Ferdinand George Frobenius

German algebraist, analyst, and group theorist Ferdinand Georg Frobenius (October 26, 1849 August , 191!" #ormulated the concept o# the abstract group, the #irst abstract structure o# $ne%& mathematics' Groups are in(aluable #or algebraically simpli#ying the physical analysis o# systems possessing some degree o# symmetry' )robenius* research into groups and comple+ number systems pro(ed e+tremely use#ul in the de(elopment o# ,uantum mechanics'

)robenius %as born in -harlottenburg, no% a district in .erlin' )ollo%ing a semester at G/ttingen, attending lectures in analysis and physics, he %ent to the 0ni(ersity o# .erlin, %here at the age o# 21 he %as a%arded a doctor*s degree %ith distinction' 1is thesis %as on the representation o# analytical #unctions in one (ariable by in#inite series, super(ised by 2arl 3eierstrass' )or the ne+t #e% years, )robenius taught at the secondary school le(el' 4n 18!4, he %as appointed an e+traordinary pro#essor o# mathematics at the 0ni(ersity o# .erlin' 5ue to the in#luence o# 3eierstrass, %ho considered him one o# his most gi#ted students, )robenius %as able to a(oid the customary habilitation period' A#ter one year at .erlin, he %as appointed an ordinary pro#essor o# mathematics at the 6idgen/ssiche 7olytechni8um 9)ederal 7olytechnic: in ;urich' <here in 18!6 he met and married -hristiane 6llis' )or the ne+t se(enteen years he published important papers on a %ide (ariety o# topics' 3hen =eopold 2ronec8er died )robenius %as recalled to .erlin to replace him, staying there #or the remainder o# his career'

)robenius made ma>or contributions in numerous #ields, including? the de(elopment o# analytic

#unctions in series, algebraic solutions o# di##erential e,uations, the theory o# linear di##erential e,uations, the theory o# elliptic and @acobi #unctions, the theory o# bi,uadratic #orms, and the theory o# sur#aces' 1o%e(er it is his %or8 in group theory that is most notable' )robenius* #indings in abstract group theory %ere published in his paper $Aber Gruppen (on (ertauschbaren 6lementen& (-oncerning Groups o# 7ermutable 6lements" in collaboration %ith =ud%ig Btic8elberger, a colleague at ;urich' O(er the ne+t se(eral years )robenius established the #oundation o# all group representation theory' 3or8ing %ith one o# his 19 doctoral students, 4ssai Bchur, he de(eloped group theory by means o# the theory o# #inite groups o# linear substitutions' )robenius created the theory o# group characters and group representations, %hich are #undamental tools #or studying the structure o# groups'

4n mathematics, it is more challenging to tell the story o# the most recent mathematics than it is to relate %hat %as de(eloped in the distant past' Cathematics is hierarchical and it is di##icult to understand later %or8 %ithout a strong grasp o# %hat came earlier' Group theory is no e+ception, as there ha(e been so many inno(ati(e in(estigators %ho ha(e contributed to its e+panding gro%th' 4n the process, the (ocabulary #or the #ield has e+ploded as %ell' 4t*s not appropriate in this article to attempt to lay out any more than a hint o# its #undamental importance and prodigious #ertility, not only in mathematics, but in an e(er gro%ing number o# real %orld applications in #ields as (aried as? tensegrity (a contraction o# tensional integrity, the design o# $strutDandDcable& constructions", telephone net%or8 problems, control theory, robotics, radar design, coding theory, mechanics, models #rom elementary particles, ,uantum mechanics, spectroscopy, crystallography, 8not theory (%ith applications to modeling 5EA", circuit design, and so #orth' 4n a certain sense all groups arise #rom the collection o# symmetries o# some ob>ect preser(ing some o# its structure' 4t too8 mathematicians more than 2FFF years to achie(e a #ormulation o# the group concept' =agrange, -auchy, Abel, Galois, and others used permutation groups in their %or8 on the solution o# algebraic e,uations using radicals' A permutation is an arrangement o# all or part o# a set o# things'

Once the concept o# an abstract group %as established there %ere t%o approaches to studying the concept' One is to approach groups directly in their abstract #orm using combinatorial methods, that is, to %or8 %ith the group %ithout gi(ing any interpretation to the elements o# the underlying set' <he group and binary operation %ere abstract items to be manipulated according to the rules o# the game o# group theory' <he other approach is to utiliGe concrete realiGations o# groups #or in(estigations' )or instance, e(ery #inite group can be represented by a permutation group or by a group o# matrices' <his means that #rom the point o# (ie% o# group theory, all three representations are the same group' <hey may appear di##erent, but the di##erence is only in appearance not in the structure or the beha(ior o# the elements'

Although a brilliant mathematician, )robenius did not get along %ith his colleagues %ho #ound him $,uarrelsome and gi(en to in(ecti(es'& 1e %as o#ten cran8y and moody, especially in his old age' 1e had e+ceedingly high standards #or himsel# and the 0ni(ersity o# .erlin, and he #elt that the mathematics #aculty should concern themsel(es only %ith pure mathematics, lea(ing the applied to the technical schools' 1e belie(ed the Cinistry o# 6ducation %as trying to dilute standards in order to attract more students' <o an e+tent he %as correct' O(er the years the number o# doctoral students declined %hile the number o# other students increased' )robenius did not respect the intellects o# nonD doctoral students' 1is (ie%s on cooperati(e e##orts in mathematics are as #ollo%s? $4n mathematics H organiGing talent plays a most subordinate role' 1ere %eight is carried out by the indi(idual' <he slightest idea o# a Iiemann or a 3eierstrass is %orth more than all organiGational endea(ors' <o be sure, such endea(ors ha(e pushed to ta8e center stage in recent years, but they are e+clusi(ely pursued by people %ho ha(e nothing, or nothing more, to o##er in scienti#ic matters' <here is no royal road to mathematics'&

Quotation of the Day: $A group has been compared to the grin that remains %hen =e%is -arroll*s
-heshire cat #ades a%ay'& George A' 3' .oehm