Metaphysics By Aristotle

Translated by W. D. Ross ---------------------------------------------------------------------BOOK I Part 1 "ALL men by nature desire to kno . An indi!ation o" t#is is t#e deli$#t e take in our senses% "or e&en a'art "rom t#eir use"ulness t#ey are lo&ed "or t#emsel&es% and abo&e all ot#ers t#e sense o" si$#t. (or not only it# a &ie to a!tion) but e&en #en e are not $oin$ to do anyt#in$) e 're"er seein$ *one mi$#t say+ to e&eryt#in$ else. T#e reason is t#at t#is) most o" all t#e senses) makes us kno and brin$s to li$#t many di""eren!es bet een t#in$s. "By nature animals are born it# t#e "a!ulty o" sensation) and "rom sensation memory is 'rodu!ed in some o" t#em) t#ou$# not in ot#ers. And t#ere"ore t#e "ormer are more intelli$ent and a't at learnin$ t#an t#ose #i!# !annot remember% t#ose #i!# are in!a'able o" #earin$ sounds are intelli$ent t#ou$# t#ey !annot be tau$#t) e.$. t#e bee) and any ot#er ra!e o" animals t#at may be like it% and t#ose #i!# besides memory #a&e t#is sense o" #earin$ !an be tau$#t. "T#e animals ot#er t#an man li&e by a''earan!es and memories) and #a&e but little o" !onne!ted e,'erien!e% but t#e #uman ra!e li&es also by art and reasonin$s. -o "rom memory e,'erien!e is 'rodu!ed in men% "or t#e se&eral memories o" t#e same t#in$ 'rodu!e "inally t#e !a'a!ity "or a sin$le e,'erien!e. And e,'erien!e seems 'retty mu!# like s!ien!e and art) but really s!ien!e and art !ome to men t#rou$# e,'erien!e% "or .e,'erien!e made art.) as Polus says) .but ine,'erien!e lu!k.. -o art arises #en "rom many notions $ained by e,'erien!e one uni&ersal /ud$ement about a !lass o" ob/e!ts is 'rodu!ed. (or to #a&e a /ud$ement t#at #en 0allias as ill o" t#is disease t#is did #im $ood) and similarly in t#e !ase o" 1o!rates and in many indi&idual !ases) is a matter o" e,'erien!e% but to /ud$e t#at it #as done $ood to all 'ersons o" a !ertain !onstitution) marked o"" in one !lass) #en t#ey ere ill o" t#is disease) e.$. to '#le$mati! or bilious 'eo'le #en burnin$ it# "e&ers-t#is is a matter o" art. "Wit# a &ie to a!tion e,'erien!e seems in no res'e!t in"erior to art) and men o" e,'erien!e su!!eed e&en better t#an t#ose #o #a&e t#eory it#out e,'erien!e. *T#e reason is t#at e,'erien!e is kno led$e o" indi&iduals) art o" uni&ersals) and a!tions and 'rodu!tions are all !on!erned it# t#e indi&idual% "or t#e '#ysi!ian does not !ure man) e,!e't in an in!idental ay) but 0allias or 1o!rates or some ot#er !alled by some su!# indi&idual name) #o #a''ens to be a man. I") t#en) a man #as t#e t#eory it#out t#e e,'erien!e) and re!o$ni2es t#e uni&ersal but does not kno t#e indi&idual in!luded in t#is) #e ill o"ten "ail to !ure% "or it is t#e indi&idual t#at is to be !ured.+ But yet e t#ink t#at kno led$e and understandin$ belon$ to art rat#er t#an to e,'erien!e) and e su''ose artists to be iser t#an men o" e,'erien!e * #i!# im'lies t#at Wisdom de'ends in all !ases rat#er on kno led$e+% and t#is be!ause t#e "ormer kno t#e !ause) but t#e latter do not. (or men o" e,'erien!e kno t#at t#e t#in$ is so) but do not kno #y) #ile t#e ot#ers kno t#e . #y. and t#e !ause. 3en!e e t#ink also t#at t#e master orkers in ea!# !ra"t are more #onourable and kno in a truer sense and are iser t#an t#e manual orkers) be!ause t#ey kno t#e !auses o" t#e t#in$s t#at are done * e t#ink t#e manual

orkers are like !ertain li"eless t#in$s #i!# a!t indeed) but a!t it#out kno in$ #at t#ey do) as "ire burns)-but #ile t#e li"eless t#in$s 'er"orm ea!# o" t#eir "un!tions by a natural tenden!y) t#e labourers 'er"orm t#em t#rou$# #abit+% t#us e &ie t#em as bein$ iser not in &irtue o" bein$ able to a!t) but o" #a&in$ t#e t#eory "or t#emsel&es and kno in$ t#e !auses. And in $eneral it is a si$n o" t#e man #o kno s and o" t#e man #o does not kno ) t#at t#e "ormer !an tea!#) and t#ere"ore e t#ink art more truly kno led$e t#an e,'erien!e is% "or artists !an tea!#) and men o" mere e,'erien!e !annot. "A$ain) $i&e t#e not tell say t#at e do not re$ard any o" t#e senses as Wisdom% yet surely t#ese most aut#oritati&e kno led$e o" 'arti!ulars. But t#ey do us t#e . #y. o" anyt#in$-e.$. #y "ire is #ot% t#ey only it is #ot.

"At "irst #e #o in&ented any art #ate&er t#at ent beyond t#e !ommon 'er!e'tions o" man as naturally admired by men) not only be!ause t#ere as somet#in$ use"ul in t#e in&entions) but be!ause #e as t#ou$#t ise and su'erior to t#e rest. But as more arts ere in&ented) and some ere dire!ted to t#e ne!essities o" li"e) ot#ers to re!reation) t#e in&entors o" t#e latter ere naturally al ays re$arded as iser t#an t#e in&entors o" t#e "ormer) be!ause t#eir bran!#es o" kno led$e did not aim at utility. 3en!e #en all su!# in&entions ere already establis#ed) t#e s!ien!es #i!# do not aim at $i&in$ 'leasure or at t#e ne!essities o" li"e ere dis!o&ered) and "irst in t#e 'la!es #ere men "irst be$an to #a&e leisure. T#is is #y t#e mat#emati!al arts ere "ounded in 4$y't% "or t#ere t#e 'riestly !aste as allo ed to be at leisure. "We #a&e said in t#e 4t#i!s #at t#e di""eren!e is bet een art and s!ien!e and t#e ot#er kindred "a!ulties% but t#e 'oint o" our 'resent dis!ussion is t#is) t#at all men su''ose #at is !alled Wisdom to deal it# t#e "irst !auses and t#e 'rin!i'les o" t#in$s% so t#at) as #as been said be"ore) t#e man o" e,'erien!e is t#ou$#t to be iser t#an t#e 'ossessors o" any sense-'er!e'tion #ate&er) t#e artist iser t#an t#e men o" e,'erien!e) t#e master orker t#an t#e me!#ani!) and t#e t#eoreti!al kinds o" kno led$e to be more o" t#e nature o" Wisdom t#an t#e 'rodu!ti&e. 0learly t#en Wisdom is kno led$e about !ertain 'rin!i'les and !auses. Part 5 " "1in!e e are seekin$ t#is kno led$e) e must in6uire o" #at kind are t#e !auses and t#e 'rin!i'les) t#e kno led$e o" #i!# is Wisdom. I" one ere to take t#e notions e #a&e about t#e ise man) t#is mi$#t 'er#a's make t#e ans er more e&ident. We su''ose "irst) t#en) t#at t#e ise man kno s all t#in$s) as "ar as 'ossible) alt#ou$# #e #as not kno led$e o" ea!# o" t#em in detail% se!ondly) t#at #e #o !an learn t#in$s t#at are di""i!ult) and not easy "or man to kno ) is ise *sense-'er!e'tion is !ommon to all) and t#ere"ore easy and no mark o" Wisdom+% a$ain) t#at #e #o is more e,a!t and more !a'able o" tea!#in$ t#e !auses is iser) in e&ery bran!# o" kno led$e% and t#at o" t#e s!ien!es) also) t#at #i!# is desirable on its o n a!!ount and "or t#e sake o" kno in$ it is more o" t#e nature o" Wisdom t#an t#at #i!# is desirable on a!!ount o" its results) and t#e su'erior s!ien!e is more o" t#e nature o" Wisdom t#an t#e an!illary% "or t#e ise man must not be ordered but must order) and #e must not obey anot#er) but t#e less ise must obey #im. "1u!# and so many are t#e notions) t#en) #i!# e #a&e about Wisdom and t#e ise. -o o" t#ese !#ara!teristi!s t#at o" kno in$ all t#in$s must belon$ to #im #o #as in t#e #i$#est de$ree uni&ersal kno led$e% "or #e kno s in a sense all t#e instan!es t#at "all under t#e uni&ersal. And t#ese t#in$s) t#e most uni&ersal) are on t#e #ole t#e #ardest

"or men to kno % "or t#ey are "art#est "rom t#e senses. And t#e most e,a!t o" t#e s!ien!es are t#ose #i!# deal most it# "irst 'rin!i'les% "or t#ose #i!# in&ol&e "e er 'rin!i'les are more e,a!t t#an t#ose #i!# in&ol&e additional 'rin!i'les) e.$. arit#meti! t#an $eometry. But t#e s!ien!e #i!# in&esti$ates !auses is also instru!ti&e) in a #i$#er de$ree) "or t#e 'eo'le #o instru!t us are t#ose #o tell t#e !auses o" ea!# t#in$. And understandin$ and kno led$e 'ursued "or t#eir o n sake are "ound most in t#e kno led$e o" t#at #i!# is most kno able *"or #e #o !#ooses to kno "or t#e sake o" kno in$ ill !#oose most readily t#at #i!# is most truly kno led$e) and su!# is t#e kno led$e o" t#at #i!# is most kno able+% and t#e "irst 'rin!i'les and t#e !auses are most kno able% "or by reason o" t#ese) and "rom t#ese) all ot#er t#in$s !ome to be kno n) and not t#ese by means o" t#e t#in$s subordinate to t#em. And t#e s!ien!e #i!# kno s to #at end ea!# t#in$ must be done is t#e most aut#oritati&e o" t#e s!ien!es) and more aut#oritati&e t#an any an!illary s!ien!e% and t#is end is t#e $ood o" t#at t#in$) and in $eneral t#e su'reme $ood in t#e #ole o" nature. 7ud$ed by all t#e tests e #a&e mentioned) t#en) t#e name in 6uestion "alls to t#e same s!ien!e% t#is must be a s!ien!e t#at in&esti$ates t#e "irst 'rin!i'les and !auses% "or t#e $ood) i.e. t#e end) is one o" t#e !auses. "T#at it is not a s!ien!e o" 'rodu!tion is !lear e&en "rom t#e #istory o" t#e earliest '#iloso'#ers. (or it is o in$ to t#eir onder t#at men bot# no be$in and at "irst be$an to '#iloso'#i2e% t#ey ondered ori$inally at t#e ob&ious di""i!ulties) t#en ad&an!ed little by little and stated di""i!ulties about t#e $reater matters) e.$. about t#e '#enomena o" t#e moon and t#ose o" t#e sun and o" t#e stars) and about t#e $enesis o" t#e uni&erse. And a man #o is 'u22led and onders t#inks #imsel" i$norant * #en!e e&en t#e lo&er o" myt# is in a sense a lo&er o" Wisdom) "or t#e myt# is !om'osed o" onders+% t#ere"ore sin!e t#ey '#iloso'#i2ed order to es!a'e "rom i$noran!e) e&idently t#ey ere 'ursuin$ s!ien!e in order to kno ) and not "or any utilitarian end. And t#is is !on"irmed by t#e "a!ts% "or it as #en almost all t#e ne!essities o" li"e and t#e t#in$s t#at make "or !om"ort and re!reation #ad been se!ured) t#at su!# kno led$e be$an to be sou$#t. 4&idently t#en e do not seek it "or t#e sake o" any ot#er ad&anta$e% but as t#e man is "ree) e say) #o e,ists "or #is o n sake and not "or anot#er.s) so e 'ursue t#is as t#e only "ree s!ien!e) "or it alone e,ists "or its o n sake. "3en!e also t#e 'ossession o" it mi$#t be /ustly re$arded as beyond #uman 'o er% "or in many ays #uman nature is in bonda$e) so t#at a!!ordin$ to 1imonides .8od alone !an #a&e t#is 'ri&ile$e.) and it is un"ittin$ t#at man s#ould not be !ontent to seek t#e kno led$e t#at is suited to #im. I") t#en) t#ere is somet#in$ in #at t#e 'oets say) and /ealousy is natural to t#e di&ine 'o er) it ould 'robably o!!ur in t#is !ase abo&e all) and all #o e,!elled in t#is kno led$e ould be un"ortunate. But t#e di&ine 'o er !annot be /ealous *nay) a!!ordin$ to t#e 'ro&erb) .bards tell a lie.+) nor s#ould any ot#er s!ien!e be t#ou$#t more #onourable t#an one o" t#is sort. (or t#e most di&ine s!ien!e is also most #onourable% and t#is s!ien!e alone must be) in t o ays) most di&ine. (or t#e s!ien!e #i!# it ould be most meet "or 8od to #a&e is a di&ine s!ien!e) and so is any s!ien!e t#at deals it# di&ine ob/e!ts% and t#is s!ien!e alone #as bot# t#ese 6ualities% "or *1+ 8od is t#ou$#t to be amon$ t#e !auses o" all t#in$s and to be a "irst 'rin!i'le) and *5+ su!# a s!ien!e eit#er 8od alone !an #a&e) or 8od abo&e all ot#ers. All t#e s!ien!es) indeed) are more ne!essary t#an t#is) but none is better. "9et t#e a!6uisition o" it must in a sense is t#e o''osite o" our ori$inal in6uiries. said) by onderin$ t#at t#in$s are as t#ey marionettes) or about t#e solsti!es or t#e end in somet#in$ #i!# (or all men be$in) as e are) as t#ey do about sel"-mo&in$ in!ommensurability o" t#e

dia$onal o" a s6uare it# t#e side% "or it seems onder"ul to all #o #a&e not yet seen t#e reason) t#at t#ere is a t#in$ #i!# !annot be measured e&en by t#e smallest unit. But e must end in t#e !ontrary and) a!!ordin$ to t#e 'ro&erb) t#e better state) as is t#e !ase in t#ese instan!es too #en men learn t#e !ause% "or t#ere is not#in$ #i!# ould sur'rise a $eometer so mu!# as i" t#e dia$onal turned out to be !ommensurable. "We #a&e stated) t#en) #at is t#e nature o" t#e s!ien!e e are sear!#in$ "or) and #at is t#e mark #i!# our sear!# and our #ole in&esti$ation must rea!#. Part : " "4&idently e #a&e to a!6uire kno led$e o" t#e ori$inal !auses *"or e say e kno ea!# t#in$ only #en e t#ink e re!o$ni2e its "irst !ause+) and !auses are s'oken o" in "our senses. In one o" t#ese e mean t#e substan!e) i.e. t#e essen!e *"or t#e . #y. is redu!ible "inally to t#e de"inition) and t#e ultimate . #y. is a !ause and 'rin!i'le+% in anot#er t#e matter or substratum) in a t#ird t#e sour!e o" t#e !#an$e) and in a "ourt# t#e !ause o''osed to t#is) t#e 'ur'ose and t#e $ood *"or t#is is t#e end o" all $eneration and !#an$e+. We #a&e studied t#ese !auses su""i!iently in our ork on nature) but yet let us !all to our aid t#ose #o #a&e atta!ked t#e in&esti$ation o" bein$ and '#iloso'#i2ed about reality be"ore us. (or ob&iously t#ey too s'eak o" !ertain 'rin!i'les and !auses% to $o o&er t#eir &ie s) t#en) ill be o" 'ro"it to t#e 'resent in6uiry) "or e s#all eit#er "ind anot#er kind o" !ause) or be more !on&in!ed o" t#e !orre!tness o" t#ose #i!# e no maintain. "O" t#e "irst '#iloso'#ers) t#en) most t#ou$#t t#e 'rin!i'les #i!# ere o" t#e nature o" matter ere t#e only 'rin!i'les o" all t#in$s. T#at o" #i!# all t#in$s t#at are !onsist) t#e "irst "rom #i!# t#ey !ome to be) t#e last into #i!# t#ey are resol&ed *t#e substan!e remainin$) but !#an$in$ in its modi"i!ations+) t#is t#ey say is t#e element and t#is t#e 'rin!i'le o" t#in$s) and t#ere"ore t#ey t#ink not#in$ is eit#er $enerated or destroyed) sin!e t#is sort o" entity is al ays !onser&ed) as e say 1o!rates neit#er !omes to be absolutely #en #e !omes to be beauti"ul or musi!al) nor !eases to be #en loses t#ese !#ara!teristi!s) be!ause t#e substratum) 1o!rates #imsel" remains. /ust so t#ey say not#in$ else !omes to be or !eases to be% "or t#ere must be some entity-eit#er one or more t#an one-"rom #i!# all ot#er t#in$s !ome to be) it bein$ !onser&ed. "9et t#ey do not all a$ree as to t#e number and t#e nature o" t#ese 'rin!i'les. T#ales) t#e "ounder o" t#is ty'e o" '#iloso'#y) says t#e 'rin!i'le is ater *"or #i!# reason #e de!lared t#at t#e eart# rests on ater+) $ettin$ t#e notion 'er#a's "rom seein$ t#at t#e nutriment o" all t#in$s is moist) and t#at #eat itsel" is $enerated "rom t#e moist and ke't ali&e by it *and t#at "rom #i!# t#ey !ome to be is a 'rin!i'le o" all t#in$s+. 3e $ot #is notion "rom t#is "a!t) and "rom t#e "a!t t#at t#e seeds o" all t#in$s #a&e a moist nature) and t#at ater is t#e ori$in o" t#e nature o" moist t#in$s. "1ome t#ink t#at e&en t#e an!ients #o li&ed lon$ be"ore t#e 'resent $eneration) and "irst "ramed a!!ounts o" t#e $ods) #ad a similar &ie o" nature% "or t#ey made O!ean and Tet#ys t#e 'arents o" !reation) and des!ribed t#e oat# o" t#e $ods as bein$ by ater) to #i!# t#ey $i&e t#e name o" 1ty,% "or #at is oldest is most #onourable) and t#e most #onourable t#in$ is t#at by #i!# one s ears. It may 'er#a's be un!ertain #et#er t#is o'inion about nature is 'rimiti&e and an!ient) but T#ales at any rate is said to #a&e de!lared #imsel" t#us about t#e "irst !ause. 3i''o no one ould t#ink "it to in!lude amon$ t#ese t#inkers) be!ause o" t#e 'altriness o" #is t#ou$#t.

"Ana,imenes and Dio$enes make air 'rior to ater) and t#e most 'rimary o" t#e sim'le bodies) #ile 3i''asus o" ;eta'ontium and 3era!litus o" 4'#esus say t#is o" "ire) and 4m'edo!les says it o" t#e "our elements *addin$ a "ourt#-eart#-to t#ose #i!# #a&e been named+% "or t#ese) #e says) al ays remain and do not !ome to be) e,!e't t#at t#ey !ome to be more or "e er) bein$ a$$re$ated into one and se$re$ated out o" one. "Ana,a$oras o" 0la2omenae) #o) t#ou$# older t#an 4m'edo!les) as later in #is '#iloso'#i!al a!ti&ity) says t#e 'rin!i'les are in"inite in number% "or #e says almost all t#e t#in$s t#at are made o" 'arts like t#emsel&es) in t#e manner o" ater or "ire) are $enerated and destroyed in t#is ay) only by a$$re$ation and se$re$ation) and are not in any ot#er sense $enerated or destroyed) but remain eternally. "(rom t#ese "a!ts one mi$#t t#ink t#at t#e only !ause is t#e so-!alled material !ause% but as men t#us ad&an!ed) t#e &ery "a!ts o'ened t#e ay "or t#em and /oined in "or!in$ t#em to in&esti$ate t#e sub/e!t. 3o e&er true it may be t#at all $eneration and destru!tion 'ro!eed "rom some one or *"or t#at matter+ "rom more elements) #y does t#is #a''en and #at is t#e !ause< (or at least t#e substratum itsel" does not make itsel" !#an$e% e.$. neit#er t#e ood nor t#e bron2e !auses t#e !#an$e o" eit#er o" t#em) nor does t#e ood manu"a!ture a bed and t#e bron2e a statue) but somet#in$ else is t#e !ause o" t#e !#an$e. And to seek t#is is to seek t#e se!ond !ause) as e s#ould say)-t#at "rom #i!# !omes t#e be$innin$ o" t#e mo&ement. -o t#ose #o at t#e &ery be$innin$ set t#emsel&es to t#is kind o" in6uiry) and said t#e substratum as one) ere not at all dissatis"ied it# t#emsel&es% but some at least o" t#ose #o maintain it to be one-as t#ou$# de"eated by t#is sear!# "or t#e se!ond !ause-say t#e one and nature as a #ole is un!#an$eable not only in res'e!t o" $eneration and destru!tion *"or t#is is a 'rimiti&e belie") and all a$reed in it+) but also o" all ot#er !#an$e% and t#is &ie is 'e!uliar to t#em. O" t#ose #o said t#e uni&erse as one) t#en none su!!eeded in dis!o&erin$ a !ause o" t#is sort) e,!e't 'er#a's Parmenides) and #e only inasmu!# as #e su''oses t#at t#ere is not only one but also in some sense t o !auses. But "or t#ose #o make more elements it is more 'ossible to state t#e se!ond !ause) e.$. "or t#ose #o make #ot and !old) or "ire and eart#) t#e elements% "or t#ey treat "ire as #a&in$ a nature #i!# "its it to mo&e t#in$s) and ater and eart# and su!# t#in$s t#ey treat in t#e !ontrary ay. "W#en t#ese men and t#e 'rin!i'les o" t#is kind #ad #ad t#eir day) as t#e latter ere "ound inade6uate to $enerate t#e nature o" t#in$s men ere a$ain "or!ed by t#e trut# itsel") as e said) to in6uire into t#e ne,t kind o" !ause. (or it is not likely eit#er t#at "ire or eart# or any su!# element s#ould be t#e reason #y t#in$s mani"est $oodness and) beauty bot# in t#eir bein$ and in t#eir !omin$ to be) or t#at t#ose t#inkers s#ould #a&e su''osed it as% nor a$ain !ould it be ri$#t to entrust so $reat a matter to s'ontaneity and !#an!e. W#en one man said) t#en) t#at reason as 'resent-as in animals) so t#rou$#out nature-as t#e !ause o" order and o" all arran$ement) #e seemed like a sober man in !ontrast it# t#e random talk o" #is 'rede!essors. We kno t#at Ana,a$oras !ertainly ado'ted t#ese &ie s) but 3ermotimus o" 0la2omenae is !redited it# e,'ressin$ t#em earlier. T#ose #o t#ou$#t t#us stated t#at t#ere is a 'rin!i'le o" t#in$s #i!# is at t#e same time t#e !ause o" beauty) and t#at sort o" !ause "rom #i!# t#in$s a!6uire mo&ement. Part = " "One mi$#t sus'e!t t#at 3esiod as t#e "irst to look "or su!# a t#in$-or some one else #o 'ut lo&e or desire amon$ e,istin$ t#in$s as a 'rin!i'le)

as Parmenides) too) does% "or #e) in !onstru!tin$ t#e $enesis o" t#e uni&erse) says>- " "Lo&e "irst o" all t#e 8ods s#e 'lanned. " "And 3esiod says>- " "(irst o" all t#in$s as !#aos made) and t#en

"Broad-breasted eart#... "And lo&e) .mid all t#e $ods 're-eminent) " #i!# im'lies t#at amon$ e,istin$ t#in$s t#ere must be "rom t#e "irst a !ause #i!# ill mo&e t#in$s and brin$ t#em to$et#er. 3o t#ese t#inkers s#ould be arran$ed it# re$ard to 'riority o" dis!o&ery let us be allo ed to de!ide later% but sin!e t#e !ontraries o" t#e &arious "orms o" $ood ere also 'er!ei&ed to be 'resent in nature-not only order and t#e beauti"ul) but also disorder and t#e u$ly) and bad t#in$s in $reater number t#an $ood) and i$noble t#in$s t#an beauti"ul-t#ere"ore anot#er t#inker introdu!ed "riends#i' and stri"e) ea!# o" t#e t o t#e !ause o" one o" t#ese t o sets o" 6ualities. (or i" e ere to "ollo out t#e &ie o" 4m'edo!les) and inter'ret it a!!ordin$ to its meanin$ and not to its lis'in$ e,'ression) e s#ould "ind t#at "riends#i' is t#e !ause o" $ood t#in$s) and stri"e o" bad. T#ere"ore) i" e said t#at 4m'edo!les in a sense bot# mentions) and is t#e "irst to mention) t#e bad and t#e $ood as 'rin!i'les) e s#ould 'er#a's be ri$#t) sin!e t#e !ause o" all $oods is t#e $ood itsel". "T#ese t#inkers) as e say) e&idently $ras'ed) and to t#is e,tent) t o o" t#e !auses #i!# e distin$uis#ed in our ork on nature-t#e matter and t#e sour!e o" t#e mo&ement-&a$uely) #o e&er) and it# no !learness) but as untrained men be#a&e in "i$#ts% "or t#ey $o round t#eir o''onents and o"ten strike "ine blo s) but t#ey do not "i$#t on s!ienti"i! 'rin!i'les) and so too t#ese t#inkers do not seem to kno #at t#ey say% "or it is e&ident t#at) as a rule) t#ey make no use o" t#eir !auses e,!e't to a small e,tent. (or Ana,a$oras uses reason as a deus e, ma!#ina "or t#e makin$ o" t#e orld) and #en #e is at a loss to tell "rom #at !ause somet#in$ ne!essarily is) t#en #e dra$s reason in) but in all ot#er !ases as!ribes e&ents to anyt#in$ rat#er t#an to reason. And 4m'edo!les) t#ou$# #e uses t#e !auses to a $reater e,tent t#an t#is) neit#er does so su""i!iently nor attains !onsisten!y in t#eir use. At least) in many !ases #e makes lo&e se$re$ate t#in$s) and stri"e a$$re$ate t#em. (or #ene&er t#e uni&erse is dissol&ed into its elements by stri"e) "ire is a$$re$ated into one) and so is ea!# o" t#e ot#er elements% but #ene&er a$ain under t#e in"luen!e o" lo&e t#ey !ome to$et#er into one) t#e 'arts must a$ain be se$re$ated out o" ea!# element. "4m'edo!les) t#en) in !ontrast it# #is 're!essors) as t#e "irst to introdu!e t#e di&idin$ o" t#is !ause) not 'ositin$ one sour!e o" mo&ement) but di""erent and !ontrary sour!es. A$ain) #e as t#e "irst to s'eak o" "our material elements% yet #e does not use "our) but treats t#em as t o only% #e treats "ire by itsel") and its o''osite-eart#) air) and ater-as one kind o" t#in$. We may learn t#is by study o" #is &erses. "T#is '#iloso'#er t#en) as e say) #as s'oken o" t#e 'rin!i'les in t#is ay) and made t#em o" t#is number. Leu!i''us and #is asso!iate Demo!ritus say t#at t#e "ull and t#e em'ty are t#e elements) !allin$ t#e one bein$ and t#e ot#er non-bein$-t#e "ull and solid bein$ bein$) t#e em'ty non-bein$ * #en!e t#ey say bein$ no more is t#an non-bein$) be!ause t#e solid no more is t#an t#e em'ty+% and t#ey make t#ese t#e material !auses o" t#in$s. And as t#ose #o make t#e underlyin$

substan!e one $enerate all ot#er t#in$s by its modi"i!ations) su''osin$ t#e rare and t#e dense to be t#e sour!es o" t#e modi"i!ations) in t#e same ay t#ese '#iloso'#ers say t#e di""eren!es in t#e elements are t#e !auses o" all ot#er 6ualities. T#ese di""eren!es) t#ey say) are t#ree-s#a'e and order and 'osition. (or t#ey say t#e real is di""erentiated only by .r#yt#m and .inter-!onta!t. and .turnin$.% and o" t#ese r#yt#m is s#a'e) inter-!onta!t is order) and turnin$ is 'osition% "or A di""ers "rom - in s#a'e) A- "rom -A in order) ; "rom W in 'osition. T#e 6uestion o" mo&ement- #en!e or #o it is to belon$ to t#in$s-t#ese t#inkers) like t#e ot#ers) la2ily ne$le!ted. "Re$ardin$ t#e t o !auses) t#en) as e say) t#e in6uiry seems to #a&e been 'us#ed t#us "ar by t#e early '#iloso'#ers. Part ? " "0ontem'oraneously it# t#ese '#iloso'#ers and be"ore t#em) t#e so-!alled Pyt#a$oreans) #o ere t#e "irst to take u' mat#emati!s) not only ad&an!ed t#is study) but also #a&in$ been brou$#t u' in it t#ey t#ou$#t its 'rin!i'les ere t#e 'rin!i'les o" all t#in$s. 1in!e o" t#ese 'rin!i'les numbers are by nature t#e "irst) and in numbers t#ey seemed to see many resemblan!es to t#e t#in$s t#at e,ist and !ome into bein$-more t#an in "ire and eart# and ater *su!# and su!# a modi"i!ation o" numbers bein$ /usti!e) anot#er bein$ soul and reason) anot#er bein$ o''ortunity-and similarly almost all ot#er t#in$s bein$ numeri!ally e,'ressible+% sin!e) a$ain) t#ey sa t#at t#e modi"i!ations and t#e ratios o" t#e musi!al s!ales ere e,'ressible in numbers%-sin!e) t#en) all ot#er t#in$s seemed in t#eir #ole nature to be modelled on numbers) and numbers seemed to be t#e "irst t#in$s in t#e #ole o" nature) t#ey su''osed t#e elements o" numbers to be t#e elements o" all t#in$s) and t#e #ole #ea&en to be a musi!al s!ale and a number. And all t#e 'ro'erties o" numbers and s!ales #i!# t#ey !ould s#o to a$ree it# t#e attributes and 'arts and t#e #ole arran$ement o" t#e #ea&ens) t#ey !olle!ted and "itted into t#eir s!#eme% and i" t#ere as a $a' any #ere) t#ey readily made additions so as to make t#eir #ole t#eory !o#erent. 4.$. as t#e number 1@ is t#ou$#t to be 'er"e!t and to !om'rise t#e #ole nature o" numbers) t#ey say t#at t#e bodies #i!# mo&e t#rou$# t#e #ea&ens are ten) but as t#e &isible bodies are only nine) to meet t#is t#ey in&ent a tent#--t#e .!ounter-eart#.. We #a&e dis!ussed t#ese matters more e,a!tly else #ere. "But t#e ob/e!t o" our re&ie is t#at e may learn "rom t#ese '#iloso'#ers also #at t#ey su''ose to be t#e 'rin!i'les and #o t#ese "all under t#e !auses e #a&e named. 4&idently) t#en) t#ese t#inkers also !onsider t#at number is t#e 'rin!i'le bot# as matter "or t#in$s and as "ormin$ bot# t#eir modi"i!ations and t#eir 'ermanent states) and #old t#at t#e elements o" number are t#e e&en and t#e odd) and t#at o" t#ese t#e latter is limited) and t#e "ormer unlimited% and t#at t#e One 'ro!eeds "rom bot# o" t#ese *"or it is bot# e&en and odd+) and number "rom t#e One% and t#at t#e #ole #ea&en) as #as been said) is numbers. "Ot#er members o" t#is same s!#ool say t#ere are ten 'rin!i'les) #i!# t#ey arran$e in t o !olumns o" !o$nates-limit and unlimited) odd and e&en) one and 'lurality) ri$#t and le"t) male and "emale) restin$ and mo&in$) strai$#t and !ur&ed) li$#t and darkness) $ood and bad) s6uare and oblon$. In t#is ay Al!maeon o" 0roton seems also to #a&e !on!ei&ed t#e matter) and eit#er #e $ot t#is &ie "rom t#em or t#ey $ot it "rom #im% "or #e e,'ressed #imsel" similarly to t#em. (or #e says most #uman a""airs $o in 'airs) meanin$ not de"inite !ontrarieties su!# as t#e Pyt#a$oreans s'eak o") but any !#an!e !ontrarieties) e.$. #ite and bla!k) s eet and bitter) $ood and bad) $reat and small. 3e t#re out inde"inite su$$estions about t#e ot#er !ontrarieties) but t#e Pyt#a$oreans de!lared bot# #o many and #i!# t#eir !ontrari!ties are.

"(rom bot# t#ese s!#ools) t#en) e !an learn t#is mu!#) t#at t#e !ontraries are t#e 'rin!i'les o" t#in$s% and #o many t#ese 'rin!i'les are and #i!# t#ey are) e !an learn "rom one o" t#e t o s!#ools. But #o t#ese 'rin!i'les !an be brou$#t to$et#er under t#e !auses e #a&e named #as not been !learly and arti!ulately stated by t#em% t#ey seem) #o e&er) to ran$e t#e elements under t#e #ead o" matter% "or out o" t#ese as immanent 'arts t#ey say substan!e is !om'osed and moulded. "(rom t#ese "a!ts e may su""i!iently 'er!ei&e t#e meanin$ o" t#e an!ients #o said t#e elements o" nature ere more t#an one% but t#ere are some #o s'oke o" t#e uni&erse as i" it ere one entity) t#ou$# t#ey ere not all alike eit#er in t#e e,!ellen!e o" t#eir statement or in its !on"ormity to t#e "a!ts o" nature. T#e dis!ussion o" t#em is in no ay a''ro'riate to our 'resent in&esti$ation o" !auses) "or. t#ey do not) like some o" t#e natural '#iloso'#ers) assume bein$ to be one and yet $enerate it out o" t#e one as out o" matter) but t#ey s'eak in anot#er ay% t#ose ot#ers add !#an$e) sin!e t#ey $enerate t#e uni&erse) but t#ese t#inkers say t#e uni&erse is un!#an$eable. 9et t#is mu!# is $ermane to t#e 'resent in6uiry> Parmenides seems to "asten on t#at #i!# is one in de"inition) ;elissus on t#at #i!# is one in matter) "or #i!# reason t#e "ormer says t#at it is limited) t#e latter t#at it is unlimited% #ile Aeno'#anes) t#e "irst o" t#ese 'artisans o" t#e One *"or Parmenides is said to #a&e been #is 'u'il+) $a&e no !lear statement) nor does #e seem to #a&e $ras'ed t#e nature o" eit#er o" t#ese !auses) but it# re"eren!e to t#e #ole material uni&erse #e says t#e One is 8od. -o t#ese t#inkers) as e said) must be ne$le!ted "or t#e 'ur'oses o" t#e 'resent in6uiry-t o o" t#em entirely) as bein$ a little too nai&e) &i2. Aeno'#anes and ;elissus% but Parmenides seems in 'la!es to s'eak it# more insi$#t. (or) !laimin$ t#at) besides t#e e,istent) not#in$ non-e,istent e,ists) #e t#inks t#at o" ne!essity one t#in$ e,ists) &i2. t#e e,istent and not#in$ else *on t#is e #a&e s'oken more !learly in our ork on nature+) but bein$ "or!ed to "ollo t#e obser&ed "a!ts) and su''osin$ t#e e,isten!e o" t#at #i!# is one in de"inition) but more t#an one a!!ordin$ to our sensations) #e no 'osits t o !auses and t o 'rin!i'les) !allin$ t#em #ot and !old) i.e. "ire and eart#% and o" t#ese #e ran$es t#e #ot it# t#e e,istent) and t#e ot#er it# t#e non-e,istent. "(rom #at #as been said) t#en) and "rom t#e ise men #o #a&e no sat in !oun!il it# us) e #a&e $ot t#us mu!#-on t#e one #and "rom t#e earliest '#iloso'#ers) #o re$ard t#e "irst 'rin!i'le as !or'oreal *"or ater and "ire and su!# t#in$s are bodies+) and o" #om some su''ose t#at t#ere is one !or'oreal 'rin!i'le) ot#ers t#at t#ere are more t#an one) but bot# 'ut t#ese under t#e #ead o" matter% and on t#e ot#er #and "rom some #o 'osit bot# t#is !ause and besides t#is t#e sour!e o" mo&ement) #i!# e #a&e $ot "rom some as sin$le and "rom ot#ers as t o"old. "Do n to t#e Italian s!#ool) t#en) and a'art "rom it) '#iloso'#ers #a&e treated t#ese sub/e!ts rat#er obs!urely) e,!e't t#at) as e said) t#ey #a&e in "a!t used t o kinds o" !ause) and one o" t#ese-t#e sour!e o" mo&ement-some treat as one and ot#ers as t o. But t#e Pyt#a$oreans #a&e said in t#e same ay t#at t#ere are t o 'rin!i'les) but added t#is mu!#) #i!# is 'e!uliar to t#em) t#at t#ey t#ou$#t t#at "initude and in"inity ere not attributes o" !ertain ot#er t#in$s) e.$. o" "ire or eart# or anyt#in$ else o" t#is kind) but t#at in"inity itsel" and unity itsel" ere t#e substan!e o" t#e t#in$s o" #i!# t#ey are 'redi!ated. T#is is #y number as t#e substan!e o" all t#in$s. On t#is sub/e!t) t#en) t#ey e,'ressed t#emsel&es t#us% and re$ardin$ t#e 6uestion o" essen!e t#ey be$an to make statements and de"initions) but treated t#e matter too sim'ly. (or t#ey bot# de"ined su'er"i!ially and t#ou$#t t#at t#e "irst sub/e!t o" #i!# a $i&en de"inition as 'redi!able as t#e substan!e o" t#e t#in$ de"ined) as i" one su''osed

t#at .double. and .5. ere t#e same) be!ause 5 is t#e "irst t#in$ o" #i!# .double. is 'redi!able. But surely to be double and to be 5 are not t#e same% i" t#ey are) one t#in$ ill be many-a !onse6uen!e #i!# t#ey a!tually dre . (rom t#e earlier '#iloso'#ers) t#en) and "rom t#eir su!!essors e !an learn t#us mu!#. Part B " "A"ter t#e systems e #a&e named !ame t#e '#iloso'#y o" Plato) #i!# in most res'e!ts "ollo ed t#ese t#inkers) but #ad 'e!ullarities t#at distin$uis#ed it "rom t#e '#iloso'#y o" t#e Italians. (or) #a&in$ in #is yout# "irst be!ome "amiliar it# 0ratylus and it# t#e 3era!litean do!trines *t#at all sensible t#in$s are e&er in a state o" "lu, and t#ere is no kno led$e about t#em+) t#ese &ie s #e #eld e&en in later years. 1o!rates) #o e&er) as busyin$ #imsel" about et#i!al matters and ne$le!tin$ t#e orld o" nature as a #ole but seekin$ t#e uni&ersal in t#ese et#i!al matters) and "i,ed t#ou$#t "or t#e "irst time on de"initions% Plato a!!e'ted #is tea!#in$) but #eld t#at t#e 'roblem a''lied not to sensible t#in$s but to entities o" anot#er kind-"or t#is reason) t#at t#e !ommon de"inition !ould not be a de"inition o" any sensible t#in$) as t#ey ere al ays !#an$in$. T#in$s o" t#is ot#er sort) t#en) #e !alled Ideas) and sensible t#in$s) #e said) ere all named a"ter t#ese) and in &irtue o" a relation to t#ese% "or t#e many e,isted by 'arti!i'ation in t#e Ideas t#at #a&e t#e same name as t#ey. Only t#e name .'arti!i'ation. as ne % "or t#e Pyt#a$oreans say t#at t#in$s e,ist by .imitation. o" numbers) and Plato says t#ey e,ist by 'arti!i'ation) !#an$in$ t#e name. But #at t#e 'arti!i'ation or t#e imitation o" t#e (orms !ould be t#ey le"t an o'en 6uestion. "(urt#er) besides sensible t#in$s and (orms #e says t#ere are t#e ob/e!ts o" mat#emati!s) #i!# o!!u'y an intermediate 'osition) di""erin$ "rom sensible t#in$s in bein$ eternal and un!#an$eable) "rom (orms in t#at t#ere are many alike) #ile t#e (orm itsel" is in ea!# !ase uni6ue. "1in!e t#e (orms ere t#e !auses o" all ot#er t#in$s) #e t#ou$#t t#eir elements ere t#e elements o" all t#in$s. As matter) t#e $reat and t#e small ere 'rin!i'les% as essential reality) t#e One% "or "rom t#e $reat and t#e small) by 'arti!i'ation in t#e One) !ome t#e -umbers. "But #e a$reed it# t#e Pyt#a$oreans in sayin$ t#at t#e One is substan!e and not a 'redi!ate o" somet#in$ else% and in sayin$ t#at t#e -umbers are t#e !auses o" t#e reality o" ot#er t#in$s #e a$reed it# t#em% but 'ositin$ a dyad and !onstru!tin$ t#e in"inite out o" $reat and small) instead o" treatin$ t#e in"inite as one) is 'e!uliar to #im% and so is #is &ie t#at t#e -umbers e,ist a'art "rom sensible t#in$s) #ile t#ey say t#at t#e t#in$s t#emsel&es are -umbers) and do not 'la!e t#e ob/e!ts o" mat#emati!s bet een (orms and sensible t#in$s. 3is di&er$en!e "rom t#e Pyt#a$oreans in makin$ t#e One and t#e -umbers se'arate "rom t#in$s) and #is introdu!tion o" t#e (orms) ere due to #is in6uiries in t#e re$ion o" de"initions *"or t#e earlier t#inkers #ad no tin!ture o" diale!ti!+) and #is makin$ t#e ot#er entity besides t#e One a dyad as due to t#e belie" t#at t#e numbers) e,!e't t#ose #i!# ere 'rime) !ould be neatly 'rodu!ed out o" t#e dyad as out o" some 'lasti! material. 9et #at #a''ens is t#e !ontrary% t#e t#eory is not a reasonable one. (or t#ey make many t#in$s out o" t#e matter) and t#e "orm $enerates only on!e) but #at e obser&e is t#at one table is made "rom one matter) #ile t#e man #o a''lies t#e "orm) t#ou$# #e is one) makes many tables. And t#e relation o" t#e male to t#e "emale is similar% "or t#e latter is im're$nated by one !o'ulation) but t#e male im're$nates many "emales% yet t#ese are analo$ues o" t#ose "irst 'rin!i'les. "Plato) t#en) de!lared #imsel" t#us on t#e 'oints in 6uestion% it

is e&ident "rom #at #as been said t#at #e #as used only t o !auses) t#at o" t#e essen!e and t#e material !ause *"or t#e (orms are t#e !auses o" t#e essen!e o" all ot#er t#in$s) and t#e One is t#e !ause o" t#e essen!e o" t#e (orms+% and it is e&ident #at t#e underlyin$ matter is) o" #i!# t#e (orms are 'redi!ated in t#e !ase o" sensible t#in$s) and t#e One in t#e !ase o" (orms) &i2. t#at t#is is a dyad) t#e $reat and t#e small. (urt#er) #e #as assi$ned t#e !ause o" $ood and t#at o" e&il to t#e elements) one to ea!# o" t#e t o) as e say some o" #is 'rede!essors sou$#t to do) e.$. 4m'edo!les and Ana,a$oras. Part C " "Our re&ie o" t#ose #o #a&e s'oken about "irst 'rin!i'les and reality and o" t#e ay in #i!# t#ey #a&e s'oken) #as been !on!ise and summary% but yet e #a&e learnt t#is mu!# "rom t#em) t#at o" t#ose #o s'eak about .'rin!i'le. and .!ause. no one #as mentioned any 'rin!i'le e,!e't t#ose #i!# #a&e been distin$uis#ed in our ork on nature) but all e&idently #a&e some inklin$ o" t#em) t#ou$# only &a$uely. (or some s'eak o" t#e "irst 'rin!i'le as matter) #et#er t#ey su''ose one or more "irst 'rin!i'les) and #et#er t#ey su''ose t#is to be a body or to be in!or'oreal% e.$. Plato s'oke o" t#e $reat and t#e small) t#e Italians o" t#e in"inite) 4m'edo!les o" "ire) eart#) ater) and air) Ana,a$oras o" t#e in"inity o" t#in$s !om'osed o" similar 'arts. T#ese) t#en) #a&e all #ad a notion o" t#is kind o" !ause) and so #a&e all #o s'eak o" air or "ire or ater) or somet#in$ denser t#an "ire and rarer t#an air% "or some #a&e said t#e 'rime element is o" t#is kind. "T#ese t#inkers $ras'ed t#is !ause only% but !ertain ot#ers #a&e mentioned t#e sour!e o" mo&ement) e.$. t#ose #o make "riends#i' and stri"e) or reason) or lo&e) a 'rin!i'le. "T#e essen!e) i.e. t#e substantial reality) no one #as e,'ressed distin!tly. It is #inted at !#ie"ly by t#ose #o belie&e in t#e (orms% "or t#ey do not su''ose eit#er t#at t#e (orms are t#e matter o" sensible t#in$s) and t#e One t#e matter o" t#e (orms) or t#at t#ey are t#e sour!e o" mo&ement *"or t#ey say t#ese are !auses rat#er o" immobility and o" bein$ at rest+) but t#ey "urnis# t#e (orms as t#e essen!e o" e&ery ot#er t#in$) and t#e One as t#e essen!e o" t#e (orms. "T#at "or #ose sake a!tions and !#an$es and mo&ements take 'la!e) t#ey assert to be a !ause in a ay) but not in t#is ay) i.e. not in t#e ay in #i!# it is its nature to be a !ause. (or t#ose #o s'eak o" reason or "riends#i' !lass t#ese !auses as $oods% t#ey do not s'eak) #o e&er) as i" anyt#in$ t#at e,ists eit#er e,isted or !ame into bein$ "or t#e sake o" t#ese) but as i" mo&ements started "rom t#ese. In t#e same ay t#ose #o say t#e One or t#e e,istent is t#e $ood) say t#at it is t#e !ause o" substan!e) but not t#at substan!e eit#er is or !omes to be "or t#e sake o" t#is. T#ere"ore it turns out t#at in a sense t#ey bot# say and do not say t#e $ood is a !ause% "or t#ey do not !all it a !ause 6ua $ood but only in!identally. "All t#ese t#inkers t#en) as t#ey !annot 'it!# on anot#er !ause) seem to testi"y t#at e #a&e determined ri$#tly bot# #o many and o" #at sort t#e !auses are. Besides t#is it is 'lain t#at #en t#e !auses are bein$ looked "or) eit#er all "our must be sou$#t t#us or t#ey must be sou$#t in one o" t#ese "our ays. Let us ne,t dis!uss t#e 'ossible di""i!ulties it# re$ard to t#e ay in #i!# ea!# o" t#ese t#inkers #as s'oken) and it# re$ard to #is situation relati&ely to t#e "irst 'rin!i'les. Part D " "T#ose) t#en) #o say t#e uni&erse is one and 'osit one kind o" t#in$

as matter) and as !or'oreal matter #i!# #as s'atial ma$nitude) e&idently $o astray in many ays. (or t#ey 'osit t#e elements o" bodies only) not o" in!or'oreal t#in$s) t#ou$# t#ere are also in!or'oreal t#in$s. And in tryin$ to state t#e !auses o" $eneration and destru!tion) and in $i&in$ a '#ysi!al a!!ount o" all t#in$s) t#ey do a ay it# t#e !ause o" mo&ement. (urt#er) t#ey err in not 'ositin$ t#e substan!e) i.e. t#e essen!e) as t#e !ause o" anyt#in$) and besides t#is in li$#tly !allin$ any o" t#e sim'le bodies e,!e't eart# t#e "irst 'rin!i'le) it#out in6uirin$ #o t#ey are 'rodu!ed out o" one anot#ers-I mean "ire) ater) eart#) and air. (or some t#in$s are 'rodu!ed out o" ea!# ot#er by !ombination) ot#ers by se'aration) and t#is makes t#e $reatest di""eren!e to t#eir 'riority and 'osteriority. (or *1+ in a ay t#e 'ro'erty o" bein$ most elementary o" all ould seem to belon$ to t#e "irst t#in$ "rom #i!# t#ey are 'rodu!ed by !ombination) and t#is 'ro'erty ould belon$ to t#e most "ine-$rained and subtle o" bodies. (or t#is reason t#ose #o make "ire t#e 'rin!i'le ould be most in a$reement it# t#is ar$ument. But ea!# o" t#e ot#er t#inkers a$rees t#at t#e element o" !or'oreal t#in$s is o" t#is sort. At least none o" t#ose #o named one element !laimed t#at eart# as t#e element) e&idently be!ause o" t#e !oarseness o" its $rain. *O" t#e ot#er t#ree elements ea!# #as "ound some /ud$e on its side% "or some maintain t#at "ire) ot#ers t#at ater) ot#ers t#at air is t#e element. 9et #y) a"ter all) do t#ey not name eart# also) as most men do< (or 'eo'le say all t#in$s are eart# 3esiod says eart# as 'rodu!ed "irst o" !or'oreal t#in$s% so 'rimiti&e and 'o'ular #as t#e o'inion been.+ A!!ordin$ to t#is ar$ument) t#en) no one ould be ri$#t #o eit#er says t#e "irst 'rin!i'le is any o" t#e elements ot#er t#an "ire) or su''oses it to be denser t#an air but rarer t#an ater. But *5+ i" t#at #i!# is later in $eneration is 'rior in nature) and t#at #i!# is !on!o!ted and !om'ounded is later in $eneration) t#e !ontrary o" #at e #a&e been sayin$ must be true)- ater must be 'rior to air) and eart# to ater. "1o mu!#) t#en) "or t#ose #o 'osit one !ause su!# as e mentioned% but t#e same is true i" one su''oses more o" t#ese) as 4m'edo!les says matter o" t#in$s is "our bodies. (or #e too is !on"ronted by !onse6uen!es some o" #i!# are t#e same as #a&e been mentioned) #ile ot#ers are 'e!uliar to #im. (or e see t#ese bodies 'rodu!ed "rom one anot#er) #i!# im'lies t#at t#e same body does not al ays remain "ire or eart# * e #a&e s'oken about t#is in our orks on nature+% and re$ardin$ t#e !ause o" mo&ement and t#e 6uestion #et#er e must 'osit one or t o) #e must be t#ou$#t to #a&e s'oken neit#er !orre!tly nor alto$et#er 'lausibly. And in $eneral) !#an$e o" 6uality is ne!essarily done a ay it# "or t#ose #o s'eak t#us) "or on t#eir &ie !old ill not !ome "rom #ot nor #ot "rom !old. (or i" it did t#ere ould be somet#in$ t#at a!!e'ted t#e !ontraries t#emsel&es) and t#ere ould be some one entity t#at be!ame "ire and ater) #i!# 4m'edo!les denies. "As re$ards Ana,a$oras) i" one ere to su''ose t#at #e said t#ere ere t o elements) t#e su''osition ould a!!ord t#orou$#ly it# an ar$ument #i!# Ana,a$oras #imsel" did not state arti!ulately) but #i!# #e must #a&e a!!e'ted i" any one #ad led #im on to it. True) to say t#at in t#e be$innin$ all t#in$s ere mi,ed is absurd bot# on ot#er $rounds and be!ause it "ollo s t#at t#ey must #a&e e,isted be"ore in an unmi,ed "orm) and be!ause nature does not allo any !#an!e t#in$ to be mi,ed it# any !#an!e t#in$) and also be!ause on t#is &ie modi"i!ations and a!!idents !ould be se'arated "rom substan!es *"or t#e same t#in$s #i!# are mi,ed !an be se'arated+% yet i" one ere to "ollo #im u') 'ie!in$ to$et#er #at #e means) #e ould 'er#a's be seen to be some #at modern in #is &ie s. (or #en not#in$ as se'arated out) e&idently not#in$ !ould be truly asserted o" t#e substan!e t#at t#en e,isted. I mean) e.$. t#at it as neit#er #ite nor bla!k) nor $rey nor any ot#er !olour) but o" ne!essity !olourless% "or i" it #ad been !oloured) it ould #a&e #ad one o" t#ese !olours. And similarly)

by t#is same ar$ument) it as "la&ourless) nor #ad it any similar attribute% "or it !ould not be eit#er o" any 6uality or o" any si2e) nor !ould it be any de"inite kind o" t#in$. (or i" it ere) one o" t#e 'arti!ular "orms ould #a&e belon$ed to it) and t#is is im'ossible) sin!e all ere mi,ed to$et#er% "or t#e 'arti!ular "orm ould ne!essarily #a&e been already se'arated out) but #e all ere mi,ed e,!e't reason) and t#is alone as unmi,ed and 'ure. (rom t#is it "ollo s) t#en) t#at #e must say t#e 'rin!i'les are t#e One *"or t#is is sim'le and unmi,ed+ and t#e Ot#er) #i!# is o" su!# a nature as e su''ose t#e inde"inite to be be"ore it is de"ined and 'artakes o" some "orm. T#ere"ore) #ile e,'ressin$ #imsel" neit#er ri$#tly nor !learly) #e means somet#in$ like #at t#e later t#inkers say and #at is no more !learly seen to be t#e !ase. "But t#ese t#inkers are) a"ter all) at #ome only in ar$uments about $eneration and destru!tion and mo&ement% "or it is 'ra!ti!ally only o" t#is sort o" substan!e t#at t#ey seek t#e 'rin!i'les and t#e !auses. But t#ose #o e,tend t#eir &ision to all t#in$s t#at e,ist) and o" e,istin$ t#in$s su''ose some to be 'er!e'tible and ot#ers not 'er!e'tible) e&idently study bot# !lasses) #i!# is all t#e more reason #y one s#ould de&ote some time to seein$ #at is $ood in t#eir &ie s and #at bad "rom t#e stand'oint o" t#e in6uiry e #a&e no be"ore us. "T#e .Pyt#a$oreans. treat o" 'rin!i'les and elements stran$er t#an t#ose o" t#e '#ysi!al '#iloso'#ers *t#e reason is t#at t#ey $ot t#e 'rin!i'les "rom non-sensible t#in$s) "or t#e ob/e!ts o" mat#emati!s) e,!e't t#ose o" astronomy) are o" t#e !lass o" t#in$s it#out mo&ement+% yet t#eir dis!ussions and in&esti$ations are all about nature% "or t#ey $enerate t#e #ea&ens) and it# re$ard to t#eir 'arts and attributes and "un!tions t#ey obser&e t#e '#enomena) and use u' t#e 'rin!i'les and t#e !auses in e,'lainin$ t#ese) #i!# im'lies t#at t#ey a$ree it# t#e ot#ers) t#e '#ysi!al '#iloso'#ers) t#at t#e real is /ust all t#at #i!# is 'er!e'tible and !ontained by t#e so-!alled .#ea&ens.. But t#e !auses and t#e 'rin!i'les #i!# t#ey mention are) as e said) su""i!ient to a!t as ste's e&en u' to t#e #i$#er realms o" reality) and are more suited to t#ese t#an to t#eories about nature. T#ey do not tell us at all) #o e&er) #o t#ere !an be mo&ement i" limit and unlimited and odd and e&en are t#e only t#in$s assumed) or #o it#out mo&ement and !#an$e t#ere !an be $eneration and destru!tion) or t#e bodies t#at mo&e t#rou$# t#e #ea&ens !an do #at t#ey do. "(urt#er) i" one eit#er $ranted t#em t#at s'atial ma$nitude !onsists o" t#ese elements) or t#is ere 'ro&ed) still #o ould some bodies be li$#t and ot#ers #a&e ei$#t< To /ud$e "rom #at t#ey assume and maintain t#ey are s'eakin$ no more o" mat#emati!al bodies t#an o" 'er!e'tible% #en!e t#ey #a&e said not#in$ #ate&er about "ire or eart# or t#e ot#er bodies o" t#is sort) I su''ose be!ause t#ey #a&e not#in$ to say #i!# a''lies 'e!uliarly to 'er!e'tible t#in$s. "(urt#er) #o are e to !ombine t#e belie"s t#at t#e attributes o" number) and number itsel") are !auses o" #at e,ists and #a''ens in t#e #ea&ens bot# "rom t#e be$innin$ and no ) and t#at t#ere is no ot#er number t#an t#is number out o" #i!# t#e orld is !om'osed< W#en in one 'arti!ular re$ion t#ey 'la!e o'inion and o''ortunity) and) a little abo&e or belo ) in/usti!e and de!ision or mi,ture) and alle$e) as 'roo") t#at ea!# o" t#ese is a number) and t#at t#ere #a''ens to be already in t#is 'la!e a 'lurality o" t#e e,tended bodies !om'osed o" numbers) be!ause t#ese attributes o" number atta!# to t#e &arious 'la!es)-t#is bein$ so) is t#is number) #i!# e must su''ose ea!# o" t#ese abstra!tions to be) t#e same number #i!# is e,#ibited in t#e material uni&erse) or is it anot#er t#an t#is< Plato says it is di""erent% yet e&en #e t#inks t#at bot# t#ese bodies and t#eir !auses are numbers) but t#at t#e intelli$ible numbers are !auses) #ile t#e ot#ers are sensible.

Part E " "Let us lea&e t#e Pyt#a$oreans "or t#e 'resent% "or it is enou$# to #a&e tou!#ed on t#em as mu!# as e #a&e done. But as "or t#ose #o 'osit t#e Ideas as !auses) "irstly) in seekin$ to $ras' t#e !auses o" t#e t#in$s around us) t#ey introdu!ed ot#ers e6ual in number to t#ese) as i" a man #o anted to !ount t#in$s t#ou$#t #e ould not be able to do it #ile t#ey ere "e ) but tried to !ount t#em #en #e #ad added to t#eir number. (or t#e (orms are 'ra!ti!ally e6ual to-or not "e er t#an-t#e t#in$s) in tryin$ to e,'lain #i!# t#ese t#inkers 'ro!eeded "rom t#em to t#e (orms. (or to ea!# t#in$ t#ere ans ers an entity #i!# #as t#e same name and e,ists a'art "rom t#e substan!es) and so also in t#e !ase o" all ot#er $rou's t#ere is a one o&er many) #et#er t#e many are in t#is orld or are eternal. "(urt#er) o" t#e ays in #i!# e 'ro&e t#at t#e (orms e,ist) none is !on&in!in$% "or "rom some no in"eren!e ne!essarily "ollo s) and "rom some arise (orms e&en o" t#in$s o" #i!# e t#ink t#ere are no (orms. (or a!!ordin$ to t#e ar$uments "rom t#e e,isten!e o" t#e s!ien!es t#ere ill be (orms o" all t#in$s o" #i!# t#ere are s!ien!es and a!!ordin$ to t#e .one o&er many. ar$ument t#ere ill be (orms e&en o" ne$ations) and a!!ordin$ to t#e ar$ument t#at t#ere is an ob/e!t "or t#ou$#t e&en #en t#e t#in$ #as 'eris#ed) t#ere ill be (orms o" 'eris#able t#in$s% "or e #a&e an ima$e o" t#ese. (urt#er) o" t#e more a!!urate ar$uments) some lead to Ideas o" relations) o" #i!# e say t#ere is no inde'endent !lass) and ot#ers introdu!e t#e .t#ird man.. "And in $eneral t#e ar$uments "or t#e (orms destroy t#e t#in$s "or #ose e,isten!e e are more 2ealous t#an "or t#e e,isten!e o" t#e Ideas% "or it "ollo s t#at not t#e dyad but number is "irst) i.e. t#at t#e relati&e is 'rior to t#e absolute)-besides all t#e ot#er 'oints on #i!# !ertain 'eo'le by "ollo in$ out t#e o'inions #eld about t#e Ideas #a&e !ome into !on"li!t it# t#e 'rin!i'les o" t#e t#eory. "(urt#er) a!!ordin$ to t#e assum'tion on #i!# our belie" in t#e Ideas rests) t#ere ill be (orms not only o" substan!es but also o" many ot#er t#in$s *"or t#e !on!e't is sin$le not only in t#e !ase o" substan!es but also in t#e ot#er !ases) and t#ere are s!ien!es not only o" substan!e but also o" ot#er t#in$s) and a t#ousand ot#er su!# di""i!ulties !on"ront t#em+. But a!!ordin$ to t#e ne!essities o" t#e !ase and t#e o'inions #eld about t#e (orms) i" (orms !an be s#ared in t#ere must be Ideas o" substan!es only. (or t#ey are not s#ared in in!identally) but a t#in$ must s#are in its (orm as in somet#in$ not 'redi!ated o" a sub/e!t *by .bein$ s#ared in in!identally. I mean t#at e.$. i" a t#in$ s#ares in .double itsel".) it s#ares also in .eternal.) but in!identally% "or .eternal. #a''ens to be 'redi!able o" t#e .double.+. T#ere"ore t#e (orms ill be substan!e% but t#e same terms indi!ate substan!e in t#is and in t#e ideal orld *or #at ill be t#e meanin$ o" sayin$ t#at t#ere is somet#in$ a'art "rom t#e 'arti!ulars-t#e one o&er many<+. And i" t#e Ideas and t#e 'arti!ulars t#at s#are in t#em #a&e t#e same "orm) t#ere ill be somet#in$ !ommon to t#ese% "or #y s#ould .5. be one and t#e same in t#e 'eris#able 5.s or in t#ose #i!# are many but eternal) and not t#e same in t#e .5. itsel". as in t#e 'arti!ular 5< But i" t#ey #a&e not t#e same "orm) t#ey must #a&e only t#e name in !ommon) and it is as i" one ere to !all bot# 0allias and a ooden ima$e a .man.) it#out obser&in$ any !ommunity bet een t#em. "Abo&e all one mi$#t dis!uss t#e 6uestion #at on eart# !ontribute to sensible t#in$s) eit#er to t#ose t#at are to t#ose t#at !ome into bein$ and !ease to be. (or t#ey mo&ement nor any !#an$e in t#em. But a$ain t#ey #el' in t#e (orms eternal or !ause neit#er no ise eit#er

to ards t#e kno led$e o" t#e ot#er t#in$s *"or t#ey are not e&en t#e substan!e o" t#ese) else t#ey ould #a&e been in t#em+) or to ards t#eir bein$) i" t#ey are not in t#e 'arti!ulars #i!# s#are in t#em% t#ou$# i" t#ey ere) t#ey mi$#t be t#ou$#t to be !auses) as #ite !auses #iteness in a #ite ob/e!t by enterin$ into its !om'osition. But t#is ar$ument) #i!# "irst Ana,a$oras and later 4udo,us and !ertain ot#ers used) is &ery easily u'set% "or it is not di""i!ult to !olle!t many insu'erable ob/e!tions to su!# a &ie . "But) "urt#er) all ot#er t#in$s !annot !ome "rom t#e (orms in any o" t#e usual senses o" ."rom.. And to say t#at t#ey are 'atterns and t#e ot#er t#in$s s#are in t#em is to use em'ty ords and 'oeti!al meta'#ors. (or #at is it t#at orks) lookin$ to t#e Ideas< And anyt#in$ !an eit#er be) or be!ome) like anot#er it#out bein$ !o'ied "rom it) so t#at #et#er 1o!rates or not a man 1o!rates like mi$#t !ome to be% and e&idently t#is mi$#t be so e&en i" 1o!rates ere eternal. And t#ere ill be se&eral 'atterns o" t#e same t#in$) and t#ere"ore se&eral (orms% e.$. .animal. and .t o-"ooted. and also .man #imsel". ill be (orms o" man. A$ain) t#e (orms are 'atterns not only sensible t#in$s) but o" (orms t#emsel&es also% i.e. t#e $enus) as $enus o" &arious s'e!ies) ill be so% t#ere"ore t#e same t#in$ ill be 'attern and !o'y. "A$ain) it ould seem im'ossible t#at t#e substan!e and t#at o" #i!# it is t#e substan!e s#ould e,ist a'art% #o ) t#ere"ore) !ould t#e Ideas) bein$ t#e substan!es o" t#in$s) e,ist a'art< In t#e P#aedo. t#e !ase is stated in t#is ay-t#at t#e (orms are !auses bot# o" bein$ and o" be!omin$% yet #en t#e (orms e,ist) still t#e t#in$s t#at s#are in t#em do not !ome into bein$) unless t#ere is somet#in$ to ori$inate mo&ement% and many ot#er t#in$s !ome into bein$ *e.$. a #ouse or a rin$+ o" #i!# e say t#ere are no (orms. 0learly) t#ere"ore) e&en t#e ot#er t#in$s !an bot# be and !ome into bein$ o in$ to su!# !auses as 'rodu!e t#e t#in$s /ust mentioned. "A$ain) i" t#e (orms are numbers) #o !an t#ey be !auses< Is it be!ause e,istin$ t#in$s are ot#er numbers) e.$. one number is man) anot#er is 1o!rates) anot#er 0allias< W#y t#en are t#e one set o" numbers !auses o" t#e ot#er set< It ill not make any di""eren!e e&en i" t#e "ormer are eternal and t#e latter are not. But i" it is be!ause t#in$s in t#is sensible orld *e.$. #armony+ are ratios o" numbers) e&idently t#e t#in$s bet een #i!# t#ey are ratios are some one !lass o" t#in$s. I") t#en) t#is--t#e matter--is some de"inite t#in$) e&idently t#e numbers t#emsel&es too ill be ratios o" somet#in$ to somet#in$ else. 4.$. i" 0allias is a numeri!al ratio bet een "ire and eart# and ater and air) #is Idea also ill be a number o" !ertain ot#er underlyin$ t#in$s% and man #imsel") #et#er it is a number in a sense or not) ill still be a numeri!al ratio o" !ertain t#in$s and not a number 'ro'er) nor ill it be a o" number merely be!ause it is a numeri!al ratio. "A$ain) "rom many numbers one number is 'rodu!ed) but #o !an one (orm !ome "rom many (orms< And i" t#e number !omes not "rom t#e many numbers t#emsel&es but "rom t#e units in t#em) e.$. in 1@)@@@) #o is it it# t#e units< I" t#ey are s'e!i"i!ally alike) numerous absurdities ill "ollo ) and also i" t#ey are not alike *neit#er t#e units in one number bein$ t#emsel&es like one anot#er nor t#ose in ot#er numbers bein$ all like to all+% "or in #at ill t#ey di""er) as t#ey are it#out 6uality< T#is is not a 'lausible &ie ) nor is it !onsistent it# our t#ou$#t on t#e matter. "(urt#er) t#ey must set u' a se!ond kind o" number * it# #i!# arit#meti! deals+) and all t#e ob/e!ts #i!# are !alled .intermediate. by some t#inkers% and #o do t#ese e,ist or "rom #at 'rin!i'les do t#ey 'ro!eed< Or #y must t#ey be intermediate bet een t#e t#in$s in t#is sensible

orld and t#e t#in$s-t#emsel&es< "(urt#er) t#e units in must ea!# !ome "rom a 'rior but t#is is im'ossible. "(urt#er) #y is a number) #en taken all to$et#er) one<

"A$ain) besides #at #as been said) i" t#e units are di&erse t#e Platonists s#ould #a&e s'oken like t#ose #o say t#ere are "our) or t o) elements% "or ea!# o" t#ese t#inkers $i&es t#e name o" element not to t#at #i!# is !ommon) e.$. to body) but to "ire and eart#) #et#er t#ere is somet#in$ !ommon to t#em) &i2. body) or not. But in "a!t t#e Platonists s'eak as i" t#e One ere #omo$eneous like "ire or ater% and i" t#is is so) t#e numbers ill not be substan!es. 4&idently) i" t#ere is a One itsel" and t#is is a "irst 'rin!i'le) .one. is bein$ used in more t#an one sense% "or ot#er ise t#e t#eory is im'ossible. "W#en e is# to redu!e substan!es to t#eir 'rin!i'les) e state t#at lines !ome "rom t#e s#ort and lon$ *i.e. "rom a kind o" small and $reat+) and t#e 'lane "rom t#e broad and narro ) and body "rom t#e dee' and s#allo . 9et #o t#en !an eit#er t#e 'lane !ontain a line) or t#e solid a line or a 'lane< (or t#e broad and narro is a di""erent !lass "rom t#e dee' and s#allo . T#ere"ore) /ust as number is not 'resent in t#ese) be!ause t#e many and "e are di""erent "rom t#ese) e&idently no ot#er o" t#e #i$#er !lasses ill be 'resent in t#e lo er. But a$ain t#e broad is not a $enus #i!# in!ludes t#e dee') "or t#en t#e solid ould #a&e been a s'e!ies o" 'lane. (urt#er) "rom #at 'rin!i'le ill t#e 'resen!e o" t#e 'oints in t#e line be deri&ed< Plato e&en used to ob/e!t to t#is !lass o" t#in$s as bein$ a $eometri!al "i!tion. 3e $a&e t#e name o" 'rin!i'le o" t#e line-and t#is #e o"ten 'osited-to t#e indi&isible lines. 9et t#ese must #a&e a limit% t#ere"ore t#e ar$ument "rom #i!# t#e e,isten!e o" t#e line "ollo s 'ro&es also t#e e,isten!e o" t#e 'oint. "In $eneral) t#ou$# '#iloso'#y seeks t#e !ause o" 'er!e'tible t#in$s) e #a&e $i&en t#is u' *"or e say not#in$ o" t#e !ause "rom #i!# !#an$e takes its start+) but #ile e "an!y e are statin$ t#e substan!e o" 'er!e'tible t#in$s) e assert t#e e,isten!e o" a se!ond !lass o" substan!es) #ile our a!!ount o" t#e ay in #i!# t#ey are t#e substan!es o" 'er!e'tible t#in$s is em'ty talk% "or .s#arin$.) as e said be"ore) means not#in$. "-or #a&e t#e (orms any !onne,ion it# #at e see to be t#e !ause in t#e !ase o" t#e arts) t#at "or #ose sake bot# all mind and t#e #ole o" nature are o'erati&e)- it# t#is !ause #i!# e assert to be one o" t#e "irst 'rin!i'les% but mat#emati!s #as !ome to be identi!al it# '#iloso'#y "or modern t#inkers) t#ou$# t#ey say t#at it s#ould be studied "or t#e sake o" ot#er t#in$s. (urt#er) one mi$#t su''ose t#at t#e substan!e #i!# a!!ordin$ to t#em underlies as matter is too mat#emati!al) and is a 'redi!ate and di""erentia o" t#e substan!e) ie. o" t#e matter) rat#er t#an matter itsel"% i.e. t#e $reat and t#e small are like t#e rare and t#e dense #i!# t#e '#ysi!al '#iloso'#ers s'eak o") !allin$ t#ese t#e 'rimary di""erentiae o" t#e substratum% "or t#ese are a kind o" e,!ess and de"e!t. And re$ardin$ mo&ement) i" t#e $reat and t#e small are to #e mo&ement) e&idently t#e (orms ill be mo&ed% but i" t#ey are not to be mo&ement) #en!e did mo&ement !ome< T#e #ole study o" nature #as been anni#ilated. "And #at is t#ou$#t to be easy-to s#o t#at all t#in$s are one-is not done% "or #at is 'ro&ed by t#e met#od o" settin$ out instan!es is not t#at all t#in$s are one but t#at t#ere is a One itsel")-i" e $rant all t#e assum'tions. And not e&en t#is "ollo s) i" e do not $rant t#at t#e uni&ersal is a $enus% and t#is in some !ases it !annot be.

"-or !an it be e,'lained eit#er #o t#e lines and 'lanes and solids t#at !ome a"ter t#e numbers e,ist or !an e,ist) or #at si$ni"i!an!e t#ey #a&e% "or t#ese !an neit#er be (orms *"or t#ey are not numbers+) nor t#e intermediates *"or t#ose are t#e ob/e!ts o" mat#emati!s+) nor t#e 'eris#able t#in$s. T#is is e&idently a distin!t "ourt# !lass. "In $eneral) i" e sear!# "or t#e elements o" e,istin$ t#in$s it#out distin$uis#in$ t#e many senses in #i!# t#in$s are said to e,ist) e !annot "ind t#em) es'e!ially i" t#e sear!# "or t#e elements o" #i!# t#in$s are made is !ondu!ted in t#is manner. (or it is surely im'ossible to dis!o&er #at .a!tin$. or .bein$ a!ted on.) or .t#e strai$#t.) is made o") but i" elements !an be dis!o&ered at all) it is only t#e elements o" substan!es% t#ere"ore eit#er to seek t#e elements o" all e,istin$ t#in$s or to t#ink one #as t#em is in!orre!t. "And #o !ould e learn t#e elements o" all t#in$s< 4&idently e !annot start by kno in$ anyt#in$ be"ore. (or as #e #o is learnin$ $eometry) t#ou$# #e may kno ot#er t#in$s be"ore) kno s none o" t#e t#in$s it# #i!# t#e s!ien!e deals and about #i!# #e is to learn) so is it in all ot#er !ases. T#ere"ore i" t#ere is a s!ien!e o" all t#in$s) su!# as some assert to e,ist) #e #o is learnin$ t#is ill kno not#in$ be"ore. 9et all learnin$ is by means o" 'remisses #i!# are *eit#er all or some o" t#em+ kno n be"ore)- #et#er t#e learnin$ be by demonstration or by de"initions% "or t#e elements o" t#e de"inition must be kno n be"ore and be "amiliar% and learnin$ by indu!tion 'ro!eeds similarly. But a$ain) i" t#e s!ien!e ere a!tually innate) it ere stran$e t#at e are una are o" our 'ossession o" t#e $reatest o" s!ien!es. "A$ain) #o is #o is t#is to t#ere mi$#t be some say 2a is distin!t sound one to !ome to kno #at all t#in$s are made o") and be made e&ident< T#is also a""ords a di""i!ulty% "or a !on"li!t o" o'inion) as t#ere is about !ertain syllables% made out o" s and d and a) #ile ot#ers say it is a and none o" t#ose t#at are "amiliar.

"(urt#er) #o !ould e kno t#e ob/e!ts o" sense it#out #a&in$ t#e sense in 6uestion< 9et e ou$#t to) i" t#e elements o" #i!# all t#in$s !onsist) as !om'le, sounds !onsist o" t#e !lements 'ro'er to sound) are t#e same. Part 1@ " "It is e&ident) t#en) e&en "rom #at e #a&e said be"ore) t#at all men seem to seek t#e !auses named in t#e P#ysi!s) and t#at e !annot name any beyond t#ese% but t#ey seek t#ese &a$uely% and t#ou$# in a sense t#ey #a&e all been des!ribed be"ore) in a sense t#ey #a&e not been des!ribed at all. (or t#e earliest '#iloso'#y is) on all sub/e!ts) like one #o lis's) sin!e it is youn$ and in its be$innin$s. (or e&en 4m'edo!les says bone e,ists by &irtue o" t#e ratio in it. -o t#is is t#e essen!e and t#e substan!e o" t#e t#in$. But it is similarly ne!essary t#at "les# and ea!# o" t#e ot#er tissues s#ould be t#e ratio o" its elements) or t#at not one o" t#em s#ould% "or it is on a!!ount o" t#is t#at bot# "les# and bone and e&eryt#in$ else ill e,ist) and not on a!!ount o" t#e matter) #i!# #e names)-"ire and eart# and ater and air. But #ile #e ould ne!essarily #a&e a$reed i" anot#er #ad said t#is) #e #as not said it !learly. "On t#ese 6uestions our &ie s #a&e been e,'ressed be"ore% but let us return to enumerate t#e di""i!ulties t#at mi$#t be raised on t#ese same 'oints% "or 'er#a's e may $et "rom t#em some #el' to ards our later di""i!ulties. ---------------------------------------------------------------------BOOK II

Part 1 " "T34 in&esti$ation o" t#e trut# is in one ay #ard) in anot#er easy. An indi!ation o" t#is is "ound in t#e "a!t t#at no one is able to attain t#e trut# ade6uately) #ile) on t#e ot#er #and) e do not !olle!ti&ely "ail) but e&ery one says somet#in$ true about t#e nature o" t#in$s) and #ile indi&idually e !ontribute little or not#in$ to t#e trut#) by t#e union o" all a !onsiderable amount is amassed. T#ere"ore) sin!e t#e trut# seems to be like t#e 'ro&erbial door) #i!# no one !an "ail to #it) in t#is res'e!t it must be easy) but t#e "a!t t#at e !an #a&e a #ole trut# and not t#e 'arti!ular 'art e aim at s#o s t#e di""i!ulty o" it. "Per#a's) too) as di""i!ulties are o" t o kinds) t#e !ause o" t#e 'resent di""i!ulty is not in t#e "a!ts but in us. (or as t#e eyes o" bats are to t#e bla2e o" day) so is t#e reason in our soul to t#e t#in$s #i!# are by nature most e&ident o" all. "It is /ust t#at e s#ould be $rate"ul) not only to t#ose it# #ose &ie s e may a$ree) but also to t#ose #o #a&e e,'ressed more su'er"i!ial &ie s% "or t#ese also !ontributed somet#in$) by de&elo'in$ be"ore us t#e 'o ers o" t#ou$#t. It is true t#at i" t#ere #ad been no Timot#eus e s#ould #a&e been it#out mu!# o" our lyri! 'oetry% but i" t#ere #ad been no P#rynis t#ere ould #a&e been no Timot#eus. T#e same #olds $ood o" t#ose #o #a&e e,'ressed &ie s about t#e trut#% "or "rom some t#inkers e #a&e in#erited !ertain o'inions) #ile t#e ot#ers #a&e been res'onsible "or t#e a''earan!e o" t#e "ormer. "It is ri$#t also t#at '#iloso'#y s#ould be !alled kno led$e o" t#e trut#. (or t#e end o" t#eoreti!al kno led$e is trut#) #ile t#at o" 'ra!ti!al kno led$e is a!tion *"or e&en i" t#ey !onsider #o t#in$s are) 'ra!ti!al men do not study t#e eternal) but #at is relati&e and in t#e 'resent+. -o e do not kno a trut# it#out its !ause% and a t#in$ #as a 6uality in a #i$#er de$ree t#an ot#er t#in$s i" in &irtue o" it t#e similar 6uality belon$s to t#e ot#er t#in$s as ell *e.$. "ire is t#e #ottest o" t#in$s% "or it is t#e !ause o" t#e #eat o" all ot#er t#in$s+% so t#at t#at !auses deri&ati&e trut#s to be true is most true. 3en!e t#e 'rin!i'les o" eternal t#in$s must be al ays most true *"or t#ey are not merely sometimes true) nor is t#ere any !ause o" t#eir bein$) but t#ey t#emsel&es are t#e !ause o" t#e bein$ o" ot#er t#in$s+) so t#at as ea!# t#in$ is in res'e!t o" bein$) so is it in res'e!t o" trut#. Part 5 " "But e&idently t#ere is a "irst 'rin!i'le) and t#e !auses o" t#in$s are neit#er an in"inite series nor in"initely &arious in kind. (or neit#er !an one t#in$ 'ro!eed "rom anot#er) as "rom matter) ad in"initum *e.$. "les# "rom eart#) eart# "rom air) air "rom "ire) and so on it#out sto''in$+) nor !an t#e sour!es o" mo&ement "orm an endless series *man "or instan!e bein$ a!ted on by air) air by t#e sun) t#e sun by 1tri"e) and so on it#out limit+. 1imilarly t#e "inal !auses !annot $o on ad in"initum)- alkin$ bein$ "or t#e sake o" #ealt#) t#is "or t#e sake o" #a''iness) #a''iness "or t#e sake o" somet#in$ else) and so one t#in$ al ays "or t#e sake o" anot#er. And t#e !ase o" t#e essen!e is similar. (or in t#e !ase o" intermediates) #i!# #a&e a last term and a term 'rior to t#em) t#e 'rior must be t#e !ause o" t#e later terms. (or i" e #ad to say #i!# o" t#e t#ree is t#e !ause) e s#ould say t#e "irst% surely not t#e last) "or t#e "inal term is t#e !ause o" none% nor e&en t#e intermediate) "or it is t#e !ause only o" one. *It makes no di""eren!e #et#er t#ere is one intermediate or more)

nor #et#er t#ey are in"inite or "inite in number.+ But o" series #i!# are in"inite in t#is ay) and o" t#e in"inite in $eneral) all t#e 'arts do n to t#at no 'resent are alike intermediates% so t#at i" t#ere is no "irst t#ere is no !ause at all. "-or !an t#ere be an in"inite 'ro!ess do n ards) it# a be$innin$ in t#e u' ard dire!tion) so t#at ater s#ould 'ro!eed "rom "ire) eart# "rom ater) and so al ays some ot#er kind s#ould be 'rodu!ed. (or one t#in$ !omes "rom anot#er in t o ays-not in t#e sense in #i!# ."rom. means .a"ter. *as e say ."rom t#e Ist#mian $ames !ome t#e Olym'ian.+) but eit#er *i+ as t#e man !omes "rom t#e boy) by t#e boy.s !#an$in$) or *ii+ as air !omes "rom ater. By .as t#e man !omes "rom t#e boy. e mean .as t#at #i!# #as !ome to be "rom t#at #i!# is !omin$ to be. or .as t#at #i!# is "inis#ed "rom t#at #i!# is bein$ a!#ie&ed. *"or as be!omin$ is bet een bein$ and not bein$) so t#at #i!# is be!omin$ is al ays bet een t#at #i!# is and t#at #i!# is not% "or t#e learner is a man o" s!ien!e in t#e makin$) and t#is is #at is meant #en e say t#at "rom a learner a man o" s!ien!e is bein$ made+% on t#e ot#er #and) !omin$ "rom anot#er t#in$ as ater !omes "rom air im'lies t#e destru!tion o" t#e ot#er t#in$. T#is is #y !#an$es o" t#e "ormer kind are not re&ersible) and t#e boy does not !ome "rom t#e man *"or it is not t#at #i!# !omes to be somet#in$ t#at !omes to be as a result o" !omin$ to be) but t#at #i!# e,ists a"ter t#e !omin$ to be% "or it is t#us t#at t#e day) too) !omes "rom t#e mornin$-in t#e sense t#at it !omes a"ter t#e mornin$% #i!# is t#e reason #y t#e mornin$ !annot !ome "rom t#e day+% but !#an$es o" t#e ot#er kind are re&ersible. But in bot# !ases it is im'ossible t#at t#e number o" terms s#ould be in"inite. (or terms o" t#e "ormer kind) bein$ intermediates) must #a&e an end) and terms o" t#e latter kind !#an$e ba!k into one anot#er) "or t#e destru!tion o" eit#er is t#e $eneration o" t#e ot#er. "At t#e same time it is im'ossible t#at t#e "irst !ause) bein$ eternal) s#ould be destroyed% "or sin!e t#e 'ro!ess o" be!omin$ is not in"inite in t#e u' ard dire!tion) t#at #i!# is t#e "irst t#in$ by #ose destru!tion somet#in$ !ame to be must be non-eternal. "(urt#er) t#e "inal !ause is an end) and t#at sort o" end #i!# is not "or t#e sake o" somet#in$ else) but "or #ose sake e&eryt#in$ else is% so t#at i" t#ere is to be a last term o" t#is sort) t#e 'ro!ess ill not be in"inite% but i" t#ere is no su!# term) t#ere ill be no "inal !ause) but t#ose #o maintain t#e in"inite series eliminate t#e 8ood it#out kno in$ it *yet no one ould try to do anyt#in$ i" #e ere not $oin$ to !ome to a limit+% nor ould t#ere be reason in t#e orld% t#e reasonable man) at least) al ays a!ts "or a 'ur'ose) and t#is is a limit% "or t#e end is a limit. "But t#e essen!e) also) !annot be redu!ed to anot#er de"inition #i!# is "uller in e,'ression. (or t#e ori$inal de"inition is al ays more o" a de"inition) and not t#e later one% and in a series in #i!# t#e "irst term #as not t#e re6uired !#ara!ter) t#e ne,t #as not it eit#er. (urt#er) t#ose #o s'eak t#us destroy s!ien!e% "or it is not 'ossible to #a&e t#is till one !omes to t#e unanalysable terms. And kno led$e be!omes im'ossible% "or #o !an one a''re#end t#in$s t#at are in"inite in t#is ay< (or t#is is not like t#e !ase o" t#e line) to #ose di&isibility t#ere is no sto') but #i!# e !annot t#ink i" e do not make a sto' *"or #i!# reason one #o is tra!in$ t#e in"initely di&isible line !annot be !ountin$ t#e 'ossibilities o" se!tion+) but t#e #ole line also must be a''re#ended by somet#in$ in us t#at does not mo&e "rom 'art to 'art.-A$ain) not#in$ in"inite !an e,ist% and i" it !ould) at least t#e notion o" in"inity is not in"inite. "But i" t#e kinds o" !auses #ad been in"inite in number) t#en also kno led$e ould #a&e been im'ossible% "or e t#ink e kno ) only #en

e #a&e as!ertained t#e !auses) t#at but t#at #i!# is in"inite by addition !annot be $one t#rou$# in a "inite time. Part : " "T#e e""e!t #i!# le!tures 'rodu!e on a #earer de'ends on #is #abits% "or e demand t#e lan$ua$e e are a!!ustomed to) and t#at #i!# is di""erent "rom t#is seems not in kee'in$ but some #at unintelli$ible and "orei$n be!ause o" its un ontedness. (or it is t#e !ustomary t#at is intelli$ible. T#e "or!e o" #abit is s#o n by t#e la s) in #i!# t#e le$endary and !#ildis# elements 're&ail o&er our kno led$e about t#em) o in$ to #abit. T#us some 'eo'le do not listen to a s'eaker unless #e s'eaks mat#emati!ally) ot#ers unless #e $i&es instan!es) #ile ot#ers e,'e!t #im to !ite a 'oet as itness. And some ant to #a&e e&eryt#in$ done a!!urately) #ile ot#ers are annoyed by a!!ura!y) eit#er be!ause t#ey !annot "ollo t#e !onne,ion o" t#ou$#t or be!ause t#ey re$ard it as 'etti"o$$ery. (or a!!ura!y #as somet#in$ o" t#is !#ara!ter) so t#at as in trade so in ar$ument some 'eo'le t#ink it mean. 3en!e one must be already trained to kno #o to take ea!# sort o" ar$ument) sin!e it is absurd to seek at t#e same time kno led$e and t#e ay o" attainin$ kno led$e% and it is not easy to $et e&en one o" t#e t o. "T#e minute a!!ura!y o" mat#emati!s is not to be demanded in all !ases) but only in t#e !ase o" t#in$s #i!# #a&e no matter. 3en!e met#od is not t#at o" natural s!ien!e% "or 'resumably t#e #ole o" nature #as matter. 3en!e e must in6uire "irst #at nature is> "or t#us e s#all also see #at natural s!ien!e treats o" *and #et#er it belon$s to one s!ien!e or to more to in&esti$ate t#e !auses and t#e 'rin!i'les o" t#in$s+. ---------------------------------------------------------------------BOOK III Part 1 " "W4 must) it# a &ie to t#e s!ien!e #i!# e are seekin$) "irst re!ount t#e sub/e!ts t#at s#ould be "irst dis!ussed. T#ese in!lude bot# t#e ot#er o'inions t#at some #a&e #eld on t#e "irst 'rin!i'les) and any 'oint besides t#ese t#at #a''ens to #a&e been o&erlooked. (or t#ose #o is# to $et !lear o" di""i!ulties it is ad&anta$eous to dis!uss t#e di""i!ulties ell% "or t#e subse6uent "ree 'lay o" t#ou$#t im'lies t#e solution o" t#e 're&ious di""i!ulties) and it is not 'ossible to untie a knot o" #i!# one does not kno . But t#e di""i!ulty o" our t#inkin$ 'oints to a .knot. in t#e ob/e!t% "or in so "ar as our t#ou$#t is in di""i!ulties) it is in like !ase it# t#ose #o are bound% "or in eit#er !ase it is im'ossible to $o "or ard. 3en!e one s#ould #a&e sur&eyed all t#e di""i!ulties be"ore#and) bot# "or t#e 'ur'oses e #a&e stated and be!ause 'eo'le #o in6uire it#out "irst statin$ t#e di""i!ulties are like t#ose #o do not kno #ere t#ey #a&e to $o% besides) a man does not ot#er ise kno e&en #et#er #e #as at any $i&en time "ound #at #e is lookin$ "or or not% "or t#e end is not !lear to su!# a man) #ile to #im #o #as "irst dis!ussed t#e di""i!ulties it is !lear. (urt#er) #e #o #as #eard all t#e !ontendin$ ar$uments) as i" t#ey ere t#e 'arties to a !ase) must be in a better 'osition "or /ud$in$. "T#e "irst 'roblem !on!erns t#e sub/e!t #i!# e dis!ussed in our 're"atory remarks. It is t#is-*1+ #et#er t#e in&esti$ation o" t#e !auses belon$s to one or to more s!ien!es) and *5+ #et#er su!# a s!ien!e s#ould sur&ey only t#e "irst 'rin!i'les o" substan!e) or also

t#e 'rin!i'les on #i!# all men base t#eir 'roo"s) e.$. #et#er it is 'ossible at t#e same time to assert and deny one and t#e same t#in$ or not) and all ot#er su!# 6uestions% and *:+ i" t#e s!ien!e in 6uestion deals it# substan!e) #et#er one s!ien!e deals it# all substan!es) or more t#an one) and i" more) #et#er all are akin) or some o" t#em must be !alled "orms o" Wisdom and t#e ot#ers somet#in$ else. And *=+ t#is itsel" is also one o" t#e t#in$s t#at must be dis!ussed- #et#er sensible substan!es alone s#ould be said to e,ist or ot#ers also besides t#em) and #et#er t#ese ot#ers are o" one kind or t#ere are se&eral !lasses o" substan!es) as is su''osed by t#ose #o belie&e bot# in (orms and in mat#emati!al ob/e!ts intermediate bet een t#ese and sensible t#in$s. Into t#ese 6uestions) t#en) as e say) e must in6uire) and also *?+ #et#er our in&esti$ation is !on!erned only it# substan!es or also it# t#e essential attributes o" substan!es. (urt#er) it# re$ard to t#e same and ot#er and like and unlike and !ontrariety) and it# re$ard to 'rior and 'osterior and all ot#er su!# terms about #i!# t#e diale!ti!ians try to in6uire) startin$ t#eir in&esti$ation "rom 'robable 'remises only)- #ose business is it to in6uire into all t#ese< (urt#er) e must dis!uss t#e essential attributes o" t#ese t#emsel&es% and e must ask not only #at ea!# o" t#ese is) but also #et#er one t#in$ al ays #as one !ontrary. A$ain *B+) are t#e 'rin!i'les and elements o" t#in$s t#e $enera) or t#e 'arts 'resent in ea!# t#in$) into #i!# it is di&ided% and *C+ i" t#ey are t#e $enera) are t#ey t#e $enera t#at are 'redi!ated 'ro,imately o" t#e indi&iduals) or t#e #i$#est $enera) e.$. is animal or man t#e "irst 'rin!i'le and t#e more inde'endent o" t#e indi&idual instan!e< And *D+ e must in6uire and dis!uss es'e!ially #et#er t#ere is) besides t#e matter) any t#in$ t#at is a !ause in itsel" or not) and #et#er t#is !an e,ist a'art or not) and #et#er it is one or more in number) and #et#er t#ere is somet#in$ a'art "rom t#e !on!rete t#in$ *by t#e !on!rete t#in$ I mean t#e matter it# somet#in$ already 'redi!ated o" it+) or t#ere is not#in$ a'art) or t#ere is somet#in$ in some !ases t#ou$# not in ot#ers) and #at sort o" !ases t#ese are. A$ain *E+ e ask #et#er t#e 'rin!i'les are limited in number or in kind) bot# t#ose in t#e de"initions and t#ose in t#e substratum% and *1@+ #et#er t#e 'rin!i'les o" 'eris#able and o" im'eris#able t#in$s are t#e same or di""erent% and #et#er t#ey are all im'eris#able or t#ose o" 'eris#able t#in$s are 'eris#able. (urt#er *11+ t#ere is t#e 6uestion #i!# is #ardest o" all and most 'er'le,in$) #et#er unity and bein$) as t#e Pyt#a$oreans and Plato said) are not attributes o" somet#in$ else but t#e substan!e o" e,istin$ t#in$s) or t#is is not t#e !ase) but t#e substratum is somet#in$ else)-as 4m'edo!les says) lo&e% as some one else says) "ire% #ile anot#er says ater or air. A$ain *15+ e ask #et#er t#e 'rin!i'les are uni&ersal or like indi&idual t#in$s) and *1:+ #et#er t#ey e,ist 'otentially or a!tually) and "urt#er) #et#er t#ey are 'otential or a!tual in any ot#er sense t#an in re"eren!e to mo&ement% "or t#ese 6uestions also ould 'resent mu!# di""i!ulty. (urt#er *1=+) are numbers and lines and "i$ures and 'oints a kind o" substan!e or not) and i" t#ey are substan!es are t#ey se'arate "rom sensible t#in$s or 'resent in t#em< Wit# re$ard to all t#ese matters not only is it #ard to $et 'ossession o" t#e trut#) but it is not easy e&en to t#ink out t#e di""i!ulties ell. Part 5 " "*1+ (irst t#en it# re$ard to #at e mentioned "irst) does it belon$ to one or to more s!ien!es to in&esti$ate all t#e kinds o" !auses< 3o !ould it belon$ to one s!ien!e to re!o$ni2e t#e 'rin!i'les i" t#ese are not !ontrary< "(urt#er) t#ere are many t#in$s to #i!# not all t#e 'rin!i'les 'ertain. (or #o !an a 'rin!i'le o" !#an$e or t#e nature o" t#e $ood e,ist "or un!#an$eable t#in$s) sin!e e&eryt#in$ t#at in itsel" and by its o n nature is $ood is an end) and a !ause in t#e sense t#at "or its

sake t#e ot#er t#in$s bot# !ome to be and are) and sin!e an end or 'ur'ose is t#e end o" some a!tion) and all a!tions im'ly !#an$e< 1o in t#e !ase o" un!#an$eable t#in$s t#is 'rin!i'le !ould not e,ist) nor !ould t#ere be a $ood itsel". T#is is #y in mat#emati!s not#in$ is 'ro&ed by means o" t#is kind o" !ause) nor is t#ere any demonstration o" t#is kind-.be!ause it is better) or orse.% indeed no one e&en mentions anyt#in$ o" t#e kind. And so "or t#is reason some o" t#e 1o'#ists) e.$. Aristi''us) used to ridi!ule mat#emati!s% "or in t#e arts *#e maintained+) e&en in t#e industrial arts) e.$. in !ar'entry and !obblin$) t#e reason al ays $i&en is .be!ause it is better) or orse). but t#e mat#emati!al s!ien!es take no a!!ount o" $oods and e&ils. "But i" t#ere are se&eral s!ien!es o" t#e !auses) and a di""erent s!ien!e "or ea!# di""erent 'rin!i'le) #i!# o" t#ese s!ien!es s#ould be said to be t#at #i!# e seek) or #i!# o" t#e 'eo'le #o 'ossess t#em #as t#e most s!ienti"i! kno led$e o" t#e ob/e!t in 6uestion< T#e same t#in$ may #a&e all t#e kinds o" !auses) e.$. t#e mo&in$ !ause o" a #ouse is t#e art or t#e builder) t#e "inal !ause is t#e "un!tion it "ul"ils) t#e matter is eart# and stones) and t#e "orm is t#e de"inition. To /ud$e "rom our 're&ious dis!ussion o" t#e 6uestion #i!# o" t#e s!ien!es s#ould be !alled Wisdom) t#ere is reason "or a''lyin$ t#e name to ea!# o" t#em. (or inasmu!# as it is most ar!#ite!toni! and aut#oritati&e and t#e ot#er s!ien!es) like sla&e omen) may not e&en !ontradi!t it) t#e s!ien!e o" t#e end and o" t#e $ood is o" t#e nature o" Wisdom *"or t#e ot#er t#in$s are "or t#e sake o" t#e end+. But inasmu!# as it as des!ribed. as dealin$ it# t#e "irst !auses and t#at #i!# is in t#e #i$#est sense ob/e!t o" kno led$e) t#e s!ien!e o" substan!e must be o" t#e nature o" Wisdom. (or sin!e men may kno t#e same t#in$ in many ays) e say t#at #e #o re!o$ni2es #at a t#in$ is by its bein$ so and so kno s more "ully t#an #e #o re!o$ni2es it by its not bein$ so and so) and in t#e "ormer !lass itsel" one kno s more "ully t#an anot#er) and #e kno s most "ully #o kno s #at a t#in$ is) not #e #o kno s its 6uantity or 6uality or #at it !an by nature do or #a&e done to it. And "urt#er in all !ases also e t#ink t#at t#e kno led$e o" ea!# e&en o" t#e t#in$s o" #i!# demonstration is 'ossible is 'resent only #en e kno #at t#e t#in$ is) e.$. #at s6uarin$ a re!tan$le is) &i2. t#at it is t#e "indin$ o" a mean% and similarly in all ot#er !ases. And e kno about be!omin$s and a!tions and about e&ery !#an$e #en e kno t#e sour!e o" t#e mo&ement% and t#is is ot#er t#an and o''osed to t#e end. T#ere"ore it ould seem to belon$ to di""erent s!ien!es to in&esti$ate t#ese !auses se&erally. "But *5+) takin$ t#e startin$-'oints o" demonstration as ell as t#e !auses) it is a dis'utable 6uestion #et#er t#ey are t#e ob/e!t o" one s!ien!e or o" more *by t#e startin$-'oints o" demonstration I mean t#e !ommon belie"s) on #i!# all men base t#eir 'roo"s+% e.$. t#at e&eryt#in$ must be eit#er a""irmed or denied) and t#at a t#in$ !annot at t#e same time be and not be) and all ot#er su!# 'remisses>-t#e 6uestion is #et#er t#e same s!ien!e deals it# t#em as it# substan!e) or a di""erent s!ien!e) and i" it is not one s!ien!e) #i!# o" t#e t o must be identi"ied it# t#at #i!# e no seek.-It is not reasonable t#at t#ese to'i!s s#ould be t#e ob/e!t o" one s!ien!e% "or #y s#ould it be 'e!uliarly a''ro'riate to $eometry or to any ot#er s!ien!e to understand t#ese matters< I" t#en it belon$s to e&ery s!ien!e alike) and !annot belon$ to all) it is not 'e!uliar to t#e s!ien!e #i!# in&esti$ates substan!es) any more t#an to any ot#er s!ien!e) to kno about t#ese to'i!s.-And) at t#e same time) in #at ay !an t#ere be a s!ien!e o" t#e "irst 'rin!i'les< (or e are a are e&en no #at ea!# o" t#em in "a!t is *at least e&en ot#er s!ien!es use t#em as "amiliar+% but i" t#ere is a demonstrati&e s!ien!e #i!# deals it# t#em) t#ere ill #a&e to be an underlyin$ kind) and some o" t#em must be demonstrable attributes and ot#ers must be a,ioms *"or it is im'ossible t#at t#ere s#ould be demonstration about all o" t#em+% "or t#e demonstration

must start "rom !ertain 'remisses and be about a !ertain sub/e!t and 'ro&e !ertain attributes. T#ere"ore it "ollo s t#at all attributes t#at are 'ro&ed must belon$ to a sin$le !lass% "or all demonstrati&e s!ien!es use t#e a,ioms. "But i" t#e s!ien!e o" substan!e and t#e s!ien!e #i!# deals it# t#e a,ioms are di""erent) #i!# o" t#em is by nature more aut#oritati&e and 'rior< T#e a,ioms are most uni&ersal and are 'rin!i'les o" all t#in$s. And i" it is not t#e business o" t#e '#iloso'#er) to #om else ill it belon$ to in6uire #at is true and #at is untrue about t#em< "*:+ In $eneral) do all substan!es "all under one s!ien!e or under more t#an one< I" t#e latter) to #at sort o" substan!e is t#e 'resent s!ien!e to be assi$ned<-On t#e ot#er #and) it is not reasonable t#at one s!ien!e s#ould deal it# all. (or t#en t#ere ould be one demonstrati&e s!ien!e dealin$ it# all attributes. (or e&er demonstrati&e s!ien!e in&esti$ates it# re$ard to some sub/e!t its essential attributes) startin$ "rom t#e !ommon belie"s. T#ere"ore to in&esti$ate t#e essential attributes o" one !lass o" t#in$s) startin$ "rom one set o" belie"s) is t#e business o" one s!ien!e. (or t#e sub/e!t belon$s to one s!ien!e) and t#e 'remisses belon$ to one) #et#er to t#e same or to anot#er% so t#at t#e attributes do so too) #et#er t#ey are in&esti$ated by t#ese s!ien!es or by one !om'ounded out o" t#em. "*?+ (urt#er) does our in&esti$ation deal it# substan!es alone or also it# t#eir attributes< I mean "or instan!e) i" t#e solid is a substan!e and so are lines and 'lanes) is it t#e business o" t#e same s!ien!e to kno t#ese and to kno t#e attributes o" ea!# o" t#ese !lasses *t#e attributes about #i!# t#e mat#emati!al s!ien!es o""er 'roo"s+) or o" a di""erent s!ien!e< I" o" t#e same) t#e s!ien!e o" substan!e also must be a demonstrati&e s!ien!e) but it is t#ou$#t t#at t#ere is no demonstration o" t#e essen!e o" t#in$s. And i" o" anot#er) #at ill be t#e s!ien!e t#at in&esti$ates t#e attributes o" substan!e< T#is is a &ery di""i!ult 6uestion. "*=+ (urt#er) must e say t#at sensible substan!es alone e,ist) or t#at t#ere are ot#ers besides t#ese< And are substan!es o" one kind or are t#ere in "a!t se&eral kinds o" substan!es) as t#ose say #o assert t#e e,isten!e bot# o" t#e (orms and o" t#e intermediates) it# #i!# t#ey say t#e mat#emati!al s!ien!es deal<-T#e sense in #i!# e say t#e (orms are bot# !auses and sel"-de'endent substan!es #as been e,'lained in our "irst remarks about t#em% #ile t#e t#eory 'resents di""i!ulties in many ays) t#e most 'arado,i!al t#in$ o" all is t#e statement t#at t#ere are !ertain t#in$s besides t#ose in t#e material uni&erse) and t#at t#ese are t#e same as sensible t#in$s e,!e't t#at t#ey are eternal #ile t#e latter are 'eris#able. (or t#ey say t#ere is a man-#imsel" and a #orse-itsel" and #ealt#-itsel") it# no "urt#er 6uali"i!ation)-a 'ro!edure like t#at o" t#e 'eo'le #o said t#ere are $ods) but in #uman "orm. (or t#ey ere 'ositin$ not#in$ but eternal men) nor are t#e Platonists makin$ t#e (orms anyt#in$ ot#er t#an eternal sensible t#in$s. "(urt#er) i" e are to 'osit besides t#e (orms and t#e sensibles t#e intermediates bet een t#em) e s#all #a&e many di""i!ulties. (or !learly on t#e same 'rin!i'le t#ere ill be lines besides t#e lines-t#emsel&es and t#e sensible lines) and so it# ea!# o" t#e ot#er !lasses o" t#in$s% so t#at sin!e astronomy is one o" t#ese mat#emati!al s!ien!es t#ere ill also be a #ea&en besides t#e sensible #ea&en) and a sun and a moon *and so it# t#e ot#er #ea&enly bodies+ besides t#e sensible. 9et #o are e to belie&e in t#ese t#in$s< It is not reasonable e&en to su''ose su!# a body immo&able) but to su''ose it mo&in$ is 6uite im'ossible.-And similarly it# t#e t#in$s o" #i!# o'ti!s and mat#emati!al #armoni!s treat% "or t#ese also !annot e,ist a'art "rom t#e sensible

t#in$s) "or t#e same reasons. (or i" t#ere are sensible t#in$s and sensations intermediate bet een (orm and indi&idual) e&idently t#ere ill also be animals intermediate bet een animals-t#emsel&es and t#e 'eris#able animals.-We mi$#t also raise t#e 6uestion) it# re"eren!e to #i!# kind o" e,istin$ t#in$s e must look "or t#ese s!ien!es o" intermediates. I" $eometry is to di""er "rom mensuration only in t#is) t#at t#e latter deals it# t#in$s t#at e 'er!ei&e) and t#e "ormer it# t#in$s t#at are not 'er!e'tible) e&idently t#ere ill also be a s!ien!e ot#er t#an medi!ine) intermediate bet een medi!al-s!ien!e-itsel" and t#is indi&idual medi!al s!ien!e) and so it# ea!# o" t#e ot#er s!ien!es. 9et #o is t#is 'ossible< T#ere ould #a&e to be also #ealt#y t#in$s besides t#e 'er!e'tible #ealt#y t#in$s and t#e #ealt#y-itsel".--And at t#e same time not e&en t#is is true) t#at mensuration deals it# 'er!e'tible and 'eris#able ma$nitudes% "or t#en it ould #a&e 'eris#ed #en t#ey 'eris#ed. "But on t#e ot#er #and astronomy !annot be dealin$ it# 'er!e'tible ma$nitudes nor it# t#is #ea&en abo&e us. (or neit#er are 'er!e'tible lines su!# lines as t#e $eometer s'eaks o" *"or no 'er!e'tible t#in$ is strai$#t or round in t#e ay in #i!# #e de"ines .strai$#t. and .round.% "or a #oo' tou!#es a strai$#t ed$e not at a 'oint) but as Prota$oras used to say it did) in #is re"utation o" t#e $eometers+) nor are t#e mo&ements and s'iral orbits in t#e #ea&ens like t#ose o" #i!# astronomy treats) nor #a&e $eometri!al 'oints t#e same nature as t#e a!tual stars.--o t#ere are some #o say t#at t#ese so-!alled intermediates bet een t#e (orms and t#e 'er!e'tible t#in$s e,ist) not a'art "rom t#e 'er!e'tible t#in$s) #o e&er) but in t#ese% t#e im'ossible results o" t#is &ie ould take too lon$ to enumerate) but it is enou$# to !onsider e&en su!# 'oints as t#e "ollo in$>-It is not reasonable t#at t#is s#ould be so only in t#e !ase o" t#ese intermediates) but !learly t#e (orms also mi$#t be in t#e 'er!e'tible t#in$s% "or bot# statements are 'arts o" t#e same t#eory. (urt#er) it "ollo s "rom t#is t#eory t#at t#ere are t o solids in t#e same 'la!e) and t#at t#e intermediates are not immo&able) sin!e t#ey are in t#e mo&in$ 'er!e'tible t#in$s. And in $eneral to #at 'ur'ose ould one su''ose t#em to e,ist indeed) but to e,ist in 'er!e'tible t#in$s< (or t#e same 'arado,i!al results ill "ollo #i!# e #a&e already mentioned% t#ere ill be a #ea&en besides t#e #ea&en) only it ill be not a'art but in t#e same 'la!e% #i!# is still more im'ossible. Part : " "*B+ A'art "rom t#e $reat di""i!ulty o" statin$ t#e !ase truly it# re$ard to t#ese matters) it is &ery #ard to say) it# re$ard to t#e "irst 'rin!i'les) #et#er it is t#e $enera t#at s#ould be taken as elements and 'rin!i'les) or rat#er t#e 'rimary !onstituents o" a t#in$% e.$. it is t#e 'rimary 'arts o" #i!# arti!ulate sounds !onsist t#at are t#ou$#t to be elements and 'rin!i'les o" arti!ulate sound) not t#e !ommon $enus-arti!ulate sound% and e $i&e t#e name o" .elements. to t#ose $eometri!al 'ro'ositions) t#e 'roo"s o" #i!# are im'lied in t#e 'roo"s o" t#e ot#ers) eit#er o" all or o" most. (urt#er) bot# t#ose #o say t#ere are se&eral elements o" !or'oreal t#in$s and t#ose #o say t#ere is one) say t#e 'arts o" #i!# bodies are !om'ounded and !onsist are 'rin!i'les% e.$. 4m'edo!les says "ire and ater and t#e rest are t#e !onstituent elements o" t#in$s) but does not des!ribe t#ese as $enera o" e,istin$ t#in$s. Besides t#is) i" e ant to e,amine t#e nature o" anyt#in$ else) e e,amine t#e 'arts o" #i!#) e.$. a bed !onsists and #o t#ey are 'ut to$et#er) and t#en e kno its nature. "To /ud$e "rom t#ese ar$uments) t#en) t#e 'rin!i'les o" t#in$s ould not be t#e $enera% but i" e kno ea!# t#in$ by its de"inition) and t#e $enera are t#e 'rin!i'les or startin$-'oints o" de"initions) t#e $enera must also be t#e 'rin!i'les o" de"inable t#in$s. And i" to $et t#e kno led$e o" t#e s'e!ies a!!ordin$ to #i!# t#in$s are named

is to $et t#e kno led$e o" t#in$s) t#e $enera are at least startin$-'oints o" t#e s'e!ies. And some also o" t#ose #o say unity or bein$) or t#e $reat and t#e small) are elements o" t#in$s) seem to treat t#em as $enera. "But) a$ain) it is not 'ossible to des!ribe t#e 'rin!i'les in bot# ays. (or t#e "ormula o" t#e essen!e is one% but de"inition by $enera ill be di""erent "rom t#at #i!# states t#e !onstituent 'arts o" a t#in$. "*C+ Besides t#is) e&en i" t#e $enera are in t#e #i$#est de$ree 'rin!i'les) s#ould one re$ard t#e "irst o" t#e $enera as 'rin!i'les) or t#ose #i!# are 'redi!ated dire!tly o" t#e indi&iduals< T#is also admits o" dis'ute. (or i" t#e uni&ersals are al ays more o" t#e nature o" 'rin!i'les) e&idently t#e u''ermost o" t#e $enera are t#e 'rin!i'les% "or t#ese are 'redi!ated o" all t#in$s. T#ere ill) t#en) be as many 'rin!i'les o" t#in$s as t#ere are 'rimary $enera) so t#at bot# bein$ and unity ill be 'rin!i'les and substan!es% "or t#ese are most o" all 'redi!ated o" all e,istin$ t#in$s. But it is not 'ossible t#at eit#er unity or bein$ s#ould be a sin$le $enus o" t#in$s% "or t#e di""erentiae o" any $enus must ea!# o" t#em bot# #a&e bein$ and be one) but it is not 'ossible "or t#e $enus taken a'art "rom its s'e!ies *any more t#an "or t#e s'e!ies o" t#e $enus+ to be 'redi!ated o" its 'ro'er di""erentiae% so t#at i" unity or bein$ is a $enus) no di""erentia ill eit#er #a&e bein$ or be one. But i" unity and bein$ are not $enera) neit#er ill t#ey be 'rin!i'les) i" t#e $enera are t#e 'rin!i'les. A$ain) t#e intermediate kinds) in #ose nature t#e di""erentiae are in!luded) ill on t#is t#eory be $enera) do n to t#e indi&isible s'e!ies% but as it is) some are t#ou$#t to be $enera and ot#ers are not t#ou$#t to be so. Besides t#is) t#e di""erentiae are 'rin!i'les e&en more t#an t#e $enera% and i" t#ese also are 'rin!i'les) t#ere !omes to be 'ra!ti!ally an in"inite number o" 'rin!i'les) es'e!ially i" e su''ose t#e #i$#est $enus to be a 'rin!i'le.-But a$ain) i" unity is more o" t#e nature o" a 'rin!i'le) and t#e indi&isible is one) and e&eryt#in$ indi&isible is so eit#er in 6uantity or in s'e!ies) and t#at #i!# is so in s'e!ies is t#e 'rior) and $enera are di&isible into s'e!ies "or man is not t#e $enus o" indi&idual men+) t#at #i!# is 'redi!ated dire!tly o" t#e indi&iduals ill #a&e more unity.-(urt#er) in t#e !ase o" t#in$s in #i!# t#e distin!tion o" 'rior and 'osterior is 'resent) t#at #i!# is 'redi!able o" t#ese t#in$s !annot be somet#in$ a'art "rom t#em *e.$. i" t o is t#e "irst o" numbers) t#ere ill not be a -umber a'art "rom t#e kinds o" numbers% and similarly t#ere ill not be a (i$ure a'art "rom t#e kinds o" "i$ures% and i" t#e $enera o" t#ese t#in$s do not e,ist a'art "rom t#e s'e!ies) t#e $enera o" ot#er t#in$s ill s!ar!ely do so% "or $enera o" t#ese t#in$s are t#ou$#t to e,ist i" any do+. But amon$ t#e indi&iduals one is not 'rior and anot#er 'osterior. (urt#er) #ere one t#in$ is better and anot#er orse) t#e better is al ays 'rior% so t#at o" t#ese also no $enus !an e,ist. (rom t#ese !onsiderations) t#en) t#e s'e!ies 'redi!ated o" indi&iduals seem to be 'rin!i'les rat#er t#an t#e $enera. But a$ain) it is not easy to say in #at sense t#ese are to be taken as 'rin!i'les. (or t#e 'rin!i'le or !ause must e,ist alon$side o" t#e t#in$s o" #i!# it is t#e 'rin!i'le) and must be !a'able o" e,istin$ in se'aration "rom t#em% but "or #at reason s#ould e su''ose any su!# t#in$ to e,ist alon$side o" t#e indi&idual) e,!e't t#at it is 'redi!ated uni&ersally and o" all< But i" t#is is t#e reason) t#e t#in$s t#at are more uni&ersal must be su''osed to be more o" t#e nature o" 'rin!i'les% so t#at t#e #i$#est $enera ould be t#e 'rin!i'les. Part = " "*D+ T#ere is a di""i!ulty !onne!ted it# t#ese) t#e #ardest o" all and t#e most ne!essary to e,amine) and o" t#is t#e dis!ussion no a aits us. I") on t#e one #and) t#ere is not#in$ a'art "rom indi&idual

t#in$s) and t#e indi&iduals are in"inite in number) #o t#en is it 'ossible to $et kno led$e o" t#e in"inite indi&iduals< (or all t#in$s t#at e !ome to kno ) e !ome to kno in so "ar as t#ey #a&e some unity and identity) and in so "ar as some attribute belon$s to t#em uni&ersally. "But i" t#is is ne!essary) and t#ere must be somet#in$ a'art "rom t#e indi&iduals) it ill be ne!essary t#at t#e $enera e,ist a'art "rom t#e indi&iduals) eit#er t#e lo est or t#e #i$#est $enera% but e "ound by dis!ussion /ust no t#at t#is is im'ossible. "(urt#er) i" e admit in t#e "ullest sense t#at somet#in$ e,ists a'art "rom t#e !on!rete t#in$) #ene&er somet#in$ is 'redi!ated o" t#e matter) must t#ere) i" t#ere is somet#in$ a'art) be somet#in$ a'art "rom ea!# set o" indi&iduals) or "rom some and not "rom ot#ers) or "rom none< *A+ I" t#ere is not#in$ a'art "rom indi&iduals) t#ere ill be no ob/e!t o" t#ou$#t) but all t#in$s ill be ob/e!ts o" sense) and t#ere ill not be kno led$e o" anyt#in$) unless e say t#at sensation is kno led$e. (urt#er) not#in$ ill be eternal or unmo&able% "or all 'er!e'tible t#in$s 'eris# and are in mo&ement. But i" t#ere is not#in$ eternal) neit#er !an t#ere be a 'ro!ess o" !omin$ to be% "or t#ere must be somet#in$ t#at !omes to be) i.e. "rom #i!# somet#in$ !omes to be) and t#e ultimate term in t#is series !annot #a&e !ome to be) sin!e t#e series #as a limit and sin!e not#in$ !an !ome to be out o" t#at #i!# is not. (urt#er) i" $eneration and mo&ement e,ist t#ere must also be a limit% "or no mo&ement is in"inite) but e&ery mo&ement #as an end) and t#at #i!# is in!a'able o" !om'letin$ its !omin$ to be !annot be in 'ro!ess o" !omin$ to be% and t#at #i!# #as !om'leted its !omin$ to be must #e as soon as it #as !ome to be. (urt#er) sin!e t#e matter e,ists) be!ause it is un$enerated) it is a "ortiori reasonable t#at t#e substan!e or essen!e) t#at #i!# t#e matter is at any time !omin$ to be) s#ould e,ist% "or i" neit#er essen!e nor matter is to be) not#in$ ill be at all) and sin!e t#is is im'ossible t#ere must be somet#in$ besides t#e !on!rete t#in$) &i2. t#e s#a'e or "orm. "But a$ain *B+ i" e are to su''ose t#is) it is #ard to say in #i!# !ases e are to su''ose it and in #i!# not. (or e&idently it is not 'ossible to su''ose it in all !ases% e !ould not su''ose t#at t#ere is a #ouse besides t#e 'arti!ular #ouses.-Besides t#is) ill t#e substan!e o" all t#e indi&iduals) e.$. o" all men) be one< T#is is 'arado,i!al) "or all t#e t#in$s #ose substan!e is one are one. But are t#e substan!es many and di""erent< T#is also is unreasonable.-At t#e same time) #o does t#e matter be!ome ea!# o" t#e indi&iduals) and #o is t#e !on!rete t#in$ t#ese t o elements< "*E+ A$ain) one mi$#t ask t#e "ollo in$ 6uestion also about t#e "irst 'rin!i'les. I" t#ey are one in kind only) not#in$ ill be numeri!ally one) not e&en unity-itsel" and bein$-itsel"% and #o ill kno in$ e,ist) i" t#ere is not to be somet#in$ !ommon to a #ole set o" indi&iduals< "But i" t#ere is a !ommon element #i!# is numeri!ally one) and ea!# o" t#e 'rin!i'les is one) and t#e 'rin!i'les are not as in t#e !ase o" 'er!e'tible t#in$s di""erent "or di""erent t#in$s *e.$. sin!e t#is 'arti!ular syllable is t#e same in kind #ene&er it o!!urs) t#e elements it are also t#e same in kind% only in kind) "or t#ese also) like t#e syllable) are numeri!ally di""erent in di""erent !onte,ts+)-i" it is not like t#is but t#e 'rin!i'les o" t#in$s are numeri!ally one) t#ere ill be not#in$ else besides t#e elements *"or t#ere is no di""eren!e o" meanin$ bet een .numeri!ally one. and .indi&idual.% "or t#is is /ust #at e mean by t#e indi&idual-t#e numeri!ally one) and by t#e uni&ersal e mean t#at #i!# is 'redi!able o" t#e indi&iduals+. T#ere"ore it ill be /ust as i" t#e elements o" arti!ulate sound ere limited in number% all t#e lan$ua$e in t#e orld ould be !on"ined to t#e AB0) sin!e t#ere !ould not be t o or more letters o" t#e same kind.

"*1@+ One di""i!ulty #i!# is as $reat as any #as been ne$le!ted bot# by modern '#iloso'#ers and by t#eir 'rede!essors- #et#er t#e 'rin!i'les o" 'eris#able and t#ose o" im'eris#able t#in$s are t#e same or di""erent. I" t#ey are t#e same) #o are some t#in$s 'eris#able and ot#ers im'eris#able) and "or #at reason< T#e s!#ool o" 3esiod and all t#e t#eolo$ians t#ou$#t only o" #at as 'lausible to t#emsel&es) and #ad no re$ard to us. (or) assertin$ t#e "irst 'rin!i'les to be $ods and born o" $ods) t#ey say t#at t#e bein$s #i!# did not taste o" ne!tar and ambrosia be!ame mortal% and !learly t#ey are usin$ ords #i!# are "amiliar to t#emsel&es) yet #at t#ey #a&e said about t#e &ery a''li!ation o" t#ese !auses is abo&e our !om're#ension. (or i" t#e $ods taste o" ne!tar and ambrosia "or t#eir 'leasure) t#ese are in no ise t#e !auses o" t#eir e,isten!e% and i" t#ey taste t#em to maintain t#eir e,isten!e) #o !an $ods #o need "ood be eternal<-But into t#e subtleties o" t#e myt#olo$ists it is not ort# our #ile to in6uire seriously% t#ose) #o e&er) #o use t#e lan$ua$e o" 'roo" e must !ross-e,amine and ask #y) a"ter all) t#in$s #i!# !onsist o" t#e same elements are) some o" t#em) eternal in nature) #ile ot#ers 'eris#. 1in!e t#ese '#iloso'#ers mention no !ause) and it is unreasonable t#at t#in$s s#ould be as t#ey say) e&idently t#e 'rin!i'les or !auses o" t#in$s !annot be t#e same. 4&en t#e man #om one mi$#t su''ose to s'eak most !onsistently-4m'edo!les) e&en #e #as made t#e same mistake% "or #e maintains t#at stri"e is a 'rin!i'le t#at !auses destru!tion) but e&en stri"e ould seem no less to 'rodu!e e&eryt#in$) e,!e't t#e One% "or all t#in$s e,!e'tin$ 8od 'ro!eed "rom stri"e. At least #e says>" "(rom #i!# all t#at as and is and ill be #erea"ter-

"Trees) and men and

omen) took t#eir $ro t#) ater-nouris#ed "is#)

"And beasts and birds and "And lon$-a$ed $ods. "

"T#e im'li!ation is e&ident e&en a'art "rom t#ese ords% "or i" stri"e #ad not been 'resent in t#in$s) all t#in$s ould #a&e been one) a!!ordin$ to #im% "or #en t#ey #a&e !ome to$et#er) .t#en stri"e stood outermost.. 3en!e it also "ollo s on #is t#eory t#at 8od most blessed is less ise t#an all ot#ers% "or #e does not kno all t#e elements% "or #e #as in #im no stri"e) and kno led$e is o" t#e like by t#e like. .(or by eart#). #e says) " " e see eart#) by ater ater) astin$ "ire)

"By et#er $odlike et#er) by "ire

"Lo&e by lo&e) and stri"e by $loomy stri"e. " But-and t#is is t#e 'oint e started "rom t#is at least is e&ident) t#at on #is t#eory it "ollo s t#at stri"e is as mu!# t#e !ause o" e,isten!e as o" destru!tion. And similarly lo&e is not s'e!ially t#e !ause o" e,isten!e% "or in !olle!tin$ t#in$s into t#e One it destroys all ot#er t#in$s. And at t#e same time 4m'edo!les mentions no !ause o" t#e !#an$e itsel") e,!e't t#at t#in$s are so by nature. "But #en stri"e at last a,ed $reat in t#e limbs o" t#e

"1'#ere) "And s'ran$ to assert its ri$#ts as t#e time as "ul"illed

"W#i!# is "i,ed "or t#em in turn by a mi$#ty oat#. "

"T#is im'lies t#at !#an$e as ne!essary% but #e s#o s no !ause o" t#e ne!essity. But yet so "ar at least #e alone s'eaks !onsistently% "or #e does not make some t#in$s 'eris#able and ot#ers im'eris#able) but makes all 'eris#able e,!e't t#e elements. T#e di""i!ulty e are s'eakin$ o" no is) #y some t#in$s are 'eris#able and ot#ers are not) i" t#ey !onsist o" t#e same 'rin!i'les. "Let t#is su""i!e as 'roo" o" t#e "a!t t#at t#e 'rin!i'les !annot be t#e same. But i" t#ere are di""erent 'rin!i'les) one di""i!ulty is #et#er t#ese also ill be im'eris#able or 'eris#able. (or i" t#ey are 'eris#able) e&idently t#ese also must !onsist o" !ertain elements *"or all t#in$s t#at 'eris#) 'eris# by bein$ resol&ed into t#e elements o" #i!# t#ey !onsist+% so t#at it "ollo s t#at 'rior to t#e 'rin!i'les t#ere are ot#er 'rin!i'les. But t#is is im'ossible) #et#er t#e 'ro!ess #as a limit or 'ro!eeds to in"inity. (urt#er) #o ill 'eris#able t#in$s e,ist) i" t#eir 'rin!i'les are to be annulled< But i" t#e 'rin!i'les are im'eris#able) #y ill t#in$s !om'osed o" some im'eris#able 'rin!i'les be 'eris#able) #ile t#ose !om'osed o" t#e ot#ers are im'eris#able< T#is is not 'robable) but is eit#er im'ossible or needs mu!# 'roo". (urt#er) no one #as e&en tried to maintain di""erent 'rin!i'les% t#ey maintain t#e same 'rin!i'les "or all t#in$s. But t#ey s allo t#e di""i!ulty e stated "irst as i" t#ey took it to be somet#in$ tri"lin$. "*11+ T#e in6uiry t#at is bot# t#e #ardest o" all and t#e most ne!essary "or kno led$e o" t#e trut# is #et#er bein$ and unity are t#e substan!es o" t#in$s) and #et#er ea!# o" t#em) it#out bein$ anyt#in$ else) is bein$ or unity res'e!ti&ely) or e must in6uire #at bein$ and unity are) it# t#e im'li!ation t#at t#ey #a&e some ot#er underlyin$ nature. (or some 'eo'le t#ink t#ey are o" t#e "ormer) ot#ers t#ink t#ey are o" t#e latter !#ara!ter. Plato and t#e Pyt#a$oreans t#ou$#t bein$ and unity ere not#in$ else) but t#is as t#eir nature) t#eir essen!e bein$ /ust unity and bein$. But t#e natural '#iloso'#ers take a di""erent line% e.$. 4m'edo!les-as t#ou$# redu!in$ to somet#in$ more intelli$ible-says #at unity is% "or #e ould seem to say it is lo&e> at least) t#is is "or all t#in$s t#e !ause o" t#eir bein$ one. Ot#ers say t#is unity and bein$) o" #i!# t#in$s !onsist and #a&e been made) is "ire) and ot#ers say it is air. A similar &ie is e,'ressed by t#ose #o make t#e elements more t#an one% "or t#ese also must say t#at unity and bein$ are 're!isely all t#e t#in$s #i!# t#ey say are 'rin!i'les. "*A+ I" e do not su''ose unity and bein$ to be substan!es) it "ollo s t#at none o" t#e ot#er uni&ersals is a substan!e% "or t#ese are most uni&ersal o" all) and i" t#ere is no unity itsel" or bein$-itsel") t#ere ill s!ar!ely be in any ot#er !ase anyt#in$ a'art "rom #at are !alled t#e indi&iduals. (urt#er) i" unity is not a substan!e) e&idently number also ill not e,ist as an entity se'arate "rom t#e indi&idual t#in$s% "or number is units) and t#e unit is 're!isely a !ertain kind o" one. "But *B+ i" t#ere is a unity-itsel" and a bein$ itsel") unity and bein$ must be t#eir substan!e% "or it is not somet#in$ else t#at is 'redi!ated uni&ersally o" t#e t#in$s t#at are and are one) but /ust unity and bein$. But i" t#ere is to be a bein$-itsel" and a unity-itsel") t#ere is mu!# di""i!ulty in seein$ #o t#ere ill be anyt#in$ else besides t#ese)-I mean) #o t#in$s ill be more t#an one in number. (or #at is di""erent "rom bein$ does not e,ist) so t#at it ne!essarily "ollo s) a!!ordin$ to t#e ar$ument o" Parmenides) t#at all t#in$s t#at are are one and t#is is bein$. "T#ere are ob/e!tions to bot# &ie s. (or #et#er unity is not a substan!e or t#ere is a unity-itsel") number !annot b