediately caught the researchers attention and were considered as a significant event. The other research method used was focus group interviews with the whole class. The interview included twenty semi-structured open-ended questions with the content ranging from the students past experience, general behaviors to their present experiences with technology. To ensure that the students were able to express their true opinions and not give socially desirable responses or politically correct responses, confidentiality was emphasized prior to the interview. The whole interview lasted for about one hour. A third research method used for this research was students own reflective journals regarding their usage of technology and its impact on them. Students were encouraged to reflect upon their past experiences in terms of technology usage and also to keep a record of their current technology usage on daily basis.

Data Analysis
Data analysis used a grounded theory with an emergent design data analysis method where data collection and data analysis occurred simultaneously. Data analysis began with the first data collection point and this analysis guided the direction and focus of further data collection. After each observation or interview, the researcher immediately wrote down field notes and analyzed them together with other collected documents. This analysis led to the next observation or interview, followed by more analysis or fieldwork. Thus, there is a constant interplay between the researcher and the research act (Strauss & Corbin, 1998, p. 42). At the beginning stage of data collection, open coding was used. During this stage, the data were analyzed very closely, one line, sentence, or paragraph of transcription at a time, and each

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discrete incident, idea, or event was coded to represent the concept underlying the observation (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). After a certain amount of data was collected and many concepts and categories developed, axial coding was used where the data was put back together in new ways through making connections between a category and its subcategories (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). The purpose was to begin the process of reassembling data that were fractured during open coding, and relating categories to their subcategories to form more precise and complete explanations about the impact of student-initiated technology usage. During both open and axial coding, the constant comparison method was employed to generate and connect categories by comparing incidents in the data to other incidents, incidents to categories, and categories to other categories. After dozens of concepts and categories were developed, a core theme was identified and a theory on the impact of technology was formed.

Findings
This study revealed several findings in terms of the impact of student-initiated technology on learning behaviors. First of all, consistent with the previous research findings (Lavin, Korte, & Davies, 2011), the majority of the students (92%) reported a positive attitude or perception towards technology. Most students believed that technology as an instructional tool has great potentials and it could be beneficial for their learning. Technology is inescapable these days. From when youre at home, in your car, at your job or at a store, there is always a form of technology at your fingertips. I believe that its important to utilize technology in education. If a student is surrounded by technology for most of their day outside of school, why should they be deprived of that for the six hours theyre in school? I strongly believe that technology is a positive tool in education; it broadens horizons so much further than ever could have been imagined. (Journal, Ashley, February 19, 2010) I believe that technology can be an extremely helpful tool in the classroom if used correctly. Smart boards, I-pads, DVD players and TVs can all be excellent tools to help a student learn. (Journal, Mike, March 13, 2010) I think that exposing students to technology is useful towards their future. A lot of jobs and business are updating and looking to use the latest in technology. Being unaware of technology and its uses can leave students at a disadvantage to the competitive work force we have today. (Journal, John, March 14, 2010) However, although the majority of the students perceived technology as a positive tool with great potentials, this perception was mainly based on the impact of teacher-initiated technology (TIT), or instructional technology in the classroom setting used by the teachers. This finding is consistent with earlier research findings on the impact of instructional technology (e.g., Hall, Watkins, & Eller, 2003; Lowerison et al., 2006; Roblyer & Doering, 2012). In fact, the students often separated the impact of technology as an instructional tool from its impact as a personal device. They also differentiated the potential impact of technology in the ideal world from the actual impact in reality. Some students stated that theoretically and ideally, technology could and should be a great tool and it should have great positive impact on their learning. In reality and in terms of student-initiated technology, however, students reported that technology actually had a more negative than positive impact on their learning both inside and outside of the classroom on daily basis. The main reason, according to most students (85%), was because that technology was not used properly.

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I dont think technology is to blame for all the negative effects, but rather how it is being used and whom it is being used by I believe technology is innocent itself and should not be blamed for peoples inappropriate use. (Interview, Lisa, May 14, 2010) Specifically, three negative impacts of student-initiated technology usage on learning behavior on a daily basis were identified: it is 1) time-consuming, 2) distracting, and 3) addictive. The first reported problem was that technology as a tool is very time-consuming. These students spent an increasing amount of time on technology such as TVs, computers, internet and iphones. As one student described, Technology simply sucks a huge chunk of my time every day. Most of the time spent on technology was not for academic tasks or learning but for the purpose of either socialization or fun such as Facebooking, video-gaming, internet surfing, movie-watching, or simply text-messaging. Consistent with the previous findings (Akyildiz & Argan, 2012), students reported that they spent about 10 hours per day on average for nonacademic activities. My social life and natural extroversion got in the way of me doing my schoolwork on time and in a timely manner. I will be online Facebooking with friends and wait till the night before some assignments are due to get them done. Not only it resulted in poor quality work, my sleeping habits also suffer from it. I need to be more conscious of my schoolwork and need to structure my time more around school, not around my social life. (Journal, Nick, March 13, 2010) Because a large amount of time was spent on technology, it leaves very little time for schoolwork. Some students tended to neglect their schoolwork, their interaction/communication with family members, and their other activities and responsibilities. This unbalanced life style caused students a great deal of stress. I constantly feel stressed out by the amount of work I need to do and the fact I have very little time to do them. The real problem, though, is not that I do not have the time, but that I often waste too much time on technology such as Facebooking, internet-surfing, or just checking e-mails. So the real issue is not about the time-management but selfcontrol. (Interview, Megan, May 15, 2010). Secondly, technology has been reported as being distracting. Technology distracted students from their schoolwork and made it difficult for them to concentrate. Some students called this the dark side of technology, which keeps the students more concerned with texting their friends and keeping up with the gossip than paying attention in class. Im always distracted. I can never pay attention in class. Even when I am doing my homework and I am not literally with any technology, my mind is still wondering about Facebook updates and text messages all the time. If I do not go check my Facebook account from time to time, I will feel uneasy and restless. I found it extremely difficult for me to concentrate on almost anything even just for 5 or 10 minutes. I wonder if I have ADD or something. (Journal, John, March 8, 2010) My phone is always on. I usually have friends text-messaging me in class and I found it difficult to concentrate and do any work. (Interview, Tina, May 14, 2010)

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I believe that technology in the classroom is a major distraction. Even something as basic as a graphing calculator can be turned in to a distraction by students. Throughout my high school years I had so many different games programmed into my graphing calculator. My favorite being "Block Dude." I would play this in almost every class I had in high school just to pass the time. Teachers would think I was doing work, but in reality I was not paying attention to the math problem, but rather worrying about getting Block Dude out alive! (Interview, Michael, May 14, 2010) This negative side of distraction from schoolwork has raised many of concerns from teachers. Instructor Dr. Smith, for example, expressed her struggles of gaining students attention in class. The more time the students spend on the internet, watching television and playing video games, the less focused they are becoming on school but more on being social. I am honestly concerned that the education system is going down slowly but surely because the students have no more patience and interest in learning in school. (Teacher Interview, Dr. Smith, May 19, 2010) Lastly, technology has been reported as being addictive. For many students, technology has become the focus or the essential part of their life that they could not live without. These students have become extremely dependent on technology and they stated that To think of a world without high-speed internet, Facebook, computers, cell phones, and GPS is almost unimaginable. Rather than using technology to serve their needs and to better their life, most students felt being controlled or addicted to technology to the degree that they felt loss of control. Student Lina even compared technology to a drug. I have become more and more attached slowly but addictively to my cell phone. I felt that for every minute I am awake, I am with my cell phone texting or doing other things. At first I would text thirty messages a day but then later it became hundreds. Recently not only I would text a lot but I also felt obligated to text someone back right away the minute I received a message. When that happened I realized that texting had become an addiction for me. It has become more of a drug to me than a way to communicate with others. (Journal, Lina, March 14, 2010) After Lina realized her own addiction to technology, she decided to work on it as a selfmanagement project. She calculated the times that she text-messaged every day. According to Linas self-report, the largest amount of text messages a month was 500 messages and the highest text messages a day was 100. Doing this project forced me to face a problem that I did not want to admit: I depend on technology so much that I became addicted to it. I take my cell phone everywhere and I am on it nonstop; I use the internet for research and communication, and my TV is on all the time just for background noise. I feel that I almost accept the technology as a crutch in my life. (Journal, Lina, March 18, 2010) However, Lina found her addition to technology was so serious that it was extremely difficult to change. I decided to work on my technology addiction and tried to force myself to concentrate more on schoolwork and less on technology. This project, however, has turned out to be more challenging than I thought. When I was doing my schoolwork, I cannot help checking e-mails or logging into my Facebook account to see if there are any updates.

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Whenever a new thought or question comes to my mind, I will feel the urge to google it right away. Then one topic leads to another and I will be googling numerous irrelevant topics before I realize too much time have been wasted. (Interview, Lina, May 14, 2010). Another problem related to this technology addiction is that because the students spend more time communicating with friends and relatives via technology, they are socially incompetent or awkward when communicating with people face-to-face. I honestly speak to my friends and family more over social media than I do face to face. I carry my cell phones in my hand almost all the time. It is used literally so frequently that it cannot even be put in a pocket. Whenever I have some free time, I would be with my phone, I seem to always feel the need to text someone else, even when my friends or family are standing right next to me talking! When at home, I would text my mother checking if dinner is ready rather than going downstairs and ask her in person. I am afraid that I have totally substituted the real world with the tech-world. It makes me feel very awkward and uncomfortable when I have to talk to people face-toface. (Journal, Linda, April 4, 2010)

Conclusions
This study showed that most students perceived technology as having a positive impact on them when used as an instructional tool by teachers. They also believed that technology itself is a great tool and it can be used to benefit their learning or life in general if used properly. However, most students believed that this is a very large if which only happens in the ideal world or in theory. In reality, students reported that the student-initiated technology had a more negative impact on their learning behaviors in at least three areas: it is time-consuming, distracting, and addictive. These negative impacts of technology, however, were not due to technology itself but their own lack of self-control or willpower. The findings of this study indicate that it is indeed important for educators and parents to educate students about the proper usage of technology and to help them become more aware of the negative impact of technology on daily basis. Future research will be conducted to develop possible strategies that can be used to address these negative impacts of student-initiated technology on students.

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Koedinger, Kenneth R, and Albert Corbett. Cognitive Tutors: From the Research Classroom to All Classrooms. In Technology Enhanced Learning, edited by Paul S Goodman, 235 263. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Association, 2001. Kosakowski, John. The Benefits of Information Technology. In Educational Media and Technology Yearbook, edited by Robert M Branch and Mary A Fitzgerald, 5356. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, 2000. Krendl, Kathy A, and Ginger Clark. The Impact of Computers on Learning: Research on inSchool and out-of-School Settings. Journal of Computing in Higher Education 5, no. 2 (1994): 85112. Krendl, Kathy, and Debra. A Lieberman. Computers and Learning: A Review of Recent Research. Journal of Educational Computing Research 4 (1988): 367389. Kulik, Chen-Lin C, and James A Kulik. Effectiveness of Computer-Based Instruction: An Updated Analysis. Computers in Human Behavior 7 (1991): 7594. Kulik, Chen-Lin C, James A Kulik, and Robert L Bangert-Drowns. Effectiveness of Mastery Learning Programs: A Meta-Analysis. Review of Educational Research 60, no. 2 (1990): 265299. doi:10.3102/00346543060002265. Kulik, James A, and Robert L Bangert-Drowns. Effectiveness of Technology in Precollege Mathematics & Science Teaching. Journal of Educational Technology System 12 (1984 1983): 137158. Laurillard, Diana. Rethinking University Teaching: A Framework for the Effective Use of Educational Technology. 2nd ed. London: Routledge, 2002. Lavin, Angeline M, Leon Korte, and Thomas L Davies. The Impact of Classroom Technology on Student Behavior. Journal of Technology Research 2 (2011): 6577. Li, Lei, John Finley, Jennifer Pitts, and Rong Guo. Which Is a Better Choice for StudentFaculty Interaction: Synchronous or Asynchronous Communication. Journal of Technology Research 2 (2011): 112. Lowerison, Gretchen, Jennifer Sclater, Richard F Schmid, and Philip. C Abrami. Student Perceived Effectiveness of Computer Technology Use in Post-Secondary Classrooms. Computer & Education 47 (2006): 465489. Mantei, Erwin, J. Using Internet Class Notes and PowerPoint in the Physical Geology Lecture. Journal of College Science Teaching 29 (2000): 301305. Matthews, Dewayne. Transforming Higher Education. Education Review 33, no. 5 (1998): 48 57. Mazman, Sacide G, and Yasemin K Usluel. Modeling Educational Usage of Facebook. Computers & Education 55, no. 2 (2010): 444453. McCombs, Barbara L. Assessing the Role of Educational Technology in the Teaching and Learning Process: A Learner-Centered Perspective, 2000. Naidu, Som. Designing Instruction for E-Learning Environments. In Handbook of Distance Education, edited by Michael G Moore, 349365. Mahwah. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc, 2003. Peck, Craig, Larry Cuban, and Heather Kirkpatrick. Techno-Promoter Dreams, Student Realities. Phi Delta Kappan 83, no. 6 (2002): 472480. Peluchette, Joy V, and Katherine Karl. Social Networking Profiles: An Examination of Student Attitudes Regarding Use and Appropriateness of Content. CyberPsychology and Behavior 11, no. 1 (2008): 9597. Pempek, Tiffany A, Yevdokiya A Yermolayeva, and Sandra L Calvert. College Students Networking Experiences on Facebook. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 30, no. 3 (2009): 227238. Poole, Dawn M. Student Participation in a Discussion-Oriented Online Course: A Case Stud. Journal of Research on Computing in Education 33, no. 2 (2000): 162177.

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Roblyer, M.D. Integrating Educational Technology into Teaching. 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall, 2013. Roblyer, M.D., Michelle McDaniel, Marsena Webb, James Herman, and James Vince Witty. Findings on Facebook in Higher Education: A Comparison of College Faculty and Student Uses and Perceptions of Social Networking Sites. The Internet and Higher Education 13, no. 3 (2010): 134140. doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2010.03.002. Roblyer, Margaret D. Assessing the Impact of Computer-Based Instruction: A Review of Recent Research. New York: Haworth Press, 1988. Rosser, James C Jr., Paul J Lynch, Laury A Haskamp, Asaf Yalif, Douglas A Gentile, and Lisa Giammaria. Are Video Game Players Better at Laparoscopic Surgery. Newport Beach, CA, 2004. Savage, Terry M, & Karla E Vogel. Multimedia: A revolution in higher education? College Teaching 44, no. 4 (1996): 127131. Scale, Mark-Shane. Facebook as a Social Search Engine and the Implications for Libraries in the Twenty-First Century. Library Hi Tech 26, no. 4 (2008): 540556. doi:10.1108/07378830810920888. Scantlin, Ronda M. Interactive Media: An Analysis of Childrens Computer and Video Game Use. Dissertation Abstracts International 60, no. 12-B (2000): 6400. Strauss, Anselm, and Juliet Corbin. Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory. Thousand Oaks: Sage publications, 1998.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Dr. Dengting Boyanton: Assistant Professor, Curriculum and Instruction, Long Island University, Brookville, New York, USA.

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The Influence of Interactive Context on Avatar Appearance in Second Life

Mark Mabrito, Purdue University, USA
Abstract: The article presents a research project where students (new to the virtual world of Second Life) performed two separate tasks with their avatars: a task that involved a high degree of interaction with other inworld avatars and a task that involved a minimal amount of interaction. In both instances, students detailed in journal entries the changes they made to their avatars, along with their reasons why, while completing both tasks. Students also completed a brief survey after each task, assessing their attitudes towards their avatars. Study found that students made more changes to their avatars in high-interactive contexts as compared to low-interactive contexts, with most of these changes focused on dress and facial appearances. Students further reported similarities between their avatars and their real-life selves in both contexts. Keywords: Second Life, Avatars, Virtual Worlds

Introduction
he use of 3D virtual worlds in education has increased in recent years (De Lucia et al. 2009; Lim, 2009). Similarly, virtual reality applications have been successfully leveraged in training and business (Mahon, Bryant, Brown and Kim 2010). The term virtual world not only applies to MMORPGs (massively multiplayer role-playing games, like World of Warcraft) but to social virtual worlds, like Second Life. The latter is not restricted by established gameplay, but rather is completely user-controlled and created. In both cases, users participate in these spaces as avatars. Previous research on avatars has addressed how an avatars realism can impact viewers perception (Nowak and Raugh 2008). Dean et al. (2009) argue that users of Second Life adjust their identity to coincide with that of their avatars. Wang (2011, 620) notes that avatars are often given idealized human shapes expressing the i mages users have of themselves. When users create avatars so that they can inhabit a virtual world, they perceive, to some extent, a connection between those avatars and their real life selves. However, understanding how the virtual world context may influence the degree to which users construct and manipulate their avatars is a subject not as widely addressed in the literature. Specifically, this research project attempted to see to what extent new users would manipulate their avatars and in what ways when required to interact at different levels with other inworld avatars in the virtual world of Second Life.

Research on Avatar Presence in Virtual Worlds

Perhaps the most striking difference between Second Life and other Web 2.0 tools for teaching and learning is that the former is an immersive virtual learning environment. Learners inhabit the environment as avatars. They become a living part of the world. Dede (2009, 66) argues that immersion can enhance the educational experience: The more a virtual immersive experience is based on design strategies that combine actional, symbolic, and sensory factors, the greater the participant's suspension of disbelief that she or he is inside a digitally enhanced setting. Similarly, Savin-Baden (2010, 71) suggests that an immersive environment like Second Life will lead to a sense of the user feeling in or part of a virtual environment as they interact with it and become absorbed or deeply involved. Unlike other forms of interactive or social media, users in a virtual world are actually living in these spaces, immersed in ways not possible through other media.

The International Journal of Technologies in Learning Volume 20, 2014, www.thelearner.com, ISSN 2327-0144 Common Ground, Mark Mabrito, All Rights Reserved Permissions: cg-support@commongroundpublishing.com

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However, the pathway to this immersive experience is a users avatar, the primary vehicle by which the user interacts with and participates in the virtual world. The avatar not only symbolizes the visual representation of the user, but also a sense of psychological immersion (Dalgarno and Lee 2010). Through the avatar, there is a sense of awareness and the ability to communicate (De Lucia et al. 2009). Zhou et al. (2011) note that virtual worlds can be effective places for users to explore various psychological characteristics of their real-life selves. The connection users have to their avatars may potentially influence a users perception and behavior. Avatars can bring about the feeling of co-presence (Garau et al. 2003) to the extent that users in the real world may exhibit traits of their avatars (Yee and Ducheneaut 2009). Vasalou, Joinson, and Pitt (2007) found that users who perceive their avatars as more similar to their own appearance become more self-aware. Similarly, Axelsson (2002) found that users create avatars that display overt aspects of themselves which become more stable over time. In a similar vein, Dean et al. (2009) suggest that users of Second Life adjust their identity to match that of their avatars. Taylor (2002) reported the opposite finding, that some users participate in virtual worlds with the express purpose of role playing and thus create very different personas through gender swapping and non-anthropomorphic representations of themselves. Thus, the direct connection between user and avatar becomes less obvious. Taylor (2003) suggests that this discrepancy may be related to the influence that the context of communication has on the degree to which users manipulate and alter their avatar appearance. It is possible that the degree to which users are willing to manipulate their avatars may be influenced by how they perceive the communicative context. Thus, this current study sought to examine what correlation might exist between the level of interaction in a specific communicative context and changes/alterations that new users might make to their avatars.

A Study of Avatar Changes in High- and Low-Interactive Contexts

This research project was conducted as part of a university class that met in Second Life. The purpose was to see to what extent students, 6 males and 9 females, all with no previous inworld experience, would be inclined to change/alter their avatars in response to two different tasks: (1) A high-interactive task where students were asked to investigate and write a report about a Sim (location in Second Life) by interviewing avatars at that location as well as participating in a workshop/presentation with other avatars; (2) A low-interactive task that involved exploring a different Sim and writing a report about it. Information for this report could be gathered with little to no interaction with other avatars. Students reflected upon and justified these avatar changes in a journal, as a way of understanding how decisions to change their avatars may have been influenced by the two different situations. Specifically, the following research questions were addressed: 1. What types of changes would students make to their avatars when in a high- or lowinteractive context? 2. What percentage of these avatar changes would students report as directly related to whether they perceived the situation to be a high- or low-interactive environment? 3. What attitudes would students report about their avatars and their relationship to their real-life selves?

Method
Before beginning the tasks, students created an account in Second Life and initially selected from among a collection of pre-designed avatars provided to new users. The first choice determined whether the avatar was human (male or female) or non-human (for example, a vampire, animal, vehicle, or robot). All students selected a human form for their avatar. Of the 15 students who selected a human avatar, all reported selecting an avatar of their same gender.
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During the first week of class, students spent their time at the inworld classroom, viewing tutorials about Second Life, practicing maneuvering avatars, and, in general, becoming oriented to the virtual world. As part of this initial orientation, students created a poster (a picture of the avatar with a written autobiographical notecard attached) to introduce their avatar to the class. Figure 1 shows a snapshot of the posters. The purpose of the written autobiography was to give students a chance to reflect upon what they perceived to be the personality of their avatar.

Figure 1: Avatar Posters After the initial orientation, half the students completed the high-interactive task followed by the low-interactive task while the other half of the class performed the tasks in the opposite order. Throughout each of the tasks, students kept a log of changes they made to their avatars, what the change was, and their reason for making it. The assignment for the high-interactive tasks involved choosing between several different large non-profit Sims in Second Life, conducting at least four inworld interviews of other avatars at the location, as well as attending/participating in a workshop hosted there. Students then submitted this information in a report format. The low-interactive task required students to visit one of several other different non-profit Sims and write-up their observations as a site report. This task involved no interaction with other avatars to complete, except for the off chance that students may have met another avatar along the way. At the end of both tasks, students completed a short survey to assess their attitudes about participating in a virtual world as an avatar.

Results
Students reported making changes to their avatars in both contexts, high- and low-interactive. However, as we can see in Table 1, the greatest number of changes to avatars occurred when students prepared their avatars for participation in high-interactive contexts, with dress, body shape, and facial appearance receiving the most attention. When participating in the low-interactive task, students performed fewer changes to their avatars. In both contexts, students focused less on changes to skin tone/color, and the one area that received no focus from students was gender. That is, none of the students participated in gender bending (changing the gender of their avatar) in either context.

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Table 1: Number/Type of Avatar Changes for High- and Low-Interactive Contexts. Type of Change Dress/Wardrobe/Accessories Body Shape Facial Appearance/Hair Skin tone/color Gender High-Interactive (# of changes) 23 15 36 8 0 Low-Interactive (# of changes) 6 2 12 3 0

High- and Low-Interactive Context Changes

Table 2 indicates what percentages of those changes from Table 1 were directly related to the interactive context, as determined by students comments in their journals. As we can see, the avatar changes that students made in high-interactive contexts were generally in response to the context more so than in the low-interactive contexts. In other words, students manipulated their avatars to a greater percentage in direct response to situations where they had to spend more time interacting with other avatars. Students felt they needed to spend more time refining the appearance of their avatars when they knew they would be around other avatars. Most of these changes were related to dress and facial appearance. Table 2: Percentage of Avatar Changes related to High- or Low-Interactive Context. Type of Change High-Interactive (% of changes directly related to context) 75 % 40% 82% 25% 0% Low-Interactive ( % of changes directly related to context) 10% 0% 30% 0% 0%

Dress/Wardrobe/Accessories Body Shape Facial Appearance/Hair Skin tone/color Gender

For those avatar changes in high-interactive contexts that students cited as directly related to the context, common reasons students gave for the changes can be summarized in two general categories: Modeling similar avatars - Students reported changing their avatars physical appearances to more closely coincide with avatars they encountered. The perception here was that other avatars would be more likely to engage with them if they appeared to be similar in appearance. Representative Comments (note: all student comments are unedited): Avatar 1: I saw that some other Avatars had tank tops or shorts, so I wanted to be more casual. I do not know how I could saparate myself from my Avatar. It is very strange to me, the whole idea of SL. I am still trying to get comfortable and fully understand what Avatars and SL is all about. Avatar 2: I met an avatar who had a tail, so I figured it was okay to have wings. I didn't really see the avatar as "me" so much as the character performing the playable action. As we can see in these representative comments, students relied on the environmental cues of other avatars as an impetus for changing their own avatars appearance. The initial reasoning was

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to conform to what students perceived as the acceptable standard for whatever inworld location they were exploring. Basing appearance on real-world parallels When they didnt look to other avatars for cues in high-interactive contexts, students reported changing their avatars in light of how one might appear in a similar real-world situation. Whatever the inworld situation in which students found themselves, they attempted to draw parallels to similar situations in the real world. In these instances, they treated the inworld space as a mirror image of a real-world counterpart. By doing so, students justified their avatar changes by actions they would take in similar real-world situations in an attempt to be more socially accepted by other avatars. Representative Comments: Avatar 1: I put my avatar in a dress because I was visiting a church and thought it might be disrespectful not to dress up for the occasion. When I attend church, I try to look halfway desent because thats just the way I was raised. You always try to look your best when going to church. Avatar 2: All the avatars were dressed in costumes of the period, so I got one as well. I had never dressed up as someone in a different century (not even for Halloween) so that part of it was pretty cool. In both cases, the surrounding environment students found themselves in directly related to their desire to manipulate/change their avatars in response. When in situations where they had more contact with avatars (high-interactive contexts), they made more of these changes than they did in low-interactive contexts. For those avatar changes that students reported were not influenced by context, most of the comments in this area related to the desire to make avatars either a more concrete representation of themselves or the direct opposite of how they perceived their appearance to be in real life. In other words, the focus here was either on making ones avatar very similar to ones real-life persona or, conversely, customizing the avatar to be the opposite persona of ones real -life self. Representative Comments: Avatar 1: I wanted my avatars shape to look more like mine. She is very much like myself. She is medium height and somewhat slender. She has green eyes like myself and hair just above the shoulders. My hair color is blonde but her hair color is brown. She is interested in the same things that I am, and I suppose she will explore the "in world" just like I explore the "real world". Avatar 2: I gave my avatar the same hair style Ive had for the last three years. I also wanted my avatar to have my same skin tone. I even tried to put her into clothes that I would wear in real life. Avatar 3: My avatar is nothing like me. She dresses in provocative clothes which I would never wear. She has over the top jewelry and accessories that I would never wear most places that I go. When students tried to alter their avatars in certain ways, they were sometimes constrained by their level of skill in doing do. When students were limited by their technical ability and knowledge of Second Life, they recognized a disconnect between what they wanted their avatars to look like and what they were able to achieve using the avatar editing tool. This disconnect created some frustration on the part of students, but they felt it was a problem they would reconcile in the future, once they became more technically proficient. Representative Comments:

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Avatar 1: My Avatar is male and in the beginning was very simple looking but now that I've gotten the hang of SL just a little bit more he looks pretty different from others I've seen, although I have a long way to go in terms of what I want to do with him. My avatar is my age, 23, and I'd like to think he's Puerto Rican since that's what I am. My avatar looks similar to my real life self in his skin color and demeanor but dissimilar in the fact that he has spiked hair and dark angel wings, which of course I do not personally have those things. Avatar 2: My avatar is a middle (35 - 40ish) aged female caucasian. She is quite parrellel in looks to me except for her hair and eye color. She has wavy/straight hair and I have curly hair. I have brown eyes and she has grey. I tried to change both features to resemble mine, but was unsuccessful. I think she is probably thinner than I am too. Curiously enough, also in low-interactive contexts, a few students reported making changes to their avatars that not only altered the avatars physical appearance, but also served to shape the avatars personality. Similar to comments about physical appearance, students interpreted these personality changes to be ones that either made the avatars resemble their own personalities or changes that gave the avatar a very different personality. Representative Comments: Avatar 1: My avatar is female, white, and probably 29 years old. She is very similar to my real-life self. She is everything in myself that I wish I could focus on if I wasn't working full-time and going to school full-time and working on my house that I recently purchased. Basically, if I wasn't stuck with the responsibilty of being grown up, but had the freedom and resources of being grown up, we would be the same. Avatar 2: My avatar is very outgoing and willing to talk (even if just text chat) with strangers while I am very shy and would never do that in the real world. Also, my avatar has no obligations like I do in the real world. She is free to do whatever she wants whenever she wants and doesnt care about homework or a job. Comments considering the personality of ones avatar were made by only a few students, as compared to the comments made in other areas. A greater number of students commented more on appearance (in other words, those aspects that were visually noticeable) than they did on psychological connections between themselves and their avatars.

Students Attitudes towards Their Avatars

At the end of each task, students completed a brief survey concerning their perceptions towards their avatars in both high- and low-interactive contexts. Table 3 shows the results of those surveys. For question #1, when reporting how comfortable they felt as an avatar inworld, students reported feeling more comfortable in low-interactive contexts that involved less interaction with other avatars (12 SA/A) than they did in high-interactive contexts (7 SA/A). Most follow-up student comments to this point indicated that much of the uneasiness associated with being an avatar in high-interactive contexts was attributed to the newness of the experience for students. That is, students indicated that because being an avatar in Second Life was something they were uncertain about in general, having to interact with other avatars in significant ways was something they were not too sure about. Question #2 addressed avatar appearance directly. Students here reported a difference again between satisfaction levels with their avatars appearance in low-interactive (13 SA/A) as compared to high-interactive contexts (6 SA/A). Follow-up comments reflected a similar

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uneasiness on the part of students, specifically about being more self-conscious of their avatars appearance when having to engage in communicative tasks with other avatars. Table 3: Student Perceptions of Avatars Number of Students Responding/Type of Response 1. I felt comfortable being inworld as an avatar: High-Interactive Task Low Interactive Task *SD 3 0 D 4 0 N 1 3 A 5 5 SA 2 7

2. I was satisfied with the way my avatar appeared inworld. High-Interactive Task Low Interactive Task 3. My avatar is similar in appearance to my real-life self. High-Interactive Task Low Interactive Task

2 0

5 0

2 2

4 8

2 5

0 0

2 3

3 2

6 4

3 6

4. My avatar has the same personality and general behavior as my real-life self. High-Interactive Task Low Interactive Task 5. If I were to create my avatar again from scratch, I would create it the same way. High-Interactive Task Low Interactive Task

0 0

2 1

11 9

2 4

0 1

2 0

2 1

7 2

2 5

2 7

*Note: 5-point Likert-type scale: strongly disagree (SD), disagree (D), neutral (N), agree (A), strongly agree (SA). Questions #3 and #4 attempted to solicit to what extent students saw a connection between their avatar and their real-life selves. With respect to physical appearance in question #3, students did report a similarity between how their avatars looked and how the student reported appearing in real life. However, there was no difference in response when comparing low-interactive (10 SA/A) to high-interactive context (9 SA/A). Similarly, question #4 asked about what connection students saw between the personality of their avatars and that of their real-life selves. Again, there was not a difference between the two contexts; students expressed very little agreement or disagreement with the statement in either the low-interactive (9 N) or the high-interactive context (11 N). More students were able to see and report a connection between avatars and real-life selves when it came to physical appearance, but they were less able to report either the presence or absence of such a connection when it came to considering more abstract concepts, such as personality and general behavior. The survey results for question #4 did coincide with the considerably fewer journal comments students made regarding avatar personality. Finally, question #5 sought to solicit to what extent students would reconsider any of the changes to their avatars if they had to start over. On this point, students seemed to be in agreement that they were satisfied with the changes they made to their avatars in the low-interactive context

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(12 SA/A). However, students reported quite the opposite when their avatars were present in highinteractive contexts (4 SA/A). Clearly, students felt that if starting over, they would have considered different changes to their avatars when engaging in high-interactive contexts.

Conclusions/Implications
This project not only provided students with greater exposure to experiences available in Second Life, but also provided a basis for meta-reflection on how context may influence the ways in which students perceived their avatars. In general, students reported a greater understanding and appreciation of how their avatars were an extension of themselves, and how this representation needed to change in response to situations in which they found themselves. Previous studies reported the phenomenon of users identifying with their avatars to the extent that users may make changes to their avatars to reflect themselves or change their real-life selves to reflect their avatars (Garau et al. 2003; Yee and Ducheneaut 2009). In this smaller case study, students did exhibit some of these behaviors, although to a somewhat lesser degree. In part, a less strong connection between user and avatar here may be attributable to the fact that these students were all newbies in the virtual world of Second Life. However, when communicating through their avatars, students in this study did experience the sense of psychological immersion (Dalgarno and Lee 2010) from the very moment they entered Second Life. This process of immersion can be evidenced by the fact that students overwhelmingly made changes to their avatars appearance when they had to interact in virtual settings with other avatars (high-interactive contexts). The impetus for these changes either involved wanting to fit in (modeling the appear ance of other avatars) or trying to model their avatar to coincide with what students perceived to be a real-world parallel situation. In both instances, these types of behaviors indicated that students viewed themselves as a part of the virtual world through their avatars. Because students exhibited less of these behaviors in low-interactive contexts, it seems that the presence of other avatars was a contributing force behind these changes more so than the setting of the virtual world itself. Thus, the greater the interactive context, the more likely students were to initiate changes to their avatars. The connection that students reported having with their avatars existed more at the visual (appearance) level (Wang 2011) than it did on a psychological level (Dalgarno and Lee 2010), or at least that was the perception that students expressed. Finally, inviting students into virtual worlds as avatars and giving them opportunities to manipulate their avatars to interact in different communicative contexts provides students with an understanding of critical media literacy skills in ways not possible in a traditional classroom. In a future where some level of participation in a virtual environment may be a distinct possibility for many of these students, our traditional notion of literacy needs to expand to include communicating in virtual spaces (see dewinter and Vie 2008; Remley 2012). For example, in communication and writing courses, we teach students strategies for interpersonal and written communication. Yet, when using ones avatar as an agent for communication, students must begin to think of new and different strategies for constructing audience and delivering messages. In a sense, the students avatar becomes the text. Students must acquire strategies for constructing/altering their avatars to meet the demands of the communicative situation, just as they would a spoken or written text.

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REFERENCES
Axelsson, Ann-Sofie. 2002. The Digital Divide: Status Differences in Virtual Environments. In Social Life of Avatars: Presence and Interaction in Shared Virtual Environments, edited by Ralph Schroeder, 188204. New York: Springer. Dede, Chris. 2009. Immersive Interfaces for Engagement and Learning. Science 323(5910): 6669. Dean, Elizabeth, Cook, Sarah. Keating, Michael, and Joe Murphy. 2009. Does This Avatar Make Me Look Fat? Obesity and Interviewing in Second Life. Journal of Virtual Worlds Research 2(2):3-11. De Lucia, Andrea, Francese, Rita, Passero, Ignazio, and Genoveffa Tortora. 2009. Development and Evaluation of a Virtual Campus on Second Life: The Case of SecondDMI. Computers & Education 52: 220-233. deWinter, Jennifer, and Stephanie Vie. 2008. Press Enter to Say: Using Second Life to Teach Critical Media Literacy. Computers and Composition 25:313322. Garau, Maia, Slater, Mel, Vinayagamoorthy, Vinoba, Brogni, Andrea, Steed, Anthony, and Martina A. Sasse. 2003. The Impact of Avatar Realism and Eye Gaze Control on Perceived Quality of Communication in a Shared Immersive Virtual Environment. Paper presented at the proceedings of the SIGCHI. Lim, Kenneth. 2009. The Six Learnings of Second Life. Journal of Virtual Worlds Research 2(1): 4-11. Nowak, Kristine L., and Christian Rauh. 2005. The Influence of the Avatar on Online Perceptions of Anthropomorphism, Androgyny, Credibility, Homophily, and Attraction. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 11(1). Accessed January 8, 2013. http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol11/issue1/nowak.html Mahon, Jennifer, Bryant, Bobby, Brown, Ben, and Miran Kim. 2010. Using Second Life to Enhance Classroom Management Practice in Teacher Education. Educational Media International 47(2): 121-134. Remley, Dirk. 2012. Forming Assessment of Machinima Video. Computers and Composition Online Spring 2012. Accessed January 8, 2013. http://www.bgsu.edu/departments /english/cconline/cconline_Sp_2012/SLassesswebtext/index.html Savin-Baden, Maggi. 2010. A Practical Guide to using Second Life in Higher Education. Berkshire, England: Open University Press. Taylor, T. L. 2002. Living Digitally: Embodiment in Virtual W orlds. In Social Life of Avatars: Presence and Interaction in Shared Virtual Environments, edited by Ralph Schroeder, 40-62. New York: Springer. Taylor, T. L. 2003. Intentional Bodies: Virtual Environments and the Designers who Shape Them. International Journal of Engineering Education 19(1): 2534. Vasalou, Asimina, Joinson, Adam N. and Jeremy Pitt. 2007. Constructing My Online Self: Avatars that Increase Self-Focused Attention. Paper presented at the Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. San Jose, USA. Wang, Tsung Juang. 2011. Educating Avatars: On Virtual Worlds and Pedagogical I ntent. Teaching in Higher Education 16(6): 617-628. Yee, Nick, Bailenson, Jeremy N. and Nicolas Ducheneaut. 2009. The Proteus Effect: Implications of Transformed Digital Self-Representation on Online and Offline Behavior. Communication Research 36(2):285312. Zhou, Zhongyun, Jin, Xiao-Ling, Vogel, Douglas R., Fang, Yulin, and Chen, Xiaojian. 2011. Individual Motivations and Demographic Differences in Social Virtual World Uses: An Exploratory Investigation in Second Life. International Journal of Information Management 31:261-271.

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Mark Mabrito: Associate Professor, English Department, Purdue University, Hammond, Indiana, USA.

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Enhancing Students' Reasoning by Utilizing a Virtual Learning Environment

Aharon Yadin, The Max Stern Yezreel Valley College, Israel
Abstract: This paper describes a specific course structure that was designed to increase students' reasoning related to decision making under uncertainty. The course is based on a virtual and collaborative learning environment in which the students learn, assess and analyze different approaches for solving a given problem. For that reason the course employs a visual learning environment that resembles a playing ground in which the students can "play" by controlling and monitoring the activities of a virtual robot. These playful actions help students build and enhance their analytic and problem solving skills. Addressing all available factors relevant for the decision making process is achieved by using simple "programming like" instructions that enforce accuracy and paying attention to details. In addition good learning habits are acquired by using personal and individual assignments in which each student gets a different task to perform. Furthermore, the students are also engaged in evaluating their peers' solutions which enhances their understanding by exploring other and different approaches to solve the same problem. The results obtained in this qualitative research, are based on comparing the students' grades when using the two course structures. The second course structure enhanced the students' understanding especially regarding the more abstract and unstructured issues of problem solving. Keywords: Visual Environments, Collaborative Learning, Personalized Assignments, Peer Assessment

Introduction
his paper illustrates a learning tactic that was developed to help students grasp the full dimension of issues to be addressed in a good decision making process, especially under uncertainty. This learning tactic employs a virtual environment that is used as the learning infrastructure for decision making. In addition, since the course's assignments are individualized and each student gets a different assignment, a peer assessment mechanism was used. Peer assessment is appreciated as a contributor to the learning process as was found by several researchers (Nortcliffe 2012). The rapid advancement in technological developments and the wide integration of technology and software based solutions in many of the appliances surrounding us, as well as many of our daily activities affects the way we teach. In the past, education was perceived mainly as a teaching discipline in which the lecturer delivered the learning content. With the technological progress in the past two decades education has transformed into learning environments in which the students assume a more active role and the lecturer moderates the continuous process. The lecturer usually uses an integrated learning environment which allows the students to acquire information by using a proactive approach. The students' own experiences lead to better understanding as it was found over three decades ago (Dillon 1987, 371-379). The underlining assumption in the learning by experience is that most of the responsibility for the learning process is transferred to the student while the lecturer acts as a facilitator. The change in the perceived learning processes is not new and was addressed already by many researches (Barr and Tagg 1995, 13-25; Bell and Lane 1998, 128-133; Lenschow 1998, 155-161; DuFour, Eaker and DuFour, 2005). Developments in recent years have produced various new possibilities for exploiting technology and enhancing the learning processes. These new environments provide excellent settings for building student centered learning environments with many case studies to be analyzed in a collaborative manner. The next chapter discusses learning theories and peer assessment in higher education, followed by a description of the course and the study and the final chapter is about results and a discussion.

The International Journal of Technologies in Learning Volume 20, 2014, www.thelearner.com, ISSN 2327-0144 Common Ground, Aharon Yadin, All Rights Reserved Permissions: cg-support@commongroundpublishing.com

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Learning Theories
Learning is a lifelong process and the way we learn is an interesting topic that was addressed by many researchers over the years. The main aim of many researches that were conducted over the years was to find out and understand the human learning processes. As a result these researches produced many theories for explaining these processes. The constructivist theory that is based on Piaget's theory of children development (Piaget, 1932/1965, 19-55) suggests that knowledge is represented by internal conceptual models (or mental models). These internal structures were developed over the years and provide a consistent personal view of reality. Every piece of new information that is obtained through the senses is compared with the existing mental models. The comparison is intended to assess the validity of the information based on previous accumulated knowledge. If the new received information is in line with the existing mental models it reaffirms the mental model's accuracy by integrating into it and building a new layer of understanding. In Paget's words the new information is accommodated in the model. If the new received information is very different and contradicts the existing mental models it will be rejected, or modified so it will fit. Using the constructivist model, the old teaching discipline, in which the lecturer delivers content, is difficult for the students mainly because the new knowledge is often not properly integrated into their existing mental models. The students may rehearse and even memorize it but, without integrating the new knowledge into their mental models, real learning does not occur and the students will not use the new information in the future problem solving processes. Furthermore, since it is not properly integrated in the mental models, it will be forgotten faster than the accommodated information which is constantly being reaffirmed and renewed. Memorizing content is not learning since according to the constructivism theory, the definition of learning is integration of the new experiences with the past mental models in a way that it changes these previous models with relevant new information (Zhi-Feng, et al. 2001, 246). For over forty years, many cognitive researchers (Anderson, 1980; Squire 1987; Johnson 1995; Ten Berge and Van Hezewijk 1999, 605-624; Biggs 2003) have identified two types of knowledge: declarative and procedural. Declarative knowledge is defined as factual information ("knowing that"), and procedural knowledge ("knowing how") is defined as knowing how to perform a specific task. Procedural knowledge sometimes relates to the skills required to operate in the environment (Ten Berge and Van Hezewijk 1999, 605-624). In the current research the two types of knowledge were required; each one with a different learning tactic and the follow on activities intended to help students' understanding. The paradigm shift from teaching, in which the lecturer is responsible to deliver content, to learning, in which the student is actively involved in the process, is based on the understanding that only some of the knowledge is declarative but most of it is procedural that requires various activities to stimulate the students in building and extending their mental models. The constructivist model places greater emphasis on a process in which the learning responsibility relies mainly on the students. The lecturer defines a set of learning activities that will enable the students achieve the defined learning goals. These may be individual or group based learning activities. For over two decades most researchers have reported that group learning is more successful than individual learning and it helps the students in building their understanding faster and more efficiently (Beckman 1990, 128-133; Cooper 1990, 1-2; Goodsell, et al. 1992). In spite of the many names used by researchers to describe group learning, such as: collaborative learning, team based learning, peer learning, etc. Johnson, Johnson, and Smith (1991), defines three general types of learning: (1) informal learning groups which are formed ad hoc. Usually, this is a one-time learning session intended to address a specific short term issue; (2) formal learning groups which are formed for a specific task. This usually is for a longer duration (for example the whole project) which means several meetings will be required; and (3) study teams which are formal learning groups, working together for an even longer duration (for example the whole semester, or the whole academic year). In many cases, as can be

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seen with students, study teams form a social group in which the relationships among the team extend beyond the study sessions. Nevertheless, although most researchers have found that collaborative learning is more efficient in promoting understanding and that a study group and its social interaction forms a supportive learning environment, the learning (or accommodations in the mental structures) and attaining knowledge remains an individual process. This means that in addition to collaborative learning lecturers should emphasize the individual responsibility and accountability among the team members (Prince 2004, 223-231), or as Webster and Sudweeks (2006, 1437-1441) defined even in technology supported collaborative learning systems students have to be more autonomous in their learning attitude.

Peer Assessment in Higher Education

Peer assessment in higher education is assessment of students' work by other students. In general, peers can be experts in the field but can also be classmates who assess the work of other students. Peer review and assessment is widely practiced and it is also used to certifying quality in higher education, curricula, programs, learning outcomes, etc. (Herndon 2006, 1-7). There are many studies which examine the effects of peer and self-assessment. Higher education literature advocates student involvement in evaluation activities (Boud, Cohen and Sampson 2001; Biggs 2003; Falchikov 2004; Bryan and Clegg 2006). Furthermore, self and peer assessment have been found to enhance the learning process and its outcomes (McDonald and Boud 2003, 209-220; Boud 2000, 151-167; Willey and Gardner 2009), but they also advance students own learning (Boud 2000, 151-167; Gibbs and Simpson 2004, 3-31), because peer assessment is not used only for grading, but is also an integral part of the learning process (Brown 2001). Peer review which encourages critical thinking, promotes the exchange of ideas and exposes the students to new ways of solving problems (Boud and Falchikov 2007). Having the students involved in peer review provides opportunities for reflection and self-assessment that augments the learning cycle (Willey and Gardner 2008). Peer review assumes the existence of criteria by which a peers work may be judged. Through an examination process the peers work is assessed based on this predefined criteria. When students are involved in the review process it provides them with insights into the assessment process and exposes them to other ways of thinking (Mills and Glover 2006, 358367). Furthermore, involving students in peer review processes, improves their work skills, autonomy and can raise their levels of responsibility towards the learning process (Boud 2000, 151-167; Black and Harrison 2001, 43-49; Sluijsmans et al. 2001, 153-173). In a recent article by Anne Nortcliffe (2012, 1-17) the author examines the question of peer and self-assessment and concludes that this type of assessment are effective and in addition are well perceived by the students as a valid and helpful mechanism.

Decision Making under Uncertainty

The Decision making under uncertainty course is an undergraduate hands-on workshop, part of the multi-disciplinary studies. The main aim of the course is to explain and demonstrate fundamental concepts related to logical thinking and decision making used during a problem solving process. For obtaining the optimal solution the students are required to address all aspects of a given problem. For that reason and in order to strengthen their mental models the learning is performed using a computerized environment that simulates a virtual two dimensional world. This visual environment provides the means to explore the situation and build new layers of understanding, as defined by the constructivist theory. The virtual environment's world contains a robot that performs various tasks while overcoming obstacles that exist in its way.

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The student who defines the stages required to successfully complete the task is exposed to various analysis techniques that lead to the solution. Controlling the robot and defining the activities to be performed are achieved using simple instructions that resemble a very basic programming language. This "programming like" environment is based on GvR (Guido van Robot), an open source and freely available package. The environment defines a robot represented by a triangle that "lives" in a two dimensional world made up of streets and avenues, walls and "beepers". The robot can hear, carry, collect and place a beeper anywhere in the world. The robot can sense its surrounding in order to avoid hitting the walls or trying to pick a beeper in a location it does not exist. Hitting a wall of trying to pick a non-existing beeper represents a failure in the decision making process. Figure 1 depicts a very simple situation. The robot stationed at location (1, 1) and facing East. The red vertical line represents a wall which is an obstacle that has to be avoided. Walls may be horizontal as well. The small circle represents one beeper, however many beepers can be placed in the same location. A typical simple assignment may require the robot to get to the beeper and pick it while avoiding hitting the wall.

Figure 1: The GvR environment The left side of the environment is intended for typing the instructions for the robot as well as describing the world attributes (wall locations and orientation, beepers location and amount, etc.). The right side is the main visual window that represents in real time the robot movements and activities. The left side of Figure 1 represents the World editor used for defining the world (robot location, walls and beepers). In addition, the environment includes a minimal set of instructions that are sufficient for controlling the robot and defining the activities required to successfully complete the task. The instructions, like in a simple programming language provide capabilities for sequential execution, conditional branching, looping and procedural abstraction. After defining the world and the instructions for the robot, the student can hit the "Execute" button which will start performing the task by executing the instructions while moving the robot in the world accordingly. This visual environment is ideal for problem solving since it provides instant visual feedback on the task as it

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is being executed. Any error, such as miscalculating the number of steps the robot has to move in order to get to the beeper, can be easily detected corrected and checked once again. The Decision making workshop is divided into two distinct units. The first one, which deals mainly with declarative knowledge, provides the foundation for problem solving by learning about the environment, the instructions to control the robot and the possible obstacles to be avoided. All tasks performed as part of this unit are relatively simple, due to the visual attribute of the environment. The second unit, which is about procedural knowledge. addresses the accumulated knowledge for decision making. This knowledge is based on understanding the environment and its capabilities and the instruction to control the robot. The tasks performed as part of this unit are more complicated, since the world structure is just one example of the world, but it may be different. This means that the robot has to sense its way around before it can move or pick a beeper. The workshop is taught in the computer lab, which limits the number of student to 24 or less. The structure is simple and is based on lectures and tutorials. The grade is calculated based on 6 bi-weekly assignments and a final project. The workshop was taught four times (in the years 2009, 2010, 2011 and 2012), all by the same lecturer. The number of students during these four years remained almost constant (20, 22, 22 and 23 respectively). This is a third year elective class for working students, so the average age is around 30.

The Study
The study was initiated due to a large, although partially explainable difference between the average grade of the assignments in the first unit to the average grade of the assignments in the second one. In 2009 the difference was 14 points (or 18.6%) and in 2010 it was 12 points (16.2%). The first unit that deals with declarative knowledge is simpler and the world in which the robot is living is visible, so it is relatively simple to design and control its activities. For example, the situation represented in figure 1 in which the robot has to pick up the beeper and get back to its original place and position. The assignment in this case is simple and straight forward. The instructions for getting to the beepers and collecting it may be: MOVE TURNLEFT MOVE MOVE MOVE TURNRIGHT MOVE TURNRIGHT MOVE MOVE MOVE PICKBEEPER Since it is facing east already, the robot has to move one step forward; turn to the left, move three steps forward, turn to the right and so on, until it reaches the beeper and pick it up and then go back. After completing the required steps, it is easy to run the "program" and see exactly the robot moves and activities. If something is wrong, for example the robot hits a wall, it can be easily fixed. The second unit that deals with procedural knowledge is more complex since the students have to integrate the knowledge accumulated in the first unit (their conceptual models) with the decision making skills required here. Furthermore, the world in these assignments is not visible and the robot has to sense its surrounding in order to decide, for example if it is safe to move

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forward. This is a more abstract type of assignments, which required deeper thinking, as define by Boroditsky and Ramscar (2002, 185-189) that abstract thinking is built on representations of more experience-based domains. The main difference between the two unit's assignments is in the definition. While first unit's assignments are represented by a clear layout of the world and the objects presented, the second unit's assignments is defined in terms of principles. These principles produce various possible worlds and the robot has to be able to complete the assignment regardless of the specific world configuration.

Figure 2: A part 2 assignment Figure 2 is an example of a unit 2 assignment. In this case it is known that somewhere on the first street there is a beeper to be collected (in this specific case it is in (8, 1) junction, but this is just an example. The robot has to look for the beeper and collect it, however on its way there are some obstacles (walls) and the robot does not know how many, where they are or what shape do they have. The instructions for the robot should be generic enough so it will be able to handle any situation it will encounter. Being aware to the students' possible difficulties when proceeding from understanding the environment and its capabilities (the declarative knowledge) to the next level of using this knowledge for problem solving (the procedural knowledge), the course was artificially divided into these two units. Nevertheless, the difference between the grades of the two units proved that it is still too complex. In dealing with this complexity and in an effort to help students better understand the more abstract issues, a different approach was taken. The course structure and the grades calculations remained unchanged; however a more structural teaching method was applied. For each assignment the students were required to first verbally define the problem and outline the possible solution. Only in the second stage and after carefully assessing the solution, they had to define the instructions for the robot. The main idea behind this approach is to reinforce thinking before acting. This is necessary because the visual attributes of the virtual environments are not sufficient for this unit's assignments and without proper thinking the problem cannot be solved. In addition, to minimize the possibilities of sharing solutions with peers, the assignments were personalized and each student received a different version. Each assignment was assessed by

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both the lecturer and an additional student. When assessing a fellow student assignment, the assessor student had to provide constructive feedback on the solution as well as comment on his or her own assignment. The comments should represent any new insight gained by evaluating and assessing the other assignment and that can improve the student's own solution. The students' comments had to follow a grading checklist that was published in advance and was known by the students. The hypothesis was that such a method could reduce the large difference between the grades of the two units' assignments. Employing this tactics had almost no effect on the average grade of the first unit's assignments; however it increased the average grade of the second unit assignments (Figure 3), which is in line with the hypothesis. However, there is still a small difference between the grades of the two units, but this is normal, since the second unit assignments are more abstract and thus more difficult for the students.

Figure 3: Average grade over the years This new tactic increased the average grade of the second unit assignments by 8 points (from an average of 78 to 86). This means that and in the new version of the course the difference between the average grades of the two units' assignments was 4.6% which represents a sharp reduction from the 18.6% in 2009 and 16.2% in 2010. The grading rules remained identical throughout the years with a predefined checklist for grade reduction. The grading scheme was known to students prior to submitting their assignments

Results and Discussion

This paper describes a study that was performed in order to help students cope better with the difficulties related to abstract issues related to decision making under uncertainty and in general improve their problem solving skills. It was achieved by slightly modifying the course structure. The original course, which was delivered as a workshop and used a visual and virtual environment (GvR) was based on standard lectures, followed by hands on exercises in a computer lab. The students had to submit 6 bi-weekly assignments and a final project. The workshop was divided into two parts, one for acquiring the declarative knowledge about the environments and the second which used this knowledge to acquire the procedural knowledge of solving problems. Since there was a large difference in the grades of the two parts of the workshop, a second course structure was employed. The second and more successful course structure used same components; however, the assignments emphasized individual learning by

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utilizing personal and unique assignments. This means that the students could not share solutions obtained from their peers and had to spend all required time in dealing successfully with their own assignments. These unique and personalized assignments had a positive effect as was already found (Yadin and Or-Bach 2008, 83-86; Yadin 2011, 297-302). In addition each student had to evaluate and assess an assignment which was submitted by one of his/her peers and based on the experience gained form this assessment to reflect back on the assignment he or she submitted. This reflection was mainly a second thought if there is something to be changed in the already submitted assignment. The importance of visual environments like GvR for simplifying abstract concepts is not new and was already addressed by many researchers (Papert 1980; Dagdilelis and Satratzemi 2001, 123-141; Hoyles, Noss and Adamson 2002, 29-53; Sarama and Clements 2002, 1-5 to name a few). This study, however, revealed that it is not sufficient. The visual environment may have helped better understanding the abstract concepts, but utilizing individual assignments with peer assessment and reflections, or self-assessment was even more successful in helping students' understanding. This was demonstrated by the lower difference between the grades of the two parts of the workshop (4.6% in the new course structure compared to an average of 18.6% (2009) and 16.2% (2010) in the original course structure). The hypothesis that the new learning tactic can decrease the difference between the average grades of the two units proved to be correct. The positive effect of peer and self-assessment on the learning outcomes that was observed in this study supports previous finding by many researchers (McDonald and Boud 2003, 209-220; Boud 2000, 151-167; Willey and Gardner 2009), especially when it is used not only for grading the peer's work but also when it is used for reflection on one's own assignment and relating to issues to be enhanced based on observing the other solution. This means that the peer assessment provided additional understanding and enhanced the mental model not only by doing, but also by evaluating. The participating students' average age is 30, which may limit the applicability of the results. For that reason, a future study of using he computerized environment as well as individualized assignments and peer assessment for first year students in an "Introduction to Computer Science" course started already with the aim for comparing the effectiveness of the tactic.

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REFERENCES
Anderson, J. R. 1980. Cognitive Psychology and its Implications, San Francisco: Freeman. Barr, Robert B and John Tagg. 1995. "From Teaching to Learning - a New Paradigm for Undergraduate Education", Change Magazine, Nov/Dec; 13-25. Biggs, John. 2003. Teaching for quality learning at university, 2nd edition. Buckingham, UK: SRHE and Open University Press. Beckman, Mary. 1990. "Collaborative Learning: Preparation for the Workplace and Democracy", College Teaching, 38(4): 128-133. Bell, Simon.\ and Andy Lane. 1998. "From Teaching to Learning: Technological potential and sustainable, supported open learning", Systemic Practice and Action Research, 11(6): 629-650. Black, Paul and Christine Harrison. 2001. "Self and peer assessment and taking responsibility: the science student's role in formative assessment", School Science Review, 83 (302), 43-49 Boroditsky, Lira, Michael Ramscar, and Michael C Frank. 2002. "The roles of body and mind in abstract thought". Psychological Science, 13: 185189. Boud, David. 2000." Sustainable assessment: rethinking assessment for the learning society", Studies in Continuing Education, 22 (2): 151-167. Boud, David, Ruth Cohen, and Jane Sampson. 2001. Peer learning in higher education: learning with and from each other. London: Kogan Page. Boud, David and Nancy Falchikov, 2007. Rethinking assessment in higher education learning for the longer term, London: Routledge. Brown, George. 2001. Assessment: A Guide for Lectures, LTSN Generic Center. Bryan, Cordelia. and Karen Clegg 2006. Innovative assessment in higher education. London: Routledge. Cooper, James. 1990 "Cooperative Learning and College Teaching: Tips from the Trenches", Teaching Professor, 4(5): 1-2. Dagdilelis, Vassiliov and Maya Satratzemi. 2001. "Post's Machine: A Didactic Microworld as an Introduction to Formal Programming", Educational and Information Technologies, 6(2): 123-141 Dillon, Andrew. 1987 "Knowledge Acquisition and Conceptual Models: A Cognitive Analysis of the Interface in Diaper", D. and R. Winder (eds.) People and Computers III, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 371-379. DuFour, Rebecca, Robert Eaker, and Richard DuFour. 2005. On common ground: The power of professional learning communities, Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree. Falchikov, Nancy. 2004. Improving assessment through student involvement: practical solutions for higher education teaching and learning. London: Routledge. Gibbs, Graham and Claire Simpson. 2004. "Conditions under which assessment supports students' learning", Learning and Teaching in Higher Education, 1: 3-31 Goodsell, Anne, Michelle Maher, Vincent Tinto, Barbara L Smith, and Jean. MacGregor 1992. Collaborative Learning: A Sourcebook for Higher Education. University Park: National Center on Postsecondary Teaching, Learning, and Assessment, Pennsylvania State University. Herndon, Craig. 2006. "Peer Review and Organizational Learning: Improving the Assessment of Student Learning". Research & Practice in Assessment 1, (1), 1-7. Hoyles, Celia, Richard Noss, Ross Adamson. 2002. "Rethinking the Microworld idea". Journal of Educational Computing Research, 27(1&2): 29-53. Johnson, David. W., Roger.T. Johnson, and Karl .A. Smith 1991. Cooperative Learning: Increasing College Faculty Instructional Productivity. ASHE-FRIC Higher Education

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Report No.4, Washington, D.C.: School of Education and Human Development, George Washington University. Johnson, Keith. 1995. Language Teaching and Skill Learning, Oxford, Basil Blackwell. Lenschow, Rolf. Johan. 1998. From Teaching to Learning: A Paradigm Shift in Engineering Education and Lifelong Learning, European Journal of Engineering Education, 23(2): 155-161. McDonald, Betty, and David Boud. 2003. "The impact of self-assessment on achievement: the effect of self-assessment training on performance in external examinations", Assessment in Education, 10 (2): 209-220 Mills, John, and Chris Glover. 2006. "Using assessment within course structure to drive student engagement with the learning process". 13th International Symposium Improving Students Learning Through Assessment, London 5-7 September 2005, Oxford: Alden Press, 358-367 Nortcliffe, Anne. (2012). Can Students Assess Themselves and Their Peers?-A Five Year Study. Student Engagement and Experience Journal, 1(2) Papert, Seymour. 1980. Mindstorms: Children, Computers and Powerful Ideas, Nova York: Basic Books Piaget, Jean. (1932/1965). The moral judgment of the child. New York: Basic Books. Prince, Michael. 2004. "Does Active Learning Work? A Review of the Research", Journal of Engineering Education, 93(3): 223-231. Sarama, Julie and Douglas H Clements. 2002. "Design of Microworlds in mathematics and science education". Journal of Educational Computing Research, 27(1&2): 1-5. Sluijsmans, Dominque M. George Moerrkerke, Jeroen J Merrienboer, and Filip J R Dochy. 2001. "Peer assessment in problem-based learning". Studies in Educational Evaluation, 27: 153-173 Squire, Larry .R. 1987. Memory and Brain. New York: Oxford University Press. Ten Berge, Timon and Rene Van Hezewijk. 1999. "Procedural and Declarative Knowledge: An Evolutionary Perspective", Theory and Psychology, 9(5): 605-624. Webster, R. and Fay Sudweeks (2006) "Enabling Effective Collaborative Learning in Networked Virtual Environments", Current Developments in Technology-Assisted Education, (2): 1437-1441. Willey, Keith. and Anne Gardner. 2008. "Using self and peer assessment for professional and team skill development: do well functioning teams experience the benefits?" Proceedings of the ATN Assessment Conference Engaging Students in Assessment, South Australia Yadin, Aharon. "Reducing Students' Dropout The Case of Individual Assignments". eLSE 2011 - The 7th International Scientific Conference - eLearning and Software for Education Bucharest, Romania, April 2011 (2): 297-302 Yadin, Aharon and Rachel Or-Bach. 2008. "Fostering individual learning: when and how". ACM SIGCSE Bulletin 40(4): 83-86 Zhi-Feng, Eric, Sunny. Lin, Chiu. Chi-Huang, and Yuan Shyan-Ming. 2001. "Web-Based Peer Review: The Learner as Both Adapter and Reviewer", IEEE Transactions on Education, 44(3), 246

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Dr. Aharon Yadin: Senior Lecturer, Management Information Systems Department, The Max Stern Yezreel Valley College, Yezreel Valley, Israel.

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E-Learning through Virtual Reality Applications: The Case of Career Counseling

Kostopoulos Konstantinos Panagiotis, University of Patras,Greece Gianopoulos Konstaninos, University of Patras, Greece Mystakidis Stylianos, University of Patras, Greece Chronopoulou Kiriaki, University of Patras, Greece
Abstract: VR can be defined as a three-dimensional space that provides a strong degree of interaction with the user, including real-time simulation and interactions through multiple channelssenses. It is not just a reproduction of conventional reality, but creates synthetic realities without precedent. It has been used in various fields, e.g. education, medicine, architecture, assistance to persons with disabilities, etc. VR leads to the development of new forms of counseling, e.g. via asynchronous learning platform, videoconferencing, social networking, etc. By using the threedimensional virtual immersive learning environments of Open Workshop on Information Literacy of Patras University Library, we organized and conducted three educational workshops about career consulting with 50 participants. The Open Workshop is an open and free blended learning initiative for providing flexible training services on academic & professional development to the universitys academic community and beyond. In this paper, the results through practice of such an initiative are described, i.e. the prerequisites for its success, its capabilities/restrictions, the participants (and potential) and the way they participated, users feedback (evaluation and outcomes) and the possibilities/limitations of Virtual Reality (VR) applications in Career Counseling and especially in providing educational and vocational information through already implemented actions. Keywords: E-Learning, Career Counseling, Virtual Immersive Environments, Virtual Reality

Introduction

irtual Reality (VR)consists one of the most important technological innovations of the past two decades and can be defined as a three-dimensional space that provides a strong degree of interaction with the user. VR uses computers to create real, or not, environments and the users have the illusion that they are surrounded by these environments and can move freely in them, while interacting with included objects, as they would be in the real world (Charitos 1999; Yasin, Darleena, and Mohd2012). The VR is a high level technological application that includes real-time simulation and interactions through multiple channels senses. Its promise is not located just in the reproduction of conventional reality, but also in the ability to create synthetic realities without precedent. The term Virtual Reality has its origin to Jaron Lanier, who was also the founder of VPL Research in 1989. However, there are more terminologies referring to the subject of VR (Mikropoulos 1998), such as for example: Artificial Reality, which was introduced by Myron Krueger in the 1970s and is defined as an interactive environment with users participation via computers to events engaging many sensations and kinesthesia. Cyberspace, due to William Gibson in 1984, is a space in which humans nervous system and mechanical-electronic means of communication are associated with computer systems. Telepresence is the sense of presence in a remote natural space, with the possibility of handling objects and working with other people in this space. Most modern terminologies deal with Virtual Words and Virtual Environments. VR systems have been grouped in four categories (Mikropoulos 1994):
The International Journal of Technologies in Learning Volume 20, 2014, www.thelearner.com, ISSN 2327-0144 Common Ground, Kostopoulos Konstantinos Panagiotis, Gianopoulos Konstaninos, Mystakidis Stylianos, Chronopoulou Kiriaki, All Rights Reserved Permissions: cg-support@commongroundpublishing.com

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Desktop VR, which provide a window into the virtual world and rely on personal computers with the capability to support specialized peripheral navigation tools in 3D virtual space and use stereoscopic glasses or helmet. Dextrous VR, which screen virtual objects via mirror in front of the user who handles them, e.g. in the case of virtual surgeries. Immersive VR, wheretheuser is cut out from reality by using peripheral devices, suchas data gloves and stereoscopichelmets(HMD - Head Mounted Display) which display images of the synthetic environment. CAVE systems,which consist of a room that on the walls, floor and ceiling are depicted (projected) images that represent views of the virtual environment. The users have the ability to walk in this room and the sense of their presence in the virtual world.

VR systems have been also classifiedinto three other categoriesaccording to the degreeofusersinteractionwiththe application and thedegree of theirexposure to the systems (Burdea and Coiffet 1993): Defensive, where the user simply moves in a virtual world that surrounds him, with no control. Exploratory, in which full freedom of navigation is providedbut not intervention in the events. Interactive, which provide the user the ability to interact with objects in the virtual environment.

VR Applications and Education

VR supports dominant cognitive theories, such as structural constructivism which argues that knowledge is an evolutionary process derived from persons experience in the world and the processes in which they participate. People develop a better understanding when they participate in activities for achieving personal goals and the existence of a genuine framework is pedagogically important (Papert and Harel 1991;Merchant et al. 2014). In order the various VR systems to be effective, they are adapted to each user's age and learning experiences (Dimitriadis 2008; Dodd andAntonenko2012). So, for children, applications main objective is the understanding of the image. Therefore, simplistic and nonphoto-realistic graphics are used. For adolescents, the objective is the maintenance of interest, vigor and action. Therefore, intensely dynamic environments focusing on impression are used. For adults, key factors to VR programs design are reliability, information, familiarization with the represented environment and visualization with a focus on details. VR has been used in many various areas such as e.g., education, medicine, architecture, entertainment, imaging information systems, handling machines and vehicles simulation, aid for persons with disabilities, military purposes, etc. VR technology can be used for the development of multi-dimensional audiovisual illustrations of complex information systems, in the form of interactive Virtual Environments (VEs), thus allowing the user to process these systems in the most natural, "instinctive", manner that best suits the working method (Oikonomou 2006; Merchant et al. 2012). Especially in education, the information circulated in the form of experience (direct experience, making use of various senses, unlike reading that are purely visual-mental process), maintains and cultivates interrelations. This is one of the reasons why multimedia applications trainers manage to convey to their users more qualitative information, as proven through practice (Bricken 1990; tefan 2012). VR technology is considered to be a powerful educational tool for the support of teaching, mainly due to the following features (Mikropoulos 1998; Mikropoulos, Pidelas and Chalikidis 2002):

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Exploration of existing objects and spaces in which there is no access by students. Implementation and handling of abstract representations. Study of real objects which are impossible to be otherwise understood because of their size, position or properties. Creation of environments and objects that have different from the known properties. Interaction with real people in distant physical locations or imaginary places with real, or not, ways.

Moreover, virtual immersive environments have been used successfully by librarians around the world to provide solutions and enhanced access to knowledge and cultural resources (Hill and Mystakidis 2012). Due to these abilities of VR, the use of VR systems in educational applications get the users even more in the learning process, by offering them various options to explore knowledge areas, which leads to more effective-efficient educational process. VR solutions can be used to engage the learners in the zone of proximal flow and accelerate the pace of learning (Lampropoulos and Mystakidis 2012;Shaev 2013). Educational applications that make use of VR have been tested on: Simulation of workshops and laboratories for teaching. Simulation of navigation in environments which is otherwise impossible to be achieved, either due to distance, or because they belong to the past (e.g. ancient monuments and sites). However, essential factor for the design, development and evaluation of educational virtual environments, is their multidisciplinary approach. That means the collaboration of various fields scientists, such as specialists in the fields of concern, Information Technology specialists, pedagogues and psychologists.

VR Applications and Counseling

Career Counseling is not left unaffected by technological effects and social expectations as a result of the widespread acceptance of the VR programs. Already, the rapid development and use of Internet and Information Technology in providing information and fostering communication, has resulted in the creation of new forms of counseling, such as counseling via asynchronous learning platform, videoconferencing, social networking, etc. VR has been successfully applied particularly in treating phobias (Rahayu 2003). The use of VR offers a different method. It allows the exposure of the patient to a virtual environment that is more secure, less embarrassed, and with less cost, than to present real situations of stress. Besides, situations that are difficult to be found in daily life can be developed. These situations are reproduced in plausible and three-dimensional way. Some experiments that have been already undertaken prove that the use of VR in the field of phobias treatment has significant results, particularly to fear of heights, arachnophobia, agoraphobia, claustrophobia, and phobias related to traveling by air. In career counseling, despite the expansion of VR applications, the examples, both in Greece and abroad, are minimal and limited to the following actions (Haberstroh, Rowe and Cisneros 2009): Virtual Career Days-Fairs. The interested employers and (potential) employees are met in virtual spaces, e.g. companies stands. This virtual meeting is achieved either through avatar (digital representation of the user), or via remote communication applications. In that way, companies inform for their purposes and actions, and recruitment interviews are being undertaken.

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Virtual educational and professional exhibitions. The various exhibitors participate in virtual exhibition centers where they present their services and operations and respond to the questions of virtual visitors.

Career Counseling through VR applications: The Case of Open Workshop

From November 2011 till June 2012, in the Library & Information Center of University of Patras (Greece), designed and implemented the Open Workshop on Information Literacy. This is an open blended learning program that combines educational activities in classroom but mainly from distance. The term workshop refers to the emphasis on active learning, i.e. learning through practice on new concepts and skills. The Open Workshop is the first open, free user-guided e-learning academic development program in Greece (Mystakidis and Tsakonas 2012). It is worth mentioning that the Open Workshop on Information Literacy was selected among 91 proposals and awarded the Seal of Good Teaching Practice for the innovative use of Web Tools in the Education & Lifelong Learning, within the framework of action Learning 2.0+ of the University of Athens (http://mathisi20.gr). Once this program identified and analyzed the educational needs of graduate students and Ph.D. candidates, it was designed based on two fundamental objectives: (a) to encourage participants to acquire useful knowledge and skills for their academic evolution and professional career, and (b) to provide an enjoyable and effective learning experience through the use of the latest e-learning technologies. Therefore, the curriculum was designed focusing on the following knowledge areas: 1. Information Literacy 2. Academic Evolution 3. Lifelong Learning 4. Professional Career Development More specific, in the Professional Career Development area the training needs that defined the learning objectives of the Open Workshop were the following: Creation of customization of resumes (curriculum vitae) for professional and academic purposes according to the Europasstemplate. Authoring of cover letters. Job seeking strategies in European Union countries and beyond. Effective preparation and techniques for job interviews.

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Figure 1: Mindmap of the training needs addressed by Open Workshop across four knowledge areas In particular, from April to May 2012, the Career Office of the University of Patras (Greece), for the first time in Greece took an active role in the courses of Open Workshop on Information Literacy in the 4th of the above mentioned subjects concerning Professional Career Development, by implementing an open workshop for Career Counseling. Specifically, three sessions (1 hour each) carried out on the following topics: 1. CV and Cover Letter: Creation and customization of professional and academic resumes. 2. Recruitment Interviews: Effective preparation, good practices and common mistakes during face-to-face recruitment interviews. 3. Job search on the web: job-seeking strategies in European Union countries and beyond. The open workshop was held in a virtual medieval amphitheater. Each session was attended by an average of 17 graduate students and Ph.D. candidates. The workshop was implemented through the 3D virtual immersive environment platform Second Life (http://secondlife.com/), and for the asynchronous learning and support of the participants it was used a collaborative learning environment wiki (openworkshop.pbworks.com). A relevant blog (openworkshop.wordpress.com) and a Facebook page (facebook.com/UpatrasOpenWorkshop) served as means for announcements and communication with the participants.

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Figure 2: The virtual medieval amphitheater of Open Workshop in Second Life The workshops pedagogical methodology during each session featured a short series(510minutes) of individual and group learning activities to engage participants. The activities were based on prepared questions of comprehension of the educational material as well as short case studies. During sessions participants had the capability of multiple communication channels: a) live chatting, instant messaging), b) voice (via microphones and headphones or speakers) and c) virtual kinesthetic communication (avatar movement, gestures etc.) The sessions were also broadcasted simultaneously live over the web using streaming technologies and recorded. Each sessions educational material along with the video recording and additional resources were posted in the Open Workshops wiki. In order to complete successfully the Open Workshop each participant had to complete one assignment directly related with the learning objectives of each session. Each assignment required an individual effort of approximately20 to 30 minutes. The assignments were posted openly in the wiki. Participants were encouraged to comment on their peers assignment, post relative questions and share interesting resources.

Students Evaluation of Career Counseling Open Workshop Sessions

Next, we evaluated the conduct of career counseling in a blended e-learning environment by researching student perceptions and experiences. After the completion of the open workshop (June 2012), participants were invited to evaluate in detailindividual teaching and learning quality parametersboth for the overall Open Workshop programas well as for each session. The questionnaire included the following questions: What is your degree of agreement with the following statement: I acquired new knowledge? What is your degree of satisfaction with the following aspect of Open Workshop: Asynchronous E-learning (wiki)? How do you assess the overall qualityofthe educationalmaterial? What is the degree of interest in the knowledge area Professional Development? How do you assess the instruction by workshop facilitators?

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What was the degree of your overall satisfaction in the session on Job Search? How do you assess the teaching skills of the workshop session facilitators (names follow)? What is the degree of your interest in the knowledge area of Professional development for future Open Workshop sessions?

The responses were organized using the five-level Likert scale according to the following format: 1-Very poor, 2-Poor, 3-Fair, 4-Very Good, 5-Excellent. The questionnaire included in total 56 question items and was offered using an online survey tool. The data was imported and processed in IBM SPSS software.

Evaluation Results
The questionnaire was completed by N=21 participants. The evaluation results from the sessions on career counseling were very encouraging, scoring high on learners satisfaction, above the average of the total Open Workshops sessions. The evaluation results for the three Professional Career Development sessions are characterized by a strong interest and a high degree of satisfaction. Overall learning session satisfaction: The average score for all 19 sessions of Open Workshop was 4.030.79 while the satisfaction with the overall program was 4.310.63. The Career Counseling sessions were the top three rated sessions in the whole program. Table 1: Overall learning satisfaction of Open Workshop sessions Mean 4.31 4.03 4.36 4.36 4.46 Standard Deviation 0.63 0.79 0.74 0.74 0.66

Open Workshop (Overall) Open Workshop Sessions (Average) Session #1: CV & Cover Letter Session #2: Recruitment Interviews Session #3: Job Search

Teaching skills: The facilitators of the Career Counseling sessions were also rated high than average in teaching quality scoring 4.430.51 while the Open Workshop average was 4.360.67.

The Diffusion of Career Counseling Open Workshop Educational Resources

The openness of the workshop led to the production of open educational resources (OER) within the framework of the program. The high quality of the digital content and its free access resulted in remarkable dissemination and popularity on the internet, beyond the boundaries of the University of Patras and of the period of the program. More specific, the presentations alone of the program attracted more visits than the total students population of the University of Patras (25,000). In less than six months, the three presentations of the Career Office had a total of 3,573 visits, i.e. an average of 7.5 visits per day, since their day of publication.

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Figure 3: Detailed statistics of the online accessible presentations of Open Workshop on Information Literacy for the academic year 2011-2012

Users Interest in Upcoming Open Workshop Educational Programs

Consequently, according to learners feedback it was decided the 2012-2013 Open Workshop on Information Literacy to include an autonomous educational program of four sessions for professional career development, which was a popular choice of many participants who registered early.

Figure 4: Users registration (November 2012) for the upcoming educational programs of the Open Workshop on Information Literacy for the academic year 2012-2013

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Prerequisites Emerged for the Success of Career Counseling Open Workshop

The implementation of the sessions on career counseling aimed mainly at building practical jobrelated skills, and also as a mean to encourage students for subsequent face-to-face individual counseling by visiting the Career Office. However, prerequisites for the success of the workshop were: User familiarity with VR applications, the adaptation of information material in virtual learning environment, the application of an effective instructional strategy suitable for 3D virtual immersive environments, the proper preparation of the questions, the prior detection of users attitudes and opinions based on their personal experiences, and the subsequent adjustment of the counsel based exactly on the above mentioned experiences of the counselees.

Capabilities of the Use of VR in Counseling and Education

Career counseling can and must make use of VR systems as they offer a great potential for supporting teaching-learning and information diffusion. The key point is the proper utilization of the capabilities and special features provided by virtual environments, with a view to practicing the basic principles and concepts of modern theories about learning and career counseling. More specifically, VR could be used in the following actions concerning counseling in particular, and education in general: Universities, or other educational institutions, exhibitions. Virtual career days-fairs. Distance courses (e.g. seminars, etc.). Virtual laboratories. Providing information and professionalmonographs. Visits to virtual universities, research laboratories and workplaces. Establishment and development of virtual enterprises. Personal counseling and emotions simulation (cyber emotions).

The Benefits of Using VR Systems in E-learning as Resulted by Career Counseling Open Workshop
The benefits of using VR systems can be summarized in the following points: Sense of live (experiential) presence in the three-dimensional environment. New generations familiarity with the average spreading of VR applications through entertainment. Development of special skills, such as for example, getting informed, job and academic evolution searching, synthetic and constructionism skills, managing tools, cooperative skills, teamwork, use of new technologies, etc. Simultaneous use of multiple teaching visual aids. Associative and active learning. Distance study of a vocational or educational process or communication with specialists.

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Possibility of multisensory interaction and of direct personalized finding (direct and dynamic information, discovery, rewarding). Information on free and open time and personalization of searching material. Usability from social vulnerable groups. Exploration of not reachable and accessible environments (e.g. microcosm, outer space, distant fields, past environments, etc.). Effective resource management and low cost of large events. Familiarization of the user with career counseling and pursuing a face-to-face meeting with the counselor. Maintaining anonymity.

Final Conclusions
Computers have entered the field of career counseling as an important technological tool since the 1960s. These systems have offered a number of capabilities, such as evaluation through Internet, search databases, extensive databases for jobs and education, keeping personal files and tele-counseling applications. It should be noted, however,that VR applications complement the counseling process, they do not replace it. Also, it is required a proper planning based on a sound instructional methodology and preparation of the relative material, depending on users age, educational level and cultural background. In addition, the user (counselor or counselee) of such applications should take into account the following points-weaknesses: Ensure very good users knowledge and familiarity with new technologies, otherwise the applications are hard to use. Need for continuous updating of information and material. Regular examination and evaluation of applications and enrichment of the scientific literature. Users difficulty or even inability to understand the non-verbal communication through Avatar, despite the diffusion of digital representation of feelings (cyberemotions), etc. Possibility of falsification information by counselees due to their anonymity and the non-physical contact and communication. Possibility the users to considering VR applications as a game and make superficial use. Increase of addiction and social isolation phenomena and confusion of virtual with the physical (true) reality. High cost of application development. However, research has shown that the most effective counseling is the combination of consultants personal supporting and the use of technology. Even the most complete and impressive system is less effective if used without the support of an experienced career consultant. Respectively, VR applications design, implementation and evaluation in career counseling must take into account the knowledge and expertise of career counselors in order to be useful tools for counseling.

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REFERENCES
Bricken, William. 1990. Learning in Virtual Reality, Technical report No. HITL-M-90-5. Washington: University of Washington. Burdea, Grigore, and Philippe Coiffet. 1993. Virtual Reality Technology. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Charitos, Dimitris. 1999. UniversityNotesfortheUnitof VR in Multimedia Technologies. Athens:Athens University. Dimitriadis, Stavros. 2008.Flexible Learning, with the use of Information and Communication Technologies. Thesaloniki: Sziola. Dodd, Bucky, and Pavlo Antonenko. 2012. Use of signaling to integrate desktop virtual reality and online learning management systems. Computers & Education 59, 12: 1099-1108. Haberstroh, Shane, Shirley Rowe, and Stefanie Cisneros. 2009. Implementing Virtual Career Counseling and Advising at a Major University. Journal of Cases on Information Technology11, 3: 31-44. Hill, Valerie, and Stylianos Mystakidis. 2012. Maya Island virtual museum: A virtual learning environment, museum, and library exhibit. Paper presented at 2012 18th International Conference on Virtual Systems and Multimedia (VSMM), Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy, September 2-5. Lampropoulos, Niki, and Stylianos Mystakidis. 2012. Learning Experience+ within 3D Immersive Worlds. Paper presented at the Federated Conference on Computer Science and Information Systems, Wrocaw, Poland, September 9-12. Merchant, Zahira, Ernest Goetz, Lauren Cifuentes, Wendy Keeney-Kennicutt, and Trina Davis. 2014. Effectiveness of virtual reality-based instruction on students learning outcomes in K-12 and higher education: A meta-analysis. Computers & Education 70, 1: 29-40. Merchant, Zahira, Ernest Goetz, Lauren Cifuentes, Wendy Keeney-Kennicutt, Oi-Man Kwok, and Trina Davis. 2012. The learner characteristics, features of desktop 3D virtual reality environments, and college chemistry instruction: A structural equation modeling analysis. Computers & Education 59, 9: 551-68. Mikropoulos, Anastasios, Panagiotis Pintelas, and nthimos Chalkidis. 2002. Virtual Reality Environments, as a base of Educational Environments Development. Paper presented at the 3rd Conference ETPE, The Computer and Communication Sciences in Education, Rhodes, Greece, September 26-29. Mikropoulos, Anastasios. 1998. The Virtual Reality at the support of the Education Procedure. Paper presented at the 1st European Conference of Computer Science and Education, Ioannina, Greece, May 16-17. Mikropoulos, nastasios. 1994. VirtualRealityandEducation.A new tool or a new methology.Paper presented at the 2nd Conference of Educational Computer Science, Athens, Greece, November 11-14. Mystakidis, Stylianos and Giannis Tsakonas. 2012. Innovative Information Literacy Blended Open E-Learning Course in Virtual Worlds. Paper presented at 21st Pan-Hellenic Conference of Academic Libraries, Piraeus, Greece, October 18-19. Oikonomou, Dafni. 2006. IntroductioninComputersupportedCollaboration. Athens: Kleidarithmos. Papert, Seymour, and Idit Harel. 1991. Constructionism. Norwood, N.J.: Ablex Publishing Co. Rahayu, Fitri Nurdini. 2003. Virtual Reality for Social Phobia and Agoraphobia Treatment. Research Assignment, Informatietechnologie en SystemenTechnische Universiteit Delft. Shaev, Yury. 2013. Virtual Reality: The Effects and Phenomenon of Sign. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 92, 10: 860-62. tefan, Livia. 2012. Immersive Collaborative Environments for Teaching and Learning Traditional Design. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 51: 1056-60.

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Yasin, Anita Mohd, Zeti Darleena, and Mohd Ali Mohd Isa. 2012.Avatar Implementation in Virtual Reality Environment using Situated Learning for Tawaf. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Science 67, 12: 73-80.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Konstantinos Panagiotis Kostopoulos, PhD: Career Counselor, Career Office, University of Patras, Patra, Achaia, Greece. Konstantinos Giannopoulos, PhD: Department of Business Administration, University of Patras, Patra, Achaia, Greece. Stylianos Mystakidis, MSc: Library and Information Center, University of Patras, Patra, Achaia, Greece. Kiriaki Chronopoulou, MSc: Career Counselor, Career Office, University of Patras, Patra, Achaia, Greece.

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Videoconferencing and Learning in the Classroom: The Effects of Being an Orphan Technology?
Tony Lawson, University of Leicester, United Kingdom Chris Comber, University of Leicester, United Kingdom
Abstract: Drawing on a decade of evaluation research into videoconferencing in English schools, this paper explores the relative lack of pedagogical innovation in the educational application of videoconferencing. Initial surveys on the frequency and patterns of use of videoconferencing provided baseline data for selected case studies involving in-depth interviews with key personnel involved in the deployment of videoconferencing and observations of lessons in which videoconferencing was being used. Data analysis reveals that the main models of videoconferencing use were either substitution (videoconferencing replacing face-to-face curriculum delivery) or enhancement (whereby videoconferencing augments traditional pedagogical practices). Examples of adaptive use (exploring the innovative potential of videoconferencing) were relatively rare. This apparent conservatism, at odds with the emergence of shifting pedagogies with other ICT tools, was allied to videoconferencing being positioned a s an orphan technology, whereby interested teachers were offered quasi-autonomy that is, power to innovate was limited by highly localised policy and curricular systems. The authors conclude that for videoconferencing to enter the mainstream of school ICT provision, wider learning benefits need to be demonstrated to a broader audience, so that videoconferencing can reach its transformative potential. Ways to achieve this are presented. Keywords: Technologies in Learning, Technology Mediated Learning, Videoconferencing, School Education

Introduction

t an educational technology event in London in February 2013 (the British Education and Training Technology exhibition: BETT), a day-long seminar involving contributions from teachers, policymakers, researchers and commercial organisations in the UK served to demonstrate the wide range of learning benefits facilitated by videoconferencing. There was, however, an undercurrent to these positive messages; that unlike other forms of educational technology, the integration of videoconferencing in UK schools was neither uniform nor widespread. The relative lack of spread of videoconferencing, despite its proven educational value and alongside the almost exponential growth of school ICT more generally is the issue/conundrum considered in the present paper. The paper draws upon the findings of a number of evaluations of videoconferencing in schools in England conducted by the authors over a span of approximately eight years (2003-2011). This evaluation work was sponsored variously by the government education department of the UK, the (now defunct) British Educational and Communications Technology Agency (Becta) and a commercial provider of Advanced Level courses in a variety of subjects (taken in England at ages 17-18) via the medium of videoconferencing. Altogether these investigations resulted in detailed case studies of more than 40 schools, each involving interviews with a range of teaching, managerial and technical personnel, students, as well as classroom observations of videoconferencing-supported learning. The main focus of these projects was to uncover across a range of contexts - the learning potential of videoconferencing and the factors which were associated with its pedagogically effective use. The present paper represents a retrospective analysis on the outcomes of these studies in an attempt to throw some light on the conundrum identified above.

The International Journal of Technologies in Learning Volume 20, 2014, www.thelearner.com, ISSN 2327-0144 Common Ground, Tony Lawson, Chris Comber, All Rights Reserved Permissions: cg-support@commongroundpublishing.com

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Learning Benefits of Videoconferencing

Some of the first educational uses of videoconferencing were to be found in higher education (Carter et al. 1996), where the capacity of the technology for transmitting live lectures to a wider audience, either located locally (for example to accommodate large student numbers) or further afield, enabled students at a distance to participate synchronously (Bollom et al. 1989; Schiller and Mitchell 1993; Storck and Sproull 1995). While these initial trials represented a transmission model of pedagogy and learning (Boldt 1998) in that the technology enabled the delivery of the traditional face-to-face lecture to a remote audience, the technology was also to prove effective in facilitating less didactic features of higher education teaching, such as the tutorial or small group seminar (Pitcher et al. 2000; Andrews and Klease 2002). While there are examples of using videoconferencing for distance education at a school level (for example in the provision of education to pupils in remote or rural locations (Husu 2000) where access to expertise in particular subjects may be limited (Pritchard et al. 2010), or for students who are unable to physically attend school for reasons such as prolonged illness (Wilkie 2011), the curricular and pedagogical context of most schools meant that many of the initial forays into videoconferencing documented in the 1990s tended to focus on its capacity to access expertise from beyond the school walls, rather than broadcast outwards. A number of UK institutions and organisations, as part of their educational remit, offered educational input via videoconferencing. Chief among these were national museums and galleries (Arnold and Cayley 2008) alongside some commercial organisations and university departments (Li et al. 2009; Anderson 2008), providing a range of enhanced learning opportunities, many of which were tailored to the UK national curriculum. An extension of this model is the virtual tour or field trip (Barber 2010; Pachnowski 2002), whereby learners have (often guided) access to sites which would otherwise be inaccessible, for example for security issues (such as a nuclear facility) or for reasons of organisation (e.g. transporting a class of children to the location) or cost. As the demand for this kind of provision grew, the need for a structured approach to connecting schools to providers was met by mediating organisations such as Global Leap a one stop shop which offered a menu of learning opportunities, as well as technical support and guidance (Arnold and Cayley 2008). Because of the organisational facilitators that have grown up around this approach, it represents a relatively easy and popular - first step into videoconferencing for schools, a stage that Comber at al. (2004a, 25) refer to as familiarisation. Less common mainly because it has relied on schools independently locating willing partners is school-to-school collaboration mediated by videoconferencing, an example of enhancement in Comber at al.s terminology (ibid.). A typical example of enhancement is in language learning (Jaurgi and Baados 2008; Macrory et al. 2009; Harris 2002), where a class in the UK learning say French, communicates directly with a group of French peers learning English. In other subject areas (e.g. science, mathematics) students can experience different environments remotely, exchange information, and discuss outcomes, both through school-to-school initiative and participation in an organised project. For example Gages (2003) project involved students in different schools collaborating on maths tasks, an approach which has been shown to facilitate increased student autonomy (Newman et al. 2005), with teachers in each school acting mainly as scaffolders of pupil learning (Smyth 2004; Vygotsky 1978). For the learner, such events are exciting and highly motivating, leading to improved student engagement both during and after the conference (Eales et al. 1999), especially where its inclusion is part of sequence of topic-focussed activities. This kind of learning environment creates the opportunity for pupils to interact, face to face and synchronously, with same-age peers in different geographic and socio-cultural settings, which in turn leads to increased cultural understanding (Cifuentes and Murphy 2000). The potential afforded by videoconferencing to reduce the transactional distance - the psychological and communication space between the learner and the teacher (Moore 1993, 22) has also been

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found to give confidence to otherwise reluctant public speakers, improving social and communications skills (Anastasiades et al. 2010; Husu 2000; Heath and Holznagel 2002) in particular increasing pupils self-confidence (Wu et al. 2011) or supporting those with special educational needs (Thorpe 1998; Martin 2005).

The Conundrum
All of the above examples describe learning experiences that represent valuable additions to and enhancement of regular classroom learning. The real-time, face-to-face nature of videoconferencing means that learning activities of this kind have a degree of immediacy and authenticity which is often absent from asynchronous modes of interaction (Comber at al. 2004a; Martin 2008; ORourke and Martin 2011). These learning benefits are wide ranging and have been internationally recognised for many years (Lave and Wenger 1991). Despite this wealth of evidence, videoconferencing is far from being universally adopted in UK schools. For example in 2008, fewer than one in ten UK schools were registered with the JANET Videoconferencing Service (JVCS), a key organisation for the coordination of educational videoconferencing (Videoconferencing Insight 2008). This represents something of a conundrum, especially given the wholesale adoption and integration of educational technologies more generally, even though debates about the pedagogical value of such technologies persist (Livingstone 2012). In the present paper we draw upon our research to explore and explain this conundrum, before offering some potential ways to push forward learning by videoconferencing.

Methods
The current paper therefore draws on data from a number of evaluations of videoconferencing use in English schools conducted by the authors over a period of eight years (2003- 2011). Each investigation followed a similar research protocol, which comprised three stages. Stage one involved a survey, administered to each participating school, of the key institutional characteristics (size, location etc.), the nature and location of videoconferencing equipment used and patterns of use (frequency, subject areas). The survey also sought to identify key managerial, teaching and technical personnel involved in videoconferencing. Analyses of these data contributed to sample selection and the development of interview and observation schedules for use in Stage two. Stage two comprised intensive case study visits to each school, typically conducted over one or two days. These involved individual semi-structured interviews with the lead teacher (the person with main responsibility for the curricular coordination of videoconferencing), one or more teacher users (teachers who regularly used videoconferencing in their teaching), the ICT coordinator and a member of the senior management team. Where available, further interviews were conducted with technical staff. Group interviews were conducted with students involved in videoconferencing learning activities. Observations of classroom practice where videoconferencing was being used were also conducted, which also involved an additional preand post-lesson interview with teachers and students. In addition, policy and curricular documentation relevant to the implementation of videoconferencing were collected for later analysis. Together these varying methods provided a comprehensive picture of the range, nature and impact of learning through videoconferencing in the respective schools. Finally, in stage three, follow-up telephone interviews were conducted with selected school personnel where issues emerging from initial data analysis were explored further and/or verified. Data were analyzed using a thematic analysis approach (Boyatzis 1998). Following the identification of initial themes representing clusters of meaning (Creswell 1998), more specific sub-themes were developed within each overarching theme. Transcripts were reviewed using a constant-comparison method (Strauss and Corbin 1994; Boeije 2010) until the point of data

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saturation at which no new insights are obtained, no new themes are identified was obtained (Bowen 2008, 140).

Discussion
Identifying the Nature of the Problem
In 2003, the authors, in collaboration with colleagues at the University of Cambridge, were commissioned jointly by the then Department for Education and Skills (DfES) and the British educational and communications technology agency (Becta), to evaluate the Videoconferencing in Schools (ViC) initiative, a government-supported trial of videoconferencing use in English schools. The project involved linked case studies of some 29 schools, both primary and secondary, including those for children with special educational needs. The outcome of this evaluation was published in the form of two reports (Comber at al. 2004a; 2004b) which indicated a broadly similar set of learning benefits as those presented in the literature review in this paper. In addition, a range of factors associated with an educationally effective videoconference - that is, an event which was able to meet fully clearly articulated learning and curriculum objectives were identified. These included structural factors such as the pattern of interaction (e.g. one-to-one, one-to-many, many-to-many), organisational factors (e.g. the role of teacher(s)/other adults participating in the conference), curricular factors (e.g. the place of the conference within the subject curriculum) and technical factors (e.g. the speed of data transmission; visual and auditory quality). In addition, four broad categories of videoconferencing usage were identified, providing a typology of use which included familiarisation (first steps in the videoconferencing process), substitution (videoconferencing replacing face-to-face curriculum delivery), enhancement (whereby videoconferencing augments traditional teaching and learning practices) and adaptation (exploring the potential of the technology to go beyond traditional pedagogies). This analysis provided a diagnostic framework, through which it was possible to evaluate videoconferencing activities in a systematic way. This framework was deployed in a subsequent set of 6 case studies in UK schools identified as representing cutting edge practice with videoconferencing. The summary report of this series of evaluations (Lawson and Comber 2005), also on behalf the DfES/Becta, provided further evidence of the pedagogical and institutional characteristics which underpinned the innovative use of videoconferencing for learning. Given the positive outcomes of these various studies, at a time when the provision of ICT for schools was firmly on the agenda of the UK government, it was reasonable to assume that videoconferencing would become an integral element in a technology-mediated educational policy both nationally and locally. However while ICT more generally became steadily integrated into curricular planning and practice in schools, videoconferencing appeared to remain something of a fringe activity by comparison, embraced enthusiastically by some teachers in some schools, but never becoming a mainstream technology. This led the authors to re-visit, in 2010/11, five of the six cutting edge schools which participated in the 2004 evaluation, with a view to identifying what developments in videoconferencing practice had taken place in the interim. The initial rationale for this follow-up study was to capture key characteristics of sustained innovation and development, which might in turn offer schools clear guidance on the educational advantages of videoconferencing in an age of rapidly developing technology, including the emergence of social media tools. However, it quickly became clear that, far from finding expanded use, we encountered in four of these formerly flagship schools a much more dramatic picture of decline and retrenchment (Comber and Lawson 2012, 6). Taking together indicators of individual, technological, pedagogical and organisational developments (Birch and Burnett 2009), we constructed a typology to describe the different patterns of videoconferencing developments in the five schools. Of the two where

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videoconferencing still flourished, one demonstrated clear evidence of progression in these areas, indicated by an expansion of videoconferencing activity both within and between subjects, including a renewed commitment to international exchanges with other schools, while the second had largely consolidated existing practice, that is, while videoconferencing was still a key element of its curriculum offering, this mainly involved access to remote expertise, as had been the case at the time of the first visit. Two of remaining three schools were in a state of contraction whereby videoconferencing had become confined to use by enthusiasts in one or two curriculum areas, while the fifth school was in decline, that is, not only had videoconferencing contracted, but there were signs that without intervention it would cease altogether. Our analysis offers some insight into the relative failure of school videoconferencing to become more mainstream.

Outcomes of the Follow-up Study

We identified five key factors which were critical to the development and sustainability of videoconferencing, three of which particularly relevant to the present discussion. The first of these is policy frameworks, which include both those external to the school (for example government policy, investment in technology and so on) and those which operate within (the place of videoconferencing in the school vision, curriculum planning etc.). Despite the positive learning outcomes associated with the Videoconferencing in the Classroom project (Comber at al. 2004a), the Education Department shifted its priorities away from videoconferencing and towards other forms of educational technology, such as interactive whiteboards (Higgins et al. 2007). It would seem reasonable to conclude that the almost ubiquitous integration of the latter in UK schools, and the patchy distribution of the former, is at least the partial outcome of this policy position. Externally determined education policy is of course mediated at the level of the school, in which the school leaderships decisions on whether or not to incorporate (non-statutory) educational strategies or tools, such as videoconferencing are central. As found elsewhere for ICT in general (Comber and Lawson 2003; Anderson and Dexter 2005; Comber 2007), sustained use of videoconferencing was strongly associated with a school leader who demonstrated support for and understanding of the educational potential of videoconferencing. This in turn led to investment in technology, in relevant professional development opportunities for their teachers and an ethos of learning innovation, exemplified in curriculum documentation. In particular, the validation by management of videoconferencing as one of a range of key educational technologies, and the recognition of the key role of the personnel responsible for its use in learning activities were found to be crucial determinants of its curricular integration. This approach was most evident in the one school where a progressive strategy was being followed, and to a lesser extent in the school where practice was adjudged to have been consolidated. Managerial support for videoconferencing was much less overt in the other three schools, where its use was either in contraction or decline. In one, this process was traceable to the arrival of a new leader for whom videoconferencing was no longer on the agenda, along with the recruitment of a number of young teachers who perceived videoconferencing to be old technology. Its use thereafter was marginalised, sustained only by a single enthusiastic teacher in a single curriculum area using existing technology. This situation links directly to the second key factor, what we have referred to elsewhere as the key personnel syndrome (Comber et al. 2002, 21), whereby the success of an initiative is heavily dependent on one or two innovation champions. Where knowledge of and enthusiasm for a technology is confined in this way, the loss of such personnel often signals the beginning of a downward trajectory. Thus the main reason for contraction in one school was the prolonged absence for maternity leave - of the main champion for videoconferencing. Without her to

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encourage and support others, the technology remained largely unused until her return a year later, when revitalising its use was a case of starting all over again. In another school, a similar situation prompted a period of planning prior to the teachers departure, to ensure that her role was undertaken by another, thus avoiding the breakdown in continuity which beset the first school (see also Gunn 2010). The final factor relates the positioning of videoconferencing to other educational technologies. In the three schools where videoconferencing was in retrenchment, this role of videoconferencing coordinator was associated with a particular curriculum area such as languages, so that videoconferencing was primarily seen within the school as a subject-specific technology, necessarily limiting opportunities to spread its use into other areas of the curriculum. In the two schools which demonstrated progression or consolidation respectively, the videoconferencing coordinator had a school-wide remit, with videoconferencing regarded as a particular but important pedagogical tool. Moreover both were given (by the management) the freedom and encouragement to innovate, as well as a commitment to funding new initiatives. What is especially telling here, is that in all five schools the role of the person mainly responsible for the coordination of videoconferencing activity was quite distinct from that of ICT coordinator. This in turn meant that videoconferencing itself was not seen as part of ICT more generally, nor (with one exception) was it part of the school ICT policy or development plan. In other words, videoconferencing was not perceived as part of the ICT family, and in this regard, can be conceptualised as an orphan technology. What distinguished schools where effective, integrated use of videoconferencing was evident, and those where it was seen to have withered on the vine, was therefore a combination of the above factors: in political terms, the extent to which the learning benefits of videoconferencing are recognised and incorporated within policy frameworks (both national and local); in managerial terms, the degree of the knowledge about and commitment to the pedagogically effective deployment of videoconferencing and finally, in terms of the perceived educational potential of the technology itself, the extent to which videoconferencing is perceived as central to learning as other ICTs and, by association, the status of those charged with promoting its use within the school.

Solving the Problem?

A third study, conducted in 2006, and sponsored by a commercial organisation, evaluated a particular model of videoconferencing, that is, the remote provision of Advanced Level courses (the examination in the UK taken at ages 17 and 18), typically to schools (250 of them in 2006) where there was a minority demand for a given subject and/or where there was no relevant teacher expertise. This research provided a new set of insights into potential solutions to the conundrum of the absence of mainstreaming of a technology with proven learning benefits. The delivery of these courses through videoconferencing adopted a fairly traditional approach to pedagogy and learning, in which an hour of mainly teacher-directed learning was supplemented by individual students working through a course booklet, with readings, questions and activities, in preparation for the following weeks videoconference session. While both students and teachers in receiving schools held mainly positive views of the programme offered, the major benefit was seen as giving students access to subjects that would otherwise not be able to be offered within the school. The technology was thus seen as only a delivery mechanism and not as having potential for ICT-mediated learning of a different type to the traditional mode on offer. In other words, videoconferencing was perceived as a non-ICT specialist technology deployed to solve a very limited palette of learning challenges. In prompting the authors to explore the learning dimension of videoconferencing more closely, this study helped to frame ideas about the conundrum we encountered. In terms of learning strategies, videoconferencing has been mainly conceptualised by teacher-users in

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schools as useful for a traditional approach to learning, which in Higher Education terms would be seen as a lecture-at-a-distance mode. Even when remote experts were brought into a classroom through videoconferencing, the main delivery was through a lecture type format, with interesting artefacts and question-and-answer elements used to break up the talking head dominant segments. In most of the schools in this research, the critical mass necessary for the development of a learning community generated round videoconferencing did not exist. Without this, the opportunity to explore the wider learning potential of the technology and demonstrate to the wider school audience different learning advantages that can be accrued from engaging with it was lost. This is not to say that there was no innovative use for learning purposes observed in our research, but rather that these examples were often isolated from the mainstream school or were not disseminated in any systematic way or suffered from the loss of key personnel at crucial moments in the development of more innovative learning.

Moving Forward to the Mainstream?

In examining ways in which videoconferencing could be used for different learning strategies and in a more learner-centred way (Hannum and McCombs 2008), we draw upon two examples from the recommendations of our study into the Advanced level provision. The first is to deploy additional technologies that, by being added onto the videoconference facility, should encourage a different mode of learning (Saw et al. 2008). For example, the provision of a virtual whiteboard, with shared access for both far and near ends, has the potential to be used to generate co-knowledge, in which, say, teacher and student share ideas and build models of understanding together rather than being transmitted from the teacher/expert to the student. By saving the products of such joint enterprise, it would also privilege the activities of the student as well as the teacher/expert in preparing materials for revision. The second example offers a different way of learning that is beneficial to deep understanding of material. We suggest that students should be linked with remote students on the same course to form v-buddy pairings, in which the couple would have dedicated videoconference time each week to work together on course materials or pursue their own learning agendas in the context of the examination they were preparing for. This could either be done formally, developing materials to reflect the new learning arrangements, or informally by the students themselves determining their own learning plans together, with support by the facilitator teacher when required. This would have the effect of shifting the responsibility for learning towards the students and moving towards independent study as the main way in which videoconferencing was deployed and contributing to the development of student self-efficacy (Knight and Yorke 2004). It would also give each student access to a different viewpoint or expertise beyond the limitation of their own school context. The main obstacle to the use of v-buddies as a new form of learning was the worry that such pairings would be largely unsupervised, even with the capacity to record exchanges, and therefore open to abuse or exploitation. This in itself raises interesting questions about trust when developing peer-to-peer models of learning remotely. In seeking to implement our ideas about how to use videoconferencing in more innovative learning ways, we devised a project with some American colleagues, in which participating schools would set up a number of v-buddy arrangements around a curriculum task of mutual interest. We alighted on Citizenship as the area where both American and British students could gain equally, both in terms of qualifications and in the knowledge co-produced. V-buddies would have regular contact (always recorded) through videoconferencing combined with peripheral technologies and would organise and deliver a Citizenship Project of their mutual choosing. The key principle operating in this project would be that teachers would not interfere at all in their deliberations unless help was requested by the v-buddies themselves. Any support given would be minimal. However, we could not attract the necessary funding to set up and manage the

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project and so test out our hypothesis, perhaps providing an all too real demonstration of the low priority of videoconferencing in government funding decisions.

Conclusion
To summarise, in our view, the way to mainstream videoconferencing in schools is by demonstrating a much wider range of learning benefits to the broader audience of students and teachers in schools which would have the effect of bringing videoconferencing in from the cold. Drawing on social constructivist (Vygotsky 1978) and transformative (Mezirow 1991) learning theories and our own research demonstrating that some of the most productive learning came from peer-to-peer use of videoconferencing, we would argue that a more interactive, co-learning approach to knowledge construction and acquisition is facilitated by a coming together of synchronous and asynchronous technologies, with videoconferencing offering an opportunity for student-centred learning at a distance. By integrating additional technologies into the routine practices of videoconferencing and creating a dense web of v-buddies throughout schools, we believe that this would have the effect of increasing independent learning amongst the students (and incidentally, we believe it would also increase their grade scores), but just as importantly it would lead to the utilisation of videoconferencing normatively rather than the equipment only being brought out for special occasions. When the potential of videoconferencing for delivering learning in more innovative ways is recognised amongst a broader audience of students and schools, the effect would be to draw in videoconferencing as one of a range of technological gateways to learning and remedy its current position as an orphan technology.

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Tony Lawson: Academic Director, College of Social Sciences, University of Leicester,

Leicester, UK.
Chris Comber: Senior Lecturer, School of Education, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK.

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Use of Technology as an Innovative Approach to Non-Linguistic Cognitive Therapy

Manon Robillard, Laurentian University, Canada Chantal Mayer-Crittenden, Laurentian University, Canada
Abstract: The relationship between cognitive abilities and linguistic competencies in children has been documented, with multiple studies demonstrating that subtle cognitive weakness can contribute to language learning difficulties. Furthermore, recent research has revealed that cognitive intervention can improve the linguistic abilities of children who have a primary language impairment (PLI). This progression in communication function would be due to improved access to stored information. The goal of this article is to discuss how the use of technology such as the iPad and its plethora of relevant applications (apps), could be a useful tool within the non-linguistic cognitive approach. Moreover, a new model of language intervention using technology to increase cognitive skills has been proposed. Applications designed to increase working memory, sustained attention, and processing speed are increasingly available. Since many of these apps are available as games, they offer promising results due to their motivating characteristic, as much for the children using them as for their parents looking for a new method of treatment. This innovative approach could produce positive results; even improve childrens language skills more rapidly than traditional approaches. Keywords: Technology, Cognition, Primary Language Impairment (PLI)

Introduction

here is growing evidence to support the fact that cognitive and linguistic skills are correlated in children (e.g., Ebert and Kohnert 2009; Kohnert and Ebert 2010). There is also evidence that children with primary language impairment (PLI) achieve lower scores than their peers on non-linguistic cognitive processing tasks, although they do not necessarily score below the norm (Amitay, Ahissar, and Nelken 2002; Archibald and Gathercole 2006; Bishop 1996; Evans and Pourcel 2009; Ellis Weismer, Evans, and Hesketh 1999; Gathercole and Baddeley 1990; Gathercole et al. 1994; Kohnert, Windsor, and Dongsun 2006; Leonard 1998; Montgomery and Evans 2009; Tallal 2003; Thordardottir et al. 2011; Ullman and Pierpoint 2005). Essentially, a certain level of cognitive abilities is needed for children to learn language. Cognitively demanding experiences can modulate brain development and, by the same token, modify cognitive functions (Green and Bavelier 2003; Maguire et al. 2000; Polk and Farah 1998; Salthouse and Mitchell 1990). This being said, the use of cognitive tasks could indirectly improve language skills. In fact, studies (e.g., Ebert and Kohnert 2009; Ebert, Rentmeester-Disher, and Kohnert 2012) have already shown that language skills can be improved by working on cognitive processing skills. For bilingual children, the advantage of a non-linguistic cognitive approach is amplified, since this method was shown to have positive effects in both languages in a study by Ebert, RentmeesterDisher, and Kohnert (2012). According to Rosas et al. (2003), the future of portable technology as an instructional tool such as a video game is promising (p. 91). Many conventional cognitive games are now available in an application or app format, and can be used on Apple devices such as the iPad (Apple 2013) or other Android tablets. Since some studies have shown that playing video games may lead to superior spatial resolution of visual processing, presumably because of the practice they obtained while playing the games (Green and Bavelier 2003), the use of technology to play cognitively steered games could be a new approach to non-linguistic cognitive processing therapy. Not only could it be beneficial for improving monolingual childrens language skills but also for improving the learning of both languages in bilingual children. This method might prove to be at the same time motivating for children and cost effective as it could reduce the overall length of therapy needed. The use of technology such as an iPad or other tablet, and cognitively steered apps,
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could consequently become an innovative approach to the treatment of PLI. The aim of this article is to propose a model that encompasses the use of technology for the purpose of non-linguistic cognitive intervention, for both monolingual and bilingual children who have PLI. The proposed model could be used as an experimental design for future studies to support the hypothesis that technology combined with non-linguistic cognitive intervention is beneficial for children who have PLI.

Cognition and Language

Many authors maintain that children who have PLI also have reduced performances on cognitive tasks (e.g., Archibald and Gathercole 2007; Bishop and Norbury 2005; Gathercole 2006; Hoffman and Gilman 2004; Im-Bolter, Johnson, and Pascuale-Leone 2006; Ellis Weismer et al. 2005). Indeed, according to the General interactive processing theory, basic cognitive mechanisms are inherent in the acquisition and effective use of language skills (Kohnert 2007). As previously mentioned, numerous studies have shown that certain non-linguistic capacities are compromised in children who have PLI. These non-linguistic abilities include sustained attention (e.g., Spaulding, Plante, and Vance 2008; Finneran, Francis, and Leonard 2009), working memory (Archibald and Gathercole 2006; Bishop 1996; Ellis Weismer et al. 1999; Gathercole et al. 1994; Kohnert, Windsor, and Dongsun 2006; Leonard 1998; Montgomery and Evans 2009; Tallal 2003; Ullman and Pierpoint 2005), phonological working memory (Archibald 2006; Bishop 1996; Bishop et al. 1999; Wager, Smith, and Jonides 2003), executive control (Baddeley, Gathercole, and Papagno 1998; Baddeley 1996; Bishop and Norbury 2005; Ullman and Pierpoint 2005), discrimination of non-verbal components (Amitay, Ahissar, and Nelken 2002; Tallal and Piercy 1973), procedural memory and abstraction (Evans and Pourcel 2009), processing speed (Catts, Adlof, and Ellis Weismer 2006) and auditory treatment (Tallal 2003), among others. Children with PLI also have difficulty processing information when the complexity of tasks increase, which has been given the term limited processing capacity (LPC) (Ellis Weismer, Evans, and Hesketh 1999; Gathercole 2006; Leonard et al. 2007; Miller et al. 2001; Montgomery and Windsor 2007). The presence of subclinical weaknesses of processing speed, working memory and attention in children with PLI could contribute to language deficits by impeding language learning (e.g. Ebert, Rentmeester-Disher, and Kohnert 2012; Kohnert and Ebert 2010; Leonard et al. 2007). According to Petitto (2009), extensive exposure to more than one language at an early age positively impacts language development. Indeed, according to this author, brain imaging research support early exposure to second language mastery. Studies using functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) have demonstrated that early exposure to two languages modifies the organization of language in the brain, which has been named the bilingual signature (e.g., Kovelman, Baker and Petitto 2008; Kovelman, Shalinsky, Berens and Petitto 2007).

Primary Language Impairment (PLI)

It is estimated that 7 % of school-aged children have a language impairment (Tomblin et al. 1997). These children typically have a persisting language delay (American Psychiatric Association 1994; Bishop 1992; Leonard 1998). Within a clinical setting, the term primary language impairment (PLI) defines language learning difficulties in the absence of other developmental difficulties (Kohnert 2010; Tomblin et al. 2003), which suggest that the difficulties occur mainly within the language domain, without implying that treatment of information or working memory difficulties could not be co-existent. Children with PLI do not have a specific lesion site, nor are their language delays caused by a clear cognitive impairment (Kohnert, Windsor, and Ebert 2009). However, new findings support the possibility of a neurological component to PLI (see Ullman and Pierpont 2005 for a review). According to Kohnert (2010), PLI is due to innate factors that negatively interact with the demands of language-learning. Some of the reported markers of PLI are limited vocabulary (e.g., Gray 2004; Rescola 2005), morphosyntaxical difficulties (e.g., Bedore and Leonard 2001; Cleave and Rice
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1997), shorter and less complex narrative discourse (e.g., Gutirrez-Clellen 2004; MayerCrittenden 2013; Scott and Windsor 2000), and difficulties with social language (Fujiki et al. 1999). Children with PLI are also at risk for reading and writing difficulties (Bishop and Snowling 2004). This will in turn put them at risk for reduced academic, economic, and social outcomes (Kohnert 2010). Until recently, children with a language impairment were thought to have intact cognitive skills (Leonard 1998). We now know that children with PLI may have general processing capacity limitations which lead to a reduced performance in both the verbal and nonverbal areas (Leonard et al. 2007; Miller et al. 2001; Weismer and Hesketh 1996).

Working Memory
Working memory is a limited system responsible for the temporary classification and the treatment of information (Baddeley 1986; Just and Carpenter 1992). Working memory was defined by Baddeley and Hitch (1974) as an active memory system which handles both the maintenance of short-term information and processing for the transition to the long-term memory, allowing the realization of immediate cognitive activities. Baddeley and Hitch (1974) initially proposed three components of working memory: the central executive, the visual spatial sketchpad and the phonological loop. In 2000, a fourth component was added to the model, the episodic buffer (Baddeley 2000). The central executive is a core element of Baddeleys model. It is responsible for the control and regulation of cognitive processes, and could even be considered as a surveillance system (Baddeley and Della Sala 1996). The visual spatial sketchpad specializes in the maintenance and handling of visual and spatial representations (Alloway, Gathercole, and Pickering 2006; Baddeley and Logie 1999). There are two components in the visual spatial sketchpad: one that specializes in visual information and the other that specialized in spatial information (Logie 1995). The phonological loop on the other hand provides a temporary storage of verbal information (Alloway, Gathercole, and Pickering 2006; Baddeley and Logie 1999). It plays an important role in subvocal rehearsal, which is important in the prevention of degradation of verbal information (Baddeley and Hitch 1974). The phonological loop is also implicated in vocabulary acquisition, particularly in the preschool years (Baddeley, Gathercole, and Papagno 1998). The last component, the episodic buffer, has a direct relationship with long-term memory, which could be important for learning (Pickering and Gathercole 2004). It uses multidimensional codes to incorporate representations of working memory and long-term memory into unitary episodic representations that could correspond to conscious experiences (Pickering and Gathercole 2004).

Sustained Attention
Attention is a cognitive process that allows for the concentration on a stimulus or an event (Ashcraft and Klein 2006). Without attention, the cognitive system has difficulty operating (Ashcraft and Klein 2006). In fact, attention impairments have an impact on all cognitive abilities (Sarter and Bruno 1999). Krakow et al. (1983) describe sustained attention as the ability to become and to remain engaged. It can also be defined as a process where a person needs to mindfully and consciously process stimuli, whose non-arousing qualities will otherwise lead to habituation and distraction (Robertson et al. 1997). It represents a fundamental factor in human cognitive capacity (Sarter et al. 2001). Sustained attention is needed to accomplish all cognitive activity and all thoughts (Zarghi et al. 2011). Indeed, Matthews et al. (2010) state that it is crucial for human performance. According to DeGangi and Porges (1990), sustained attention contains three steps: obtaining attention, retaining attention and releasing attention. It requires a conscious effort that is activated in about 300 ms (Yeshurun, Montagna, and Carrasco 2007). Sustained attention does not vary according to gender, but does improve with age (Seidel and Joschko 1990). However, Sarid, and Breznitz (1997) state that sustained attention improves between the ages of two and four, but reaches a plateau after the age of four.

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Many factors impact sustained attention (Parasurmaman 1986; Parasuraman, Warm, and Dember 1987). Among them are the successive presentation of signal and non-signal features, high event rate, spatial uncertainty about the locus of event presentation, the use of dynamic stimuli, demands on working memory and using signals with conditioned or symbolic significance (Sarter, Givens, and Bruno 2001). Fatigue and stress can also cause difficulties in sustained attention (Matthews et al. 2000), and in turn, tasks related to sustained attention can cause fatigue and stress (Warm, Matthews, and Finomore 2008).

Processing Speed
Children with PLI process information more slowly than typically developing children (Kohnert, Windsor, and Ebert 2009; Ullman and Pierpont 2005). For example, they are slower at processing linguistic tasks such as naming pictures, and making lexical judgments (Windsor et al. 2008). They are also slower at processing non-linguistic tasks such as mentally rotating geometrical shapes (Windsor et al. 2008). Children with PLI also have a slower response time when detecting pure tones that have a brief duration, when reproducing a series of colored lights, when tapping their fingers rapidly in response to stimuli, when moving pegs on a board, and when stringing beads (e.g., Bishop 1992; Johnston and Ellis Weismer 1983; Miller et al. 2001; Miller et al. 2006; Owen and McKinlay 1997; Powell and Bishop 1992; Tallal and Piercy 1974; Uwer, Albrecht and Von Suchodeletz 2002; Windsor et al. 2001).

Non-Linguistic Cognitive Therapy

For the treatment of cognitive skills to impact the language abilities of children with PLI, a correlation and a causal association are required between non-linguistic processing weaknesses and language skills (Ebert, Rentmeester-Disher, and Kohnert 2012). New studies have shown that it is possible to improve language learning in children who have PLI by working on cognitive nonlinguistic processing tasks (e.g. Ebert and Kohnert 2009; Ebert, Rentmeester-Disher, and Kohnert 2012). In 2009, Ebert and Kohnerts study revealed that two children aged 7 and 8 with PLI made gains in expressive language skills after participating in activities targeting auditory memory and speed of processing for visual information. In 2012, Ebert, Rentmesster-Disher, and Kohnert revealed that two bilingual children (Spanish and English) made gains in cognitive non-linguistic processing skills as well as gains in language ability after participating in activities targeting processing speed and sustained attention. Given that cognitive processing deficits contribute to language learning delays in PLI, it is not surprising that the improvement of processing skills positively affects language learning (Ebert, Rentmeester-Disher, and Kohnert 2012). Since this treatment method does not target a specific language, gains can be made in both languages known to bilingual children (Ebert, Rentmeester-Disher, and Kohnert 2012).

Impact for Bilingual Children

Since both languages are affected in bilingual children with PLI (Kohnert 2010), they typically learn each one of them at a slower pace (Hakansson, Salameh, and Nettelbladt 2003). Nonlinguistic cognitive therapy could be a very effective approach in the intervention of bilingual children. Since the cognitive gains made from this type of intervention increases skills in both languages of a bilingual child (Ebert, Rentmeester-Disher, and Kohnert 2012), a speech-language pathologist who has no or limited knowledge of the foreign language could assist in increasing linguistic skills within that language by using a cognitive non-linguistic treatment approach. Not only could this technique help improve the learning of a language unbeknownst to a speechlanguage pathologist, it could also improve skills within two languages at once, in turn reducing intervention time and costly dollars associated with extended treatment.

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Use of Technology and Apps

The use of technology for educational purposes has grown over the years. Most schools are equipped with computers and software to help children learn, read and write. Many speechlanguage pathologists are also using new technology such as the iPad (Apple 2013) with applications designed for speech and language treatment. Since children are motivated by the use of technology (Kulik 1994; McFarlane, Sparrowhawk, and Heald 2002), an approach that incorporates it within a cognitive non-linguistic treatment could bring greater success than traditional approaches. In their study, Ebert, Rentmesster-Disher, and Kohnert (2012) used tangible games such as Blink (Staupe 2001), which requires that children sort cards according to their shape, colour and the number of symbols; Bop-it, a game that requires children to perform actions according to the musical sounds they hear; and Simon Trickster, a popular game that requires the child to replicate a sequence of tones and lights. Since then, many technical applications are now available that greatly resemble these tangible games. Instead of using Blink (Staupe 2001), a very similar application could be used: Tip Tap from Joe Longstreet (2011). This app targets working memory, attention as well as processing speed by sorting cards by colour, shape and number as quickly as possible. Instead of Simon Trickster, the almost identical application Simon Says from Huge Lawn Miracle Apps ApS (2013) could be used and the game Bop It is also available in technological format from Electronic Arts Inc. (2011). Other types of applications that could improve cognitive skills are hidden pictures games such as Hidden Pictures (Games 2010), and Find the Differences (Minard 2010) that require children to find differences between two images. Sustained attention is also required for the Odd Ones Out! Lite game (Tatiana Churanova 2013), where children need to detect which object does not belong within a scene, and also for the SymmetryGame concentration exercise (Esther Castello solbes 2012), where reproducing the opposite of a given pattern using coloured shapes requires a high level of concentration. Finally, many puzzle games such as Zentomino (Little White Bear Studios 2012) can target both attention and reasoning skills, since geometric shapes need to be moved and rotated to complete the puzzle. Research has demonstrated that computer games can develop complex thinking skills that are associated to problem solving (Keller 1992). Playing video games could foster learning and brain plasticity (Green, Pouget, and Schrater 2012). The use of technology has also been shown to be more motivating for learning than more traditional methods of teaching (Kulik 1994; McFarlane, Sparrowhawk, and Heald 2002). Some specific features associated with these games could be responsible for the increased motivation to learn (Rosas et al. 2003). Examples are their challenging nature, and the fact that they give the player a certain level of control (Jenkins 2002; Lepper and Malone 1987). According to McFarlane, Sparrowhawk, and Heald (2002), the increase in motivation to play technology-based games is directly related to the level of attention and concentration required for these games. Of course, not all games produce favourable results (Rosas et al. 2003). Some of the effective features of technology-based games for motivation include having a clear goal, an adequate level of complexity (not too hard, but not easily mastered), quick moving stimuli, integrated instructions that children dont need to read, the absence of physical laws on what can fly or change shape, and its inherent holding power (Malone 1981; Provenzo 1991; Rosas et al. 2003; Turkle 1984). While playing these games, children are subject to the immersion effect, which is the learning process that happens when a child is submerged into an environment that progressively increases the level of attention and concentration (Hubbard 1991; Rosas et al. 2003). Higher motivation, attention and concentration are related to the perception that an activity is fun; that is, visually and cognitively attractive to children (Rosas et al. 2003 p.76). Finally, the use of technology that resembles computer games is more interesting (Papert 1980; Provenzo 1992) and more meaningful (Ausubel, Novak, and Hanesian 1983) for children. Moreover, since a child would be able to play cognitively based applications on an iPad (Apple 2013) or other tablet independently without needing adult participation, it could be a much more feasible way for speech-language pathologists to offer extra treatment hours. Of course, we must
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mention that parental support is an important part of treatment since they can encourage the use of the proposed applications. Furthermore, parental involvement could also ensure that the child makes more gains in a shorter period of time.

Proposed Treatment Model and Experimental Design

The relationship between cognitive and linguistic skills is of growing interest to researchers studying PLI, particularly to those wanting to improve the language skills of bilingual children. Since the use of technology for learning has grown in recent years and since children are motivated by its use, we suggest a treatment model which incorporates a cognitive non-linguistic approach with the use of new technology and apps that are similar to game counterparts that have been shown to be successful. However, more research is needed to show the effectiveness of this treatment model. Studies comparing a traditional linguistic model to a cognitive non-linguistic model using technology could reveal if this new technique would bring similar or better results. The proposed model could be used as an experimental design for future studies. It is possible that the ultimate intervention delivery model for children who have PLI encompasses both linguistic and non-linguistic cognitive techniques. If such is true, the games or applications that improve cognitive function could be used between direct linguistic intervention sessions, for example, as homework. Since these games can be played without the help of an adult, they could be ideal as an evening or weekend activity at home. Within such a model, the speechlanguage pathologist would continue to directly intervene with a child within a traditional linguistic approach. For example, a child could receive one hour a week of direct linguistic intervention for 8 weeks, but also play non-linguistic cognitive games for an hour on days when no direct treatment is received. This would equal to 48 additional hours of indirect intervention to the 8 hours of direct intervention, for a total intervention time of 56 hours. Since robust treatment is a key component to improving language skills (Kohnert 2010), these extra hours could be vital to a successful intervention. In sum, within the model proposed, children would receive traditional linguistic intervention from their therapist and would play tailored non-linguistic cognitive games relevant to the childs needs as an addition to the treatment plan. Figure 1 illustrates the proposed model, which incorporates more hours of non-linguistic cognitive therapy than hours of traditional linguistic treatment.

Figure 1: Proposed Model of Treatment The combination of both approaches would equal more intervention hours, both direct and indirect, which could in turn facilitate language learning at a faster rate. Figure 2 illustrates how the model would apply to monolingual children. In this model, we see how both the linguistic and the non-linguistic approaches complement each other.
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Figure 2: Monolingual Linguistic and Cognitive Intervention For bilingual children, gains could be made in the childs first language (L1) as well as the second language (L2) even though only one is often targeted during direct linguistic intervention. More specifically, most speech-language pathologists speak the childs L2 (the majority language of the community) but dont speak the childs L1. Figure 3 demonstrates the application of the model with bilingual children while working on the childs L1 and L2, while figure 4 reveals how the model could apply when intervention in the childs L1 is not possible.

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Figure 3: Bilingual Linguistic and Cognitive Intervention

Figure 4: Monolingual Linguistic Intervention with Bilingual Cognitive Intervention To exemplify how this would translate into a regular workweek, table 1 demonstrates a comparison between the traditional model and the proposed model within an 8-week block of intervention. Certainly, the model could be modified to support different lengths of treatment blocks. Poor compliance in the absence of a therapist could play a role in the success of this model.
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Although future studies are needed to verify this experimental design, it is hypothesized that the proposed model would be beneficial for children who have PLI. Table 1: Comparison Between Traditional Model and Proposed Model of Treatment Traditional Model: LingI = 1 hour of Linguistic Intervention; Total of 8 hours of treatment
Sunday Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7 Week 8 Monday Tuesday Wednesday LingI LingI LingI LingI LingI LingI LingI LingI Thursday Friday Saturday

Proposed Model: NLCI = 1 hour of Non-Linguistic Cognitive Intervention; Total of 56 hours of treatment
Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7 Week 8 Sunday NLCI NLCI NLCI NLCI NLCI NLCI NLCI NLCI Monday NLCI NLCI NLCI NLCI NLCI NLCI NLCI NLCI Tuesday NLCI NLCI NLCI NLCI NLCI NLCI NLCI NLCI Wednesday LingI LingI LingI LingI LingI LingI LingI LingI Thursday NLCI NLCI NLCI NLCI NLCI NLCI NLCI NLCI Friday NLCI NLCI NLCI NLCI NLCI NLCI NLCI NLCI Saturday NLCI NLCI NLCI NLCI NLCI NLCI NLCI NLCI

Conclusion
Since language is an integral part of cognition, new research has been able to demonstrate the effectiveness of a cognitive non-linguistic approach for the treatment of PLI using games that target working memory, sustained attention and processing speed (e.g. Ebert and Kohnert 2009; Ebert, Rentmeester-Disher, and Kohnert 2012). The purpose of this article was to propose a new model of treatment encompassing the use of technology for the treatment of PLI. Since adopting a nonlinguistic cognitive approach can be a favorable way of increasing language skills for monolingual as well as bilingual children (Ebert, Rentmeester-Disher, and Kohnert 2012), and since the use of new technology can be motivating for children (Kulik 1994; McFarlane, Sparrowhawk, and Heald 2002), the proposed model of treatment pairs technology with a cognitive non-linguistic approach. This dual approach can only be a winning combination for children who have PLI, their parents, educators as well as speech-language pathologists. Since new apps resembling tangible games proven to positively impact linguistic skills are readily available, we can imagine that these new virtual formats could bring similar favorable results, and possibly at a faster rate given the motivational aspect associated with the use of technology. This model proposes the addition of indirect hours of cognitive play on days when linguistic intervention is not received. This could in turn add up to as much as 56 hours of indirect intervention time compared to the traditional 8 hours offered during an 8-week block. The addition of non-linguistic cognitive treatment with the use of motivating technology to the traditional methods of treatment could be cost saving and help children obtain proficient language skills at an earlier age, consequently leading to an innovative approach to the treatment of PLI. Last but not least are the positive outcomes in terms of language development, which could result in improved reading, writing and ultimately better scholarly achievements. Conclusively, the use of technology in the treatment of PLI is a promising tool.

Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Mlissa Therrien and lisa Langlois, research assistants.
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Manon Robillard: Assistant Professor, Faculty of Professional Schools, Laurentian University, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada. Chantal Mayer-Crittenden: Assistant Professor, Faculty of Professional Schools, Laurentian University, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada.

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The International Journal of Technologies in Learning is one of ten thematically focused journals in the collection of journals that support The Learner knowledge communityits journals, book series, conference and online community. The journal explores the role of technologies in learning, and processes of learning about and through technologies. As well as papers of a traditional scholarly type, this journal invites presentations of practiceincluding documentation of educational technology practices and exegeses of the effects of those practices. The International Journal of Technologies in Learning is a peer-reviewed scholarly journal..

ISSN : 2327-0144