1. Coherent states
2. Squeezed states
3. Field Correlation Functions
4. Hanbury Brown and Twiss experiment
5. Photon Antibunching
6. Quantum Phenomena in Simple Nonlinear Optics
Ref:
Ch. 2, 4, 16 in ”Quantum Optics,” by M. Scully and M. Zubairy.
Ch. 3, 4 in ”Mesoscopic Quantum Optics,” by Y. Yamamoto and A. Imamoglu.
Ch. 6 in ”The Quantum Theory of Light,” by R. Loudon.
Ch. 5, 7 in ”Introductory Quantum Optics,” by C. Gerry and P. Knight.
Ch. 5, 8 in ”Quantum Optics,” by D. Wall and G. Milburn.
1
∆A2 ∆B 2 ≥ [hF̂ i2 + hĈi2 ],
4
where
[Â, B̂] = iĈ, and F̂ = ÂB̂ + B̂ Â − 2hÂihB̂i.
2 2 ~2
[q̂, p̂] = i~ → h∆q̂ ih∆p̂ i ≥ .
4
the variances,
iλ i
∆Â2 = − [hF̂ i + ihĈi], ∆B̂ 2 = − [hF̂ i − ihĈi],
2 2λ
set λ = λr + iλi ,
1 1
∆Â2 = [λi hF̂ i + λr hĈi], ∆B̂ 2 = ∆  2
, λi hĈi − λr hF̂ i = 0.
2 |λ|2
if |λ| = 1 along with λi = 0, then ∆Â2 = ∆B̂ 2 and hF̂ i = 0, uncorrelated equal
variance minimum uncertainty states.
λi |λ|2 1
if λr 6= 0, then hF̂ i = λr
hĈi, ∆Â2 = 2λr
hĈi, ∆B̂ 2 = 2λr
hĈi.
If Ĉ is a positive operator then the minimum uncertainty states exist only if λr > 0.
~ −2r ~ 2r
h∆q̂ 2 i = e , h∆p̂2 i = e .
2 2
X ~ωj
Êx (z, t) = ( )1/2 [âj e−iωj t + â†j eiωj t ] sin(kj z),
j
ǫ0 V
X
= cj [â1j cos ωj t + â2j sin ωj t]uj (r),
j
where
X ~ωj
Êx (z, t) = ( )1/2 [âj e−iωj t + â†j eiωj t ] sin(kj z),
j
ǫ0 V
X
= cj [â1j cos ωj t + â2j sin ωj t]uj (r),
j
note that â and ↠are not hermitian operators, but (↠)† = â.
1 1
â1 = 2
(â + ↠) and â2 = 2i
(â − ↠) are two Hermitian (quadrature) operators.
if we define λ = e−2r , then (er â1 + ie−r â2 )|ψi = (er hâ1 i + ie−r hâ2 i)|ψi,
1 −2r 1 2r
hƉ21 i = e , hƉ22 i = e .
4 4
1
hƉ21 i = hƉ22 i = ,
4
in this case, the non-Hermitian operator, er â1 + ie−r â2 = â1 + iâ2 = â, and this
minimum uncertainty state is termed a coherent state of the electromagnetic field, an
eigenstate of the annihilation operator, â|αi = α|αi.
â|αi = α|αi.
X X ân X αn
|αi = |nihn|αi = |nih0| √ |αi = √ h0|αi|ni,
n n n! n n!
XX (α∗ )m αn 2
1 = hα|αi = hm|ni √ √ = e|α| |h0|αi|2 ,
n m m! n!
we have
∞
−1 |α|2
X αn
|αi = e 2 √ |ni,
n=0 n!
the coherent state can be expressed using the photon number eigenstates,
∞
−1 |α|2
X αn
|αi = e 2 √ |ni,
n=0 n!
the probability of finding the photon number n for the coherent state obeys the
Poisson distribution,
2
2e−|α| |α|2n
P (n) ≡ |hn|αi| = ,
n!
the mean and variance of the photon number for the coherent state |αi are,
X
hn̂i = nP (n) = |α|2 ,
n
N!
P (n) = pn (1 − p)N −n ,
n!(N − n)!
when N → ∞,
n̄n exp(−n̄)
P (n) = ,
n!
this is the Poisson distribution and the characteristics of coherent light.
coherent states are generated by translating the vacuum state |0i to have a finite
excitation amplitude α,
∞ ∞
1 2 X αn 1 2 X (α↠)n
|αi = e− 2 |α| √ |ni = e − 2 |α|
|0i,
n=0 n! n=0
n!
1 2 †
= e− 2 |α| eαâ |0i,
∗ â
since â|0i = 0, we have e−α |0i = 0 and
1 2 † ∗ â
|αi = e− 2 |α| eαâ e−α |0i,
†
−α∗ â
|αi = D̂(α)|0i = e−αâ |0i,
the coherent state is the displaced form of the harmonic oscillator ground state,
† −α∗ â
|αi = D̂(α)|0i = e−αâ |0i,
D̂(α) acts as a displacement operator upon the amplitudes â and ↠, i.e.
D̂−1 (α)âD̂(α) = â + α,
D̂−1 (α)↠D̂(α) = ↠+ α∗ ,
where J(r, t) is the classical current and Â(r, t) is quantized vector potential,
X 1
Â(r, t) = −i Ek âk e−iωk t+ik·r + H.c.,
k
ωk
d i
|Ψ(t)i = − V|Ψ(t)i,
dt ~
1
Z X Z
2
|αihα|d α = π |nihn|, or |αihα|d2 α = 1,
n
π
1 1 1
hα|βi = exp(− |α|2 + α∗ β − |β|2 ) = exp(− |α − β|2 ),
2 2 2
coherent states are approximately orthogonal only in the limit of large separation of
the two eigenvalues, |α − β| → ∞,
therefore, any coherent state can be expanded using other coherent state,
1 1
Z Z
1 2
|αi = d2 β|βihβ|αi = d2 βe− 2 |β−α| |βi,
π π
â|αi = α|αi,
where â = √ 1 (ω q̂ + ip̂),
2~ω
∂ √
(ωq + ~ )hq|αi = 2~ωαhq|αi,
∂q
ω 1/4 ω hpi
hq|αi = ( ) exp[− (q − hqi)2 + i q + iθ],
π~ 2~ ~
similar,
hα|Ê(t)2 |αi = E02 [4|α|2 cos2 (ωt + φ) + 1] sin2 kz,
quantum noise becomes less important as |α|2 increases, or why a highly excited
coherent state |α| ≫ 1 can be treated as a classical EM field.
IPT5340, Fall ’06 – p. 20/5
Phase diagram for coherent states
p2 1
Ĥ = + kx2 − eE0 x,
2m 2
p2 1 eE0 2 1 eE0 2
= + k(x − ) − ( ) ,
2m 2 k 2 k
upon turning off the dc field, i.e. E0 = 0, we will have a coherent state |αi which
oscillates without changing its shape,
1
Ĥ = ~ω(â↠+ ) + ~[f (t)â + f ∗ (t)↠],
2
where
Z t Z t” Z t
′ iω(t′ −t”) ′ ′ −t)
A(t) = − dt”f (t”) dt e f (t ), C(t) = −i dt′ eiω(t f ∗ (t′ ),
0 0 0
When the classical driving force f (t) is resonant with the harmonic oscillator,
f (t) = f0 eiωt , we have
−iωt 1 2 |α|2
C(t) = −ie f0 t ≡ α, A(t) = − (f0 t) = − , and |Ψ(t)i = |αi.
2 2
The quantum noise of a laser operating at far above threshold is close to that of a
coherent state.
A coherent state does not change its quantum noise properties if it is attenuated,
a beam splitter with inputs combined by a coherent state and a vacuum state |0i,
The reservoirs consisting of ground state harmonic oscillators inject the vacuum
fluctuation and partially replace the original quantum noise of the coherent state.
Since the vacuum state is also a coherent state, the overall noise is unchanged.
Suppose we again apply a dc field to SHO but with a wall which limits the SHO to a
finite region,
in such a case, it would be expected that the wave packet would be deformed or
’squeezed’ when it is pushed against the barrier.
p2 1
Ĥ = + kx2 − eE0 (ax − bx2 ),
2m 2
where the ax term will displace the oscillator and the bx2 is added in order to give
us a barrier,
p2 1
Ĥ = + (k + 2ebE0 )x2 − eaE0 x,
2m 2
We again have a displaced ground state, but with the larger effective spring
constant k′ = k + 2ebE0 .
To generate squeezed state, we need quadratic terms in x, i.e. terms of the form
(â + ↠)2 ,
Ĥ = i~(gâ†2 − g ∗ â2 ),
1 1
Ŝ(ξ) = exp[ ξ ∗ â2 − ξâ†2 ]
2 2
1 1
Ŝ(ξ) = exp[ ξ ∗ â2 − ξâ†2 ]
2 2
1
with the formula e B̂e− = B̂ + [Â, B̂] + 2!
[Â, [Â, B̂]], . . .
A squeezed coherent state |α, ξi is obtained by first acting with the displacement
operator D̂(α) on the vacuum followed by the squeezed operator Ŝ(ξ), i.e.
|α, ξi = Ŝ(ξ)D̂(α)|0i,
with α = |α|exp(iψ).
the variances,
iλ i
∆Â2 = − [hF̂ i + ihĈi], ∆B̂ 2 = − [hF̂ i − ihĈi],
2 2λ
set λ = λr + iλi ,
1 1
∆Â2 = [λi hF̂ i + λr hĈi], ∆B̂ 2 = ∆  2
, λi hĈi − λr hF̂ i = 0.
2 |λ|2
if |λ| = 1 along with λi = 0, then ∆Â2 = ∆B̂ 2 and hF̂ i = 0, uncorrelated equal
variance minimum uncertainty states.
λi |λ|2 1
if λr 6= 0, then hF̂ i = λr
hĈi, ∆Â2 = 2λr
hĈi, ∆B̂ 2 = 2λr
hĈi.
If Ĉ is a positive operator then the minimum uncertainty states exist only if λr > 0.
(er â1 + ie−r â2 )|ψi = (er hâ1 i + ie−r hâ2 i)|ψi,
1 −2r 1 2r
hƉ21 i = e , hƉ22 i = e .
4 4
|Ψs i = Ŝ(ξ)|Ψi,
1 1
Ŝ(ξ) = exp[ ξ ∗ â2 − ξâ†2 ]
2 2
for |Ψi is the vacuum state |0i, the |Ψs i state is the squeezed vacuum,
|ξi = Ŝ(ξ)|0i,
for |Ψi is the vacuum state |0i, the |Ψs i state is the squeezed vacuum,
|ξi = Ŝ(ξ)|0i,
1
∆â21 = [cosh2 r + sinh2 r − 2 sinh r cosh r cos θ],
4
1
∆â22 = [cosh2 r + sinh2 r + 2 sinh r cosh r cos θ],
4
for θ = 0, we have
1 −2r 1 +2r
Ɖ21 = e , and Ɖ22 = e ,
4 4
where
0 1 0 10 1
Ŷ1 cos θ/2 sin θ/2 â1
@ A=@ A@ A
Ŷ2 − sin θ/2 cos θ/2 â2
1 −2r 1 +2r 1
∆Ŷ12 = e , ∆Ŷ22 = e , and ∆Ŷ1 ∆Ŷ2 = ,
4 4 4
in the complex amplitude plane the coherent state error circle is squeezed into an
error ellipse of the same area,
A squeezed coherent state |α, ξi is obtained by first acting with the displacement
operator D̂(α) on the vacuum followed by the squeezed operator Ŝ(ξ), i.e.
|α, ξi = D̂(α)Ŝ(ξ)|0i,
hα, ξ|â|α, ξi = α, hâ2 i = α2 − eiθ sinh r cosh r, and h↠âi = |α|2 + sinh2 r,
furthermore
1 −2r 1 +2r
hα, ξ|Ŷ1 + iŶ2 |α, ξi = αe−iθ/2 , h∆Ŷ12 i = e , and h∆Ŷ22 i = e ,
4 4
since Ŝ(ξ)âŜ † (ξ) = â cosh r + ↠eiθ sinh r ≡ µâ + ν↠, we have,
the squeezed vacuum state is an eigenstate of the operator µâ + ν↠with
eigenvalue zero.
similarly,
D̂(α)Ŝ(ξ)âŜ † (ξ)D̂† (α)D̂(α)|ξi = 0,
where
β1 = γe−r e−iθ/2 = hŶ1 i + ihŶ2 ie−2r ,
where
µ−ν γ
λ= , and β2 = ,
µ+ν µ+ν
∞
X
|ξi = Cn |ni,
n=0
ν n 1/2
Cn+1 = − ( ) Cn−1 ,
µ n+1
∞ p
1 X (2m)! imθ
|ξi = √ (−1)m e tanhm
r|2mi,
cosh r m=0
2m m!
∞ p
1 X (2m)! imθ
|ξi = √ (−1)m m
e tanhm r|2mi,
cosh r m=0
2 m!
2 (2m)! tanh2m r
P2m = |h2m|ξi| = 2m ,
2 (m!)2 cosh r
the shape of the squeezed vacuum state resembles that of thermal radiation.
0.8
0.6
Pn
0.4
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
n
2
( 21 tanh r)n 1
Pn = |hn|α, ξi| = exp[−|α|2 − (α∗2 eiθ +α2 e−iθ ) tanh r]H2n (γ(eiθ sinh(2r))−1/
n! cosh r 2
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
Ref: 30 40 50 60 70 80
Ch. 5, 7 in ”Introductory Quantum Optics,” by C. Gerry and P. Knight.
A squeezed coherent state |α, ξi is obtained by first acting with the displacement
operator D̂(α) on the vacuum followed by the squeezed operator Ŝ(ξ), i.e.
|α, ξi = D̂(α)Ŝ(ξ)|0i,
0.08 0.012
0.01
0.06
0.008
0.04 0.006
0.004
0.02
0.002
assume that the field is in a coherent state |βe−iωp t i and approximate the
operators b̂ and b̂† by classical amplitude βe−iωp t and β ∗ eiωp t , respectively,
where η = χ(2) β.
with ξ = 2ηt.
for degenerate four-wave mixing, in which two pump photons are converted into
two signal photons of the same frequency,
with ξ = 2χ(3) β 2 t.
Nonlinear optics:
Courtesy of P. K. Lam
2. Homodyne Detection.
where r and t are the complex reflectance and transmittance respectively which
require that |r|2 + |t|2 = 1.
in this case,
[â2 , â†2 ] = |r|2 [â2 , â†2 ] = |r|2 , [â3 , â†3 ] = |t|2 [â2 , â†2 ] = |t|2 , and [â2 , â†3 ] = rt∗ 6= 0,
where θ = ψ + π/2,
assume that a mode light is also of frequency ω (in practice both the a and b
modes derive from the same laser), i.e. â = â0 e−iωt , we have
hn̂cd i = 2|β|hX̂(θ)i,
where X̂(θ) = 1
2
(â0 e−iθ + â†0 eiθ ) is the field quadrature operator at the angle θ,
mode b contains a strong coherent classical field, local oscillator, which may be taken
as coherent state of amplitude β,
1 1
ĉ = √ (â + ib̂), dˆ = √ (b̂ + iâ),
2 2
ˆ and the
the detectors measure the intensities Ic = hĉ† ĉi and Id = hdˆ† di,
difference in these intensities is,
ˆ = ih↠b̂ − âb̂† i,
Ic − Id = hn̂cd i = hĉ† ĉ − dˆ† di