Project One: Group 12.

Section 2.3: 31, 33, 35, 38

Gabrielle Krikke, Austin Brown, Pia Peredia

Chapter2isthelogicofcompoundstatementsleadingtovalidandinvalid argumentsintroducedinSection3oftheDiscreteMathematicstextbook. Logically,anargumentisasequenceofstatementsandanargumentformisa sequenceofstatementsforms.Allstatementsinanargumentandallstatement formsinanargumentform,exceptforthefinalone(theconclusion)arealsoknown aspremises.Tosayanargumentisvalidmeanstheformoftheargumentisvalid whichcanbeshownintruthtables.Normallywhenyoustartout,muchlikeproofs, youassumethepremisesaretrue. Valid Invalid

Background:

RaymondSmullyan,borninNewYorkin1919,taughthimselfmathematics. Hetriedmultipletimestolearnatdifferentcolleges,buteachtimeheendedup droppingout.Raymondnevergaveuponstudyingmath.Heoftencreateslogical puzzlesevenignorantpeoplecantignoreandhehaspublishedsixbooksonlogic. OneofMr.Smullyansmostnotedpuzzlesisafictionlandoftheknightsand knaves,usedintheDiscreteMathematicstextbook.Heisaprominentfigureinthe studyofvalidandinvalidargumentsandlogicalstatements. Asayoungadult,Smullyanpursuedmusicasacareer,butwhenthatbegan tofailhimheturnedtomathematics.Hecreatedexquisitechesspuzzlesinthe beginning,butthisledtohisfamouslogicpuzzlecreations.Healsobecamea collegeprofessoratDartmouthCollegebeforeheeveneverearnedadegreefor himself. AninterestingfactaboutSmullyanisthathewasgrantedwiththecredits necessarytoreceiveadegreebytheUniversityofChicago.Hewasgivencredits foracalculusclasshenevercompleted,hejusttaughtit. Asfaraslogicgoes,Smullyanisagenius.Startingwiththechesspuzzles,his loveforlogicalthinkingflourished.Hewentontoauthorseveralbooksonlogic.He haspublishedmanylogicalpuzzlesaswellandislookedtoasoneofthemost importantpeopleinmathematicallogicresearchanddevelopment.

Mathematician:

Problem31: 1.Statingtheproblem: SandraknowsJavaandSandraknowsC++. SandraknowsC++. 2.Definingthesymbols: Let p=SandraknowsJava q=SandraknowsC++ 3.Writingtheargumentinsymbols: Symbolically, pq q 4.Provingtheargumentsvaliditythroughatruthtable:

p true true false false

q true false true false

pq true false false false

Therefore,theargumentisvalid,becausetheconclusionhastruth valuetrueforallthepremises.

Problem33:

Giveanexampleofavalidargumentwithafalseconclusion.

Anexample: Ifyoucanvote,thenyouareunder18yearsold. Youcanvote. Youareunder18yearsold. Thisisavalidargumentformbythedefinitionofthemodusponensproof. Tocharacterizeavalidargumentasasoundargument(anargumentisvalid andallpremisesaretrue),itcannothavealltruepremisesandafalse conclusion.Nonethelessevenifthepremisesaretruethereisnoguarantee theconclusionmustalsobetrue. Thehypothesisisfalsebecauseyoumustbe18yearsorolder: Ifyoucanvote,thenyouareunder18yearsold. Thefirstpremiseistrue: Youcanvote. Inthiscase,thisvalidargumenthasatleastonefalsepremisemakingthe conclusionfalse. Therefore,theconclusionisfalseof: Youareunder18yearsold. Thisisexampleshowsavalidargumentbutwithafalseconclusion. Problem35: AnargumentinDiscreteMathisnotlikeanargumentonewouldhaveintheir personallife.Itisnotadisputebetweentwopeopleorgroupsofpeople.Insteadit ismorelikeoneconclusionthathastobeproventruebyotherstatements.

Inorderforanargumenttobeconsideredvalid,itmustmeettwocrucial checkpoints. 1. Allofitspremisesmustbetrue.Inotherwords,everystatementthat buildsuptheargumenthastobetrue. 2. Theconclusionmustbetrue,giventhatallofthepremisesaretrue. Ifeitherofthesetwoconditionsarenotmet,thenyouareleftwithaninvalid argument.Forexample,Iwilldisplayatruthtableandhighlightthevalidarguments.

p t f t

q t t t

p^q t f t

Inthetableabove,thebluecharactersrepresentthetruestatementsand conclusions.Becausetheyarealltruethisisavalidargument.Ifonewasfalse however,thentheentireargumentwouldbeinvalid. Problem38(a): 1.Statingtheproblem: TwonativesAandBaddressyouasfollows: Asays:Bothofusareknights. Bsays:Aisaknave. WhatareAandB? 2.Workingtowardsthesolutionthroughaproof:

a)AssumeAisaknight. b)WhatAsaysistrue[becauseknightsalwaystellthetruth(seedefinition ofknightpage60)]. c)Bisalsoaknight[Asaidit,thereforeitmustbetrue]. d)WhatBsaysistrue[definitionofknightpage60]. e)Aisaknave[whatBsaidmustbetruedefinitionofknightpage60]. f)Thereisacontradiction. (a)and(e)cannotbothbecorrectinthatAisaknightandaknave. g)ThestatementAisaknightisfalsebythecontradictionrule. h)Aisaknavebynegationofthestatement. i)WhatBsaysistrue,soBwascorrectaboutA(provenabove). j)Bisaknight. 3.Statingtheconclusion: Insummary,AisaknaveandBisaknight. b) AnothertwonativesCandDapproachyoubutonlyCspeaks. Csays:BothofusareKnaves. WhatareCandD? RecallKnavesalwayslieandKnightsalwaystellthetruth. AssumeCistellingthetruth. Definitionofaknight. Therefore,bothareknaves. ContradictionbecauseknightsalwaystellthetruthandifC wasaknighthewouldhavetosayhewasaknightwhichleads toCbeingaknave. Forthiscontradiction,theknavehastofindanotherlietomakewhich makesDaknight. Conclusion:CisaknaveandDisaknight.

c)

YouthenmeetEandF. Esays:Fisaknave. Fsays:Eisaknave. AssumeEistellingthetruth. ThatwouldmakeEaknightandFaknave. FwouldbelyingandthiswouldconfirmEisaknight. YoucouldalsoassumethatFistellingthetruth. MakingFaknightandEtheknave.

Conclusion:Eitherwaythereisonlyoneknave.BothEandFcannot belying,thusmeaningoneisaknightandoneisaknave. d) Youmeetagroupofsixnatives,U,V,W,X,Y,andZ,whospeaktoyou follows: Usays:Noneofusisaknight. Vsays:Atleastthreeofusareknights. Wsays:Atmostthreeofusareknights. Xsays:Exactlyfiveofusareknights. Ysays:Exactlytwoofusareknights. Zsays:Exactlyoneofusisaknight. Whichareknightsandwhichareknaves? AssumeUisright. Definitionofaknight. Howeverhisstatementsaysthatnoneofthemareknights. Contradiction,Usaknave. LookingatX,hestatestherearefiveknights. True,forUisaknaveleadingonlyfiveleft.Though,Xisa knaveaswellbecauseiftherestwereknightstheywouldhave saidthetruthofbeingfiveknights,contradictingwithV, W,Y,andZ.

 Thisleavesfournativesleft:V,W,Y,andZ.Wstatesthatthereisat mostthreeareknights.LookingatZ,whostatesthereisexactlyone whoisaknight. Zisaknaves. V,W,andYremain.WandVcouldworktogetherifallthreewere knightsbutthatwouldgoagainstYsstatementofbeingexactlytwo knights. Vsaysthereisatleastthreewhichcantbetrueforit contradictstoYsstatementofexactlytwoknights.Visa knaves. WandYareknights. Wisaknightbecausethereareatmostthreeknights,since Zsstatementisfalse,meaningYistellingthetruth,hencethe definitionofaknight. Conclusion:WandYareknights.U,V,X,andZareknaves.

Summary:
Trueandvalidhavecompletelydifferentmeaningsinlogic.Inanargument,itmay bevalidbuthaveafalseconclusionoritmaybeinvalidwithatrueconclusion.As statedbefore,anargumentisonlyvalidiftheformoftheargumentisvalid.An exampleofavalidargumentisModusPonen.Inlogic,startingwiththeassumption ofthepremiseisused.

References:

Epp,SusannaS.DiscreteMathematicswithApplications.Belmont,CA: ThomsonBrooks/Cole,2004.Print. Mothner,Ira."PuzzlingandParadoxicalWorlds."ThePuzzlingandParadoxicalWorldsof RaymondSmullyan.N.p.,n.d.Web.14Mar.2014. <http://www.gphillymath.org/resourcedisks/Smullyan.pdf>. O'Connor,J.J.,andE.F.Robertson."RaymondMerrillSmullyan."MacTutor. UniversityofSt.Andrews,Scotland,Apr.2002.Web.13Mar.2014. Withthehelpof:<http://asiddika.files.wordpress.com/2013/09/project1.pdf>.